Notes and References

1. Introduction

I. 'How One Ought to Goveme His Will', Montaigne's Essays, trans. John Florio (1603), introd. L. C. Harmer (London, 1965) vol. III, ch. x, p. 262. All subsequent references to Florio's Montaigne are to this edition. 'Totus mundus agit histrionem' (a variation of Montaigne's 'Mundus universus exercet histrioniam') is thought to have been the sign of the first Globe Theatre (1599); see Richard Dutton, 'Hamlet, An Apology for Actors, and the Sign of the Globe', ShS, XLI (1989) pp. 35-43. 2. Some of the critics who have explored the metaphor, its origins and implications, are Ernst Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages, trans. Willard R. Trask (New York, 1953; 1963) pp. 138-44; Ann Righter, Shakespeare and the Idea of the Play (London, 1962) pp. 59-62; Herbert Weisinger, 'Theatrum Mundi: Illusion as Reality', in The Agony and the Triumph (East Lansing, Mich., 1964) pp. 58-70; Thomas B. Stroup, 'The World as Stage', in Microcosmos: The Shape of the Elizabethan Play (Lexington, Ky., 1965) pp. 7- 36; Jackson I. Cope, The Theater and the Dream (Baltimore, 1973) pp. 1-13; and Kent T. van den Berg, Playhouse and Cosmos: Shakespearean Theater as Metaphor (Newark, London, and Toronto, 1985). Curtius argues that the 'Totus mundus agit histrionem' idea was revived in the twelfth century by John of Salisbury (p. 139). 3. Richard Flecknoe, A Short Discourse of the English Stage (1664), quoted in E. K. Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, vol. IV (, 1923) p. 370. 4. The Protean Self (New York, 1974) p. 22. Writing as a sociologist, Elizabeth Burns, in Theatricality (London, 1972), comments that 'It is only gradually that we come to realise the extent to which the role can impose itself upon the "self" which plays it' (p. 126). 5. Richard Hornby, 'Role Playing within the Role', in Drama, Metadrama, and Perception (London and Toronto, 1986), discerns a similar process: 'When a playwright depicts a character who is himself playing a role, there is often the suggestion that, ironically, the role is closer to the character's true self than his everyday, "real" personality' (p. 67). 6. The terms are from Maynard Mack's illuminating 'Engagement and Detachment in Shakespeare's Plays', in Richard Hosley (ed.), Essays on Shakespeare and Elizabethan Drama (Columbia, Mo., 1962) pp. 275-96. 7. James L. Calderwood, whose Shakespearean Metadrama (Minneapolis, Minn., 1971) has been seminal in pointing out metadramatic concerns, defines the dominant Shakespearean theme as 'dramatic art itself- its materials, its media of language and theater, its generic forms and conventions, its relationship to truth and the social order' (p. 5). Other significant studies in this area are Robert Egan, Drama within Drama (New York, 1975); Alvin Kernan, The

198 Notes and References 199

Playwright as Magician (New Haven and London, 1979); Louis Adrian Montrose, 'The Purpose of Playing: Reflections on a Shakespearean Anthropology', Helios, n.s. VII (1980) pp. 51-74; Eileen Jorge Allman, Player­ King and Adversary: Two Faces of Play in Shakespeare (Baton Rouge and London, 1980); Sidney Homan, When the Theater Turns to Itself (London and Toronto, 1981); Michael Shapiro, 'Role-Playing, Reflexivity, and Metadrama in Recent Shakespearean Criticism', RenD, n.s. XII (1981) pp. 145-61; and Richard Hornby, op. cit. 8. Eugene Paul Nassar, 'Shakespeare's Games with His Audience', in The Rape of Cinderella (Bloomington and London, 1966) pp. 101-19, discusses how the actors in Shakespeare's plays can 'deliver lines that modulate between involvement in the core illusion and detached meditation on it' (p. 101). Robert Weimann, Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition (Baltimore and London, 1978), also shows the importance of 'Figurenposition': whether the character gives a mimetic presentation on the locus or stays forward on the platea, in a more frankly theatrical mode 'modifying' and 'criticizing' the dramatic illusion (p. 278). 9. John Webster, , John Russell Brown (ed.) (London, 1960). 10. John Webster, , John Russell Brown, (ed.) (London, 1964). 11. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition (London, 1944) p. 81. 12. John Greenwood, Shifting Perspectives and the Stylish Style: Mannerism in Shakespeare and His Jacobean Contemporaries (Toronto, Buffalo, and London, 1988), offers helpful analysis of these techniques. 13. David Farley-Hills, Jacobean Drama: A Critical Study of the Professional Drama, 160D-25 (New York. 1988), notes that 'the boys' theatres favour a detached relationship between the audience and the character' whereas 'the adult companies tend to affective theatre, in which the audience is encouraged to share in the feelings of the characters' (p. 6 ). For more analysis of how the boys' style of acting might favour burlesque and alienation, see R. A. Foakes, ''s Fantastical Plays: Antonio and Mel/ida and Antonio's Revenge', PQ, XLI (1962) pp. 222-39, countered by Michael Shapiro, Children of the Revels: The Boy Companies of Shakespeare's Time and Their Plays (New York, 1977), who argues that the boys' troupes favoured a broad combination of natural. declamatory and parodic styles (pp. 103-38). 14. The Selected Plays of John Marston, Macdonald P. Jackson and Michael Neill (eds) (Cambridge, 1986). Apart from The Malcontent, all subsequent references to Marston's plays are to this edition. 15. See Ronald Huebert. : Baroque English Dramatist (Montreal and London, 1977). 16. Jacobean Private Theatre (London and New York. 1987) p. 60. 17. Selected Essays (New York, 1950) p. 97. 18. This is the conclusion of Daniel Seltzer, 'The Actors and the Acting', in Kenneth Muir and S. Schoenbaum (eds), A New Companion to Shakespeare Studies (Cambridge, 1971) pp. 35-54, p. 37. 19. Andrew Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, 1574-1642 (Cambridge, 1970), points to the term 'personation', first recorded in 1599-1600, and argues that 'By 1600 characterisation was the chief requisite of the successful actor' (p. 74). 200 Notes and References

20. In A New Mimesis: Shakespeare and the Representation of Reality (London and New York. 1983), A D. Nuttall tackles the proposition, taken from the structuralist critic T odorov, that 'Verisimilitude is the mask in which the laws of the text are dressed up' and goes on to defend 'the new mimesis' as 'the reconciliation of form with veridical or probable representation' (p. 181). 21. Shakespeare: Seven : The Dramatist's Manipulation of Response (New York, 1976) p. 4. Madeleine Doran, Endeavors of Art: A Study of Form in Elizabethan Drama (Madison, Wis., 1964), also comments that 'Although theories of character, the doctrine of decorum, rhetorical training, and classical models tended to stress the typical in character, Elizabethan dramatists, for whatever reasons of creatiye vitality, were not inhibited by these influences' (p. 256). 22. Drama, Stage and Audience (Cambridge, 1975) p. 147. 23. Radical : Religion, Ideology and Power in the Drama of Shakespeare and His Contemporaries (Sussex, 1984) p. 176, p. 179. This is also the approach of Catherine Belsey, The Subject of Tragedy: Identity and Difference in Renaissance Drama (New York and London, 1985). 24. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York, 1965) p. 417. 25. Michael Goldman, The Actor's Freedom (New York. 1985) p. 157. Goldman finds intrinsic to the theatre the quest to 'possess genuine identity, to achieve a free and unbewildered clarity of being, to define oneself through action' (pp. 156-7), and of course the living actor is a vehicle for transmitting the energies of this dramatic quest. (Peter Holland, The Resources of Character­ ization in Othello', ShS, XLI [1989]. pp. 119-32, also stresses that 'coherence of character is marked by the ... unity of the physical existence of the actor', p. 122). Like Goldman, Montrose finds that Shakespeare's theatre explores 'the complex, adaptive, or inquiring self, created and discovered in performance' (op. cit., p. 66), while van den Berg explores the theatre metaphor as a model of 'the process of individuation' (op. cit., p. 12). Similarly, James P. Driscoll (a Jungian critic) stresses the importance of self-discovery through conscious role-playing, for which theatre provides a paradigm: 'Truly, we become real persons, that is, attain fully individuated human consciousness, only when our imaginations are educated to grasp consciously the roles we play and the stage upon which we perform' (Identity in Shakespearean Drama (Lewisburg and London, 1983) p. 183). 26. 'Deciphering 'Tis Pity She's a Whore', in Michael Neill (ed.), John Ford: Critical Re-visions (Cambridge, 1988) p. 166. See also Thomas C. Heller, Morton Sosna, and David E. Wellberg (eds), Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality, and the Self in Western Thought (Stanford, Ca., 1986). 27. M. C. Bradbrook, 'Shakespeare and the Use of Drama in Elizabethan Drama', EIC. II (1952) pp. 159-68, offers the insight that a character 'could be really changed by the assumption of a disguise' (p. 166). 28. See, for example, M. Hollis, The Man and the Mask: A Discussion of Role Theory', in J. A Jackson (ed.), Role (London, 1972). 29. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (New York. 1959; Harmondsworth, 1971) p. 245. Notes and References 201

30. George H. Mead, Mind, Self, and Society, Charles W. Morris (ed.) (Chicago, 1934), was one of the first sociologists to discuss the formation of the self in relation to the generalised 'other' (p. xxi). More recently, Terry Eagleton, (Oxford, 1986), observes that 'Social relations are not simply the medium within which an individual may choose to express his already well-formed identity, but the very discourse which constitutes that self (p. 61). 31. Encounters (Indianapolis, Ind., 1961) pp. 85-152, p. 152. 32. Theatricality, p. 137. 33. Role-Playing in Shakespeare (Toronto, 1978) pp. 40-42. 34. 'Character and Role from Richard III to Hamlet', in J. C. Maxwell (ed.), Elizabethan and Jacobean Drama (New York 1974) p. 34. In a helpful chapter on 'Common Elements' in Tragedy (Vancouver, 1986), T. McAlindon, too, notes the dramatists' 'recognition of the multiple forces which threaten the integrity of the individual' and how the tragic predicament often lies in the character's 'having to exchange a role which harmonises with the conditions of his nature for another or others which do not' (pp. 47-8). 35. G. K. Hunter, 'The Beginnings of Elizabethan Drama: Revolution and Continuity', RenD n. s. XVII (1986) pp. 29-52, also points out the 'unique centrality of individual consciousness' fostered by church Reformists and subsequently reflected in the drama (p. 3 7). 36. Basi/ikon Doran, in C. H. Mcilwain (ed.), Political Works of ]ames I (Cambridge, Mass., 1918) p. 43. Van Laan expands on this in his discussion of the fourth type of role, 'that which a character possesses by virtue of his position in a social structure' (Role-Playing in Shakespeare, pp. 11-19). 37. See Chapter V, The Language of Ceremony', in David Bevington, Action Is Eloquence (Cambridge, Mass., 1984), for a fuller account of this. Two critics (in the tradition of New Historicism) who analyse the relationship between dramatic spectacle and social authority are Leonard Tennenhouse, Power on Display (New York and London, 1986) and Stephen Mullaney, The Place of the Stage (Chicago and London, 1988). 38. This is the second type of role Van Laan outlines (Role-Playing in Shakespeare, p. 9). 39. For an analysis of the historical circumstances that produced this, see Lawrence Stone, The Causes of the English Revolution, 1529-1642 (London, 1972). 40. The phrase comes from vagrancy Acts of the period. For a detailed account, see A. L. Beier, Masterless Men: The Vagrancy Problem in England, 1560-1640 (London and New York 1985). 41. The Selected Plays of , Colin Gibson (ed.) (Cambridge, 1978). All subsequent references to Massinger's plays are to this edition. 42. , Michaelmas Term, Richard Levin (ed.) (London, 1967). 43. Renaissance Self-Fashioning (Chicago and London, 1980) p. 3. Greenblatt also stresses that 'Self-fashioning is achieved in relation to something perceived as alien, strange, or hostile', a 'threatening Other' (p. 9). 44. Charles R. Forker discusses this in The Skull beneath the Skin: The Achievement of John Webster (Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1986), noting that at the Jacobean court 'a concern with the encroachment of the mask and face upon each other 202 Notes and References

was probably inevitable' (p. 346). In Ambition and Privilege: The Social Tropes of Elizabethan Courtesy Theory (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1984), Frank Whigham nicely captures the combination of enterprise, defensiveness and entrenchment at court, which was 'simultaneously an arena of conflict and a mart of opportunity as well as a radiant center of order' (p. x). 45. 'Elizabethan Dramatic Conventions and Elizabethan Reality', RenD, n.s. XII (1981) pp. 27-49, 41. Stephen Greenblatt, 'Psychoanalysis and Renaissance Culture', in Patricia Parker and David Quint (eds), Literary Theory/Renaissance Texts (Baltimore and London, 1986), also stresses the 'social fabrication of identity' in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries rather than a selfhood determined by 'psychic experience' (pp. 210-24, 223). 46. Critics have examined both these areas of interest (and the difficulty of separating them) in Montaigne's Essays. Richard L. Regosin, The Matter of My Self: Montaigne's 'Essais' as The Book of the Self (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1977), discusses the first area; Timothy J. Reiss, 'Montaigne and the Subject of Polity', in Literary Theory/Renaissance Texts, focuses on the 'social and political subject' in the Essays (op. cit., pp. 115-49, 117.) 47. The Book of the Courtier, trans. Thomas Hoby (1561), Drayton Henderson (ed.) (London, 1905) p. 105. 48. Thomas Greene, The Self in Renaissance Literature', in Peter Demetz, Thomas Greene and Lowry Nelson, Jr. (eds), The Disciplines of Criticism (New Haven, Conn., 1968) pp. 241-64, gives a helpful overview of many of these writings. Jonas Barish also explores Renaissance attitudes to man as an actor in 'Puritans and Proteans', The Antitheatrical Prejudice (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1981) pp. 80-131. 49. Trans. Elizabeth Livermore Forbes, in Ernst Cassirer, Paul Oskar Kristeller and John Herman Randall, Jr. (eds), The Renaissance Philosophy of Man (Chicago, 1967) pp. 223-54, 225. 50. Trans. Nancy Lenkeith, in The Renaissance Philosophy of Man, pp. 387-93, 388-9. 51. Stephen Greenblatt, Sir Walter Ralegh: The Renaissance Man and His Roles (New Haven, Conn., 1973), also notes the implication in Vives that 'miming is superfluous and even disreputable' (p. 33). 52. It is the tension that Arthur 0. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being (Harvard, 1936; rpt. New York, 1960), finds between medieval views on God's nature: 'The one was an apotheosis of unity, self-sufficiency and quietude, the other of diversity, self-transcendence and fecundity' (pp. 82-3). 53. Thomas Greene argues that by the later sixteenth century the humanist belief in 'the capacity of the self for fashioning' had eroded and that Montaigne's work reflects this; in his Essays 'the renewed circumscription of human potentialities is attended with a growing acceptance of limitation' (op. cit., pp. 256, 260). 54. Precise influence is often hard to pinpoint, but it is clear that Marston borrows extensively from Florio's Montaigne in The Fawn (1604) and The Dutch Courtesan (1605). Webster's debts to Montaigne are covered in R. W. Dent, John Webster's Borrowing (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1960) and Richard Bodtke, Tragedy and the Jacobean Temper: The Major Plays of John Webster (Salzburg, Notes and References 203

1972). Shakespeare's most obvious borrowing (from 'Of the Cannibals', Essays, vol. I, ch. xxx) is Gonzalo's speech on the 'commonwealth' in The Tempest (II. i. 148--69). 55. Vol. III, ch. ii, 'Of Repenting', p. 23. 56. Op. cit., p. 225. 57. Op. cit., p. 112. 58. Histriomastix (1633), sig. X4, quoted in Barish, p. 92. Jean E. Howard, 'Renaissance Antitheatricality and the Politics of Gender and Rank in Much Ado about Nothing', in Jean E. Howard and Marion F. O'Connor (eds), Shakespeare Reproduced: The Text in History and Ideology (New York and London, 1987) pp. 163-87, cogently discusses the ideological interests vested in such tracts. 59. Timber, or Discoveries, in C. H. Herford and P. Simpson (eds), , vol. VIII (Oxford, 1947) p. 597. 60. Philosophers and behavioural psychologists recognise, too, that role-playing can have favourable results. In Beyond Good and Evil, trans. Walter Kaufman (New York, 1966), Nietzsche remarks that a 'great man' is 'only the actor of his own ideal' (Pt. 4, p. 83). Bruce Wilshire, Role Playing and Identity (Bloomington, Ind., 1982), comments on how 'a person falls into a pose, say, of being brave; it is accepted by others as reality; it soon becomes the reality - that is, the person is enabled by others' belief in his bravery to do brave deeds' (p. 252). 61. Essays (1625), Oliphant Smeaton (ed.) (London, 1906) p. 3. 62. Ben Jonson, vol. VII (Oxford, 1941) pp. 301-2. The original spelling has been modernised. 63. Stephen Orgel, 'The Masque', in Christopher Ricks (ed.), to 1710, Sphere History of English Drama, vol. III (London, 1971) pp. 354-67, 355. In The Illusion of Power (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1975), Orgel further discusses the ideological implications of the masque. 64. Bevington, Action Is Eloquence, discusses how in romantic comedy 'Unmasking restores ... true identity and ... proper role', leading to an 'affirmation and acceptance of self' (pp. 62-4). Van Laan also points out how identity loss in Shakespeare's comedies is a 'crucial and necessary stage in the process of full self-discovery', whereas in his tragedies it is the 'end result of a destructive process that carries its victim into the void' (Role-Playing in Shakespeare, p. 224). 65. Linda Bamber, Comic Women, Tragic Men: A Study of Gender and Genre in Shakespeare (Stanford, Ca., 1982) p. 41. 66. The debate continues on precisely what the effects of this convention were. Juliet Dusinberre, Shakespeare and the Nature of Women (London and Basingstoke, 1975), argues that it allowed Shakespeare 'to explore ... the nature of women untrammeled by the custom of femininity' (p. 271); Linda Woodbridge, Women in the English Renaissance: Literature and the Nature of Womankind, 1580-1620 (Urbana and Chicago, 1984), considers that Transvestite disguise in Shakespeare does not blur the distinction between the sexes but heightens it'. I agree with the analysis of Phyllis Rackin, 'Androgyny, Mimesis, and the Marriage of the Boy Heroine on the English Renaissance Stage', PMLA, en (January 1987) pp. 29-41, on how Shakespeare 204 Notes and References

'joins masculine and feminine qualities in the androgynous figures of his boy heroines' (p. 37). See also James L. Calderwood, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death (Amherst, Mass., 1987), p. 36. 67. Memoirs, Denis Donoghue (ed.) (New York, 1973) p. 191. 68. The Comic Matrix of Shakespeare's Tragedies (Princeton, N. J, 1979) pp. 47, 24. 69. , Bussy D'Ambois, Maurice Evans (ed.), The New Mermaids (London, 1965). For a reading of the play that emphasises Bussy's 'delusion of a mythic self, see Deborah Montuori, 'The Confusion of Self and Role in Chapman's Bussy D'Ambois', SEL, XXVIII (1988) pp. 287-99, 297. 70. Huston Diehl, 'Iconography and Characterization in English Tragedy, 1585- 1642', CompD, XII:2 (Spring, 1978) 113-22, points out how at the end of Women Beware Women characters assume 'allegorical roles which ironically reveal their true nature' (p. 117). 71. Shakespeare's Jacobean tragedies obviously break away from this pattern. Although each hero at some phase in the action becomes what Maynard Mack calls an 'antithesis' of his noble self, he does (with the possible exception of Macbeth) regain this self by the end of the play. (Maynard Mack, 'The Jacobean Shakespeare', in J. Russell Brown and Bernard Harris (eds), jacobean Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon Studies I (London, 1960) pp. 11-41, 34.) 72. 'Identity and Acting in Elizabethan Tragedy', RenD, n. s. xv (1984) pp. 93-114, 102-3. 73. Richard Flecknoe, op. cit., p. 370. 74. J. Leeds, Alexander Leggatt, Richard Hosley and Kernan Kernan (eds), The Revels History of Drama in English, vol. III, 1576-1613 (London, 1975) p. 247. In The Idea of the Actor (Princeton, NJ, 1984), William B. Worthen provides helpful discussion of how the stage player, with his built-in duplicity, focuses these concerns: 'the Renaissance actor mirrors both his audience's attraction to creative feigning and its anxious regard for the deception of histrionic imitation' (p. 67). 75. John Ford, Perkin Warbeck, Peter Ure (ed.), The Revels Plays (London, 1968). All subsequent references are to this edition.

2. Obsessions and Identity: Revenge Tragedy

1. Cyril Tourneur, The Revenger's Tragedy, R. A. Foakes (ed.), The Revels Plays (London, 1966) Ad IV, sc. ii. 204. All line references are taken from this edition. Admitting to much 'uncertainty', Foakes nevertheless ascribes the play to Tourneur (p. !iii). While I follow David J. Lake, The Canon of Middleton's Plays (Cambridge, 1975) in thinking that Thomas Middleton is the author of The Revenger's Tragedy, I treat the play as anonymous here since the question of authorship has not finally been resolved. 2. Catherine Belsey, 'The Case of Hamlet's Conscience', SP, LXXVI (1979) pp. 127- 48, stresses that 'What is intolerable in Hamlet's situation is that it cannot be reduced to the familiar antitheses of right and wrong: conscience both demands and opposes action' (p. 147). Harold Jenkins (ed.), Hamlet, the (London and New York, 1982), notes that revenge focuses the 'dual nature' of man (p. 15), while David Scott Kastan, ' "His semblable is his Notes and References 205

mirror": Hamlet and the Imitation of Revenge', ShakS XIX (1987), pp. 111-24, emphasises how the revenger is caught 'between an inescapable psychological obligation to revenge and unavoidable moral abhorrence of it' (p. 118). 3. Renaissance condemnations of private justice are best compiled by Eleanor Prosser, Hamlet and Revenge (Stanford, Ca., 1967). Arthur McGee, The Elizabethan Hamlet (New Haven and London, 1987), further outlines the theological position against revenge. For an opposing view, arguing that the audience may respond more favourably to the revenger, see Michael Cameron Andrews, 'Hamlet: Revenge and the Critical Mirror', ELR, VIII:1 (Winter, 1978) pp. 9-23. 4. Francis Bacon, Of Revenge, in Essays, op. cit, p. 13. 5. For an exploration of madness as the 'unifying motif' of the revenge play, see Charles A. and Elaine S. Hallett, The Revenger's Madness (Lincoln, Nebr. and London, 1980). 6. Ronald Braude, 'Revenge and Revenge Tragedy in Renaissance England', RenQ, XXVIII (1975), pp. 38-58, cautions that revenge plays of the period are 'by no means simple dramatic homilies'; yet he views The Revenger's Tragedy as one that does didactically condemn 'all vengeance visited outside official channels' (pp. 56-7). 7. A Study of Cyril Tourneur (Philadelphia, 1966) p. 247. Murray argues that Vindice's tragic 'transformation' is caused by his 'disillusionment' with his mother and sister (p. 195)- a savage cynicism that leads him to treat the skull as if Gloriana were a prostitute (p. 219). 8. M. C. Bradbrook, Themes and Conventions of Elizabethan Drama (Cambridge, 1935) p. 166. L. G. Salingar, 'The Revenger's Tragedy and the Morality Tradition', Scrutiny, VI (March 1938) pp. 402-24, also argues that 'no provision is made to render it plausible, realistically, that Vindice would or could have sustained the roles' (p. 410). 9. The jacobean Drama (London, 1936) p. 154. 10. There is a parallel movement - role-playing that releases genuine sensuality - in The Second Maiden's Tragedy. (The play, dated 1611, is anonymous, but internal evidence points to Middleton as the probable author; see Anne Lancashire (ed.), The Revels Plays [Manchester, 1978], pp. 22-3.) Votarius, acting as tempter to his friend's wife, is shaken to discover that he is strongly attracted towards her: 'Heart, I grow fond myself' (1. ii. 225). 11. Alan C. Dessen, Elizabethan Drama and the Viewer's Eye (University of North Carolina Press, 1977), comments on how 'the visual equation between the duke (the hated enemy) and Piato (a role taken on by the revenger) suggests a growing similarity between villain and supposed hero' (p. 79). 12. Scott McMillin, 'Acting and Violence: The Revenger's Tragedy and Its Departures from Hamlet', SEL, XXIV (1984) pp. 275-91, perceives not a cancelling out of identity, but that the revenger 'proliferates' through the final masque and 'becomes many selves who are all one self, a violent self, Vindice and Vindice again' (p. 290). Whether the ending stresses attenuation or proliferation the effect is the same: a loss of integrity. 13. In the Royal Shakespeare Company production of 1969, injected 'sensuality' into the adopted role, as Michael Scott points out in Renaissance 206 Notes and References

Drama and a Modern Audience (London, 1982) p. 45. Nicholas Brooke, Horrid Laughter in jacobean Tragedy (New York, 1979), also makes this comment on the role-playing here: 'Castiza is more than pretending: to play that scene, the actress must play the whore indeed, which means that Castiza must discover the whore within herself (p. 18). 14. John Florio, A War/de of Wordes (London, 1598) p. 449, quoted in Murray, op. cit., p. 204. 15. D. C. Meade, 'Aspects of Baroque Time and The Revenger's Tragedy, in Alan Brissenden (ed.), Shakespeare and Some Others: Essays on Shakespeare and Some of his Contemporaries (Adelaide, 1970) pp. 104-22, notes the 'new awareness of time as discontinuous instants' in the play (p. 104). 16. Several critics have stressed the positive energies of Vindice' s quest rather than its negative results. Howard Pearce, 'Virtu and Poesis in The Revenger's Tragedy', ELH, XLIIl (1976) pp. 19-37, finds the play an 'affirmation of life and art in the face of death and annihilation' (p. 36); RichardT. Bruchner, 'Fantasies of Violence: Hamlet and The Revenger's Tragedy', SEL, XXI:2 (Spring, 1981), stresses the play's ambivalence in that 'Vindice has the appeal of the comic artist who escapes constraint and beats adversity with his wit' (p. 262). 17. For instance, George C. Herndl, The High Design: English Renaissance Tragedy and the Natural Law (Lexington, Ky., 1970), discusses the play's 'Calvinist milieu of invincible carnal depravity' (pp. 220-1). 18. Jonathan Dollimore's argument that 'the conception of a heavenly, retributive justice is being reduced to a parody of stage effects' in this play is persuasive (Radical Tragedy, p. 140). But rather than showing how providentialism is 'obliquely but conclusively discredited', the author of The Revenger's Tragedy may be suggesting the presumption and futility of man's playing the providence shaper (see Chapter 3, below). 19. Foakes (ed.), p. 128. 20. Lawrence J. Ross (ed.), The Revenger's Tragedy, Regents Renaissance Drama (Nebraska, 1966) p. 119. 21. Alan Macfarlane, Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart England (London, 1970), cites the 1632 case of Mary Cutford, who 'did most wickedlie wishe herselfe to be a witch for a tyme that she might be revenged of her adversarie' (p. 286). 22. , Ernest Rhys (ed.) (London and New York, 1894). The authors of are given as 'Rowley, Dekker, Ford, etc.' (so that one wonders if Middleton had a hand in the play). Mother Sawyer, lured into becoming a real witch, provides a good example of a character succumbing to a role that her community expects her to play, once she fatalistically decides "Tis all one/To be a witch as to be counted one' (II. i. p. 412). She also categorises true witches as those pandars who (like Piato) tempt a 'maiden/With golden hooks flung at her chastity/To come and lose her honour' (IV. i, p. 447). 23. Peter Ure, 'Character and Role from Richard III to Hamlet' (Elizabethan and Jacobean Tragedy, pp. 22-43) considers that 'This is sincere acting, his imagination has been caught' (p. 37). Maurice Charney, 'The "Now Could I Drink Hot Blood" Soliloquy', Mosaic, X:3 (Spring, 1977) pp. 77-86, also emphasises that this is the point at which Hamlet becomes a revenger, but leaves open the possibility of contrived role-playing: 'Hamlet is setting out to Notes and References 207

do doughty deeds, or perhaps he is just steeling himself rhetorically for his new role as revenger' (p. 80). 24. In a view opposite to the one presented here - that Hamlet is a continuous character rather than a role or series of roles -John Holloway, The Story of the Night (London, 1961), argues that in Hamlet 'the experience of the protagonist is not the deployment of a determinate character, but the assumption, and then the enactment, of a determinate role' (p. 26). Deconstructionists also argue against the continuity of Hamlet's character; Catherine Belsey, The Subject of Tragedy (London, 1985), considers that Hamlet is not a 'unified subject' since he cannot 'be fully present to himself or to the audience in his own speeches' (p. 50); see also Francis Barker, The Tremulous Body (London, 1984) p. 37, and Terry Eagleton, William Shakespeare, p. 72. 25. 'Tragic Mysteries', in David Bevington and Jay L. Halio (eds.), Shakespeare's Pattern of Excelling Nature (New Jersey and London, 1978) pp. 89-94, 92. 26. Frank Kermode (ed.), Hamlet, the Riverside Shakespeare, briefly discusses the point of the hero's madness in Saxo Grammaticus and Belleforest (pp. 1136-7). 27. T. McAlindon, Shakespeare and Decorum (London and Basingstoke, 1973), emphasises instead the 'extreme unfitness' of Hamlet's hyperbolic response here (p. 56). Hamlet may be making his point, though, through parody as well as passion, underlining Laertes' indecorous behaviour by out-Heroding Herod. 28. Many critics, especially since 1960, have discussed the central images of 'acting' and the theatre in the play. In particular, I have found helpful Francis Fergusson, 'Hamlet, Prince of Denmark: The Analogy of Action', in The Idea of a Theater (Princeton, NJ, 1949) pp. 98-145; Maynard Mack, The World of Hamlet', YR, XLI (1952) pp. 502-23; Ann Righter, Shakespeare and the Idea of the Play, pp. 142-7; Charles R. Forker, 'Shakespeare's Theatrical Symbolism and Its Function in Hamlet', SQ, XIV (1963) pp. 216-29; Maurice Charney, 'Art, Acting, and the Theater', in Style in 'Hamlet' (Princeton, 1969) pp. 137-53; Harold Fisch, 'All the World's a Stage', in 'Hamlet' and the Word (New York, 1971) pp. 153-66; Paul Gottschalk, 'Hamlet and the Scanning of Revenge', SQ, XXIV:2 (1973) pp. 155-70; Lilian Wilds, Shakespeare's Character-Dramatists, Elizabethan and Renaissance Studies: Salzburg Studies in (Salzburg, 1975) pp. 139-87; Thomas Van Laan, Role-Playing in Shakespeare, pp. 171-77; Michael Goldman, 'Hamlet and Our Problems', in Philip McGuire and David Samuelson (eds), Shakespeare: the Theatrical Dimension (New York, 1979) pp. 239-55; Alvin Kernan, 'Politics and Theater in Hamlet', in The Playwright as Magician, pp. 85-111; and James L. Calderwood, 'Theater as Go-Between', in To Be and Not to Be (New York, 1983) pp. 166-75. 29. Trans. Ralph Robynson (1551), J. H. Lupton (ed.) (Oxford, 1895) p. 98. The philosophy referred to is stoicism; Gilles D. Monsarrat, Light from the Porch: Stoicism and English Renaissance Literature (Paris, 1984), cites the Manual of Epictetus, which stresses the importance of accepting a part in a play already determined by God the dramatist (p. 250). 30. Shakespearean Representation: Mimesis and Modernity (Princeton, NJ, 1977) p. 54. William Empson, 'Hamlet When New', SR, XLI (1953) pp. 15-42, ingeniously suggests that Shakespeare's play 'sticks very closely to discussing theatricality' to distinguish itself from the staginess of the Ur-Hamlet, since 'what the first 208 Notes and References

audiences came to see was whether the Globe could re-vamp the old favorite without being absurd' (p. 22). 31. Susan Snyder, The Comic Matrix of Shakespeare's Tragedies, p. 99. 32. As in Book 4 of Castiglione's The Courtier (Hoby's translation). 33. Trans. T. B. (London, 1589) p. 171. 34. Prosser comments that 'the savage course on which he embarks is intended to appall us' (op. cit., p. 252). 35. Several critics have developed this view of the last movement of the play. Alvin Kernan suggests how Hamlet is able to 'recognize that all of life is a play in which man is an actor, not the playwright, playing a part he did not choose in a plot not of his own making' (op. cit., p. 109). Harold Fisch describes this in terms of a covenantal collaboration: 'It will be a joint dramatic production; there will be neither constraint on the one hand nor the arrogant assertion of a self-conceived design on the other, but a synthesis of human effort and divine leading' (op. cit., p. 161); see also Walter N. King, Hamlet's Search for Meaning (Athens, Ga., 1982). Analysing the play in more metadramatic terms, Calderwood argues that in Act V 'Hamlet the individual is beginning to take a subordinate place within a larger context - the providential plot that governs human experience in Denmark and the revenge tragedy plot that governs dramatic experience in the Globe theater' (op. cit., p. 36). 36. The Plays of George Chapman: The Tragedies, vol. I, Thomas Marc Parrott (ed.) (New York, 1961). 37. See Fredson Bowers, 'Hamlet as Minister and Scourge', PMLA, LXX (1955) pp. 740-9. 38. 'Expostulation and Reply', in Lyrical Ballads (1798), R. L. Brett and A. R. Jones (eds) (London, 1963) p. 103. 39 Letter to George and Thomas Keats, 21 Dec. 1817, in Letters of john Keats, selected by Frederick Page (London, 1954) p. 53. 40. Peter Mercer, 'Hamlet' and the Acting of Revenge (Iowa City, 1987) p. 246. 41. Along these lines R. A. Foakes, 'The Art of Cruelty: Hamlet and Vindice', ShS, XXVI (1973) pp. 21-31, points out that 'for Vindice, intelligence and artistry replace morality' (p. 29), whereas Hamlet can 'involve himself imaginatively in play-acting or dramatising the act of cruelty, but cannot do it' (p. 26). Howard Felperin also argues that 'What distinguishes Vindice from Hamlet, his immediate model in the poetics of revenge, is the degree to which he exceeds even Hamlet in his abandonment to the theatricality inherent in the role they share' (op. cit., p. 167). 42. E. A. J. Honigmann, Shakespeare: Seven Tragedies, defends Hamlet in more detail against the critics (such as G. Wilson Knight) who think that Hamlet is tainted; he argues that Hamlet retains a 'healthy sensibility' (p. 67); see also Philip Edwards, Tragic Balance in Hamlet', ShS, XXXVI (1983) pp. 43-52. 43. Op. cit., p. 132. G. K. Hunter, 'The Heroism of Hamlet', in Dramatic Identities and Cultural Tradition (New York, 1978), also finds the 'ritual' combined with the 'personal' role by the end of the play (pp. 249-50). 44. Lines 163-7 appear in Q2 (which Harold Jenkins, op. cit., p. 39, concludes is based on an 'autograph' copy) and not in the Folio text. Notes and References 209

45. Op. cit., pp. 297, 268. In 'Disguise in Marston and Shakespeare', HLQ, XXXVIII (1974-5) pp. 105-23, James Edward Siemon points out one origin for this idea in 's Ethica Nicomachea: that 'a man will tend to repeat any action he has once performed and that each repetition will make yet another more likely' (p. 108). 46. On verbal parallels between Montaigne and Shakespeare, see John M. Robertson, Shakespeare and Montaigne (1909; rpt. New York 1969) and George Coffin Taylor, Shakespeare's Debt to Montaigne (Cambridge, Mass., 1925). Alice Harmon, 'How Great Was Shakespeare's Debt to Montaigne?', PMLA. LVII (December, 1942) pp. 988-1008, astutely warns against trying 'to build up an elaborate theory of literary "influence" upon the evidence of parallel passages alone' (p. 1008). Nevertheless, Andrew Gurr, Hamlet and the Distracted Globe (Edinburgh, 1978) pp. 13-16, convingingly argues a connection between Hamlet's predicament and the examples Montaigne discusses in 'Of Profit and Honesty' (Essays, vol. I, ch. i), and it is difficult not to agree with Harold Jenkins that at least a few of the ideas in Hamlet were prompted by Shakespeare's 'recent reading in Florio's Montaigne' (op. cit., p. 110). 47. McAiindon defines the concept of decorum in the Renaissance as a 'behavioural and ... oratorical' law that combines 'some of the most fundamental notions in the moral and aesthetic theory of classical antiquity' (Shakespeare and Decorum, p. 7). Thomas Kranidas, The Fierce Equation: A Study of Milton's Decorum (London; the Hague; Paris, 1965), also finds the concept not simply a 'tool of consistency' but, in the broadest sense, a 'vision of the highest unity -radiant, coherent and varied' (p. 48). While 'decorum' may, as Derek Attridge argues in 'Nature, Art and the Supplement in Renaissance Literary Theory: Puttenham's Poetics of Decorum', serve as an elitist term, an 'ideological product' put forward as 'naturalness' (Peculiar Language: Literature as Difference from the Renaissance to ]ames Joyce (Ithaca, NY. 1988) pp. 34-5), in Montaigne's discourse it seems less a concession to the status quo than a strategy for channelling (without submerging) the diversity of human nature. 48. Goldman comments that 'As with the actor who plays the role, the greatest strain falls on Hamlet's capacity for expressive coherence, for action that at each moment is true to the delicacy and difficulty of his entire situation' ('Hamlet and Our Problems', p. 252.)

3. The Providence Shaper: and Tragedy

1. My view of the character is dose to that of James Edward Siemon, 'Disguise in Marston and Shakespeare', who finds that in his guise as Malevole Altofront 'assumes a new personality' and that Marston has 'created a double role' (op. cit., p. 115). 2. Richard Fly, focusing on Shakespeare's metadramatic 'involvement with his medium' in Shakespeare's Mediated World (Amherst, 1976), refers to Edgar as a 'surrogate playwright' (p. xiii). In '' (London, 1963), Nicholas Brooke uses the term 'self-appointed agent of Providence' for Edgar (p. 39); as far as I know, the term 'providence shaper' is my own. 210 Notes and References

3. John Marston, The Malcontent, G. K. Hunter (ed.), The Revels Plays (Manchester, I975). All line references are taken from this edition. 4. John Greenwood, 'The Mannerist Marston', MLR. LXXXII (I987) pp. 8I7-29, describes this as one of the mannerist techniques to emphasise a 'violent dichotomy between character and role' (p. 822). 5. 'Marston', jacobean Dramatic Perspectives (Charlottesville, Va., I972) pp. 33-4. 6. The Cankered Muse (New Haven, I959) pp. 2I7-I8. R. W. Ingram, john Marston, Twayne's English Authors Series (Boston, I978), also considers that Malevole is 'an impersonation by Altofront' rather than a separate persona (p. 107) and thinks that during the play Altofront 'undergoes a trial and a strengthening through pain as he comes to realize the virulence of the social disease in his land' (p. I09). Philip J. FinkelpearL john Marston of the Middle Temple (Cambridge, Mass., I969), ingeniously argues a continuity between the two personae, in that Altofront is the 'true malcontent posing as a malcontent' (p. I85). 7. Op. cit., p. lxviii. 8. David Farley-Hills, jacobean Drama, p. 53. 9. Michael Scott, john Marston's Plays: Theme, Structure, and Performance (London and Basingstoke, I978) p. I 13. John Scott Colley, john Marston's Theatrical Drama, Jacobean Drama Studies (Salzburg, I974), also explores the way that Marston 'constantly reminds his audience that it is viewing a shallow fiction' (p. I). IO. The phrase is from Antonio's Revenge, Act L sc. i. I. I2. The Malcontent transferred from the Blackfriars (probably played by the Children of the Chapel Royal before I604) to the King's Men at the Globe; it was printed 'With the additions played by the Kings majesties servants' in I604. II. That this passage is one of the additions for the version of the play acted by the King's Men further suggests that Marston was more interested in developing the malcontent figure for its theatrical interest (and shock value) than in connecting it coherently with the Altofront character. The 'lewd apprehension' passage that precedes it is also one of the extra passages. 12. Although George L. Geckle, john Marston's Drama (London and Toronto, I980), asserts that Malevole-Altofront is 'The man who trusts in God, avoids vice, and manages to transcend Fortune's influence' (p. 119), Malevole is surely Machiavellian in his tactics to outwit Mendoza. Finkelpearl finds 'virtuous Machiavellianism' part of the malcontent's strategy, and that despite his "high moral standards', Malevole has 'learned the black arts required to manipulate man' (op. cit., p. I90). 13. Guarini's definition in II Compendia della poesia tragicomica (printed with II Pastor Fido in I60I) refers to 'the danger, not the death'; Hunter convincingly argues the influence of Guarini on the form of Marston's play (op. cit., p. lxii). Larry Champion also discusses the way that a comic perspective is established in the play in 'The Malcontent and the Shape of Elizabethan-Jacobean Comedy', SEL. XXV (I985), pp. 36I-79. I4. Op. cit., p. lxiv. IS. Along these lines, T. F. Wharton, 'The Malcontent and "Dreams, Visions, Fantasies'", EIC. XXIV (I974) pp. 26I-74, argues that 'Marston refuses to Notes and References 211

exploit the ambiguities of Altofronto's position . the play stops short of recognising that his performance at the end of the play (as pious and magnanimous ruler) is a further piece of role- playing, a self-glorification quite as involuntary as the "dreams" of Mendoza' (p. 271). Scott thinks that Marston does in fact close the gap, presenting Altofront as a 'shallow individual' who 'can only play-act at regality' and whose kicking out of Mendoza shows that he is 'impotent in the face of political expediency and judgement' (op. cit., p. 30). 16. This is the view of Siemon, op. cit., p. 106. John Greenwood, Shifting Perspectives and the Stylish Style, finds a 'more restrained' mannerist technique in the creation of Vincentia than the 'exuberant mannerism' Marston employs in Malevole-Altofront (p. 123). 17. Drama, Stage and Audience, p. 14 7. Styan pursues the idea of Edgar as the 'weakest character and the strongest role' of the play in 'Changeable Taffeta: Shakespeare's Characters in Performance', in Philip McGuire and David A. Samuelson (eds), Shakespeare: The Theatrical Dimension (New York, 1979) pp. 133-48, 139. Leo Kirschbaum, 'Banquo and Edgar', EIC, Vll:2 (January 1957) pp. 1-21, offers a similar view, that Edgar is 'not a mimetic unity; he is a dramatic device' (p. 9); see also Howard Felperin, Shakespearean Representation, p. 93. 18. '"Edgar I Nothing Am": "Figurenposition" in King Lear', ShS, XXXVIII (1985) pp. 153-66, 154. 19. Thomas Van Laan observes that 'in most of the tragedies the manipulation of others and of events is something to be highly deplored' (Role-Playing in Shakespeare, p. 224). 20. Judah Stampfer, for instance, argues that the Lear universe is imbecile in The Catharsis of King Lear', ShS, XIII (1960) pp. 1-10. 21. In her Introduction to Twentieth Century Interpretations of 'King Lear' (New Jersey, 1978), Janet Adelman comments perceptively on how the 'passivity and even the masochism of Poor Tom serve Edgar well'. Contrary to my interpretation, however, she thinks that Edgar's 'passive unwillingness to act on his own behalf' continues in his 'need to see himself as an agent of the just gods' (p. 17). 22. For a closer examination of Edgar's disguise here, one that stresses how 'Edgar­ as-Tom's suffering is in part a performance of marginality, exclusion, and dispossession', see William C. Carroll, '"The Base Shall Top Th' Legitimate": The Bedlam Beggar and the Role of Edgar in King Lear', SQ, XXXVIII:4 (1987) pp. 426-41, 435. 23. (Cambridge, Mass., 1972) p. 47. Similarly Marcia Holly, in 'King Lear: The Disguised and Deceived', SQ, XXIV:2 (Spring, 1973) pp. 171-80, explores how 'Edgar also faces the anguish which, according to Sartre, is the apprehension of the Self as freedom, the realization that nothing relieves the authentic human being from the necessity of continually choosing' (p. 174). 24. The conclusion of recent scholarship, much of which is included in Gary Taylor and Michael Warren (eds), The Division of The Kingdoms: Shakespeare's Two Versions of 'King Lear' (Oxford, 1983), is that the Quarto and Folio texts represent two separate (authorially authentic) versions of the play. I agree with 212 Notes and References

Michael Warren's argument that in the Folio version Edgar is 'a young man who has learned a great deal, and who is emerging as the new leader of the ravaged society' ('Quarto and Folio King Lear and the Interpretations of Albany and Edgar', in David Bevington and Jay L. Halio (eds), Shakespeare: Pattern of Excelling Nature, (New Jersey and London, 1978) pp. 95-107, 99.) 25. Op. cit., p. 13. 26. In 'Creative Uncreation in King Lear', SQ, XXXVII:1 (Spring, 1986) pp. 5-19, James L. Calderwood points out how in the play Edgar 'marches steadily forward behind a shield of sententia and aphorism' and 'specialises in secondhand experience' (p. 11). 27. Rolf Soellner, for instance, in 'King Lear': Valuing the Self, in Shakespeare's Patterns of Self-Knowledge (Ohio, 1972), finds that 'Edgar's general capacity for feeling and his strength to translate it into sympathetic action make him the most conspicuous learner and teacher' (p. 298). In The Comic Matrix of Shakespeare's Tragedies, Susan Snyder emphasises that Poor Tom is a 'role assumed for self- protection but functioning as a positive source of new insight' (op. cit., p. 150). 28. G. R. Hibbard, 'King Lear: A Retrospect, 1939-79', ShS, xxxm (1980) pp. 1-12, comments on 'the determination with which believers and unbelievers alike seek to annex . . . the tragedy to their cause' but finds this a 'tremendous tribute' to the play's 'power and significance' (p. 10). 29. Russell A. Peck, 'Edgar's Pilgrimage: High Comedy in King Lear' SEL, VII:2 (Spring 1967) pp. 219-37, 227. 30. William R. Elton, 'King Lear' and the Gods (San Marino, Calif., 1966) p. 87. Similarly, Phyllis Rackin in 'From Delusion to Resolution in King Lear', SQ, XXI (Winter, 1970) pp. 29-34, comments on how the 'delusions' that Edgar practises 'have the effect of resolving the major issues of the play, even though they never fully lose their delusory quality' (p. 30). 31. Adelman, op. cit., p. 20. 32. The Masks of 'King Lear' (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1972) p. 266. Walter Foreman, Jr., The Music of the Close (Kentucky, 1978), also claims that Edgar 'tortures' Gloucester, although he could 'avoid this torture by telling Gloucester the real truth' (p. 121). 33. Radical Tragedy, p. 92. 34. There the king of Paphlagonia recounts how this son, Leonatus, openly 'came hither to do this kind office', sheltering his blind father from danger and, significantly, refusing to 'lead' him to the top of a high rock from which he could end his life (The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, Maurice Evans (ed.) [Harmondsworth, 1977] Bk. 2, ch. 10, pp. 278-9). 35. Stanley Cavell, 'The Avoidance of Love: A Reading of King Lear', in Must We Mean What We Say? (New York, 1969) pp. 267-353, thinks that Edgar delays because he is 'avoiding recognition' (p. 283), just as Lear's behaviour is motivated 'by the attempt to avoid recognition, the shame of exposure, the threat of self­ revelation' (p. 286). Stephen Booth, 'On the Greatness of King Lear', in 'King Lear', 'Macbeth', Indefinition, and Tragedy (New Haven and London, 1983) pp. 5-57, also comments on how unsettling it is that the 'virtuous' Edgar 'so Notes and References 213

inadequately explains his tactics in denying his father the comfort of knowing that one of his sons cares for him' (p. 53). 36. Maynard Mack discusses the morality play analogues in 'King Lear' in Our Time (London, 1966). In Strangers and Pilgrims (Chicago, 1983), Edgar Schell examines how the 'figure of life's pilgrimage' operates in King Lear but restricts his analysis to the main plot (pp. 151-95). 37. (London, 1578), reprinted in Sh]E, XL (1904) pp. 145-86. In 'The Heights and the Depths: A Scene from King Lear', in John Garrett (ed.), More Talking of Shakespeare (London, 1959) pp. 87-103, Harry Levin also finds that 'Edgar, too, will play the Vice in his later manipulations when he intervenes on hehalf of Gloucester' (p. 92). 38. The Wheel of Fire (London, 1949) pp. 16Q-76, 170; the absurdist view of the play is fully developed in Jan Kott, 'King Lear or Endgame?', Shakespeare Our Contemporary (London, 1964) pp. 101-37. Admittedly it is not clear exactly when the audience discovers the nature of Edgar's fraud. Some critics have argued that the nonillusionistic nature of the Jacobean playhouse would have encouraged the audience, as James Black puts it, 'to follow Gloucester in his perceptions of the situation' ('King Lear: Art Upside-Down', ShS, XXXIII (1980) pp. 35-42, 38). See also Derek Peat, '"And That's True Too": King Lear and the Tension of Uncertainty', ibid., pp. 43-53, 47-8. 39. Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy (Toronto, 1967) p. 114. 40. Samuel Johnson glosses 'clearest' as 'the purest, the most free from evil'. 41. Robert Egan, Drama within Drama, points out how Edgar is here confronted by the 'direct human evidence of the disordered reality which his dramatic art has sought to exclude from its scope of vision' (op. cit., p. 26). 42. Similarly Alvin Kernan, 'Formalism and Realism in Elizabethan Drama: The Miracles in King Lear', RenD, n. s. IX (1966) pp. 59-66, argues that Edgar's 'miracle' is a 'shabby theatrical device, imposed on a man of less than first-rate intellect to make him go on living some dream of the gods' care for human life which is at odds with what has happened and will happen' (pp. 61-2), although he goes on to defend it on an allegorical level: 'The fall from the cliff ends in miraculous survival and thus dramatizes the truly miraculous salvation found by the wanderers and outcasts on the heath' (p. 64). Alan C. Dessen astutely observes that 'The obvious fiction created by Edgar and accepted by Gloucester prevents the audience from sharing that comforting illusion' ('Two Falls and a Trap: Shakespeare and the Spectacles of Realism', ELR, V:3 [Autumn 1975] pp. 291-307, 305). 43. For a less favourable view of Kent's role, which argues that Kent becomes 'increasingly fond of disguise for its own sake', see Hugh Maclean, 'Disguise in King Lear: Kent and Edgar', SQ, XI (1960) pp. 49-54, 53. 44. Wilbur Sanders, The Dramatist and the Received Idea (Cambridge, 1968), defines the term 'natural providence' as part of the 'organic processes of individual consciousness and society (p. 99); it 'grows out of the soil of human life, rather than descending supernaturally from above' (p. 104). 45. Arguing for 'contextual bibliography', Gary Taylor, Reinventing Shakespeare (New York, 1989), points out that , who had printed King Lear 214 Notes and References

by January 1608, also printed John Pelling's A Sermon of the Providence of God during the same 1607-8 period - another testament to the considerable interest in Providence at that time. 46. The French Academie, pp. 442-3. Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, John T. McNeill (ed.), trans. Ford Lewis Battles (Philadelphia, 1960), also maintains that the 'necessity of those things which happen for the most part lie hidden in God's purpose' (1. xvi. 9, p. 208), and calls it 'sheer folly that many dare ... to call God's works to account, and to examine his secret plans' (1. xvii. pp. 211- 12). Elton associates Calvin with the notion of deus absconditus in the period (op. cit, pp. 29-33); see, too, Alan Sinfield, Literature in Protestant England, 156D-1660 (Totowa, NJ, 1983). With a more political emphasis, Jonathan Goldberg, in 'State Secrets', ]ames I and the Politics of Literature (London and Baltimore, 1983), links the 'mysteries of God's state' to arcana imperii, or the hidden premises of autocracy in Jacobean statecraft (pp. 55-112, 80). 47. P. 77. 48. Op. cit., p. 155.

4. The Mask and the 'Deform'd' Self: Middleton's Tragedies

I. Thomas Middleton, Women Beware Women, J. R. Mulryne (ed.), The Revels Plays (London, 1975). All line references to from this edition. 2. Elements of Tragedy (New Haven and London, 1959) p. 148. 3. The masque's pattern of retribution has been pointed out by Richard Hindry Barker, Thomas Middleton (New York and London, 1958) p. 143; Irving Ribner, jacobean Tragedy: The Quest for Moral Order (London, 1962) p. 151; John Potter, '"In Time of Sports": Masques and Masking in Middleton's Women Beware Women', PPL, xvm (1982) pp. 368-82, 378-9; and A. L. and M. K. Kistner, Middleton's Tragic Themes, American University Studies, Series IV, English Language and Literature, vol. 10 (New York, 1984) p. 99. 4. Critics who emphasise the determinism in the play are R. B. Parker, 'Middleton's Experiments in Comedy and Judgment', Stratford-upon-Avon Studies I (London, 1960) pp. 77-99, p. 92; Larry Champion, Tragic Patterns in jacobean and Caroline Drama (Knoxville, Tenn., 1977) p. 155; and Neil Taylor and Brian Loughrey, 'Middleton's Chess Strategies in Women Beware Women', SEL, XXIV (1984) pp. 341-54, who discuss how the chess game in the play raises the questions, 'Are we free, do we control others, or are we controlled by others?' (p. 345). 5. Some Versions of Pastoral (London, 1925; repr. Harmondsworth, 1966) p. 50. 6. Roger Stilling, Love and Death in Renaissance Tragedy (Baton Rouge, 1976) also comments on how Leantio 'prejudices the judgment on Bianca even before there is the slightest hint of what she will become' (p. 260). T. B. Tomlinson finds another form of determinism in the play - that Bianca's seduction is the 'logical outcome' of Leantio's 'mercantile attitude towards her' (Elizabethan and jacobean Tragedy (Cambridge, 1964) p. 176). 7. Most critics have followed M. C. Bradbrook, Themes and Conventions of Elizabethan Tragedy, in discussing Bianca's 'progressive deterioration' (p. 224) rather than her development of attributes already latent. Notes and References 215

8. The Moral Vision of Jacobean Tragedy (Madison, Wis., 1965) p. 195. 9. Mulryne comments that Livia has the 'skills of an actress' (op. cit., p. xxiv); Dorothea Krook finds the 'craftsman's love of the exercise of virtu' in Livia (op. cit., p. 165); and Inga-Stina Ewbank, 'Realism and Morality in Women Beware Women', E&S, XXII (1969) pp. 57-70, calls her the 'kingpin of the liaisons dangereuses in the play' (p. 66). 10. J. B. Batchelor, 'The Pattern of Women Beware Women', YES, II (1972) pp. 78- 87, discerns how Bianca and Isabella are 'apt students' of Livia's 'methods' (p. 86), while A. L. and M. K. Kistner comment that 'Much like a Vice, Livia represents the evil side of Branca's and Isabella's natures, and in following her, they follow their wills' (op. cit., p. 94). 11. Christopher Ricks analyses in detail the word-play on 'blood' in The Changeling, in 'The Moral and Poetic Structure of The Changeling', EIC, X (1960) pp. 290-306. In 'Word-Play in Women Beware Women', RES, n.s. XII: 47 (1961) pp. 238-50, he concentrates instead on 'the world of work business, and service' (p. 245) and does not mention this example. 12. Parker views this 'pattern of retribution' as a 'retreat from the tragic implications of determinism' (op. cit., p. 196, p. 199). 13. In '"Enter Above": The Staging of Women Beware Women', SEL, XXVI (1986) pp. 331-43, Thomson argues that all the major characters would come down onto the main stage during the masque, symbolising their falls from virtue. 14. 'Of Diverting and Diversions', Essays, III. iv. 58. 15. This has been the main direction of criticism on the play. For instance, Barker stresses the 'interaction' between Beatrice and De Flores (op. cit., p. 124); N. W. Bawcutt (ed.), The Changeling, the Revels Plays (London, 1958), praises the 'close inter-relationships of a small group of characters' (p. xlvii). 16. Several critics have stressed Beatrice's blindness and self-deception; in particular, Edward Engelberg, 'Tragic Blindness in The Changeling and Women Beware Women', MLQ, XXIII (1962) pp. 20-28. 17. All line references are taken from Thomas Middleton and , The Changeling, N. W. Bawcutt (ed.). 18. Raymond J. Pentzell, 'The Changeling: Notes on Mannerism in Dramatic Form', CompD, IX (1975) pp. 3-28, describes this 'formalized denouement as 'almost a prank' (p. 5), but justifies it as part of the mannerist mode developed throughout the play. Michael E. Mooney, '"Framing" as Collaborative Technique: Two Middleton-Rowley Plays', CompD, XIII:2 (1979) pp. 127-41, points out how the play's conclusion is 'determined by the contrasting thrusts of comedy and tragedy', since Rowley wrote both the play's opening and closing scenes and was responsible for the 'structural organization of the plots' (p. 138). 19. Henry Jacobs, 'The Constancy of Change: Character and Perspective in The Changeling', TSLL, XVI:4 (Winter, 1975) pp. 651-74, also finds that Antonio's 'failure in perception and his one-sided expectations reveal him as a fool at best' (p. 670). 20. William Empson, op. cit., p. 47. Since Empson's inspired commentary on the play, most critics have praised the coherence and thematic purpose of the subplot; for example, Karl L. Holzknecht, The Dramatic Structure of The 216 Notes and References

Changeling', in Allan H. Gilbert (ed.), Renaissance Papers (Orangeburg, 1954) pp. 77-87. T. McAlindon makes an illuminating connection between The Changeling and A Midsummer Night's Dream, where the contrasting settings of Athens and the forest present the same antithesis, between 'stability' and 'irrationality', that the castle and the asylum do in The Changeling (English Renaissance Tragedy, p. 197). 21. Richard Levin, The Multiple Plot in English Renaissance Drama (Chicago and London, 1971), comments on how her success depends 'less on some extraordinary virtue than on her common sense and even her sense of humour' (p. 37). 22. Bradbrook, Themes and Conventions, was one of the first critics to note how the 'phantasmagoria' of the madmen helps to illustrate the theme of love as a 'tame madness' (p. 214). Pursuing this line, Penelope B. R. Doob, 'A Reading of The Changeling', ELR, III (1973) pp. 183-206, notes that the play is about 'the terrible madness of sin, not merely the madness of love' (p. 185); Joseph Duffy, 'Madhouse Optics: The Changeling', CompD, VIII (1974) pp. 185-98, argues, too, that Beatrice 'does not see that one may become lost in lunatic spaces of the earth without leaving the world of self (p. 197). 23. Op. cit., p. 125. 24. The Moral and Poetic Structure of The Changeling', EIC, X (1960) pp. 290-306. 25. Several critics, such as Duffy, cited above, and Leo Salingar, 'The Changeling and the Drama of Domestic Life', E&S, XXXII (1979) pp. 80-96, have commented on the courtly love implications of Beatrice's role. Robert Ornstein also focuses on the handling of 'Petrarchan service' in the scene, arguing that Middleton parodies it (op. cit., pp. 179-90); Stilling notes how Beatrice trades on courtly love euphemisms in Act II, sc. ii, since 'One of the distinctive features of courtly language is that it provides a framework for talking in traditional and elevated terms about very brutal matters' (op. cit., p. 252). 26. 'Myth and Psychology in The Changeling', RenD, n. s. III (1970) pp. 157--65, 160. Sara Eaton, 'Beatrice-Joanna and the Rhetoric of Love in The Changeling', T], XXXVI (1984) pp. 371-82, aptly terms De Flores the 'underside of Courtly Love rhetoric' (p. 375). 27. See Joan M. Ferrante and George D. Economou (eds), In Pursuit of Perfection: Courtly Love in Medieval Literature (Port Washington, NY, and London, 1975) p. 5. 28. Ornstein, op. cit., p. 185. 29. 'Thomas Middleton', in Selected Essays, p. 143. 30. 'Upon Some Verses of Virgil', vol. III, ch. v, p. 68. 31. 'Milton's "Satan" and the Theme of Damnation in Elizabethan Tragedy', E&S, 1 (1948) pp. 46-66. 32. The Complete Gentleman (London, 1622; 1634), Virgil B. Heltzel (ed.) (Ithaca, N.Y., 1962) p. 12. 33. Juliet Dusinberre comments on how 'At the heart of the double standard lay the concept of virginity as a property qsset. Virginity is more cherished among the upper classes who have more property to dispose of' (Shakespeare and the Nature of Women, p. 52). Notes and References 217

34. 'Of the Recompenses or Rewards of Honour', Essays, vol. II, ch. vii, p. 65. 35. Op. cit., p. 12. 36. Most scholars (with the exception of Ann Jenalie Cook, The Privileged Playgoers of Shakespeare's London, 1576-1642 [Princeton, NL 1981]), still assume that there were some significant differences between the Jacobean and Caroline audiences at private and public playhouses. Andrew Gurr, Playgoing in Shakespeare's London (Cambridge, 1987), concludes that 'by 1630 ... the ampitheatres in the northern suburbs, the Red Bull and Fortune, served a distinctly less gentlemanly clientele than the hall playhouses in the City, the Blackfriars, Cockpit and Salisbury Court, and in summer the Globe on Bankside' (pp. 77-8). 37. See Margot Heinemann, Puritanism and Theatre: Thomas Middleton and Opposition Drama under the Early Stuarts (Cambridge, 1980), where Heinemann argues that Middleton's tragedies can be termed 'city tragedy', appealing more to the 'values of a city and "country" audience than to the diversions of a leisured and escapist court culture' (p. 173). 38. Although Charles A. Hallett, Middleton's Cynics: A Study of Middleton's Insight into the Moral Psychology of the Mediocre Mind (Salzburg, 1975), contends that the characters in The Changeling 'have nothing to do with the aristocracy' but are drawn from the bourgeoisie (p. 202), most critics view the play's society as concerned with the status of a 'gentleman'. Salingar argues perceptively that 'What finally betrays Beatrice Joanna is precisely the confidence in her birth and status that she has absorbed from the society around her' (op. cit., p. 85). 39. Tomlinson discusses the castle as a 'single complex image' in the play (op. cit., pp. 192-202). 40. Dorothy Farr, Thomas Middleton and the Drama of Realism (New York, 1973) p. 56. Patricia Thomson (ed.), The Changeling, The New Mermaids (London, 1964), also observes that the 'violence of Beatrice's allergy to De Flores is, by its very nature, akin to passion' (p. xiii), while Ruby Chatterji, 'A Critical Study of Thomas Middleton as a Dramatist', Ph.D thesis for the University of Cambridge (1972), comments in detail on the Freudian implications (pp. 282- 6). In 'Diabolical Realism in Middleton and Rowley's The Changeling', RenD, n.s. XI (1980) pp. 135-70, J. L. Simmons connects Beatrice's 'sexual fantasies' with demonolology, arguing that 'The Changeling uniquely dramatizes the progression of a diabolically psychosexual nightmare' (pp. 138-9). 41. 'A Cagoun in Zombieland: Middleton's Tetralogical Changeling', in Kenneth Friedenreich (ed.), 'Accompaninge the Players': Essays Celebrating Thomas Middleton, 158D-1980 (New York, 1983) pp. 219-41, 225. Mohammed Kowsar, 'Middleton and Rowley's The Changeling: The Besieged Temple', Criticism, XXVIII:2 (Spring, 1986) pp. 145--64, goes further in arguing that Beatrice's alliance with de Flores challenges the 'highly codified patriarchal order' by its 'disruptive energy' (pp. 146, 151).

5. 'We cannot . .. retume to our selves': Volpone

I. R. B. Parker (ed.), Volpone, or The Fox, The Revels Plays (Manchester, 1983), argues that the play was first produced at the Globe 'before 25 March 1606', with performances at Oxford and Cambridge probably in July 1606 (pp. 9-10). 218 Notes and References

R. A. Foakes (ed.), The Revenger's Tragedy, sets the date of this play at 1605-6 (p. lxix). All quotations from Volpone are taken from R. B. Parker's edition, and all quotations from Jonson's other plays from Ben Jonson, C. H. Herford and P. and E. Simpson (eds), 11 vols (Oxford, 1925-52). 2. Timber, or Discoveries, in Ben Jonson, voi. VIII, p. 597. 3. 'Jonson and the Loathed Stage', in The Antitheatrical Prejudice (pp. 132-54, 148, 154). David Farley-Hills also notes that 'Volpone is the daemon of comedy, a manifestation of the author's creative self. the disruptive, iconoclastic energy that will not be deceived by formulae' (jacobean Drama, p. 35). 4. Alexander Leggatt, Ben Jonson: His Vision and His Art (London and New York 1981) remarks that Volpone and Mosca are 'simultaneously puppets and puppet-makers; and there is a natural analogy between their activities and Jonson's business as a dramatist' (p. 3). 5. Leo Salingar, 'Comic Form in Ben Jonson: Volpone and the Philosopher's Stone', in Dramatic Form in Shakespeare and the Jacobeans (Cambridge, 1986) pp. 153- 74, comments that, whatever the qualifications, 'some hint remains of a mystical faith or system at work behind the speaker's rhapsody' (p. 163). 6. Celia also speaks from what Kathleen McLuskie, Renaissance Dramatists (Atlantic Highlands, NJ. 1989), terms 'an entirely different discourse of sexuality'- but one that cannot break out of 'male power' (pp. 173-4). 7. In the 'Address to the Reader' that prefaces The Alchemist, for example, Jonson complains that 'the Concupiscence of Daunces and Antickes' is often the 'onely point of art that tickles the Spectators' (II. 7-8), and hopes in the Prologue to have 'Judging Spectators' (1. 3) instead. 8. J. A. Bryant, Jr., The Compassionate Satirist: Ben Jonson and His Imperfect World (Athens, Ga., 1972) p. 65. 9. 'Ben Jonson and the Centred self, SEL, X (1970) pp. 325-48, 333. Katherine E. Maus, Ben Jonson and the Roman Frame of Mind (Princeton, NJ. 1984), also comments on how Jonson's version of the 'gathered self' can 'become an ideal of balance and sureness in one's relations with one's environment, a prerequisite for, rather than an alternative to, sociability' (pp. 17-18). 10. Greene, op. cit., p. 337. 11. Harriett Hawkins, 'Folly, Incurable Disease, and Volpone', SEL. VIII (1968) pp. 335-48, finds Volpone's major role 'both a disguise of Volpone's true state of being, and, simultaneously, a revelation of it' (p. 338); Douglas Duncan, Ben Jonson and the Lucianic Tradition (Cambridge, 1979), comments that Volpone 'shamming sickness on his couch provides a ludicrous but vivid symbol of his spiritual state' (p. 146). 12. Stephen Greenblatt, Sir Walter Ralegh: The Renaissance Man and His Roles, p. 31. 13. Lawrence Danson, 'Jonsonian Comedy and the Discovery of the Social Self, PMLA. XCIX (March 1984) pp. 179-93, 183. 14. 'Volpone', HudR. XXI (1968-9) pp. 651-66, 662. 15. 'Volpone: The Mortifying of the Fox', EIC. XXV (1975) pp. 329-56, 335. 16. The Double Plot in Volpone', MP, LI (1953) pp. 83-92, 90. 17. Other critics have touched on this but not pursued it in much depth. Ian Donaldson, 'Volpone: Quick and Dead', EIC. XXI (1971) pp. 121-34, stresses the Notes and References 219

'encroachments of illness and death' in the play as an important counterbalance to the amoral energies of Volpone and Mosca (p. 131) but doesn't discuss old age and death as Volpone's driving obsession; Stephen Greenblatt, 'The False Ending in Volpone', JEGP, LXXV (1976) pp. 90-104, goes further in finding that Volpone needs to 'cheat or at least to mock' the vision of nothingness and death 'through disguise' (p. 98). Anne Barton, Ben Jonson, Dramatist (Cambridge, 1984), points out That man should be fixated on what is most alien and opposite to his mortal nature - cold, hard metals which cannot sicken or fade - represents a monstrous joke' in the play (p. 112). 18. All line references are taken from Doctor Faustus, ed. John D. Jump, The Revels Plays (Manchester, 1962). 19. Tradition and Ben Jonson', in Drama and Society in the Age of Jonson (1937; Harmondsworth, 1962) pp. 151-67, 158. Knights is referring to one of Volpone's speeches to Celia, but his point is well taken in the opening speech too. 20. Duncan also points out how, in his final unmasking, Volpone 'lays claim to the Stoic virtue of constancy to the self which is precisely the standard by which he is measured by Jonson and found wanting' (op. cit., p. 155). 21. Creaser argues that Volpone is aloof from the implications of this speech, and that he 'evokes thoughts of mortality without a tremor' (op. cit., pp. 342, 339); Greenblatt, more accurately I think, discerns 'deep fear' as part of the tone of the speech ('The False Ending of Volpone', p. 98). 22. In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, trans. James Strachey (New York, 1950), Sigmund Freud distinguishes 'two kinds of instincts: those which seek to lead what is living to death, and others, the sexual instincts, which are perpetually attempting and achieving a renewal of life' (p. 61). This double psychic movement is suggested in V olpone' s speech. 23. Op. cit., p. 128. 24. Alvin Kernan (ed.), Volpone, the Yale Ben Jonson (New Haven and London, 1963), comments that 'for a Volpone and a Mosca playing becomes the exercise of a godlike power' (pp. 11-12.) 25. The Poems of Andrew Marvell, H. M. Margoliouth (ed.) (Oxford, 1952) p. 26. 26. Strangers and Pilgrims (op cit., 1983) p. 143. 27. As Greenblatt comments, 'his strategy is to turn what he fears into fiction, and what he fears most of all is death' (The False Ending of Volpone', p. 102). 28. C. H. Herford was the first to note this aspect: 'His passion for taking part, as it were, in his own play, and moving it on towards the consummation he desires, is the mainspring by which the whole action is brought to the consummation he does not desire' (Ben Jonson, vol. II, p. 59). Alexander Leggatt, 'The Suicide of Volpone', UTQ, XXXIX (1969) pp. 19-31, argues that Volpone's overriding artistic passion, which includes the instinct to bring his comedy to a close, and which overrules even material self-interest, has brought him to this point' (p. 29). Robert N. Watson, Ben Jonson's Parodic Strategy: Literary Imperialism in the Comedies (Cambridge, Mass.; London, 1987), ingeniously suggests that in Act V Volpone is trying to write himself into the wrong play, trying to become the 'triumphant fox of the fable' who draws his victims by feigning death (p. 88). 220 Notes and References

29. John George Sweeney III, Jonson and the Psychology of the Public Theater (Princeton, NJ, 1985), comments of Act V that 'to be a spectator is to be the potential victim of someone else's self-gratifying designs' (p. 98). 30. Volpone's concern with audience is also suggested in the lines adapted for the song to Celia: That the curious shall not know /How to tell them as they flow' (III. vii. 235-6). Whereas in the original Catullus lyric it is the lovers who deliberately confuse the number of their kisses as a charm against bad luck, Volpone transfers the confusion about the number of kisses on to the admiring audience. See Catullus, The Poems, K. Quinn (ed.) (London and Basingstoke, 1970) p. 3. 31. Several critics have stressed what Greenblatt calls the gap 'between the play's moral structure - by which Volpone must be punished - and its power to delight' ('The False Ending of Volpone', p. 104). For instance, S. L. Goldberg, 'Folly into Crime: The Catastrophe of Volpone', MLQ, XX (1959) pp. 233-42, thinks that the function of the Epilogue is to restore the 'grounds of detachment' after the judgmental 'catastrophe' (pp. 240-1), and Donald Gertmenian, 'Comic Experience in Volpone and The Alchemist', SEL, XVII (1977) pp. 247-58, considers that 'satiric Volpone warns us to dangers in anarchic vital energy by allowing us comic pleasure and then turning pleasure to remorse at its consequences' (p. 258). 32. John Florio, A Worlde of Wordes (1598), quoted in R. B. Parker, p. 86. 33. Barton comments on how the Epilogue 'is there to remind us that there are fictive criteria for judging scoundrels' and that Volpone 'can rely on the spectators to acquit him of any crime committed against the spirit of comedy' (op. cit., pp. 118-19). 34. Ben Jonson: His Vision and His Art, p. 64. 35. See L.A. Beaurline, Jonson and Elizabethan Comedy (San Marino, Ca., 1978), The Divided Audience' (pp. 1-34); Peter Carlson, 'Judging Spectators', ELH, XLIV (1977) pp. 443-57; Duncan, 'Jonson's Art of Teasing' (in op. cit., pp. 1-6); and Richard Dutton, Ben Jonson: To the First Folio (Cambridge, 1983) pp. 74, 123. 36. Creaser analyses the possible meanings of 'mortifying' in detail (op. cit., p. 352). Dutton also observes, 'one suspects that it will be a long time before this old fox will be fit to eat' (op. cit., p. 72).

6. Double-edged Theatrics: Antony and Cleopatra

I. David Daiches, 'Imagery and Meaning in Antony and Cleopatra', More Literary Essays (Edinburgh and London, 1968) pp. 70-95, also finds that the play is concerned with 'the different roles that man can play on the various stages which human activity provides for him' and with 'the relation of these roles to the player's true identity' (p. 71). 2. John Holloway, The Story of the Night, comments on their 'sense of having the role of greatness to live up to' (p. 102); Michael Goldman, Acting and Action in Shakespearean Tragedy (Princeton, NJ, 1985) points to the 'pure presence', the 'sheer charisma' of the lovers (pp. 120-1); Rowland Wymer, Suicide and Despair Notes and References 221

in the jacobean Drama (New York, 1986) stresses 'the insistence upon status, self-assertion, and competitive ostentation which characterizes this particular erotic relationship' (p. 131). 3. Along these lines, Jean-Paul Sartre distinguishes between the 'being-in-itself' of the cafe waiter and the inauthentic 'representation' of playing at being the waiter (Being and Nothingness, p. 60). 4. Benjamin T. Spencer, 'Antony and Cleopatra and the Paradoxical Metaphor', SQ, IX:3 (1958) pp. 373-8, is one of many commentators who have teased out the 'contradictions' in which the 'splendor' of Cleopatra is 'wreathed' (p. 374). 5. See Edward William Tayler, 'Renaissance Uses of Nature and Art', in Nature and Art in Renaissance Literature (New York and London, 1964) pp. 11-37, 36. For an example of the traditional debate resolved in favour of nature, see Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Qveene, ]. C. Smith and E. De Selincourt (eds) (London, 1912; 1965) p. 136. The artificial vines of 'burnisht gold' in the Bower of Bliss are presented as beautiful but damaging to the real ones ('That the weak bowes, with so rich load opprest,/Did bow adowne, as ouer-burdened', II. xii. 55). 6. Derek Traversi, Shakespeare: The Roman Plays (Stanford, Ca., 1963), takes this view, commenting 'This is beauty indeed, but of a kind strangely and firmly limited by its artifice, in which spontaneous life can have no assured place' (p. 115). 7. Coleridge's definition of the poetic imagination in Biographia Literaria, ch. xiv, in Selected Poetry and Prose of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Donald A. Stauffer (ed.) (New York, 1951) p. 269. 8. 'Nature, Art, and the Supplement in Renaissance Literary Theory: Puttenham's Poetics of Decorum', in Peculiar Language, p. 21, p. 46. 9. William E. Gruber, 'The Actor in the Script: Affective Strategies in Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra', CompD, XIX (Spring, 1985) pp. 30-48, points out how our 'impressions of character and action are being influenced constantly by an awareness of the actors, acting' (p. 41); Michael Shapiro, 'Boying Her Greatness: Shakespeare's Use of Coterie Drama in Antony and Cleopatra', MLR, LXXVII (1982) pp. 1-15, sees the metadramatic message as a device to make Cleopatra more sympathetic as a character; Shakespeare is 'inviting his spectators to admire the boy actor impersonating the heroine and extending that admiration to include the heroine dramatising herself' (p. 10). 10. Some of the critics who have stressed the interpenetration of the two in Cleopatra are David Kaula, 'The Time Sense of Antony and Cleopatra', SQ, XV:3 (1964) pp. 211-23, who notes that 'She eludes the sharp distinction between sincerity and pretense because' her nature is intrinsically histrionic' (p. 221); Ruth Nevo, Tragic Form in Shakespeare (Princeton, NJ, 1972), who grasps how in Cleopatra 'the heart's truth and its mask' converge in 'a dazzling display of agility' (p. 318); and Anthony S. Brennan, 'Excellent Dissembling: Antony and Cleopatra Playing at Love', MQ, XIX (Summer 1978) pp. 313-29, who sees Cleopatra's 'acting' as 'heightened self realization' and a 'method of expressing her real self' (p. 315). 11. Some Shakespearean Themes and an Approach to 'Hamlet' (1959, 1960; Harmondsworth, 1966) p. 127. 222 Notes and References

12. What I am categorising as a lack of fixed ego- Antony's protean self- other critics have convincingly interpreted as the feminine principle. Anne Barton, ' "Nature's Piece Gainst Fancy": The Divided Catastrophe in Antony and Cleopatra', rpt. in Harold Bloom (ed.), William Shakespeare's 'Antony and Cleopatra' (New York; New Haven; Philadelphia, 1988) pp. 35-55, finds beneath the surface of the play the 'dream' of 'exchange and union between the masculine and feminine principles in the play' (p. 39); Marilyn French, Shakespeare's Division of Experience (New York. 1981), discusses the 'opposition of the gender principles' in the play (p. 253) and concludes that 'the unified feminine principle is anticivilization; but the masculine principle is anti-life' (p. 265). 13. Gordon P. Jones, 'The "Strumpet's Fool" in Antony and Cleopatra', SQ, XXXIV:1 (1983), argues that in Act I, sc. i Antony may appear in woman's attire, a piece of 'theatrical cross-dressing' to establish the 'unmanning of Antony by the power of love' (p. 67). On the allusion to Hercules dressing in Omphale's clothes, see also Eugene Waith, The Herculean Hero (New York and London, 1962) p. 113, and Ernest Schanzer, The Problem Plays of Shakespeare (London, 1963) p. 159. 14. Praising his mistress, the narrator in Marvell's 'The Gallery' also celebrates this kind of reciprocal role-playing: 'For thou alone to people me,/Art grown a num'rous Colony' (The Poems of Andrew Marvell, op. cit., p. 30). 15. Op. cit., p. 390. 16. From a letter to Richard Woodhouse, 27 October 1818, in Letters of john Keats, op. cit., p. 172. 17. My analysis attributes to the Romans what L. T. Fitz finds in the 'sexist world view' of many critics of the play: the idea 'that love, lust, and personal relationships ... must always be secondary to the "masculine" world of war, politics, and great public issues' ('Egyptian Queens and Male Reviewers: Sexist Attitudes in Antony and Cleopatra Criticism', SQ, XXVIII (1977) pp. 297-316, 306). 18. Waith sees less irony here, finding that 'Antony's most Herculean trait, his rage' testifies to 'the largeness' of his 'spirit' (The Herculean Hero, p. 116). John Coates, ' "The Choice of Hercules" in Antony and Cleopatra', ShS, XXXI (1978) pp. 45-52, also finds Antony's association with Hercules a positive one, arguing that by the end of the play he has demonstrated (like Hercules) 'Pleasure reconciled to Virtue' (p. 52). 19. For a fuller explication of this point, see Joan Lord Hall,' "To the Very Heart of Loss": Rival Constructs of "Heart" in Antony and Cleopatra', Co IlL, xviii: 1 (1991) pp. 25-37. J. Leeds Barroll, Shakespearean Tragedy: Genre, Tradition, and Change in 'Antony and Cleopatra' (London and Toronto, 1984), also comments on how Cleopatra expresses 'the soldier principle for Antony' (p. 100). 20. Edgar Wind discusses how the 'discordia concors of Mars and Venus' is treated in the iconography of the period, in 'Pleasure Reconciled with Virtue', Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance (New York and London, 1958; 1968), pp. 89-94, 91. 21. Most critics interpret Antony's finale more positively than I do. Arnold Stein, 'The Image of Antony: Lyric and Tragic Imagination', KR, XXI:4 (Autumn 1959) Notes and References 223

pp. 586-606, considers Antony's death 'a full, confident restatement of what he was, as an image that dominates what he is' (p. 599); Julian Markels, The Pillar of the World (Ohio State University, 1968), finds not 'dissolution' but 'transcendence' (p. 9); Reuben A Brower, Hero and Saint: Shakespeare and the Graeco-Roman Heroic Tradition (New York and Oxford, 1971), views Antony's end as 'recovering lost nobility under a new form of action' (p. 334). My analysis is closer to that of Richard S. Ide, Possessed with Greatness: The Heroic Tragedies of Chapman and Shakespeare (Chapel HilL NC, 1980), who considers that Antony's 'attempt to accommodate the roles of noble Roman and heroic lover in a final conception of self creates 'dissonance, not concord' (p. 123). 22. North's Plutarch (1579), quoted in M. R. Ridley (ed.), Antony and Cleopatra, the Arden Shakespeare (London, 1965), p. 271. 23. Ed. Thomas Marc Parrott, op. cit. The play was produced about the same time as Antony and Cleopatra, in 1607-8. 24. T. S. Eliot uses this phrase in 'Shakespeare and the Stoicism of Seneca' (1927), included in Selected Essays, pp. 107-20, lll. 25. A minority of critics resist the 'triumph' of Cleopatra's death. John F. Danby, 'Antony and Cleopatra: A Shakespearean Adjustment', in Elizabethan and Jacobean Poets (London, 1965), stresses the 'sense of ripe-rottenness and hopelessness' in the play (p. 150) and does not consider the death an epiphany; David L. Frost, The School of Shakespeare (Cambridge, 1968) provides a moral reading of her death, with Cleopatra playing the serpent queen whose kiss kills Iras (p. 143). While critics less favourably disposed towards Cleopatra stress her showman­ ship above her self-realisation - E. A J. Honigmann, Shakespeare: Seven Tragedies, questions her ennoblement because she strains 'too hard' (p. 167) -most agree that her death is a significant progression beyond the self-serving mutations of the first two ads. G. Wilson Knight, The Imperial Theme (1931; London, 1965), offers the most transcendental view, arguing that in her death Cleopatra 'becomes love absolute and incarnate' (p. 318). For more temperate analysis of the 'triumph', see Harold S. Wilson, The Design of Shakespearean Tragedy (Toronto, 1957) p. 177, and Sheila M. Smith, '"This Great Solemnity": a Study of the Presentation of Death in Antony and Cleopatra', ES, XLV (April, 1964) pp. 163-76, 176. 26. Barton, for example, argues that 'Only if Cleopatra keeps faith with Antony now and dies can the flux of the play be stilled and their love claim value' (op. cit., p. 51). 27. Brents Stirling, 'Cleopatra's Scene with Seleucus', SQ, XV:3 (1964) pp. 299-311, views this as 'the most critical of the scenes that "test" Cleopatra' (p. 311), a 'mischievous play on tragic convention that comes just before Cleopatra's true tragedy is enacted' (p. 299). 28. Phyllis Rackin, 'Shakespeare's Boy Cleopatra, the Decorum of Nature, and the Golden World of Poetry', PMLA, LXXXVII:2 (1972) pp. 201-213, deals extensively with the speech and how Cleopatra implies that she can 'transcend' the 'inadequacy of the representation' (p. 208); Howard Felperin, Shakespearean Representation, comments on how Cleopatra parodies the Romans' 'parody, deconstruds their construct of disapproval and doubt, rendering it null and void' (p. 111). 224 Notes and References

29. Maurice Evans (ed.), op. cit. 30. Leo Kirschbaum, Character and Characterization in Shakespeare (Detroit, 1962), emphasises this (p. 109). 31. Maynard Mack, 'Antony and Cleopatra: The Stillness and the Dance', in Milton Crane (ed.), Shakespeare's Art: Seven Essays (Chicago, 1973) pp. 79-113, comments on how the sensory effect of the oxymoronic image of Cleopatra dead comes from 'the difference between absolute stillness and purposeful movement' (p. III). 32. Susan Snyder, 'Patterns of Motion in Antony and Cleopatra', ShS, XXXIII (1980) pp. 113-21, calls this the 'link between gracing the moment and expanding into fuller being' (p. 115); Goldman also explores the semantic complexities of 'becoming' (Acting and Action in Shakespearean Tragedy, pp. 124-6). 33. My analysis here is close to that of Duncan S. Harris. In '"Again for Cyndus": The Dramaturgical Resolution of Antony and Cleopatra', SEL, XVII:2 (1977) 219- 31, Harris discusses how 'the very carefully arranged presentation of Cleopatra's death visually confirms the values so forcefully expressed in the poetry' (p. 221). 34. See Michael Lloyd, 'Cleopatra as Isis', ShS, XII (1959) pp. 88-94. Matthew N. Proser, The Heroic Image in Five Shakespearean Tragedies (Princeton, NJ, 1965), also speculates that Cleopatra's language and 'superb gestures' confer 'godhead' on her (p. 231). 35. Letter to Benjamin Bailey, 22 November, 1817 (op. cit., p. 49). As Thomas Van Laan puts it, Cleopatra 'expands reality so that it includes not only nature but also, as a sort of higher adjunct of nature, her own creative imagination' (Role­ Playing in Shakespeare, p. 222). 36. Relevant to the 'dream' of Antony are also the figures of paradox and hyberbole that Janet Adelman, The Common Liar (New Haven and London, 1973), finds so important in the play (p. III); see also Rosalie Colie, Shakespeare's Living Art (Princeton, NJ, 1974) p. 207. 3 7. Danby illuminatingly describes the dialectical movement in the play: 'Opposites are juxtaposed, mingled, married; then from the very union which seems to promise strength dissolution flows' (op. cit., p. 132). 38. A. C. Bradley, 'Antony and Cleopatra', Oxford Lectures on Poetry (London 1909; 1965), was the first critic to note the 'triumph and pleasure' in the ending of the play (p. 304). Martha Tuck Rozett, The Comic Structures of Tragic Endings: the Suicide Scenes in Romeo and Juliet and Antony and Cleopatra', SQ, XXXVI:2 (1985) pp. 152-63, also stresses the comic 'affirmation' of Cleopatra's death (p. 153). 39. W. K. Wimsatt, for instance, describes a poem as having an 'iconic solidity' in The Domain of Criticism', included in The Verbal Icon (University of Kentucky Press, 1954) p. 231. Robert Ornstein, 'The Ethic of the Imagination: Love and Art in Antony and Cleopatra', in J. R. Brown and Bernard Harris (eds), Later Shakespeare (London, 1966) pp. 31-46, also stresses how Cleopatra the artist 'fashions her own incomparable memorial' and how the 'metamorphosis of her death ... turns life into art' (pp. 44-5). Notes and References 225

7 Acting and Self-Definition: The White Devil

1. John Webster, The White Devil, John Russell Brown (ed.), The Revels Plays (London, 1960). All line references are to this edition. 2. 'Of Exercise or Practice', Essays, II. vi. 59, provides just one example of this frequent assertion in Montaigne. 3. jacobean Dramatic Perspectives, p. 101. 4. The phrase is from William Empson's 'This Last Pain', in Collected Poems (London, 1935) p. 33. 5. Gunnar Boklund, The Sources of 'The White Devil' (Uppsala; Cambridge, Mass., 1957) p. 21. Boklund points out that it was extremely unlikely that Webster had access to documents presenting Isabella as a licentious, adulterous woman (p. 118). 6. James R. Hurt, 'Inverted Rituals in Webster's The White Devil', ]EGP, LXI (1962) pp. 42-4 7, describes this as a 'fairly detailed parody of the wedding service' (p. 42). 7. Susan H. McLeod, 'Duality in The White Devil', SEL, XX (1980) pp. 271-85, comments on the 'opposition between the spotless Isabella and the black Zanche' and on how the contrast 'would have been even more pronounced in Jacobean productions of the play, where both roles were taken by the same actor' (p. 280). In fact, though, such a doubling might have suggested hidden connections between the characters rather than a total contrast. 8. Skull beneath the Skin: The Achievement of john Webster, p. 269. I am more sympathetic to Isabella's transformation here than is Forker, who goes on to comment that Isabella's assumed role 'permits her ... to release aggressions and compensate frustrations in a way that does violence to her self-image as the patient sufferer' (p. 269). Jacqueline Pearson, The Difficulty of The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi', CQ, XXII (1980) pp. 43-55, also considers that Isabella's 'generosity' is 'compromised by the hysterical violence of her tirade' (p. 48). 9. Frederick 0. Waage, 'The White Devil' Discovered: Backgrounds and Foregrounds to Webster's Tragedy (Peter Lang: New York; Berne, 1984), observes that 'Since she does not have the habit of action, she does not have the resources or will to follow up this coup in a way that will preserve the power she has gained' (p. 35). 10. Jonathan Dollimore emphasises her 'strong desire to be self-sacrificial' as an example of 'sexual subordination taken to an extreme' (Radical Tragedy, p. 238); he does not deal with her brief transformation into an assertive woman. 11. Catherine Belsey points out that both women speak with 'equal plausibility from antithetical positions' (p. 163), which she sees as part of the 'discursive discontinuity' of The White Devil (The Subject of Tragedy, p. 160). 12. To M. C. Bradbrook john Webster: Citizen and Dramatist (New York, 1980), Isabella's ritual implies that 'she has inner depths, where things may look different' (p. 128). Similarly, S. Gorley Putt, The Golden Age of English Drama (Bury St. Edmund, 1981), discerns 'the damned up deep force of smooth waters finally let loose' in Isabella's play-acting (p. 131). 13. Brown, p. !vi. 226 Notes and References

14. Clifford Leech, john Webster: a Critical Study (London, 1951), finds that Vittoria's reaction to Cornelia's curse shows 'evil conscious of itself and afflicted momentarily with a great fear' (p. 36). 15. (London, 1633) Sig. X3v-X4; quoted in Jonas Barish (The Antitheatrical Prejudice, pp. 91-2). 16. R. W. Dent, 'The White DeviL or Vittoria Corombona?', RenD, n. s. IX (1966) pp. 179-203, comments on how 'the very ambiguity of Vittoria's portrayal' is 'responsible for her fascination' and points out several areas in which it is difficult to interpret her character (p. 191); McLeod stresses how 'the antinomies of the play converge in Vittoria' (op. cit., p. 282). 17. J.R. Brown (ed.), New Revels Plays (London, 1964). 18. The much-quoted phrase is from Charles Lamb, 'A Note on "The Arraignment of Vittoria" (The White Devil, lll.ii)', Specimens of the English Dramatic Poets Who Lived about the Time of Shakespeare (London, 1808), included in G. K. and S. K. Hunter, john Webster, Penguin Critical Commentaries (Harmondsworth, 1969) p. 56. Bradbrook, Themes and Conventions of Elizabethan Tragedy, also remarks that There is, as it were, a subordinate side of Vittoria which is innocent. Actually she is guilty, but there is a strong undercurrent of suggestion in the opposite direction' (p. 187). Dena Goldberg, 'Law and Power', in Between Worlds: A Study of the Plays of john Webster (Waterloo, Ont., 1987), finds that Vittoria's 'ethical sense is ... transformed under pressure of injustice' (p. 58). 19. Edwin B. Benjamin, 'Patterns of Morality in The White Devil', ES, XLVI (1965) pp. 1-15, thinks that Vittoria is 'always subjected to a steady moral scrutiny' (p. 7), while Peter B. Murray, A Study of john Webster (Mouton, the Hague, 1969), comments that 'As an actress, an appearance, a painted sepulchre, ViHoria is magnificent, but there is nothing to admire behind the mask of this histrionic sense' (p. 82). 20. One exception is Ian Jack, The Case of John Webster', Scrutiny, XVI:l (1949) pp. 38-43, who claims that it is an 'artistic insincerity' to make Vittoria 'seem honorable' when she is not (p. 41). 21. H. Bruce Franklin, 'The Trial Scene of Webster's The White Devil Examined in Terms of Renaissance Rhetoric', SEL, I (1961) pp. 35-51, argues that 'she is sufficiently eloquent to demonstrate that she is not the only deviL and that perhaps she is not the worst of the four devils on trial' (p. 51). 22. Robert F. Whitman, The Moral Paradox of Webster's Tragedy', PMLA, xc (1975) pp. 894-903, perceptively argues that '"good" and "evil," in all their traditional connotations, are inadequate as ways of describing the characters' (p. 897); he characterises the opposition in the play as 'Apollonian' and 'Dionysian' (p. 898). 23. Dympna Callaghan, Woman and Gender in Renaissance Tragedy: A Study of 'King Lear', 'Othello', 'The Duchess of Malfi' and 'The White Devil' (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1989), argues that here 'Female speech is a threat to phallic power' but concedes that in The White Devil 'the tongue is not a very effective weapon against male authority' (pp. 168-9). 24. The Equilibrium of Opposites in The White Devil: a Reinterpretation', PMLA, LXXIV (1959) pp. 336-47, 342. G. B. Shaw's Pygmalion (1912) also touches on Notes and References 227

the authenticity of the counterfeit. Satisfied with how well the flower-girl Eliza has acted the part of a duchess, Higgins reflects in Ad N that the upper-class are 'fools' to 'think style comes by nature to people in their position .... There's always something professional about doing a thing superlatively well' (repr. Baltimore, Maryland [1951], p. 80). 25. See Forker, pp. 120-134. 26. The Works of Sir Thomas Overbury, Edward F. Rimbault (ed.) (London, 1890) p. 148. 27. Frances A. Shirley (ed.) (London, 1972). 28. Kirsch, op. cit., p. 105. 29. John F. McElroy, 'The White Devil, Women Beware Women, and the Limitations of Rationalist Criticism', SEL, XIX (1979) pp. 295-312, 308. 30. J. R. Mulryne, 'The White Devil and The Duchess of Malfi', in ]. R. Brown and Bernard Harris (eds), Jacobean Theatre, pp. 201-25, calls this vision 'the product of a restless intelligence that rarely ceases to mock every serious value, every impressive situation or striking pose, every "affirmation" that the tragic has to offer us' and thinks that Flamineo 'comes close to being simply an embodiment of this temper' (p. 206). 31. James Smith, 'The Tragedy of Blood', Scrutiny, VIII:3 (1939) pp. 265-80, is convinced that 'Brachiano is listening' (p. 276). Certainly if we accept Flamineo's words 'shroud you within this closet' (I. ii. 35) as a cue for Bracciano to move to the discovery space rather than exit from the stage altogether, it would add to the layers of irony in the scene. 32. My analysis agrees mainly with that of McElroy, who views Flamineo's play­ acting as 'self-conscious, defensive and compensatory ... in conflict with his true nature' (p. 309). For an opposite view, see A. J. Smith, 'The Power of The White Devil', in Brian Morris (ed.), pp. 69-91, who interprets this speech as 'just the delineation of a set character' (p. 77). 33. Benjamin comments that in killing his brother Flamineo 'has killed the better part of his own nature' (op. cit., p. 9). 34. See Webster's 'To the Reader', I. 6; Brown, p. 2. Perkins may have further distanced the audience from Flamineo as a character by trading on his own persona as an individual actor- what Raymond J. Pentzell terms the 'actor's maschera' in 'Actor, Maschera, and Role: an Approach to Irony in Performance', CompD, XVI:3 (FalL 1982) pp. 201-26, 207. 35. Jacqueline Pearson, 'A Tragic Sound: Tragedy and Anti-Tragedy in The White Devil', in Tragedy and Tragicomedy in the Plays of john Webster (Totowa, NJ, 1980), considers that 'the mock-death forms a posed tragicomedy through which Flamineo finally expresses and exorcises the play's anti-tragic elements, and thereby purifies the tragic effect of the end of the play' (p. 77). In 'A Mocking of Theatrical Conventions: the Fake Death Scenes in 'The White Devil and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead', ES, LXIII (1982) pp. 426-9, Margarete Holubetz perceives a foregrounding effect: 'The more conventional presenta­ tion of death in the counterfeit performance draws the audience's full attention to the author's deviation from the norm in the genuine death scene' (p. 429). 36. The insights of Kirby Farrell, Play, Death, and Heroism in Shakespeare (Chapel Hill and London, 1989) are relevant here, as he traces how 'play-deaths and 228 Notes and References

resurrections' are a 'means of controlling people's fears of their own deaths' (p. 25). 37. 'Upon Some Verses of Virgil', Essays, vol. III, ch. v, p. 108. 38. Shakespearean Representation, p. 187. 39. F. L. Lucas (ed.), The Complete Works of John Webster (Boston and New York; London, 1928) vol. I, regrets that Webster has given Vittoria these words of 'conventional repentance' (p. 96). I agree too with Robert Ornstein's verdict on aphorisms such as these in the play: 'They do not suddenly crystallize a moral judgment embodied in Webster's portrayal of character, nor do they capture the essential significance of the lives on which they comment so weightily' (The Moral Vision of Jacobean Tragedy, p. 131). 40. Brown thinks that these words may be the 'true expression of Vittoria's deepest thoughts' (p. !vi); Larry Champion discovers a sense of 'value and responsibility' in Vittoria's final moments (Tragic Patterns in Jacobean and Caroline Drama, p. 128); Pearson claims that Vittoria makes 'a tragic self­ assertion by accepting her own guilt' (Tragedy and Tragicomedy in the Plays of John Webster, p. 81); Lee Bliss, The World's Perspective: John Webster and the Jacobean Drama (New Brunswick, NJ, 1983), also finds that both Flamineo and Vittoria 'turn inward to face the maze df conscience' (p. 130). 41. Ian Jack, op. cit., p . 41. 42. Travis Bogard, The Tragic Satire of John Webster (New York, 1955), contends that 'stoical resistance' is 'the proof of integrity of life' for these characters (p. 145). The same term is used by Irving Ribner, when he maintains that Vittoria 'dies with courage and defiance, preserving her "integrity of life" to the very end' (Jacobean Tragedy, p. 105). My own view on what the character achiev~ is closer to that of Forker, who notes how in this play integrity expresses itself as 'a kind of bravado in which authentic self-discovery and the sense of watching oneself perform a tragic role become indissoluble' (op. cit., p. 283). 43. See Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. G. C. Spivak (Baltimore and London, 1976), for a sustained critique of logocentrism - or the attempt to discover 'being as presence' - in Western culture (p. 43). 44. A. J. Smith is probably too extreme in contending that Vittoria resembles Bracciano, who is 'the sum of the various scenes in which he appears, the several attitudes he strikes' (op. cit., p. 79); but Brown's comment that Vittoria is 'presented fragmentarily' remains valid (p. xlviii).

8 Creative Role-Playing: The Duchess of Malfi

I. William B. Worthen presents a view opposite to that of mine in The Idea of the Actor, where he argues that The Duchess of Malfi is 'radically skeptical of the actor's nature, and comes close to phrasing a purely Puritan vision of the actor's insubstantiality' (op. cit., p. 66). 2. All line references to The Duchess of Malfi are taken from the Revels Plays text, John Russell Brown (ed.) (London, 1964). 3. Catherine Belsey, 'Emblem and Antithesis in The Duchess of Malfi', RenD, n.s. XI (1981) pp. 115-134, makes the point that the 'mode of behavior which is Notes and References 229

chosen by Ferdinand and the Cardinal is imposed on the Duchess and Antonio' (p. 128). 4. My argument here is similar to that of C. G. Thayer, 'The Ambiguity of Bosola', SP, LIV (1957) pp. 162-71: 'After the murder of the Duchess, Bosola emerges as a changed man, or, more accurately, emphasis is placed on aspects of his character which had only been suggested earlier' (p. 170). Travis Bogard also argues that 'What may appear to be development in Bosola, from a thing of evil to a man filled with remorse, is in fact no more than a return to what he essentially is' (The Tragic Satire of John Webster, p. 78), while Charles R. Forker points out how, ironically, Bosola's 'flight from selfhood through the adoption of disguises brings him into sustained contact with the moral and psychological force of the Duchess' (The Skull beneath the Skin, p. 338). Other critics view Bosola as a series of roles rather than a fully realised character: M. C. Bradbrook, notes that 'with all his many roles, Bosola is never permitted the luxury of being a self (John Webster, Citizen and Dramatist, p. 161); Ralph Berry finds that 'the most important characteristic of Bosola is that his behavior is a series of role-playing changes' (The Art of John Webster, (Oxford, 1972) p. 139) but concedes that this is part of his quest for 'personal identity' (p. 144). 5. Clifford Leech, John Webster, p. 66. 6. Bob Hodge, 'Mine Eyes Dazzle: False Consciousness in Webster's Plays', in David Aers, Bob Hodge, and Gunther Kness, Literature, Language and Society in England, 158D-1680 (Dublin and Totowa, 1981) pp. 100-21, offers this psychological insight here: 'Bosola's strongest contempt is reserved for people like himself, parasites on the court' (p. 109). 7. Bradbrook also points to Bosola's identification with Antonio as another 'faithful servant missing reward' (John Webster, p. 159). 8. This is the stage direction in Q; see Brown, p. 103. 9. Bettie Anne Doebler, 'Continuity in the Art of Dying: The Duchess of Malfi', CompD, XIV (Fall1980) pp. 203-15, interprets Bosola as a 'demonic tempter to despair' in this sequence (p. 210). 10. This is how I interpret the 'cruel lie'; Thayer thinks that it refers to 'Ferdinand's statement that Bosola's work is almost ended' (op. cit., p. 166). 11. lnga-Stina Ekeblad gives a definitive analysis of Act IV, sc. ii in terms of masque and antimasque in 'The "Impure Art" of John Webster', RES, n.s. IX (1958) pp. 253-67. 12. See Doebler, op. cit. 13. Peter B. Murray thinks that Bosola is 'as self-deceived at the end as he was in the beginning', since 'his personal resentment of Ferdinand and the Cardinal leads him to substitute a life of hatred and murder for the kind of life the Duchess had, a life of love and affirmation' (A Study of John Webster, p. 179); Gunnar Boklund, 'The Duchess of Malfi': Sources, Themes, Characters (Cambridge, Mass., 1962), finds Bosola a 'habitual rationalizer of motives' (p. 145); Jacqueline Pearson comments 'It is a strange kind of conversion which is only second choice to material advancement, and which produces the same kind of murder and betrayal as his unregenerate self (Tragedy and Tragicomedy in the Plays of John Webster, p. 88). 230 Notes and References

14. Frank Whigham, 'Sexual and Social Mobility in The Duchess of Malfi', PMLA, C (March 1985) pp. 167-86, comments on Bosola's 'self-fashioning through employment' (p. 180), seeing him as 'the first tragic figure whose isolation is formulated in terms of employment by another' (p. 177). 15. Thayer argues this (op. cit., p. 162); also Jane Marie Luecke, O.S.B., 'The Duchess of Malfi: Comic and Satiric Confusion in a Tragedy', SEL, IV (1964) 275-90, considers that Bosola 'becomes most clearly the tragic protagonist in the role he assumes late' (p. 281). 16. Themes and Conventions of Elizabethan Tragedy, p. 201. 17. The Moral Vision of jacobean Tragedy, p. 147. 18. David L. Frost develops this argument in The School of Shakespeare, p. 146. Susan C. Baker, 'The Static Protagonist in The Duchess of Malfi', TSLL, XXII (Fall 1980) pp. 343-57, also maintains that 'Once the Duchess has defined her essential self, she must preserve that essence against the onslaughts of exigency' (p. 347). 19. Selected Essays, p. 96. Ekeblad, op. cit., convincingly addresses this charge. 20. Some critics go further in pointing to moral weakness in the Duchess - Lee Bliss mentions her 'stubborn egotism' and 'reckless willfulness' (The World's Perspective, p. 144) - while others stress the social irresponsibility of her second marriage. Leech, for instance, finds her 'woefully neglectful of her prescribed duties' (op. cit., p. 74), while Joyce E. Peterson, Curs'd Example: 'The Duchess of Malfi' and Commonweal Tragedy (Columbia and London, 1978), argues that her marriage provides the 'curs'd example that will demoralize her court' (p. 58). My own view is that the Duchess's hamartia, whether her error of judgment in choosing a husband against her brothers' wishes, marrying outside the aristocracy, or trying to keep her marriage secret, is not emphasised as morally culpable within the context of the play. Our sympathies soon tum towards her as towards King Lear, a man 'more sinned against/Than sinning'; she becomes a voice of sanity and naturalness within a perverted, even mad world. 21. Lois Potter, 'Realism versus Nightmare: Problems of Staging in The Duchess of Malfi', in Joseph G. Price (ed.), The Triple Bond: Plays, Mainly Shakespearean, in Performance (Pennsylvania State University, 1975) pp. 170-89, points out that 'Webster's audience would have been familiar enough with the Stoic view that man takes off the mask and shows his true self only at the moment of death' (p. 182). 22. See R. W. Dent, john Webster's Borrowing, pp. 41-2, 47, for Montaigne's influence on Webster's plays overall. He finds no specific parallells to the essays I cite. 23. James L. Calderwood takes a different view in 'The Duchess of Malfi: Styles of Ceremony', EIC, XII (1962) pp. 133-47, when he argues that the Duchess, at least at the beginning of the play, becomes a threat to society 'by departing from communal patterns of ordered behaviour, by representing the chaos of uninhibited private action' (p. 142). 24. Brown states that 'The text may be corrupt here, vipers being printed in error for "vapours'" (p. 113). 'Vapours' would reinforce the impression of mounting hysteria in the Duchess. Notes and References 231

25. T. B. Tomlinson points out that it is impossible to 'disentangle the image of the Duchess from the images of surrounding chaos on which she, indeed, has come partly to depend' (Elizabethan and Jacobean Tragedy, p. 148); her 'greatness' is 'defined partly in terms of anarchy and violence' (p. 156). 26. Michael Best, 'A Precarious Balance: Structure in The Duchess of Malfi', in Alan Brissenden (ed.), Shakespeare and Some Others: Essays on Shakespeare and Some of His Contemporaries, pp. 159-77, comments perceptively on how Bosola 'seems to choose a role in reaction against those to whom he is speaking' (p. 173); he is certainly as much a reactor as an actor in this scene. 27. Two Bookes of Constancie, trans. John Stradling (London, 1595), Rudolf Kirk (ed.) (New Brunswick, NJ, 1939) pp. 179-80. R. W. Dent, John Webster's Borrowing (pp. 178, 253), cites possible debts to Lipsius's Six Bookes of Politickes, trans. Jones (1594), in The Duchess of Malfi (I. i. 50, V. ii. 267-70), but does not note any parallel to Two Bookes of Constancie here. In the case of the Duchess, I disagree with Gilles D. Monsarrat, who claims that 'Webster is not concerned with Stoicism. . . merely with courage and dignity' (Light from the Porch, p. 148). 28. Thomas Marc Parrott (ed.), op. cit. 29. L. G. Salingar, 'Tourneur and the Tragedy of Revenge', in The Age of Shakespeare, Pelican Guide to English Literature, vol. II (Harmondsworth, 1955) p. 350. 30. Bogard stresses the play's 'assertion of self in the face of mortality and oppression' (op. cit., p. 42). Leslie Duer, The Landscape of Imagination in The Duchess of Malfi', MLS, X:1 (Winter 1979-80) pp. 3-9, gives a fine analysis of the 'wilderness of the spirit' presented throughout the play; Forker comments on the love-death nexus (op. cit., pp. 346-52). 31. Although I have concentrated on her self-definition, the Duchess is by no means self-centred. Ornstein makes the point that she is able to 'move out of self, to turn her thoughts outward upon those she loves and upward in serene religious faith' (The Moral Vision of Jacobean Tragedy, p. 148). 32. Berry, in an existentialist reading, comments on how by the end of Act IV the heroine has 'defined herself. as Duchess, in action' (op. cit., p. 148).

9. Style and Substance: The Broken Heart

1. All line references are to John Ford, The Broken Heart, T. J. B. Spencer (ed.), The Revels Plays (Manchester, 1980). 2. Ronald Huebert, John Ford: Baroque English Dramatist, reminds us that 'in baroque art one dominant theme or motif creates unity by fusing the dependent parts, by subordinating them to the whole' (p. 2). Keith Sturgess, Jacobean Private Theatre, also sees the play as a 'monument' to 'European baroque', stressing its 'unified, larger structure' (pp. 123, 129). 3. Robert Ornstein also comments on how the characters' 'nobility in the face of death springs not so much from depth of character as from an aristocratic awareness of the role which they must play' (The Moral Vision of Jacobean Tragedy, p. 202). The verdict of Marion Lomax, Stage Images and Traditions: 232 Notes and References

Shakespeare to Ford (Cambridge, 1987), is harsher: the 'rigidity' of Ford's design, 'coupled with his formalised characterisation, tend to stifle the dramatic life of his characters and rob them of energeia' (p. 182). 4. Kathleen McLuskie also finds that in this play 'The characters constantly search for appropriate acts, refining their reactions with conscious artistry in which poetry and theatricality combine to meet the requirements of style' (The Revels History of Drama in English, vol. IV, pp. 1613-1660 [London and New York, 1981] p. 204). 5. R. J. Kaufmann, 'Ford's "Waste Land": The Broken Heart', RenD, n.s. III (1970) pp. 167-87, 177. 6. This is the reading of Q, which I find plausible; Spencer emends to 'acts'. 7. Michael J. Kelly, The Values of Action and Chronicle in The Broken Heart', PLL, VII:2 (1971) pp. 150-58, interprets this line more favourably: 'Action begins to emerge as great art and, by extension, as a kind of poetry' (p. 153). 8. I agree with Dorothy M. Farr, john Ford and the Caroline Theatre (London and Basingstoke, 1979), that Penthea is not deliberately inciting Orgilus to violence, whatever unconscious motivation she may still have for wanting to punish her brother (pp. 92-3). 9. Michael Neill, 'Ford's Unbroken Art: the Moral Design of The Broken Heart', MLR, LXXV (April 1980) pp. 249-68, comments on the 'fragmentation of those arts of language by which Penthea has so tenuously held herself together' (p. 265). 10. In the case of Penthea I agree with Spencer, that Ford is 'ethically neutral' (op. cit., p. 49). 11. Brian Morris (ed.), The Broken Heart, The New Mermaids (London, 1965), considers him an example of 'creative suffering' (p. xiv); Clifford Leech, john Ford and the Drama of His Time (London, 195 7), finds in Bassanes a 'nobleness which is self-conscious and ultimately sufficient' (p. 91). 12. For a fuller analysis of how Perkin Warbeck exemplifies the 'self-fashioning Renaissance spirit in action', see Joseph Candido, The Strange Truth of Perkin Warbeck', PQ, LIX:3 (1980) pp. 300-16, 314. 13. S. Blaine Ewing, Burtonian Melancholy in the Plays of john Ford (Princeton, 1940; rpt. 1969), develops the debt to Richard Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy (pp. 56-60); Harold Oliver, The Problem of john Ford (Melbourne, London and New York, 1955), also considers that 'Bassanes ... is drawn from Burton rather than life' (pp. 62-3). 14. Op. cit., p. 92. 15. This is the reading in Q. Spencer, following Dyce, emends it to 'bandy' (op. cit., p. 175). 16. Ralph Kaufmann, 'Ford's Tragic Perspective', TSLL, I (Winter 1960) pp. 522- 37, makes a comment on Ford's 'Tis Pity She's a Whore that is relevant to Bassanes here: 'Vows are at once the expression of taste and the most arbitrary and compelling form of self-definition- a vow can confer identity' (p. 533). In contrast Reid Barbour, 'John Ford and Resolve', SP, LXXXVI (1989) pp. 341-66, finds that Bassanes both parodies the 'course of tentative, progressive resolving' and 'trivializes the principle of aristocratic fixity under duress' (pp. 354-5). Notes and References 233

17. Bassanes need not be dismissed as a 'rather unfortunate burlesque of the ethic which governs the actions of the major figures', as Charles 0. McDonald, intent on ranking the characters in a 'moral hierarchy', does (The Design of John Ford's The Broken Heart: A Study in the Development of Caroline Sensibility', SP, LIX:2 [1962] pp. 141-61, 155-6.) Mark Stavig, Ford and the Traditional Moral Order (Madison, Milwaukee, and London, 1968), also thinks that the 'posturing emotionalism' of Bassanes serves mainly as a contrast with the 'restrained dignity' of the other characters' (p. 167). 18. Kaufmann, 'Ford's "Waste Land"', p. 186. 19. Roger T. Burbridge, The Moral Vision of Ford's The Broken Heart', SEL, X:2 (1970) pp. 397-407, 407. Ian Robson, The Moral World of John Ford's Drama (Salzburg, Austria, 1983), likewise argues that the 'total subjection of individual needs to collective ends' has 'destructive and atrophying effects' (p. 166). Harriett Hawkins, 'Mortality, Morality, and Modernity in The Broken Heart: Some Dramatic and Critical Counter-Arguments', in Michael Neill (ed.), John Ford: Critical Re-visions, pp. 129-52, cautions that the 'moral message' of The Broken Heart may be 'interpreted in diametrically opposite ways' - as an endorsement of stoical principles or an indictment of the repression of 'natural needs and passions' (pp. 131-2). 20. Anne Barton, 'Oxymoron and the Structure of Ford's The Broken Heart', E&S, XXXIII (1980), pp. 70-94, discusses how 'antinomies' are 'explored and ultimately reconciled' within the play (p. 77); in Calantha, especially, the conflicting demands of the 'public world' and the 'private realm of emotions ... are at last reconciled' (p. 94). 21. 'Ford in Performance', in Michael Neill (ed.), pp. 11-27, p. 21. 22. Sturgess argues that 'A vital inner life has to be played by the actor' (op. cit., p. 131). 23. Op. cit., p. 165. 24. Specimens of English Dramatic Poets (1808; rpt. 1897), Israel Gollancz (ed.) (London and New York, 1970), vol. II p. 199. 25. Op. cit., p. 94. 26. Kaufmann goes further in analysing the 'governing image of forestalled growth' in the play, seeing 'deep fissure between public standards and individual needs' ('Ford's "Waste Land"', pp. 169, 178). 27. Farr finds similarities between The Broken Heart and Greek tragedy, where human action is 'bounded and controlled by the will of the gods themselves' (op. cit., p. 79). I agree with her that the play suggests this rather than projecting what Neill calls the 'wanton cruelty' of the 'mysteries of Fate' ('Ford's Unbroken Art', p. 254). 28. Ibid., p. 249. 29. Sturgess looks in detail at the staging techniques here (op. cit., pp. 105-108). 30. The term 'decadence' is no longer critically respectable in describing this period of the drama. Nevertheless the range of interests in the Caroline theatre was unquestionably narrower than in Elizabethan and Jacobean drama, even if the playwrights did not cater exclusively for the 'court aristocracy', as L. G. Salingar contends in The Decline of the Tragedy', in Boris Ford (ed.), The Age of Shakespeare, pp. 429-440, 429. 234 Notes and References

10. Conclusion

1. Many of Massinger's plays are concerned with the way that personation leads to transformation; see Colin Gibson, 'Massinger's Theatrical Language', in Douglas Howard (ed.), Philip Massinger: A Critical Reassessment (Cambridge, 1985) pp. 9-38, 18. 2. In E. K. Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, vol. IV, p. 251. Heywood, stressing the moral benefits of drama, goes on to extend the idea of transformation to the audience: 'so bewitching a thing is lively and well-spirited action, that it hath power to new-mold the harts of the spectators, and fashion them to the shape of any noble and notable attempt'. 3. James L. Calderwood uses this analogy in 'Immortalizing Art', Shakespeare and the Denial of Death, p. 191. 4. T. McAlindon, English Renaissance Tragedy, also discusses the importance of the 'noble death'; in particular, how the protagonists in these plays turn death from a 'meaningless or unchosen event into a significant, chosen action, a deed which enshrines a clear image of their true selves' (p. 18). 5. The extra--dramatic dimension intersects with the mimetic one here. Michael Cameron Andrews, This Action of Our Death: The Performance of Death in English Renaissance Drama (Newark, London, and Toronto, 1989), reminds us of how Jacobean audiences admired Burbage's realistic performances of death (p. 14); an anonymous elegy, quoted in Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, vol. II, p. 309, describes the audience as 'amazed' when the actor performed the deaths of Hamlet and Lear as convincingly as if 'hee dyed indeed'. 6. See Chapter II, 'Answering the Summons: the Art of Dying', in Phoebe S. Spinrad, The Summons of Death on the Medieval and Renaissance English Stage (Columbus, Ohio, 1987) pp. 27-49. 7. That We Should Not Judge of Our Happinesse until after Our Death', Essays, vol. I, ch. xviii, p. 72. Index

Adelman, Janet. 62, 211, 212, 224 Bradbrook. Muriel C.. 165, 200, 205, Allman, Eileen Jorge, 199 214, 216, 225, 226, 229 Andrews, Michael Cameron, 205, 234 Bradley, A C.. 5, 224 antic disposition, 36-7, 50, 149, 159, Brecht, Berthold, 4 177, 179 Brennan, Anthony S., 221 antimasque, 16, 20, 81, 229 Brooke, Nicholas, 206, 209 Aristotle: Ethica Nicomachea, 209 Braude, Ronald, 205 Attridge, Derek. 119, 209 Brower, Reuben A, 223 Brown, John Russell. 142, 228, 229, 230 Bacon, Francis: Essays, 15, 33-4 Bruchner, Richard T., 206 Baker, Susan C., 230 Bryant, J. A, 218 Bamber, Linda, 17 Burbage, Richard, I, 3, 5, 20, 52, 234 Barbour, Reid, 232 Burbridge, Roger T., 233 Barish, Jonas, 13, 96-7, 103, 202, Burns, Elizabeth, 7, 8, 198 203, 226 Burton, Richard: The Anatomy of Barker, Francis, 207 Melancholy, 232 Barker, Richard Hindry, 87, 214, 215 baroque, 3, 184, 199, 231 Calderwood, James L., 45, 198, 204, Barroll, J. Leeds, 222 207, 208, 212, 230, 234 Barton, Anne, 190, 220, 222, 223, Callaghan, Dympna, 226 233 (see also Righter, Anne) Calvin, jean, 214 Batchelor, J. B., 215 Calvinist, 33, 68, 104, 206 Bawcutt. N. W., 215 Candido, Joseph, 232 Beaumont, Francis, 192 Carlson, Peter, 220 Beaurline, L. A, 220 Carroll, William C., 211 Beier, Lee, 201 Castiglione, Baldassare: The Book of the Belsey, Catherine, 200, 204, 207, 225, Courtier (trans. Thomas 228-9 Hoby), 10, 46, 87, 208 Benjamin, Edwin B., 226, 227 Catullus, 220 Berry, Ralph, 229, 231 Cavell, Stanley, 212 Best, Michael. 231 Champion, Larry, 210, 214, 228 Bethell. S. L., 3 Chapman, George: Bussy Bevington, David, 201, 203 D'Ambois, 19, 132, 204; The Black, James, 213 Conspiracy of Charles, Duke of , 5, 192, 210, 217 Byron, 129, 223; The Revenge of Bliss, Lee, 228, 230 Bussy D'Ambois, 43; The Tragedy Bodtke, Richard, 202 of Charles, Duke of Byron, 172-3 Bogard, Travis, 228, 229, 231 Charney, Maurice, 206, 207 Boklund, Gunnar, 225, 229 Chatterji, Ruby, 217 Booth, Stephen, 2 12 Chaucer, Geoffrey: The Franklin's Bowers, Fredson, 208 Tale, 88

235 236 Index

Cicero, 47 Doran, Madeleine, 200 Coates, John, 222 Driscoll, James P., 200 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 221 Duer, Leslie, 231 Colie, Rosalie, 224 Duffy, Joseph, 216 Colley, John Scott, 210 Duncan, Douglas, 218, 219, 220 comedy; comic mode, 9, 16, 18-19, Dusinberre, Juliet, 203, 216 22, 49-50, 57, 59, 62, 83-4, 95, Dutton, Richard, 198, 220 105, 113, 114, 115, 131, 152, 162, 181, 203, 210, 218, 220; , 9, 18; romantic Eagleton, Terry, 201, 207 comedy, 16-18, 203 Eaton, Sara, 216 Cook, Ann Jenalie, 217 Economou, George D., 216 Cope, Jackson !., 198 Edwards, Philip, 208 Creaser, John, 103, 219, 220 Egan, Robert, 198, 213 Curtius, Ernst, 198 Ekeblad, Inga-Stina, 229, 230 (see also Ewbank, Inga-Stina) Daiches, David, 220 Eliot, T. S., 4, 89, 166, 223 Danby, John F., 223, 224 Ellis-Ferrnor, Una, 25 Danson, Lawrence, 218 Elton, Willam R., 212, 214 Dekker, Thomas: The Witch of Empson, William, 73, 103, 207-8, Edmonton, 34, 206 215, 225 demonic, 31, 34, 229 Engleberg, Edward, 215 Dent, R. W., 202, 226, 230, 231 Everyman, 103-4 Derrida, Jacques, 228 Ewbank, Inga-Stina, 215 (see also Dessen, Alan C., 205, 213 Ekeblad, Inga-Stina) Diehl, Huston, 204 Ewing, Blaine, 232 disguise (as convention), 1-2, 100; in comedy, 16-18, 22, 203-4; as Farley-Hills, David, 199, 210, 218 duke-in-disguise, 50, 57-8; in Farr, Dorothy, 217, 232, 233 the masque, 16, 102; in Farrell, Kirby, 227-8 tragedy, 18-20; disguise Felperin, Howard, 39, 155, 208, 211, (physical), in The Broken 223 Heart, 176-8; in The Fergusson, Francis, 207 Changeling, 83-6, 94; in The Ferrante, Joan M., 216 Duchess of Malfi, 101, 157-8, Field, Nathaniel, 3 16Q-2, 164-5, 171, 229; in King Finkelpearl, Philip J., 210 Lear, 58-9, 60-1, 64, 67, 193, Fisch, Harold, 207, 208 211, 213; in The Malcontent, 50, Fitz, L. T., 222 (see also Woodbridge, 57-8; in The Revenger's Linda) Tragedy, 24, 25, 28-30, 72, 148, Flecknoe, Richard, 198, 204 165; in Volpone, 100-1, 105, Fletcher, John, 192 107, 110-11, 113, 218-19 Florio, John: as translator of Doebler, Bettie Anne, 229 Montaigne's Essays, I, 12, 198, Dollimore, Jonathan, 5, 6, 63, 206, 202-3; A Worlde of Wordes, 32, 225 113, 206, 220 Donaldson, Ian, 107, 218-19 Fly, Richard, 209 Doob, Penelope B. R., 216 Foakes, R. A., 199, 204, 206, 208, 218 Index 237

Ford, John, 3-4, 193, 194-5, 206; The Heywood, Thomas: An Apology for Broken Heart, 3, 9, 175-92, 194, Actors, 193, 234 195, 196, 231-3; Perkin Hibbard, G. R., 212 Warbeck, 21, 181, 194, 232 Hodge, Bob, 229 Foreman, Walter, Jr., 212 Holland, Peter, 200 Forker, Charles R., 139, 201-2, 207, Hollis, M., 200 225, 227, 228, 229, 231 Holloway, John, 207, 220 Franklin, H. Bruce, 226 Holly, Marcia, 211 French, Marilyn, 222 Holubetz, Margarete, 22 7 Freud, Sigmund, 219 Holzknecht, Karl L., 215 Freudian, 87, 93, 217 Homan, Sidney, 199 Frost, David L., 223, 230 Honigmann, E. A. J., 5, 6, 208, 223 Frye, Northrop, 66 Hornby, Richard, 198, 199 Howard, Jean E., 203 Huebert, Ronald, 199, 231 Gardner, Helen, 36, 91 Hunter, G. K., 51, 55, 201, 208, 210 Geckle, George L., 210 Hurt, James R., 225 Gertmenian, Donald, 220 Hyde, Thomas, 20 Gibson, Colin, 234 Globe theatre, 3, 4, 5, 36, 52, 57, 192, Ide, Richard S., 223 198, 208, 210, 217 Ingram, R. W., 210 Goffman, Erving, 7 Goldberg, Dena, 226 Jack, Ian, 226, 228 Goldberg, Jonathan, 214 Jacobi, Derek, 37 Goldberg, S. L., 220 Jacobs, Henry, 215 Goldman, Michael, 200, 207, 209, James L King, 8, 16; Basi/ikon 220, 224 Doron, 8, 201; King James Gottschalk, Paul, 207 Bible, 15 Greenblatt, Stephen, 9, 201, 202, 218, Jenkins, Harold, 204, 208, 209 219, 220 Johnson, Samuel, 213 Greene, Thomas M., 100, 202, 218 Jones, Gordon P., 222 Greenwood, John, 199, 210, 211 Jones, Inigo, 16 Gruber, William F., 221 Jonson, Ben, 193; The Alchemist, 18, Guarini, Battista, 210 218, 220; Bartholomew Fair, 3; Gurr, Andrew, 199, 209, 217 Cynthia's Revels, 97, 102; The Devil is an Ass, 104; Hall, Joan Lord, 222 Discoveries, 14, 96, 98-9, 106, Hallett, Charles A., 205, 217; Elaine S. 112; Epicene, 104; The Gypsies Hallett, 205 Metamorphosed, 102; The Masque Harmon, Alice, 209 of Queens, 16, 102; Sejanus, 97; Harris, Duncan S., 224 Volpone, 4, 14, 18, 22, 95-114, Hawkins, Harriett, 218, 233 115, 122, 181, 194, 217-20 Heinemann, Margot, 217 Jordan, Robert, 88 Hellenga, Robert R., 10 Heller, Thomas C., 200 Kastan, David Scott, 204 Herford, C. H., 219 Kaufmann, Ralph ]., 232, 233 Hemdl, George C., 206 Kaula, David, 221 238 Index

Keats, John, 44, 123, 134 Marlowe, Christopher: Doctor Kelly, Michael ]., 232 Faustus, 104, 105, 110 Kennedy, Alan, 2 Marston, John, 18; Antonio's Kermode, Frank, 207 Revenge, 3, 52, 177, 210; The Kernan, Alvin, 21, 51, 198-9, 207, Dutch Courtesan, 202; The 208, 213, 219 Fawn, 50, 202; The King, Walter N., 208 Malcontent, 4, 19, 22, 49-57, Kirsch, Arthur C., 51, 137, 227 70-1, 72, 186, 209-11 Kirschbaum, Leo, 211, 224 Marvell, Andrew: 'The Gallery', 222; Kistner, A. L. and M. K., 214, 215 'To His Coy Mistress', 109 Knight, G. Wilson, 66, 208, 223 masque, 16, 20, 24, 35, 41, 56, 72, 73, Knights, L. C., 105, 122, 219 81, 102, 108, 152, 162, 203, 205, Kott, Jan, 213 214, 215, 229 Kowsar, Mohammed, 217 Massinger, Philip, 234; A New Way to Kranidas, Thomas, 209 Pay Old Debts, 9; The Roman Krook, Dorothea, 72, 215 Actor, 193 Kyd, Thomas: The Spanish Maus, Katherine E., 218 Tragedy, 20, 23, 87 McAlindon, T., 201, 207, 209, 216, 234 Lake, David J., 204 McDonald, Charles 0., 233 Lamb, Charles, 190, 226 McElroy, John F., 227 Lancashire, Anne, 205 McGee, Arthur, 205 Layman, B.]., 145 McLeod, Susan H., 225, 226 Leech, Clifford, 226, 229, 230, 232 McLuskie, Kathleen, 218, 232 Leggatt, Alexander, 113, 218, 219 McMillin, Scott, 205 Levin, Harry, 213 Mead, George H., 201 Levin, Richard, 216 Meade, D. C., 206 Lipsius, Justus: Two Bookes of memento mori, 35, 103, 113, 172 Constancie, 172, 231 Mercer, Peter, 208 Lloyd, Michael, 224 metadrama, metadramatic, 2, 3, 22, Lomax, Marion, 231 96, 112, 146, 150, 151, 165, 175, Loughrey, Brian, 214 178, 198-9, 208, 209, 221 Lovejoy, Arthur 0., 202 Middleton, Thomas, 2, 7, 18, 115, Lucas, F. L., 228 193, 196, 204, 206; The Luecke, Jane Marie, 230 Changeling, 20, 75, 76, 82-94, Lupton, Thomas: All for Money, 65 215-17; Michaelmas Term, 9; The Phoenix, 50; Women Beware Macfarlane, Alan, 206 Women, 4, 20, 72-82, 92, 204, Machiavel, 42, 142, 143, 160 214-15 Machiavellian, 23, 39, 42, 49, 108, Mirren, Helen, 205 137, 159--60, 179, 210 Monsarrat, Gilles D., 207, 231 Machiavellianism, 54, 55, 210 Montaigne, Michel: Essays, I, 10, Mack, Maynard, 198, 204, 207, 213, 12-15, 46, 48, 198, 202-3, 209, 224 230; 'An Apologie of Raymond Maclean, Hugh, 213 Sebond', 71; 'A Custome of the mannerist, 3, 162, 210, 211, 215 Isle of Cea', 66; 'How a Man Markels, Julian, 223 Should not Counterfeit to be Index 239

Sicke', 102; 'How One Ought to neo-stoic, 15, 56, 166, 172, 196 Governe His Will', 46-7; 'Of the Neva, Ruth, 221 Art of Conferring', 68, 70; 'Of Nietzsche, Friedrich, 203 Custome, and how a Received Nuttall, A. D., 200 Law Should not Easily be Changed', 46; 'Of Diverting and Oliver, Harold, 232 Diversions', 14, 19, 82; 'Of Orgel, Stephen, 203 Exercise or Practice', 15, 137, Ornstein, Robert, 76, 165, 216, 224, 153; 'Of Experience', 47, 194; 228, 231 'Of Giving the Lie', 196-7; 'Of Overbury, Sir Thomas: the Inconstancie of Our Characters, 146, 163 Actions', 12-13, 14-15; 'Of the Ovid: Metamorphoses, 109, 123 Institution and Education of Children; To the Ladie Diana of Parker, R.B., 214, 215, 217 Foix, Countesse of Gurson', 13; Peacham, Henry: The Complete 'Of Lyers', 30; 'Of Gentleman, 10, 91, 92 Physiognomy', 59--60, 152-3, Pearce, Howard, 206 167; 'Of Presumption', 13-14, Pearson, Jacqueline, 225, 227, 228, 47; 'Of the Recompences or 229 Rewards of Honour', 91-2; 'Of Peat, Derek, 213 Repenting', 47; That a Man Peck, Russell, 212 Ought Soberly to Meddle with Pelling, John, 214 Judging of Divine Laws', 59, 68; Pentzell, Raymond ]., 215, 227 'That to Philosophie is to Learn Perkins, Richard, 4, 150, 22 7 how to Die', 105, 153, 166-7; Peterson, Joyce E., 230 'That We Should not Judge of Our Petronius, 1 Happinesse until after Our Pica, della Mirandola: Oration on the Death', 166, 194; 'Upon Some Dignity of Man, 10-11, 12 Verses of Virgil', 90, 92, 154, platonic, 86 196 play-within-a-play, 35, 41, 73 Montrose, Louis Adrian, 199, 200 Pliny, 105 Montuori, Deborah, 204 Plutarch (North's translation of the Mooney, Michael E., 58, 70, 215 Lives), 128 Morality play (tradition), 4, 19, 24, Potter, John, 214 31, 65, 70, 103, 213 Potter, Lois, 230 More, Sir Thomas: Utopia (trans. Ralph Primaudaye, Pierre de La: The French Robynson), 38 Academie, 41, 68 Morris, Brian, 182, 232 Proser, Matthew N., 224 Morrison, Richard, 93 Prosser, Eleanor, 42, 205, 208 Mullaney, Stephen, 201 Providence, 24, 33, 43, 44, 49, 50, Mulryne, J. R., 215, 227 53-4, 55, 56, 58, 60, 63, 67, 68, Murray, Peter B., 25, 205, 226, 229 70, 71, 195, 213, 214 providence shaper, 18, 19, 49, 50, 55, Nassar, Eugene Paul, 199 57-8, 59-60, 61, 63, 67, 70, 71, Neill, Michael, 6, 191, 232, 233 72, 178, 193, 206, 209 neo-platonic, 16, 84 Prynne, William: Histriomastix, 13, neo-Platonist, 11 142 240 Index

Putt, S. Gorley, 225 68, 114, 122, 149, 159, 177, 183, Rackin, Phyllis, 203-4, 212, 223 194, 195, 198, 204-5, 206-9, 234; Regosin, Richard L., 202 Henry VI, Part iii, 20; King Reiss, Timothy ].. 202 Lear, 2, 6, 18, 50, 58-71, 134, revenger (the role of), 3, 6, 18, 20, 169, 187, 193, 209, 211-14, 230, 23-4, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 234; Love's Labours Lost, 16-17; 34, 35, 38, 39, 41-5, 48, 49, 50, Macbeth, 19, 22, 55, 59, 91, 126, 51, 81, 95, 176, 178, 193, 195, 170, 188, 204; Measure for 204-5 Measure, 57; The Merchant of Revenger's Tragedy, The, 2, 4, 19, 20, Venice, 18; A Midsummer Night's 23-4, 24-34, 35, 37, 38, 41, 42, Dream, 216; Much Ado about 43, 44, 45, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 72, Nothing, 17; Othello, 19, 92, 73, 75, 77, 86, 93-4, 95, 96, 124, 130; Richard II, 2D-1; 101-2, 113, 148, 165, 176, 179, Richard III, 20, 21; Sonnet 193-4, 195-6, 204-6, 208, 218 CXL 15; The Tempest, 21, 23, Ribner, Irving, 214, 228 56, 57-8, 128-9, 203; Titus Ricks, Christopher, 88, 215 Andronicus, 23, 41, 45; Troilus Righter, Anne, 198, 207 (see also and Cressida, 75; Twelfth Barton, Anne) Night, 17-18, 83-4; Two Robertson, John M., 209 Gentlemen of Verona, 17; The Robson, Ian, 233 Winter's Tale, 22 Rosenberg, Marvin, 63 Shapiro, Michael, 199, 221 Ross, Lawrence ].. 206 Shaw, George Bernard: Rowley, William, 83, 206, 215 Pygmalion, 226-7 Rozett, Martha Tuck, 224 Sidney, Sir Philip: Arcadia, 63-4, 212 Siemon, James Edward, 209, 211 Simmons, J. L., 217 Salingar, Leo G., 205, 216, 217, 218, Sinfield, Alan, 214 231, 233 Smith, A J., 227, 228 Sanders, Wilbur, 213 Smith, James, 227 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 5, 211, 221 Smith, Sheila M., 223 Schanzer, Ernest. 222 Snyder, Susan, 18, 208, 212, 224 Schell, Edgar, 110, 213 Soellner, Rolf. 212 Scott, Michael, 205-6, 210, 211 Spencer, Benjamin T., 221 Second Maiden's Tragedy, The, 205 Spenser, Edmund: The Faerie Seltzer, Daniel, 199 Queene, 221 Senecan, 35, 42, 165, 173 Spenser, T. J. B., 232 Shakespeare, William, 7-8, 22, 103, Spinrad, Phoebe S., 234 193, 194-5, 198-201, 204; Antony Stampfer, Judah, 211 and Cleopatra, 2, 6-7, 8-9, 18, Stansislavski, Konstantin, 4 100, 115-35, 136-7, 145, 154, Stavig, Mark, 189, 233 166, 169-70, 189, 193, 194, 195, Stein, Arnold, 222-3 220-24; As You Like It, 18; Stilling, Roger, 214, 216 , 21-2, 124; Stirling, Brents, 223 Cymbeline, 172; Hamlet, 2, 3, 4, stoic, stoical, 3, 43, 48, 52, 66, 69, 6, 7, 10, 18, 19, 22, 23-4, 25, 28, 105, 130, 154, 161, 165, 166, 167, 33, 34-48, 49, 50, 53-4, 55, 59, 169, 170, 173, 176, 181, 182, 185, Index 241

186, 188, 190, 192, 194, 219, 228, Vives, Juan Luis: A Fable about 230, 233 Man, 11-12, 20, 123, 202 stoicism, 132, 153, 154, 168, 175, Waage, Frederick 0., 225 176, 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185, Waith, Eugene, .222 207, 231 Warren, Michael, \ 211-12 Stone, Lawrence, 201 Warren, Roger, 187 Stroup, Thomas B., 198 Watson, Robert N., ,219 Sturgess, Keith, 4, 231, 233 Webster, John, 3-4, 7, 15, 121, 193, Styan, J. L., 5, 6, 58, 211 202; The Devil's Law-Case, 146; Sweeney, John George IlL 220 Induction to The Malcontent, 56; The Duchess of Malfi, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 15, 101, 115, 131, 143, 149, Tayler, Edward William, 221 155, 157-74, 175, 179, 188, 189, Taylor, Gary, 211, 213-14 190-2,193,194,195, 196,228-31; Taylor, George Coffin, 209 The White Devil, 4-5, 7, 15, 32, Taylor, Neil, 214 90, 115, 136-56, 157, 158, 166, Tennenhouse, Leonard, 201 174, 176, 194, 195, 225-8 Thayer, C. G., 229, 230 Weimann, Robert, 199 theatrum mundi, I, 43, 195, 198 Weisinger, Herbert, 198 Thomson, Leslie, 82, 215 Wharton, T. F., 210 Thomson, Patricia, 217 Whigham, Frank, 202, 230 Tomlinson, T. B., 214, 217, 231 Whitman, Robert F., 226 Toumeur, Cyril, 204 Wilds, Lilian, 207 tragicomedy, 22, 49, 50, 55, 59, 70, Wilkins, John, 68 83, 210 Wilshire, Bruce, 203 Traversi, Derek, 221 Wimsatt, W. K., 224 Trilling, Lionel, 61 Wind, Edgar, 222 witch, witchcraft, 33-5, 206 Woodbridge, Linda, 203 (see also Fitz, Ure, Peter, 8, 206 L. T.) Wordsworth, William, 44 van den Berg, Kent T., 198, 200 Worthen, William B., 204, 228 Van Laan, Thomas, 7-8, 9, 201, 203, Wymer, Rowland, 220-1 207, 211, 224 Vice (figure), 19, 147, 213, 215 Yeats, W. B., 17-18