Volume 9, Number 1 Objectives Achievement of the Schools Agriculture Program in Swaziland: Implications for Future Curriculum Reforms

Barnabas M. Dlamini, Professor The University of

Keregero J. B. Keregero, Professor The University of Swaziland

Abstract A descriptive survey study, employing triangulation procedures, was conducted to determine the extent to which the modern agriculture program in Swaziland secondary schools has achieved its objectives, and whether statistically significant differences existed among respondent’s perceptions. The study revealed that the program has facilitated the demonstration and practice of business aspects of farming and created awareness of career opportunities in farming and its associated technologies. The program has laid a foundation for further academic studies in agriculture, and provided a basis for understanding the role and methods of extension agencies. Statistically significant differences in program rating were observed between the perceptions of teachers and students, and by place of regular residence (rural, peri- urban and urban). The study further found that the statistically significant differences were small, and of no practical value. Thus, demographic characteristics of respondents were eliminated as confounding the results of this study.

Introduction than in Swaziland, where agriculture forms the Education is viewed as a primary means backbone of the economy. The introduction of of solving social problems (Worthen & Sanders, the Schools Agriculture Program (SAP) is 1987; Freire, 1973). Development plans had, regarded as, perhaps, the most important often placed the future welfare of nations educational innovation in Swaziland (Gooday, squarely on the shoulders of schools and other 1974). It represents one strategy for educational institutions. The Second National implementing the objectives of the Second Development Plan (1973 - 1977) of Swaziland National Development Plan to reorient the recognized that efficiency in the school system secondary school curriculum away from its non was limited by its inherent academic orientation. technological bias (Sullivan, 1981). Through the It had little promise for wage employment introduction of SAP, the Government of the opportunities for school leavers. This Kingdom of Swaziland aimed at laying down the underscored the need for reorienting the framework for the adoption of agriculture and its curricula at primary and secondary school levels, integration into the occupational and academic to counteract prevailing non technological bias, lives of the youth. and enable school leavers to move more Thus, SAP was introduced to catalyze naturally into employment opportunities the social and economic development of available for them, particularly in rural Swaziland, particularly by transforming the occupations. knowledge, skills and attitudes of those who The introduction of agriculture in were targeted to participate in the program. The schools was one attempt to address the wisdom of introducing agriculture in schools in inadequacies of the school system in relation to Swaziland and elsewhere in Africa lies in the the future prospects of school leavers. Emphasis premise that the school is a catalyst for change on agriculture was based on the premise that it in society and can be effectively used to plays a significant role in the economy of transform it (Datta, 1984). That is, instead of Swaziland, as it is the most important economic schools operating as isolated enclaves for the sector, followed by manufacturing (Dlamini, dissemination of dysfunctional elitist education, 1986). Besides, to a reasonable extent, the they can be transformed into centers of learning introduction of agriculture in schools in Africa for rural transformation (Nyerere, 1967). was generally hailed as a panacea for In a broader context, the inclusion of agricultural development. Nowhere else could agriculture in the curriculum at all levels in such a momentum have been of significance African schools has raised many expectations. Spring 2002 37 Volume 9, Number 1 The most frequently mentioned ones are that the University of Swaziland ought to be reviewed inculcation of farm skills would solve the and improved. Dlamini (1993); Mkhatshwa school-leaver problem. The school garden (1992); Dlamini (1989); Khoza (1986) and would, hopefully, reduce the cost of educational Dlamini (1986) conducted other piecemeal delivery. The teaching of agriculture would de- studies and came up with similar conclusions emphasize the elitist white-collar mentality and implications. ushered in by the coming of formal general It is now a little more than a quarter of a education, and that the teaching of agriculture century since SAP was introduced in Swaziland. has a greater likelihood of using local, real-life Many useful lessons have been learned from the examples and the surrounding environment. few evaluations conducted during the early Attempts have been made to evaluate stages of the program. However, subsequent SAP during its early years. A study conducted studies have not been comprehensive and up-to- by the School Lever Tracer Project in 1979 date. As a result, there are paucities of coherent, sought to investigate what had happened to dependable and defendable data regarding the students who left school during the five-year performance of the program. Therefore, a period, 1973 - 1977. A major finding was that formative evaluation of the performance of SAP SAP was showing signs of success in bringing was conducted to determine its effectiveness. about more positive attitude towards agriculture among Grade 12 leavers (Sullivan, 1981). The Purpose and Objectives of the Study British Overseas Development Administration The purpose of the study was to examine the (ODA) conducted two in-depth evaluations of performance of SAP. The specific objectives of SAP, one in 1978 and the other in 1982. These the study were to: evaluations revealed that agriculture was 1. Determine the extent to which SAP has becoming popular and interesting, and that SAP achieved its objectives. was creating favorable attitudes towards 2. Determine if significant differences existed agriculture, although it was not yet persuading in perceptions of respondents regarding the them to go back to the land (Hitchings, 1982). extent to which SAP has achieved its They also pointed to the fact that SAP was so objectives, and by demographic firmly established and so unique in southern characteristics. Africa that it could be used as a model for other 3. Determine the views of parents regarding African countries. The program was a showcase SAP as it attracted observers from , and 4. Determine factors affecting the effectiveness . The program stood a good chance of SAP in schools, its constraints, and its serving as the pacesetter in the provision of perceived future role. agricultural education in African schools. Many piecemeal studies of limited scope Methodology have attempted to examine isolated components The study was descriptive in nature, of the program. Dlamini (1982) re- employing both quantitative and qualitative conceptualized the objectives of SAP as procedures. developed by Gooday (1980) and used them as a Population and sample basis for examining the extent to which the The target population of the study agriculture program in secondary schools of included 12 000 grade 12 students from 45 Swaziland was performing. His major schools, 65 agriculture teachers in secondary conclusions, which were based on responses schools, and 12 000 parents of students studying from agriculture teachers and headmasters was agriculture as a subject in high schools. The that the original objectives of the agriculture Ministry of Education provided the lists of program at secondary school level was being teachers. Head teachers provided the lists of achieved. Efforts were needed to strengthen the students and parents. Representative samples of teaching of the role and methods of the students (n=430), and agriculture teachers extension service. Efforts were also needed to (n=57), were drawn from the target population strengthen the ability of teachers to teach using Krejcie and Morgan (1970) formula for agricultural mechanization, career opportunities determining sample size. To obtain the sample and extension agency responsibilities. The for parents, a stratified random sample of agriculture teacher-training program at the students by performance level (high, average, 38 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 9, Number 1 and low) was drawn. A further random sample Data collection procedures was drawn to obtain three students per school The researchers with the help of (one from each category of performance level). research assistants administered the research The parents of students who were sampled instruments. An orientation session was held became the sample for the study, and this prior to the commencement of data collection to sampling procedure resulted in a sample size of acquaint research assistants with the knowledge, parents (n=135). skills and attitudes required for data collection. Head teachers in the selected schools were Instrumentation requested to assist in making the necessary Three instruments were developed for arrangements for the availability of selected this study. The first instrument was developed students and teachers for the study on specific for students and teachers. The instrument was dates and at specified times. Research assistants divided into two parts. Part A consisted of interviewed parents in their homes. statements pertaining to the extent, to which the SAP has achieved its objectives. Respondents Data Analysis were requested to indicate their level of Descriptive and inferential statistics agreement on one to six point Likert type scales. were used to summarize and interpret The scales were anchored as follows: 1 = quantitative data. The Statistical Package for Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Slightly Social Sciences (SPSS, 1996) was utilized to Disagree, 4 = Slightly Agree, 5 = Agree, 6 = analyze data. A prior alpha level of .05 was used Strongly Agree. Part B of the instrument asked to determine statistical significance. Data from about demographic characteristics of qualitative instruments were summarized respondents. The second instrument consisted of through content analysis, inductive open-ended questions that requested parents to categorization of issues and formulation of indicate their views regarding SAP. The third themes to facilitate interpretation. instrument was developed for teachers and consisted of statements pertaining to factors Findings affecting the effective performance of SAP, The extent to which the SAP has achieved its factors constraining the effectiveness of SAP, objectives and the future goals of SAP. Respondents were Respondents were asked to indicate their requested to indicate their level of agreement on level of agreement with regard the extent to one to six point Likert type scales. The scales which SAP has achieved its objectives. The were anchored as follows: 1 = Strongly findings presented in Table 1 show that SAP has Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Slightly Disagree, 4 facilitated the demonstration and business = Slightly Agree, 5 = Agree, 6 = Strongly Agree. aspects of farming, with an overall mean rating of 4.48. Findings revealed that respondents Validity and reliability of the instruments agreed that SAP was able to create awareness of A panel of experts reviewed the career opportunities in farming and associated instruments and attested to their content validity. technologies, with an overall mean rating of To establish reliability, a pilot test of the close- 3.88. However, teachers rated this aspect lower ended instruments was conducted using students than students did. Further, findings showed that and teachers, not participating in this study. the agriculture program in schools has created a Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficients were framework for students to pursue further computed for each domain, and were found to academic studies in agriculture. The last range between .74 and .91. question addressed the extent to which SAP has contributed towards understanding the role and methods of agricultural extension agencies. Teachers rated this aspect lower than students, and disagreed that SAP has contributed towards understanding the role and methods of agricultural extension agencies.

Spring 2002 39 Volume 9, Number 1 Table 1

The extent to which SAP has achieved its objectives Domain Students Teachers Overall Mean Mean Mean The SAP has: SD SD SD n=430 n=57 n= 487 1. facilitated demonstration and business aspects of farming 4.50 4.30 4.48 .63 1.03 .69 2. created awareness of career opportunities in farming and associated 3.93 3.54 3.88 technologies 1.08 1.19 1.10 3. created a framework for the pursuit of further academic studies in 4.37 4.41 4.34 agriculture .85 1.09 1.66 4. contributed towards understanding of the role and methods of 3.96 3.44 3.89 agricultural extension agencies .95 .99 .97 Rating scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Slightly Disagree, 4 = Slightly Agree, 5 = Agree, 6 = Strongly Agree

Summary of differences in perception between Influence of demographic characteristics on agriculture teachers and students perceptions of agriculture teachers and students The study, also, provides a summary of regarding the SAP statistically significant differences in perceptions Findings indicate that, of the 57 between teachers and students (Table 2) teachers, 39 or 68% were male and of the 430 regarding objectives achievement. A t-test was students, 237 or 49% were male. Student age used to determine significant differences. ranged from 14 years to 28 years with a mean Results revealed statistically significant age of 16. Further, 350 (71.9%) of the students differences on three of the four objectives. were still studying for Junior Certificate at Though significant differences were observed on secondary school, 40 (8.2%) had completed these three objectives, both teachers and students Junior Certificate and were already working, 29 rated these objectives high and agreed that the (6%) of the students had completed Junior agriculture program in schools has achieved Certificate and were enrolled in institutions of these objectives. Teachers disagreed higher learning. Also, most of the students, 187 (Mean=3.44) that SAP has contributed towards or 38.4%, were residing in rural areas, while the understanding the role and methods of second largest group, 131 or 26.9% of the agricultural extension agencies, while students students, resided in peri-urban areas. The agreed that this objective is being achieved remainder, 84 or 17.2%, resided in urban areas. (mean=3.96). About 33.33% in each category of the students were high, average or low achievers.

40 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 9, Number 1 Table 2

Summary of differences in perception between agriculture teachers and students Domain Students Teachers Overall Mean Mean Mean t- p The SAP has: SD SD SD value n=430 n=57 n=487 1. facilitated demonstration and business aspects of 4.50 4.30 4.48 2.07 .04 farming .63 1.03 .69 2. created awareness of career opportunities in farming and 3.93 3.54 3.88 2.44 .02 associated technologies 1.08 1.19 1.10

3. created a framework for the pursuit of further academic 4.37 4.41 4.34 -.31 .76 studies in agriculture .85 1.09 1.66 4. contributed towards understanding of the role and 3.96 3.44 3.89 3.64 .00 methods of agricultural extension agencies .95 .99 .97 p< .05, Rating scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Slightly Disagree, 4 = Slightly Agree, 5 = Agree, 6 = Strongly Agree

An inferential statistic of t-test and had learned in the agriculture program was of analysis of variances (ANOVA) was employed use to them (children themselves). Only a slight to determine the influence of the demographic majority considered what their children had characteristics of respondents on perceptions learned in the agriculture program to be of use to regarding SAP. Statistically significant their communities. Parents were almost evenly differences in program rating were observed divided on whether or not what their children between teachers and students on only one of the had learned from the agriculture program was of four domains compared: created a framework any use to the country. Most of the parents for the pursuit of further academic studies in indicated that, if they were to do it all again, agriculture. The differences were by place of they would enroll their children into the regular residence (rural, peri-urban and urban). agriculture program. Post hoc analysis, of Scheffe Test (appropriate The parents were also asked to indicate for unequal sample sizes) showed that the the field that they would like or would have perceptions of urban and peri-urban respondents preferred their children to pursue. They differed on one of the domains compared (Table indicated the following fields of study: 3). However, statistically significant differences Accounting, agriculture, teaching, engineering, observed were small (difference of .12 points in farming, medicine, veterinary medicine, nursing, this study), and of no practical value. Thus, administration and home economics. Other demographic characteristics of respondents were fields preferred were self-employment, forestry eliminated as confounding the results of this and any choice by the child. study. When asked about the general field they would like or would have liked their children to View of parents regarding the agriculture pursue for higher education, the parents program in schools indicated the following: Agriculture (crop The findings reveal that most of the production), agriculture (livestock production), parents were familiar with SAP, and thought agricultural education, commerce, child choice, what their children had learned in the agriculture agricultural extension, engineering, education, program was of use to them (parents) and their social science, medicine, nursing, home households. Parents thought what their children economics, forestry and science.

Spring 2002 41 Volume 9, Number 1 Table 3

Differences in perceptions of agriculture teachers and students by place of regular residence Domain Rural Urban Periurban Mean Mean Mean f- p The SAP has: SD SD SD value n=187 n=131 n=131 1. facilitated demonstration and business aspects of farming 4.48 4.47 4.56 .74 .47 .64 .64 .58 2. created awareness of career opportunities in farming and 3.88 3.81 4.11 2.41 .09 associated technologies 1.14 1.19 .91 3. created a framework for the pursuit of further academic 4.34 4.22a 4.52a 3.51 .03 studies in agriculture .82 .89 .79 4. contributed towards understanding of the role and methods 3.93 3.87 4.04 .93 .39 of agricultural extension agencies .94 1.02 .88 p< .05, Rating scale: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Slightly Disagree, 4 = Slightly Agree, 5 = Agree, 6 = Strongly Agree. a=same letters indicate statistically significant differences between groups using Scheffe Test

About the skills that they would like Improving one resource, imparting agricultural their children to learn or to have learned at skills to children, teaching students about school in order for them to be of help in farming as a business, conducting agricultural improving farming activities at home, the competitions, production and marketing of parents indicated the following: production of crops, soil conservation, helping rural farmers to livestock, practical farming, extension, and improve the methods of farming, and modern tractor driving, operation and maintenance. Pest farming were also cited as concerns of SAP. and disease control, commercial farming, income generation, innovativeness, fertilizer Factors Affecting the Effectiveness of SAP application, sugarcane production, vegetable The factors affecting the effective production, application of manure, and honey performance of SAP were examined in terms of production were also among those subjects promoters and constraints, and are reported parents would like their children to learn from using qualitative procedures. the school. Parents indicated that, because of what Factors promoting the effectiveness of SAP their children might have learned from SAP, Factors viewed by respondents to be they can share with them new ideas about promoting the effectiveness of SAP (statements farming operations at home. The aspects cited that received mean ratings of 5.00 and above) included crops and spacing of vegetables, raising were that: the program emphasizes practical broilers, management of crops, management of teaching and learning. Also, students have a animals, fertilizer application and use of hybrid positive attitude towards agriculture and there seeds and the applications of manure, knowledge are links from one level (a junior certificate on crop rotation, timely application of manure, level) to the next level (senior secondary level). use of treated seeds, pests and disease control, Others included effective communication and vaccination of animals. Other ideas included between school administration and agriculture productions of fruits, grading of eggs, use of departments; strong administrative support, and organic fertilizers, weighing birds for sale, highly trained local teachers and head teachers stopping cannibalism in chicken, spraying, soil and timely visits by coordinators to the schools. testing, proper feeding of rabbits and chicken, Availability of resources and/or infrastructure and making use of an extension worker. and the excellent cooperation among co- Parent’s responses on what the school coordinators, agriculture teachers and head agriculture program was concerned with, teachers were also cited as promoters of SAP. included growing vegetables, and rearing The school administration provides support in animals, particularly chicken and rabbit. addressing the problems faced by the agriculture

42 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 9, Number 1 departments. The program provides incentives to Conclusions and Implications students as vegetables, crops, chicken and The conclusions and implications for rabbits. The government and the parents provide curriculum reforms are presented in this section. financial resources for the programs that permit The study concluded that the SAP in Swaziland the provision of in service has achieved its objectives in terms of training/workshops/seminars for teachers. The facilitating the demonstration and practice of introductions of pre-vocational agriculture and business aspects of farming, and by creating the excellent support given by parents to awareness of career opportunities in farming and students were also identified as promoters. its associated technologies. The program has laid a foundation for further academic studies in Factors constraining the effectiveness of SAP agriculture. Further, the program has been Teachers views regarding the constraints successful in giving students a clear basis for to the effectiveness of SAP (statements that understanding the role and methods of extension received mean ratings of below 3.50) included agencies. However, teachers and students the inadequacy of funds to purchase required perceived the achievements of the program at equipment and tools, high number of students different levels. per class that made classroom management These findings indicate that parents difficult, and limited in service training were generally aware of the agriculture program programs to upgrade teachers knowledge and in which their children were involved. The skills. Inadequate practical time, unattractive parents considered the program to be useful to terms and conditions of service, limited visits to the children themselves, to the parents and the commercial agriculture farms and/or enterprises, households. The fact that parents indicated and limited exposure of students to agricultural willingness to enroll their children in the industries were also cited as some constraints. agriculture program if they were to do it all again is a strong endorsement for the program, Perceived future role of SAP and reflects their satisfaction with what it has The future role of SAP is viewed by offered so far. The almost average endorsement respondents as improving agricultural for the usefulness of the agriculture program at production, emphasizing practical training, community level can be explained in various offering vocationally based training in secondary ways. Most parents do not yet perceive their schools, teaching students self employment efforts to educate their children as directed skills, providing pre-vocational offerings in all merely at the possibility of enabling such schools, introducing computer-assisted children to be of service to the community, as instruction, and being community-based and opposed to enabling them to get jobs and only relevant to the needs of the private sector. The contribute to the community indirectly. Unlike future role is also viewed as introducing in the village structure that provides greater service training courses for teachers, having possibility for interaction and mutual support, in effective links with the University, and Swaziland, the communities are made up of introducing environmental and nature autonomous homesteads, leaving children with conservation topics in the high school no major obligations to the community. The curriculum. Other aspects were introducing a traditional governance structure that would have loan scheme for students while studying, been more facilitative delves more into teaching business and marketing skills, helping traditional, rather than educational obligations. students get started in farming, eliminating Besides, there are hardly any community-based poverty in our society, introducing home projects that could be perceived by parents as projects, introducing income generating skills, having potential for utilizing skills and introducing more science concepts, and knowledge gained by their children. The split producing students who are self-reliant. These opinion on the contribution of what the children statements received mean ratings of 4.5 and had learned to the country could be a reflection above. of the fact that parents did not know the wider context in which their children’s learning would be applicable on a national scale. Several implications for the future could be drawn from this study. The ability of the Spring 2002 43 Volume 9, Number 1 program to facilitate the demonstration and References practice of business aspects of farming points to Datta, A. (1984). Education and society: a the growing likelihood that the program will sociology of education. Macmillan produce graduates who are increasingly capable Publishers Ltd.: London, UK of putting into practice what they learn from Dlamini, B.M. (1982). Evaluation of the school. This, coupled with the fact that the agriculture program in the secondary program has also created awareness of career schools of Swaziland as perceived by opportunities in farming and its associated agriculture teachers and headmasters. technologies, indicates increasing potential Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, West possibilities for employment, including Virginia University. Morgantown, West self-employment. Given the dwindling Virginia, USA. employment opportunities in the public sector, Dlamini, B.M. (1986). Perceptions of positive rating of these two aspects reveals the professionals in agricultural education growing recognition that there is a future in regarding the agriculture teacher agriculture. Advantage should be taken of this education program in Swaziland. positive attitude by introducing more Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, The Ohio innovations in the schools agriculture program State University. Columbus, Ohio, USA. through: the introduction of experiential learning Dlamini, S.M. (1989). The Relationship between approaches; development of entrepreneurial student teachers performance in skills; and emphasis on teamwork and group agriculture at post secondary institutions problem solving. and their performance in agriculture, That the program has laid a foundation mathematics, science and biology at for further academic studies in agriculture points high school in Swaziland. Unpublished to the increasing pool of students that now, than B.Sc. Dissertation, University of ever before, seek to pursue the subject at high Swaziland, Luyengo, Swaziland. school and university levels. This has the direct Dlamini, M.P. (1993). Factors related to the implication on the need for expansion of the attitude of first year university and intakes at high school and university levels to college students toward the secondary open more opportunities for the capable young agriculture components in Swaziland. men and women who yearn for higher education Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, The Ohio in agriculture. The finding that the program has State University. Columbus, Ohio, USA. provided a basis for understanding the role and Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical methods of extension agencies has implications consciousness. New York : Seabury, for the collaboration between the schools USA. agriculture program and the agricultural Gooday, D.O.M. (1974). The schools agriculture extension service. The agricultural extension pilot project in Swaziland (Luyengo). officers who are based in rural areas could be Education Development International. 3 utilized in sharing practical experiences with (2), 58 - 63. students to enrich their understanding of the Gooday, D.O.M. (1980). Curriculum innovation practical realities in farming. While, the in secondary school agriculture in agricultural extension officers could utilize Swaziland: a possible model for students as focal points, through whom developing countries. Unpublished agricultural innovations could be disseminated M.Sc. Thesis, University of London. to rural households. This has an in-built London, UK. multiplier effect in the sense that the few Hitchings, J.B. (1982). The Swaziland schools extension officers available in rural areas will be agriculture project and evaluation: enabled to reach more clientele than could be Report of TETOC. TETOC. London, possibly reached by them acting alone. UK. Krejcie, R. V. & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurements, 30(10), 607-610.

44 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 9, Number 1 Khoza, E.M. (1986). An evaluation of the O Nyerere, J.K. (1967). Education for self- level agricultural program in schools of reliance. Government Printer: Dar-Es- Swaziland. Unpublished B.Sc. Salaam, . Dissertation, University of Swaziland. SPSS, Inc. (1996). SPSS users guide. New Luyengo, Swaziland. York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., USA. Ministry of Economic Planning and Sullivan, G. (1981). From school to work: report Development (1994). Development on the school leaver tracer project. Plan: 1994/95 - 1996/97. Mbabane, Swaziland Government. Oxford : Swaziland. Cotswold Press Ltd, UK. Mkhatshwa, L. L. (1992). Historical Worthen, B. R. and Sanders, J. R. (1987). development of agricultural education in Educational evaluation: alternative Swaziland. Unpublished B.Sc. approaches and practical guidelines. Dissertation, University of Swaziland, Longman: New York, USA. Luyengo, Swaziland.

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