Out in the Cold: Science and the Environment in South Africa’s Involvement in the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic in the Twentieth Century Susanna Maria Elizabeth van der Watt Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (History) at the University of Stellenbosch Supervisor: Prof. Sandra Swart March 2012 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that the reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe on any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Signature: ……………………….. Date: …………………………….. Copyright © 2011 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved ii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract This study addresses a little-known but important part of South Africa’s history: its involvement with the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic in the twentieth century. It has a three-fold approach. Firstly, it provides insight into the motives driving South Africa’s investment in the region, from the first call for a South African Antarctic expedition in 1919 to the post- apartheid recommitment to the South African Antarctic Programme. Interrogating of the reasons behind South Africa’s activities in this region – including those that failed –throws into relief broader issues about how and where South Africa saw itself in the geopolitical order. As such, this dissertation is situated within a body of Antarctic scholarship that seeks to subvert the prevailing homogenising narrative of the continent as simply the preserve of scientists and heroes. In particular, it investigates how tropes of imperialism and nationalism functioned in these remote corners of the world. Secondly, this dissertation investigates how changing perceptions of the extreme environment of Antarctica, and specifically the Prince Edward Islands, can add to our understanding of environmental history. It also shows how the values projected onto and invested in the environment as ‘nature’ changed over time. Thirdly, it takes into account the humans that were South Africa’s presence in the region and how the underlying patterns in the fabric of South African society, including race and gender, crystalized on the Antarctic continent. iii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Hierdie studie is gerig op ʼn minder bekende, maar belangrike aspek van Suid-Afrika se geskiedenis: die land se betrokkenheid by die sub-Antarktiese gebied en Antarktika in die twintigste eeu. Die studie volg van ʼn drie-ledige benadering. Eerstens, verskaf dit insig in die dryfvere agter Suid-Afrika se investering in die streek – vanaf die eerste beroep op ʼn Suid- Afrikaanse Antarktiese ekspedisie in 1919, tot die post-apartheid regering se herverbintenis tot die Suid-Afrikaanse Antarktiese program. Die ondersoek na die redes vir Suid-Afrika se aktiwiteite in die streek – insluitend dié wat misluk het – bring breër kwessies oor Suid- Afrika se selfbeskouing in die wêreld se geopolitieke orde, na vore. Hierdie studie word binne ʼn kritiese raamwerk van navorsing oor Antarktika geplaas. Dié raamwerk streef daarna om die oorheersende homogene beeld van die kontinent as die eksklusiewe grondgebied van wetenskaplikes en helde, onder die soeklig te stel. In die besonder stel dit ondersoek in na hoe imperialisme en nasionalisme in hierdie verafgeleë uithoeke van die aarde versinnebeeld is. Tweedens, ondersoek hierdie studie hoe veranderende persepsies van Antarktika - en veral die Prins Edward eilande - se uiterste omgewing tot ons begrip van omgewingsgeskiedenis kan bydra. Dit dui ook aan die mate waartoe bestaande waardes wat op die omgewing as ‘natuur’ geprojekteer en gevestig is, mettertyd verander het. Die derde benadering neem die mense wat Suid-Afrika se teenwoordigheid verpersoonlik het in aanmerking - en hoe die onderliggende patrone in die Suid-Afrikaanse samelewing, insluitend ras en geslag, op die Antarktiese kontinent uitgekristalliseer het. iv Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements Writing this dissertation has been a fantastic and challenging voyage. I had the opportunity to visit interesting and surprising places, archives and documents. It was a journey I would not have been able to complete without the help and support I had along the way. First I would like to express my gratitude towards my supervisor, Sandra Swart. She nudged me in the right direction, told me where to find signposts along the way and has been a great source of energy, wisdom and inspiration. Thank you. This terrain would have been much, much harder to traverse without your guidance. Three days out south on the SA Agulhas I received the news that the building housing the Department of History had burned down. It has not been an easy year for the Department but they remained very supportive. My friends-and-colleagues-in-exile, Chet Fransch, Sarah Duff and Schalk van der Merwe were always ready with good humour, good advice, ready answers and most importantly, excellent coffee! A very special thank you to my travel partners on the Antarctic Legacy Project, Dora Scott and John Cooper. Dora, thank you for sharing the research process, answering countless e- mails and patiently keeping my eyes on the road. John, thank you for sharing your passion, knowledge and vast library on the Prince Edward Islands and beyond, your hospitality, good humour and for taking me on South Africa’s southernmost hiking trial. Steven Chown, director the DST-NRF Centre for Invasion Biology (CIB) was the driving force behind the Antarctic Legacy Project, facilitated many of my travels and has always taken a great interest in my dissertation and the project’s work. At the CIB I also wish to thank Jen Lee, Erika Nortjie, and Aleks Terauds for advice and support in my travels to Antarctica and Marion Island, Engela Duvenhage for doing such an excellent job in getting the media interested and Mawethu Nyakatya, Mathilda van den Vyfer, Anél Garthwaite for administrative support. This dissertation would have been lacking if it were not for the many interviewees who gave us their valuable time, shared their memories freely, who were very hospitable and took a great interest in the Antarctic Legacy Project. Thank you. At the Department of Environmental Affairs, Directorate: Antarctica and Islands, I wish to thank Henry Valentine, Shiraan Watson, Kusi Nxabangi, Hennie Smit, Carol Jacobs and v Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Gideon van Zyl. I would also like to thank SANAE 49, SANAE 50, Captain Freddie Lighthelm and the officers and crew on the SA Agulhas for tolerating my many questions. The geomorphologists of 2010: I know it is a bad pun, but Christel Hansen, Mike Loubser and Werner Nel, you rock! Research towards this dissertation was made possible with the generous support of the National Research Foundation (NRF), the Harry Crossley Foundation and merit scholarships from the University of Stellenbosch. Thanks to Andrew Kaniki, Candice Steele, Chantal Swartz and Rhodene Amos. Without the help of many good librarians and archivists, I would have been lost. Paula Conradie and Mimi Seyffert of the J.S Gericke library are surely irreplaceable. Thanks also to Karin Marais and Anastasia at the South African Weather Services in Pretoria; Nawjal Hendrickse and her staff at the South African National Library in Cape Town; Neels Muller at the Department of International Relations and Cooperation, Pretoria; Janice van Tonder at the Molteno Library, Cape Town, Tanya Barben at the Special Collections library, University of Cape Town as well as Lacia Viljoen at NALN in Bloemfontein and Zabeth Bester. In Britain, I would like to thank Naomi Boneham and Robert Headland. In the United States, Laura Kissel and staff of the Byrd Polar Research Institute and the various archivists and volunteers at the Nicholson Whaling Collection (Providence Public Library); the Whaling Museum of New Bedford and the Mystic Seaport Museum of America and the Sea. The research process was very much streamlined by the hard work of Laura-Jayne Robinson and Alistair Glossop of the digitisation project at the University of Cape Town and thanks to Lance van Sittert for granting me early access to the database. This dissertation expedition was made much more rich and interesting by the SCAR History Expert [Action] Group organised by Cornelia Lüdecke. It has greatly benefited from discussions within the group, and Peder Roberts has been especially helpful and encouraging. I am looking forward to your next book! Thanks also to Thierry Rousset, David Walton, Denzil Miller, Tom Wheeler, Lance van Sittert and Thean Potgieter for fruitful discussions, to Jane Carruthers who served as a respondent when I presented a research-in-progress seminar for her helpful feedback and to Steffi Marung for her thorough and sound advice on chapters two and three. Any mistakes and oversights are of course my own. vi Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Thanks to Lindie Koorts for translating the abstract, your advice on the intricacies of nationalist politics and unflagging moral and practical support. Laurel Kriegler devoted immense energy to the formatting of the dissertation before the examination and Wouter Hanekom assisted with compiling the list of sources, thanks to both. The language and style also benefitted from the critical eyes of Gideon and Ronél van der Watt and Laurel Kriegler. Cobus van der Walt, Francis Ballot, Cisca and Steve Ballot, Johan and Werda van Loggerenberg, Voeta and Susan Scott, Carla Potgieter, Daléne Bosman and Ana Lemmer, thank you for your hospitality and kindness. I was lucky to have firm home support from many friends. It would have been a much more tedious and lonely three years without them. For all the prayers, text messages, late-night phone calls, meals, flowers, treats, admin runs and long walks, thank you.