Opportunities for Environmental Health Risk Management: A Case Study of the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in Trinidad

Nellie M. Roest

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Studies

Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia December 7,1999

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... iv LIST OF TABLES. FIGURES AND APPENDICES ...... vi.. AB STMCT...... vil... LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... -...... viii ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS ...... ix

1 .O INTRODUCTION ...... 1

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 4 3.1 Health and the Environment ...... 4 2.2 Environmental Pollution ...... 5 1.2 Health Risk Management ...... 8 2.3.1 Developing Countries ...... 13 2.3.2 Industrial Estates ...... 15

3 .0 BACKGROUND ...... 17 3.1 Trinidad and Tobago ...... 77 3 2 Point Lisas Industrial Estate ...... 19 3.3 Surrounding Area and Communities ...... 27 3 A Institutional / Regulatory Context ...... 33 3.4.1 Environmental Protection ...... 33 3-42 Health and Safety Protection ...... 40 3 .4.3 Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response ...... 43 3.5 Background Sumrnary ...... 46

4.0 LMETHODOLOGY...... 47 4.1 Research Approach / Design ...... 47 4.1.1 Research Philosophy ...... 47 4.1.2 Qualitative Research ...... 48 4.1.3 Case Study Approach ...... 49 4.1.4 Environmental Risk Management Framework ...... 50 4.2 Study Boundaries ...... 51 4.5 Field Research Component...... 53 4.4 Detailed Methodology ...... 54 4.4.1 Define the Problem and Put it lnto Context ...... 54 4.4.3 .4 nalyze Risks Associated with Problem in Context ...... 62 4.3 Examine Options for Addressing the Risks ...... 64 4.3 E thical Considerations ...... 64 4.6 Limitations of the Research ...... 65 4.7 Dissemination of Results ...... 67 5.0 RESULTS ...... 68 5.1 Define the Problem and Put It Into Context ...... 68 5.1.1 Characterization of the Physical Environment ...... 68 5 1.2 Perception of the Surrounding Environment ...... 69 5.1.3 Characterization of Environmental Pollutants ...... , . 74 5.1 3 Characterization of Industrial Poliutants ...... 78 5.14 Characterization of Industrial Awareness and Initiatives ...... 80 5.1 .5 Characterization of Community Education and Awareness ...... 84 5.1.6 Hurnan Receptors ...... 87 5.1.7 Human Exposure Pathways ...... 88 5.1.8 Conceptual Mode1 ...... 92 5.2 Analyze Risks and Put into Them Context ...... 95 5.2.1 Information on Pollutant Exposures ...... 93 5 .2.3 Information on Health Effects ...... 100 5 .2.3 Health Risk Analysis ...... 106

6.0 DISCUSSION ...... 108 6.1 Potential Health Effects ...... 108 6.1.1 Nature of Industrial Pollution ...... 108 6.1.2 Nature of Human Exposure to Industrial Pollutants ...... 110 6.1.3 Nature and Perception of Health Effects and Concems ...... Il1 6.1.4 Surnmary ...... ,, ...... 116 6.2 Options for Health Risk Management ...... 116 6.2.1 Planning and Development ...... 117 6.2.2 Disaster 1 Safety Management ...... 120 6.2.3 Environmental Management ...... 172 6.2.4 Cornmunity Health Management ...... 125 6.2.5 Community Education and Awareness ...... 126 6.3 Environmental Health Risk Management Frarnework ...... 127 6.3.1 Applicability of the Framework in a Developing Country ...... 127 6.3.2 Alternatives to the Risk Management Framework ...... 129

7.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 131 7.1 ConcIusions ...... 131 7.2 Recommendations ...... 136 7.3 Closing Thoughts ...... 142

APPENDICES ...... 144

REFERENCES ...... 156 LIST OF TABLES. FIGURES AND APPENDICES TABLES:

Table 4.1 Background Information on Community Residents Interviewed ..... 60 Table 4.2 Demographics and Location of School Classrooms ...... 62 Table 5.1 Industrial Poilutants in Air Emissions ...... 78 Table 5.2 Industrial Pollutants in Liquid Emuents ...... 79 Table 5.3 Industry Awareness of Environmental Regulations ...... 80 Table 5.4 Industry Use of Effluent and Ernissions Controls ...... 81 Table 5.5 Environmental lnitiatives by Industry ...... 82 Table 5.6 Partial Estimate of Ernissions Loads for Trinidad and Tobago ...... 95 Table 5.7 Partial Estimate of Effluent Loads for Trinidad and Tobago ...... 96 Table 5.8 Pollutant Loads Associated with the Couva River ...... 96 Table 5.9 Air Pollutant Loads for the Point Lisas Industriai Estate in 1995 (Tonnes/year) ...... 97 Table 5.10 Liquid Pollutant Loads for the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in 1995 (Tonnedyear) ...... 98 Table 5.1 1 Health Effects for Major Air Pollutants ...... 1 04

FIGURES:

Figure 2.1 Risk Components ...... 10 Figure 3 . I Location of the Point Lisas industrial Estate in Trinidad ...... 23 Figure 3.2 Point Lises Study Site ...... 25 Figure 3.3 Layour of the Poini Lisas Industrial Estate ...... Back pocket Figure 3.4 Aerial View of the Lisas Gardens Housing Project Adjacent to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate ...... 28 Figure 3.5 Aerial View of Villages of California and Dow Village Adjacent to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate ...... 30 Figure 4.1 Health Risk Management Framework ...... 52 Figure 5.1 Linking Industriai Activities to Health and Well-Being of Local Residents ...... 90 Figure 5.2 Conceptual Mode1 for Residents in the Point Lisas Area ...... 94

APPENDICES:

Appendix 1 APELL Program ...... 144 Appendis II List of Tenants at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate ...... 146 Appendix III Interview Questions ...... 149 Appendix IV Organizations Contacted ...... 154 Appendis V Project Summq ...... 157 ABSTRACT

The goal of environmental health risk management is scientificaily sound. cost- effective, integrated actions that reduce or prevent health risks while taking into account social. cultural, ethical, political and legal considerations. Moreover, it encourages stakeholder involvement during dl stages of the risk management process, recognizing that this involvement is critical to making and successfully implementing nsk management decisions. As such. environmental health nsk management is an innovative way to solve health and environmental problems related to industrial developments. This study sought to develop a focussed understanding of how industrial pollution ma), contribute ro potential or perceived effects on human health in comrnunities located adjacent to industrial facilities. using the Point Lisas Industnal Estate in Trinidad as a crise study. The study incorporated an ecosystem approach. which views the health of the surrcunding ecosystem in a broad context. integrating environmental. social and economic concerns and relates it to human health. The main objective of the study was to apply a framework for environmental health risk management to determine the nature. extent and perception of any health rffects related to industrial pollution from the Point Lisas lndustrial Estate and adjacent industries. Other objectives were to make recommendations for environmental management to prevent and reduce possible health risks associated with industrial development and to evaluate the effectiveness of the framework in a developing country context and make suggestions on how the process could be improved. This project attempted to work through the first three steps of an environmental health risk framework including: 1) define the problem and put it into context (Le.. situational analysis); 2) analyze the risks: and 3) examine options for reducing risks. Efforts were made to incorporate an ecosystem approach as well as to involve stakeholders throughout the process through participatory research. Qualitative research methods and a weight-of-rvidence approach were used to achieve a holistic understanding of this cornplex industrial ecosystern. Field resrarch involved the compilation and review of existing information. informa1 discussions with representatives of various organizations and a series of more structured interviews with several industry representatives as well as individuals in the adjacent communities. The data and information gathered were used to develop a conceptual mode1 of the current conditions at and near the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and outlined key factors that may be involved in industrial pollution and its potential effects on human health, The analysis identified several substantial information gaps with respect to environmental health risk management at this site and within greater Trinidad. These types of deficiencies limited the ability of the researcher to quantitatively analyze and characterize health risks related to industrial pollution in the area. However. an andysis of the available information was still informative, allowing researcher to make several conclusions and recommendations for future policy and research initiatives to improve environmental health risk management in the Point Lisas area.

vii LIST OF ACRONYMS

A&E Accident and Emergency APELL Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local Level BEIRL Business Expansion and Industrial Restnicturing Loan BOD B iological Oxygen Demand CAREC Caribbean Epidemiology Centre CARICOM Caribbean Cornmunity CARIRI Caribbean Industrial Research Institute CEHI Caribbean Environrnental Health Institute CO: Carbon dioxide CO Carbon monoxide DDPH Dissolved and dispersed petroleum hydrocarbons EIA Environmental Impact Assessrnent EIS Environrnental Impact Statement EMA Environrnental Management Authority EMS Environrnental Management Systems FFOS Fishermen and Friends of the Sea HC Hydrocarbons IDRC international Development Research Centre IMA Institute of Marine Affairs MEEI Ministry of Energy and Energy-Based Industries NEMA National Emergency Management Authority NGOs Non-Govemmental Organizations Nos Nitrogen oxides 03 Ozone PAHO Pan American Health Organization PLIPDECO Point Lisas Industrial Port and Development Company Limited RHAs Regional Health Authorities SPM Suspended particulate mattrr soz Sulphur dioxide sa Sulphur oxides SRES Scho01 for Resource and Environmental Studies TCPD Town and Country Planning Division TIDCO Tourism and Industrial Development Company TTBS Trinidad and Tobago Bureau of Standards TSP Total Suspended Particulate TTEMAS Trinidad and Tobago Emergency Mutual Aid Scheme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UN D P United Nations Development Programme UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization USEPA United States Environrnental Protection Agency L' WT University of West hdies vocs Volatile organic compounds WASA Water and Sewage Authority WHO World Health Organization -.. Vlll 1 would to first thank al1 of the many people in Trinidad who participated in this study. In particular, I would like to thank the residents of Dow Village and California, the local industry representatives, and the many people at various agencies, organizations and

2uroups who took the time to share their knowledge and views with me. This research could not have been completed without their assistance. and is the richer for their participation.

The staff at the Caribbem Environmentat Health tnstitute. St. Lucia. were instrurnsntal in helping me get the project off the ground and provided logistical and trchnical support throughout my field research. Special thanks goes to the Executive Director. Vincent Sweeney. who also introduced me to a taste of Carnival by taking me io the Panorama preliminaries and a Carnival fëte. Also my sincere appreciation to his mother, Vivian Sweeney, who opened her home to me for the first couple of months of my stay in Trinidad and kept me well fed with many Trinidadian deiicacies.

In addition. many thanks go io the staff at the Trinidad and Tobago Ministiy of Health. the Caribbean Industrial Research Institute (CARIEU) and the Point Lisas Industrial Port Development Company Limited (PLIPDECO).who supported my research and provided excellent advice. introductions and various types of logistical support. Special thanks goes to Dr. Rohit Doon and Mr. Deenesh Persad. who took the timc out of their busy schedules to meet with me on several occasions and provided Iielpful advicr and information: their assistance was crucial in establishing the initial contacts for my research.

The International Development and Research Centre (IDRC)provided me with the funds 1 nrrded to conduct my research in Trinidad through the Ecosystem Approaches to Human Health training program. Without their financial support. this project could not have taken place.

1 also appreciate the support of my academic supervisor, Prof. Raymond Côté (Scho01 for Resource and Environmental Studies (SRES)). and of my cornmittee members. Dr. Terry Mitchell (Comrnunity Health and Epidemiology) and Dr. Joan Campbell (SRES Research Associate), and my external examiner, Dr. Al Taweel (Chernical Engineering). Their insights and cornments were extrernely helpful in producing this thesis.

Special thanks goes to my many new friends in Trinidad, who welcomed me into their homes. hearts and lives and made my experience one that 1 will never forget. You invited me to community events, showed me the sights. fed me traditional foods, esplûined the local slang. introduced me to the Carnival, and gave me personal giimpses into Trinidadian Me. Your ~varmth.kindness and hospitality were appreciated and will always be remembered. Final1y, last but certainly not least, to my many friends here in Canada - too numerous to narne but you know who you are -- who supponed me throughout the highs and lows of the research process. Without your love, encouragement and support by way of emails. phone calls, packages. letters and visits. I would not have survived the challenges of conducting rny thesis research in a foreign country. You helped me in more ways than you can ever know.

Thank you. 1.0 INTRODUCTION

Over the 1st few decades, member states of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM)' have, in an attempt to improve their economic position. engaged in various forms of industrial development. sometimes leading to adverse effects on the environment and human health. The member states of the CARiCOM have recognized this problem and are moving toward more sustainable development as suggested by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED 1987). As a result, development projects are being examined to detemine if policy changes are needed to address potential effects on the environment and health. The Caribbean Environmentai Health Institute (CEHI), an institution of the CARICOM. is currently trying to address concems raised by the public. foreign investors and funding agencies with regard to industnal development and its potentiai to cause environmental health effects within the Caribbean region. In Trinidad. the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. a heavily industrialized area on the central western Coast. has been a source of considerable concem (Sweeney 19%). Following discussions with various stakeholders in Trinidad. CEHI recommended that this industrial estate in Trinidad be studied to characterize the possible health risks associated with this industrial development to assist them in future planning and management of this and other industrial sites in the Caribbean. Consequently. a research proposa1 for this study was submitted to. and accepted by. the International Development Research Centre (IDRC),a Canadian fhding agency. under its Ecosystem Approaches to Human Health Training Awards. In this study. the possible health risks associated with industnal pollution were investigated using the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in Trinidad as a case study. The study incorporated an ecosystem approach. which views the health of the smounding ecosystem in a broad context. integrating environmental, social and economic concerns and relates it to human health. As such. the Point Lisas Industnal Estate and its surrounding environment were viewed

CARICOM memben: Antigua and Barbuda: The Bahamas; Barbados; Belize; Dominica: Grenada: Guyana; Haiti; Jamaica; Montserrat; St. Kitts and Nevis; St. Lucia; Suriname; St. Vincent & the Grenadines; Trinidad and Tobago. as an ecosystem, and the researcher sought to understand how industrial pollution within this ecosystem could affect human health and well-being. The researcher applied an environrnental health nsk management framework. complemented by qualitative research methods and a weight-of-evidence approach to achieve a holistic understanding of this cornplex industrial ecosystem. This project fulfills the thesis requirement for a Masters of Environmental Studies at Dalhousie University in Nova Scotia. As part of the development of the thesis, several research questions were generated to assist the researcher in focussing her research. These questions are outlined below:

1. What are the potentiai health risks associated with industrial pollution fiom the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in Trinidad? a) What is the nature of the industrial pollution? b) What is the nature of human exposure to industrial pollutants? c) What are the nature and perception of the health effects? 2. How can the potential health effects associated with this site be rnanaged. given the various economic. informational and political constraints? 3. What cmbe done to improve the evaluation of potential health effects related to industrial pollution in developing countries?

Based on the above research questions, the main objectives of the research study were to:

Apply a framework for environrnental health nsk management to detemine the potential health effects related to industrial pollution fiom the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and adjacent industries; Make recommendations for possible funire initiatives or projects to help manage health risks associated industrial development; and Evaluate the effectiveness of the environmental health risk management framework in a developing country context and make suggestions on how the process could be improved. This research study will contribute to an understanding of the relationship between industrial pollution and human health within an industrial ecosystem in the Caribbean. The case study approach will allow an in-depth analysis of this site and results of the study can be used as a knowledge base for management interventions to improve human health in the local area. While the results of the study are not directly transferable to other sites. the process cari serve as a hework for the study of other industrial sites in the region. In addition. the results may serve as an irnpetus to impiement better environmental protection measures and foster an awareness about the potential health risks associated with inadequately controlled industrial development within the Caribbean.

This thesis has been organized into the following chapters:

Chapter Two - discusses general information about human heaith and the environment. environmental pollution and the concept of environmental health risk management as it relates to developing counuies and industrial estates; Chapter Three - outlines the general background of the study site. surrounding area and communities as well as the institutional and regulatory context; Cliapter Four - describes the detailed methodology used in the study; Cltaptrr Five - presents the results of the study; Chapter SU- - discusses the results of the study; and. Chapter Seven - summarizes the conclusions and recommendations. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review will look at the links between human health and the environment. particularly with respect to the effects of environmental pollution on health. This review is further expanded into the concept of environmental health risk management as it relates to developing countries and indusuial estates. The information presented here is designed to provide a good general understanding of these topics so that they cm be later considered and applied to the thesis case study.

2.1 Health and the Environment

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not the merely the absence of disease or infinnityu (WHO 1999). Health has been recognized as a fundamental human right and must be viewed as one of the key considerations in sustainable development (UN 1993). Health is iniluenced by a number of factors (de Kadt 1989; Calman 199 1 : WHO 1997) including: i) biological factors such as genetics. ii) social and cultural factors such as rrnployment. income level. literacy. social status and housing; iii) access to, and use. of health care services; iv) lifestyle, including diet. smoking and exercise; and v) environmental factors including communicable disease, chernical and physical agents. In recent years. more emphasis has been placed on the quality of the surrounding environment and the role it plays in a person's state of health (WHO 1992; 1997; Forget and Sanchez-Bain 1999). The concept of an ecosystem approach to health which stresses the idea that a healthy environment or ecosystem will nurture human health and well- being has been adopted by several agencies (CCME 1994: Eyles et al. 1996: WHO 1997: IDRC 1998). For esample. drinking water and air quality is a Cunction of activities undertaken within an ecosystem such as a watershed or airshed. In an ecosystem approach, the basic components (air. land, water and biota including humans) and functions of ecosystems are viewed in a broad context. integrating environmental. social and economic concems so that protective or preventative interventions can be put into place to protect human heaith (WHO 1997; Cole et al. 1998: IDRC 1998). Interventions designed to maintain a healthy ecosystem are more Iikely to succeed in irnproving human health and well-being in the long-term compared to short- term health sector interventions (IDRC 1998). Environmental threats to human health can be divided into traditional hazards associated with lack of development and modem hazards associated with unsustainable development (WHO 1997; BMA 19%). Traditional hazards include a lack of access to safe drinking water. inadequate sanitation, food contamination, inadequate solid waste disposal, occupational injury. natural disasters and disease vecton. Modem hazards include water and air pollution. solid and hazardous wastes. emerging and reemerging infectious diseases. deforestation and other ecological changes. climate change. and transboundary pollution. The focus of this literature review will be on the modem hazard of environmental pollution, particularly industrial pollution, and its effects on human health. This topic will be discussed further in the next section.

2.2 Environmental Pollution

Environmentai pollution can have a wide range of effects on human health including effects on morbidity, mortality or well-being (WHO 1997). These effects vary with type. intensity and magnitude and cm interact with other determinants of health such as incorne and social status, education. employment and working conditions. eenetics. nutrition. health status. health services and lifestyle (Marmor 1994; Davies and C Sadler 1997). In general. an adverse health effect can be defined as an undesirable or hannful change in physical health indicated by increased mortality. disease or other clinical changes or symptoms. Physical health effects can be divided into two main categories. depending on the type of exposure a person receives. A single or short-term exposure that produces an immediate reaction (e.g. respiratory imtation) is termed "acute." A longer lower-level exposure that produces health effects dera period of time (e.g.cancer) is termed "chronic" (Health and Welfare Canada 1992; Health Canada 1998). In addition to physical effects, pollution can affect a person's sense of well-being. The state of well-being is very subjective and emotional but has been defined as a state of positive feelings (i.e., happiness, pleasure, enjoyment, joy, fun) with few negative feelings (i.e., unhappiness, depression, hstration, or anxiety) and a general life satisfaction (Brodsky 1988). As such, the perceptions of a person's surrounding environment are important to their well-being because if a person perceives their environment to be safe and secure, there are likely to have a better sense of well-being and quality of life (WHO 1997). Thus. environmental pollution cm decrease a person's sense of well-being and quality of life if they perceive it as a threat to their environment. Pollution by limiting access to natural resources for the purposes of recreation, subsistence or employment or through stress from noise. smells or fear of health effects can exeri effects on well-being and quality of life (Health Canada 1997a: 1997b: WHO 1997). The effects of pollution on well-being and quality of life are much more dificult to quanti. but are no less important than physical health effects. Certain groups are more vulnerable to adverse health effects fiom environmental pollution. These groups may include children, wornen in their reproductive years, the elderly, persons weakened by other illnesses and the poor (Cooper Weil et al. 1990: Ong et al. 1991: Roy 1993; WHO 1997). Research suggests that it is the poor who are the most vulnerable to health hazards associated with industrial development because they tend to live doser to industrial areas. are rxposed to higher levels of emissions. and çenerally do not have access to adequate health care (Cooper Weil et al. 1990; Roy t 993). Environmental pollution can have a major effect on health and quality of life of an exposed population who live close to its source as well as have efTects on the greater population who may be exposed through long range atmospheric deposition (Calman 199 1 ). The main sources of environmental pollution can include urbanization, industriai activity, agnculturai practices and improper waste and sewage disposal (WHO 1997). Industrial development cm be a major source of chronic air pollution, water pollution and land degradation through the release of pollutants from industrial processes (WHO 1997'). In addition. releases of large volumes of hazardous substances can occur during industrial accidents or upsets. These effects are often exacerbated when industries are concentrated together ont0 large industrial estates without proper abatement or safety technology leading to cumulative health effects from complex mixtures of pollutants or a greater nsk fiom industrial accidents (UNEP 1997). Air pollution is a major environmental health problem and can impact heavily on an exposed population. Exposure can occiir directly fiom inhalation into the lung and respiratory system. indirectly through the blood to produce systemic effects or through food and water ingestion following air deposition of pollutants onto soil, plants and water (WHO 1997). Air pollution typically results fiom the use of fossil fuels and industrial processes (WEP 1997). The major air pollutants that have been linked to chronic health effects include suspended particulate matter (SPM), sulphur dioxide @Oz),carbon dioxide (CO?), ozone (O3).nitrogen oxides (NO,) and various hydrocarbons (WHOklNEP 1989). Other substances that may have a more immediate effect on health include carbon monoxide (CO), arnmonia. chlorine and other solvents. Air pollution has been associated with acute respiratory infections. changes in lung function and ainvay inflammation as well as increased hospital admissions for respiratory conditions such as asthma. bronchitis and chronic obstructive lung disease (WHOAJNEP 1989; Weiss and Wagener 1990; Bates 1993: Smith 1993: WHO 1997). Moreover, certain air pollutants rnay play a role in lung and cardiovascular disease (Shy and Struba i 982: Jedrychowski et al. 1990: Dockery et al. 1993; Pershagen and Simonato 1993; Pope et al. 1995: Schwartz and Morris 1995). Chronic respiratory symptoms have been shown to be significantly higher in school children in areas with poorer air quality (Ong et al. 1991 ). Water pollution can also have severe effects on health especiaily if dnnking water becomes contarninated. Exposure cm occur directly through the ingestion of drinking water. the consurnption of food (Le.. fish, shellfish. meat, hit. vegetables) that may have accumulated high concentrations of a poilutant or through swirnrning or bathing in contaminated waters (WHO 1997). Water pollution can result fiom the use of process and cooling water, discharges of effluent or chernical spills. Typical pollutants in water include organic chemicals, heavy metals, suspended solids, organic matter. phenols, polychlorinated biphenyls and cyanide (WHO1997). Water pollution has been associated with fish kills, contamination of fish and shellfish, acute poisoning and chronic effects such as neurotoxic and carcinogenic effects and skin rashes (Hunter 1978: Bertaui 1989: WHO 1 997). Health effects of water pollution are dependent on the toxicity of pollutants that may be present in water. Environmental pollution can also produce indirect effects on human health and well-being by reducing quality of life. For example. increased levels of soot or particulate matter in the air may increase the need for building maintenance due to corrosion effects or may increase the need for cleaning of houses, yards and clothes (Cole et al. 1998). Similady. noise pollution can be stresshl for people living close to industry because it is be annoying. interferes with communication, and disturb sleeps and relaxation (Health Canada 1997a: 1997b; 1998). Moreover. the pollution of nvers and bays rnay prevent people from subsistence and commercial fishing as well as reduce their ability to use the waters for swimming or bathing. These effects cm produce econornic costs for the affected population as well as reduce their ability to enjoy their homes and naniral sunoundings.

2.2 Health Risk Management

Heal th risk management is the process of identi Qing, evaluating , selecting and implementing actions to reduce risk to human health and to ecosystems (Omennet al. 1997). The goal of health risk management is scientifically sound, cost-effective. i ntegrated actions that reduce or prevent risks while taking into account social. cultural. ethical. political and legal considerations. Health risk has been defined as the probability that a substance or situation will produce an adverse health effect under specified conditions (Omenn et al. 1997). In general. an adverse health effect cm be defined as an undesirable or harmfûl change in physical health as indicated by some result such as increased mortality. disease or other physical symptoms. However, the definition can be expanded to include changes to hurnan well-being. The significance of an adverse health effect is often estimated by professional experts but is also subject to the perception of various stakeholders. Risks to human health fiom environmental poliutants are dependent on the degree of exposure (ir.. the interaction between a person and the pollutant) and hazard (i.e.. the tosic potential of the pollutant) (Singh 1990; WHO 1997). For a health nsk to occur. a person (i.e., the receptor) must, first, be exposed to a pollutant (i.e., exposure pathway) and, secondly, the levels of exposure must be high enough to produce a health effect (i.e.. hazard) (Figure 2.1). If one of these factors is not present. a health effect cannot occur. Therefore. the proximity of a pollution source to a population can be an important factor when determining health risks, especially for those populations located downwind or downstream of the source (UNEP 1997). Exposure can occur through different pathways such as ingestion of drinking water. food or dust/soiI. inhalation of air and dust. or skin absorption through water. soi1 or dust (Benazzi 1989). The amount of pollutant absorbed into the body is dependent on its concentration in the environrnental media. its chemical structure and the length of time a person is exposed. Certain pollutants cmbe highly toxic but degrade rapidly when released into the environment (Le., are not persistent). thus limiting potential exposures of the general population. but leaving workers at greater risk. The body is capable detoxiQing and/or excreting many pollutants; however. other pollutants such as some metals. PCBs. and dioxins may wmain in the body tissue for a long period of time and mas in fact, accumulate over time. The hazard of a pollutant is dependent on the toxicological properties of the pollutant. its concentration and penistence in the environment. the total dose entering the hurnan body. detoxifiing mechanisms and the state of health of an individual (Bertazzi 1989). In addition, if an individual is exposed to multiple pollutants, there may be additive or synergistic effects between different pollutants, exacerbating potential hedth effects. It is not always easy to detemine the effects of environmental pollution on human health. particularly when a person is exposed to multiple pollutants. Ambient monitoring of environmental media may give the first indication that a pollutant is present in high quantities in the environment and may present a human health risk (Bertazzi 1989; Calman 199 1: Cole et al 1998). Many countries develop health-based standards for pollutants in environrnental media as a means of regulating exposures; however. many compounds. especially newer ones. lack the toxicological data with which to develop appropriate standards (Cole et al. 1998). In addition, environmental monitoring data are not always available. especiaily in developing countries. However, environmental Figure 2.1 Risk Components monitoring data, if available. is a usehl tool for preliminary screening of potential problems and cmsubsequently be used as input data for more comprehensive health risk analysis to better delineate a potential health risk. Pollutant inventories of emissions to air, discharges to water or releases to other media can also provide important information on the magnitude and apportionment of sources of pollutants of relevance to hurnan health (Cole et al. 1998). Moreover. sophisticated modelling techniques can determine the transport, movement and concentrations of pollutants in particular media over time as well as the dose to hurnans (WHO 1995: Cole et al. 1998). However. most models rely on measurements of pollutant levels in different media and biota for initial estimation and subsequent calibration of the models and these data are not always available. Pollutant exposures can also be determined through persona1 monitoring. time- activity patterns and dietary sweys which permit better estimates for actual exposures and this infornation can be used to create more realistic exposure scenarios for risk anal ysis (Benaui 1989; WHO 1995; Cole et al. 1998). In addition, biological samples such as blood and hair often provide useful estimates of how much pollutant is being taken into the human body and can be linked to nsk-analysis based predictions of potential health effects (Bertazzi 1989; Cole et al. 1998). Health risk analysis is a means to estimate health risks by assigning a numeric value to the probability of injury or effect associated with a pollutant exposure (Omennet al. 1997). The process involves comparing the estimates of exposure to a "safe" level derived from a pollutant's toxicological nature. This information. along with findings from other field and laboratory investigations, is integrated, using a weight-ofsvidence approach. to assess whether a pollutant poses a significant health risk. This process has been accepted and applied by many agencies around the world (Health Canada 1995: US EPA 1989); however, it is very dependent on the good quality data available to support the process. Epidemiologicd studies that link exposures to particular disease rates can help to deterrnine environmental health effects. However, their focus on measurements such as death. disease or disability do not take into account effects on well-being such as stress or changes of quality of Iife (Armstrong et al. 1994: Bertazzi 1989: Calman 1991 ; WHO 1997; Cole et al 1998). Despite this fact, these studies are essential because they can provide scientific evidence of a physical health effect and thus. can make an important contribution to policy formulation and evaluation of intervention programs (Ong et al. 199 1). However. these type of studies cm be difficult and expensive to conduct properly and cm ofien take years to decades to provide evidence of an environmental health hazard. especially for substances that may have a long latent penods between exposure and health effects (Calman 1991). Effects on human health can also be rstimated in several other ways (Wegman 1992: Birch and Eyles 1993: Thacker and Stroup 1994; Thacker et al. 1996: Cole et al. 1998). Vital health statistics (eg, rnortality by disease. age. sex). health care utilization (e.g., hospital utilization by age. sex and disease), cancer registries. registries for birth defects. public health surveillance of disease or injury events, and community health profiles can provide usefùl information. Altematively, relevant measures of hazards in the environment (occurrence. distribution and levels of hazards). exposure surveillance (e.g . biological monitoring. subclinical effects) and health risk assessrnent can be used. In summary. an ecosystem approach. that considers and integrates various aspects of the surrounding environment, needs to be applied when trying to ascertain and manage the potential risks of environmental pollution on human health. A careful analysis of the weight of evidence from different information sources must be conducted. taking into account the context of the situation (Omenn et al. 1997). Moreover, it is essentid to involve the public and other stakeholders as there may be a perception of health risks that are not substantiated by quantitative data yet may affect human well-king indirectly in terms of stress or quality of life (Calman 1991, Covello 1995). Effective tisk management cmonly occur when there is a complete understanding of the context and factors involved in creating a health risk problem (Omenn et al. 1997). In the next two sections. the concept of environmental hedth risk management will be further explored by looking at the health risks of environrnental pollution and how the! are managed. first in developing counuies and later within industrial estates. 2.3.1 Developing Countries

Development policies cm create or exacerbate the diseases of poverty as well as the diseases of industrialization (Cooper Weil et al. 1990). As a result, people living in developing countnes may be exposed to modem environmental hazards such as industrial pollution before the traditional hazards of poveny (e.g., poor sanitation) have been eradicated (Bertazzi 1989; WHO 1997). Therefore, some cornmunities are living in the worst of both worlds and are subject to a double burden with respect to their health (Bertazzi 1989). This effect can be further compounded by limited access to adequate health care facilities due to a lack of financial resources available to developing countries governments (Cooper Weil et ai. 1990). Developing countries tend to have more severe environmental problerns and fewer resources to address them than developed countries (Mayda 1985). The priorities of developing countries are typically focused on poverty reduction and economic development and growth rather than the protection of the environment (UNEP 1990: Misra and Misra 1993). Moreover, many developing economies are vulnerable to foreign exchange availability because of their international debt commitments (Singh 1994). As a result. many countries tend to be highly dependent on exports of natural resources or foreign investment by multinational firms. Industrialization has been promoted by govemments in developing countries as pan of their development strategies and can aid in the enhancement of human health and well-being (UNEP 1 98 1 : Heptulla 1993; UNEP 1997; WHO 1997). However. industrial poiicies that do not take into account environmental considerations cmhave unintended effects on health and the environment (Lepkowski 1987; Cooper Weil et al. 1990; Bhullar 1993; Heptulla 1993; Shafi 1993; Shende 1993; Misra and Misra 1993; Porto and de Freitas 1996; Chary 1997: WHO 1997). Too ofien these policies are shon sighted and do not consider costs of pollution on health and the environment. Developing countries often promote policies of specialization in certain industrial sectors such as heavy metals or chernical production and processing that rnay present severe health and environmental hazards (Cooper Weil et al. 1990). In addition. environmental laws may be relaxed as part of an incentive package to atûact foreign investment (Cooper Weil et al. 1990; ECA 1996). While many multinational firms apply the same standards wherever they operate, some of these firms take advantage of less stringent environmental laws by having double standards with respect to plant design, production processes, health and safety measures and proper pollution abatement technologies between their home country and a developing country (Castleman and Navaroo 1987; Bertapi 1989; Heptulla 1993, Mathur 1993; Cooper Weil et al. 1990: ECA 1996). These factors combined with a lack of adequate environrnental protection can leave developing countnes more vulnerable to environmental hazards from unplanned rapid industrialization (Cooper Weil et al. 1990; Heptulla 1993: Mathur 1993: Porto and de Freitas 1996). Further. the benefits of industrial activity tend to accrue to powefil sections of society who live far away from actual site of industriai operations. Thus. the adverse effects of industrial activity are generally borne by local populations who are often poor. less educated and politically less powerfùl (Cooper Weil et al. 1990; Shafi 1993; Shende 1993; Misra and Misra 1993). This fact coupled with a lack of environmental awareness cmmake certain groups of people in developing countries more vulnerable to health risks associated with industrial pollution (Roy 1993). Funher. there are several other issues in developing countries that need to be addressed before management mechanisms can be properly implemented to protect health and the environment (CIDA 1988a). First. there is generally an absence of baseline environmental data. thus constraining govemment staff who have little or no information upon which to base their decisions. Second, a lack of necessary technology, infrastructure and financial resources make it dificult to adequately assess the nature and magnitude of pollution-related health problems. Epidemiological studies linking morbidity and mortality to pollution exposure are ofien not available for most developing countries (Cooper Weil et al. 1990). Moreover, even if a potential environrnental health problem is identificd. appropriate and low-cost pollution control equipment and technologies are ofien not available to encourage pollution abatement among industries (CIDA 1988b: Cooper Weil et al. 1990). The alternative approach to environmental and health nsk management is through prevention of pollution at its source and reducing the arnounts of pollution released to the environrnent, thus reducing the potential for nsks to the environrnent and health (Roy 1993). Pollution prevention can be accomplished in several ways including through environmental impact assessrnent (EIA), proper industrial siting and cleaner production. In surnrnary, the challenges facing al1 countries in tems of implementing rnechanisms to manage environmental pollution and associated health risks are many. However. For developing countries, the challenges can be extreme, exacerbated by many constraining factors, including financial restraints. other political priorities. lack of infrastructure and trained personnel and in some instances a lack of willingness to address environmental pollution issues. Yet, despite these obstacles, there has been steady progress made towards creating mechanisms to manage health and environmentai risks as govenunents become more responsive to concems of the international community, workers, local cornrnunities and health authorïties.

2.3.2 Industrial Estates

An industrial estate has been defined as a cluster of industries located within a distinct geopraphical area that is administered by a single authority (Cooper Weil et al. 1990: UNEP 1997). Alternative terms often used include: industrial parks. zones. or districts. Industrial estates Vary in age. size, type and organization but most tend to be relatively large with areas over 40 hectares. Infrastructure such as roads, ports, utilities and other services are provided to the industrial tenants by the estate authority. Overall management of the estate is the responsibility of the estate authority who is in charge of master planning. performance standards and specifications and can establish policies and place restrictions on tenant cornpanies. Since the 1970s. there has been a massive increase in the number of industrial estates. especially in rapidly industridizing countries. and this wnd is continuing. At present. there are more than 12.000 estates worldwide (UNEP 1997). The concept of the industrial estate has been used as a tool to promote, plan and manage rapid industrial development (UNEP 1997). Several advantages exist including a reduction in the cost of infrastructure and utilities, minimization of zoning problems and stimulation of regional economic activities. While these industrial estates can provide benefits to the nearby communities in terms of employment and economic development. the concentration of industries cmalso pose a substantial threat to health and the environment. The main way that industrial estates can affect health are through the day-to-day emissions of pollutants or through sudden releases of hazardous substances during industrial accidents or upsets. These topics are discussed in more detail beiow.

Industrial Pollution: Industries cm affect health through routine emissions of pollutants (e.g., air. water. land, noise or odours) especially if these ernissions are not well-controlled (Cooper Weil et al. 1990: UNEP 1997). The type and level of industnai emissions depends on several factors (WHO 1997) including: i) type and arnount of product manufactured and process used; ii) type. amount and content of raw materials; iii) use of energy. water and air: iv) size of facility : v) amount of chemicals stored on site; and vi) quality and quantity of pollution abatement measures. Often complex mixtures of industrial pollutants are released from the many different types and sizes of industries concentrated on an industrial estate (UNEP 1997j. These pollutant releases can have substantial effects on the health of workers. nearby communities and sometimes even distant communities (Cooper Weil et al. 1990. WHO 1997). A notable incident of industrial pollution resulting in adverse health effects occurred in 1953 in Japan (Bertazzi 1989). Unusual neurological disorders were observed in people living in fishing villages along Minamata Bay in what became known as Minamata disease. Numerous investigations eventually linked the disorders to the consurnption of poisoned fish. Later. a source of organic mercury was found in a facto- discharping effluent into Minamata Bay. By 196 1. the disease had occurred in 88 perçons. of whom 35 had died (Hunter 1978). More recently, pollution from industries and large-scale industrial complexes has been linked to hedth problems in several countries (Cooper Weil et al. 1990). A study in Mexico City found a strong relation between increasing incidence of acute respiratory iilnesses and nsing pollution levels, with the highest rates observed in indusrrial districts (Jauregui 1987). In an indusaial district in Cubatao, Brazil with 23 major industries. serious health problems such as elevated neonatal monality rate, birth deformities and a high prevalence of respiratory disorders have been associated with high levels of water and air pollution (Findley 1988; Pimenta 1987, Thomas 198 1). In Sao Paulo, Brazil, an association was found between area's infant mortality rate and industriai pollution in a nearby bay (Thomas 198 1). Although industrial estates can potentially affect human health, they also cm provide an excellent opportunity for integrated environmental management (UNEP 1 997). The estate authority cmprovidr many environmental services including environmental auditing. training, and education. either directly or through the use of contnctors. Moreover. the nature of an industrial estate and the proximity of industries allow for the potential sharing of infrastructure and equiprnent for effluent or emission treatment, hazardous waste disposal or pollution monitoring, resulting in overall cost savings for the individual tenants (Hadjivassilis et al 1994; üNEP 1997). in addition, the estate authorities can facilitate environmentaf and health protection by requiring companies. in their lease agreements. to adhere to certain health. safety and environrnental standards, monitor their emissions and effluents. conducr environrnental audits. use best available pollution abatement technology and submit environmental management plans. However, this type of environmental management cm be difficult to enforce, particularly given the vested interests of the estate authority. As a result. the estate authority may not strictly enforce these type of requirements but instead will try to persuade its tenants to conform voluntanly. Thus. national legislation is necessary to support this type of environrnental management mechanism.

I ndustrial Accidents: Industrial accidents associated with industrial activity cm pose serious risks to human health and well-being and cm result in injuries, illness and deaths (Benazzi 199 1 : Mohan et al. 1993; Shafi 1993: Cooper Weil et al. 1990; Porto and de Freitas 1997: Chary 1997: WHO 1997). A major accident has been defined as ". ..an occurrence such as a major emission. fire, or explosion resulting from uncontrolled developments in the course of industrial activity. leading to a senous danger to man. imrnediate or delayed, inside or outside the establishment and/or to the environment, and involving one or more dangerous substances" (CEC 1982). Industrial accidents generally result fiom technical breakdown or human error resulting in uncontrollable physical-chernical phenornena such as runaway chemical reactions. fires or explosions or the release of toxic material beyond boundaries of the industnal facility (Mohan 1993). Dispersion of gases from industrial accidents differ from day to day emissions as they tend to form denser than air clouds (Singh 199 1 ). Ammonia and chlorine are two chemicals that typically form large dense clouds following release to the environment. History has been punctuated with various industrial accidents. In 1976. the Seveso accident in Italy was one of the first one to attract widespread concem about chemical pollution and health problems (Homberger et al. 1979; Pocchiari et al. 1983; Bertazzi 1989: 199 1). In this accident, thousands of people were potentially exposed to dioxin following an uncontrolled chemical reaction during the manufacture of trichlorophenol in a chemical plant. Adverse health effects included chloracne, neurotoxic effects. liver enzyme induction as well as the observation of an unusual cardiovascular rnortality pattern in the exposed population. The chemical accident at Bhopal. India in 1984 represents the worst industrial disaster in history. It increased worldwide concem about the dangers posed by chemical manufacturîng. particularly in developing countries (Rosencranz 1988; Bertazzi 1989). A gas leak of forty tons of methyl isocyanate caused by a runaway reaction resulted in over 2800 dead and injuing thousands of others (Rosencranz 1988; Bertazzi 1989; Cooper Weil et al. 1990: Mohan 1993). The devastating effects of this accident were due. in part. to high concentration of settlements close to the chemical plant (Cooper Weil et al. 1990; Mohan 1993). Other failures included inadequate information flow about the chemical's hazards to workers. residents, and medical personnel and a general lack of emergency preparedness (Rosencranz 1988). Major accidents continue to occur around the world and continue to raise concern. For example. the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident in 1986 in the Soviet Union killed 30 persons and contaminated thousands of square kilometres (Bertazzi 1989; Mohan 1993: Shafi 1993). In 1997, a refinery fire in India killed 34 people, injured 3 1 and caused the evacuation of 150,000 people while an explosion at a chemical plant in Russia killed one person and injured 208 others (UNEPTIE 1999). Many of the major industrial accidents. as reported by üNEPTIE. involved the manufacture or transport of hazardous substances including hydrocarbons, chlorine, ammonia, plastics and petroleum products. Major accidents are more common in the early stages of industnalization, typical of developing countries, due to a lack of trained engineers, operators and equipment maintenance staff, regulatory personnel and safety management systems and a lack of understanding of the potential hazards (Mohan 1993; Chary 1997). Moreover, there is often more emphasis on the use of alamis and other hardware rather than systems and procedures (Chary 1997). Most industrial accidents could have been prevented with proper maintenance and training. In addition. an absence or weakness in institutional strategies to prevent and control industrial accidents. particularly in developing countries, can exacerbate the potential health risks. These strategies can include proper industrial siting and the use of buffer zones. regular inspection and maintenance. risk analysis. obligatory accident notification, rmergency planning and dissemination of information to community members and workers on risk and strategies for emergency situations (Rosencranz 1988; Porto and de Freitas 1996). Appropriate industrial siting can be based on mathematical modelling techniques to estimate safe distances for various accident scenarios (Singh 1991; Mohan 1993). These models look at concentration estirnates. weather conditions especially wind direction. and population density to determine the probability of a hazard under the specified conditions. Models are available for both instantaneous and continuous releases of hazardous chemicals in the atmosphere (Singh 1991). Appropriate models have been developed for many chemicals including ammonia chlorine, hydrogen cyanide. carbon disulphide. ethylene oxide, phosgene, oleum and hydrogen fluoride (Mohan 1993). The results of the application of these models can provide important information in the creation of buffer zones such as greenbelts between industrial and residential areas (Mohan 1993). Moreover, modelling can identiQ the area of potential impact in a given accident scenario and allow for appropriate emergency preparedness planning in the case of an accident (Singh 1990; Singh 1991). An industrial estate can provide an excellent opportunity for the prevention and management of health risks fiom industrial accidents. The estate authority can require tenants to conduct risk analysis, regular inspection and maintenance, report accidents and develop and implement emergency response plans for their facilities (Rosencranz 1988; Porto and de Freitas 1996). Moreover, an integrated emergency preparedness plan involving key players (e.g., police. fire. health. industries, local communities) can be developed at the estate level to reduce potential health risks associated with an industrial accident (Mohan 1993: UNEP 1997). The estate authority cm facilitate the development of a plan b y working with individual industries and other stakeholden, providing training and information and coordinating the overall process. Unfortunately. many industrial emergency response plans do not extend beyond the boundaries of industrial plant or estate. leaving local communities vulnerable to health risks associated with industrial accidents (Stevens 1997). Govemment emergency response plans, particularly in developing countries. ofien fa11 short in ternis of cornmunity awareness and education. For example. in Bhopal, people who switched on fans or air conditioners or went outside suffered severe health effects while people who stayed indoors and covered their faces with wet towels suffered less severe health effects. Thus. it is important that the public be educated on how to deal with an emergency situation to help mitigate its consequences on health. In addition. there should be guidelines in place for the potential evacuation of the local comrnunity or the construction and designation of safe buildings within the community. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Industry and Environment Centre. in collaboration with indusuy. and has developed an Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local Level (APELL) program to assist decision-makers and technical personnel to improve cornmunity awateness about hazardous facilities and in preparing emergency response plans (UNEP 1988; Stevens 1997). This process builds on existing emergency response pians developed by indusay for their individual facilities as well as govenunent emergency plans with the intent of developing a usehl and effective integrated community emergency response. A brief description of the program is provided in Appendix 1. Ln summary. industriai estates have the potential to aflect health through the day- to-dap emissions of pollutants or through sudden releases of hazardous substances during industrial accidents or upsets. Heaith effects can be magnified if the indusinal estate is located close to residential communities or if there is a lack of proper pollution abatement technologies. environmental management mechanisms or health and safety measures. At the sarne time. industrial estates provide excellent opportunities for integrated environmental management of health risks. with the estate authority facilitating the process. Various mechanisms such as EIAs. lease agreements, cleaner production. shared pollution treatment and monitoring equipment and coordinated disaster preparedness can al1 work towards reducing the effects of industriai activity on human health. 3.0 BACKGROUND

3.1 Trinidad and Tobago

The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago consists of the twin island States located at the very southem end of the chain of Caribbean islands (Figure 3.1 ). Trinidad is the larger island. about 105 km long and 77 km wide. with a total land area of 4.828 km' and located 13 km east of Venezuela, on the continental shelf of South America (EMA 1995; CS0 1996; EIU 1997). Tobago is the smaller island with a land area of 30 1 km' and is located 32 km northeast of Trinidad (EMA 1995: EIU 1997). The Atlantic Ocean lies to the east, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Gulf of Paria is located to the west between Trinidad and the mainland. According to a mid-1995 estimate, the total population of Trinidad and Tobago was 126 1.899 people of which Tnnidad comprised 1,2 10,899 people (EIU 1997). Approximately 90% of the population in Trinidad is concentrated in urban areas such as Port of Spain and urban centres along the east-west corridor to kima in the northwest as well as dong the West coast down to San Fernando (EMA 1996). The population is growing at an annual rate of approximately 1 .O% (EMA 1998). Persons of African and East Indian descent make up the two major ethnic groups, each comprising approximately 40% of the population (PAHO 1998a; CIA 1998). The remaining 20% of the population consists of people of mixed origins (1 8.5%) and other ocigins (a%) (PAHO l998a).

3.2 Point Lisas Industrial Estate

The Point Lisas Industrial Estate is located on the West coast of central Trinidad within the county of Caroni about 40 km south of Port of Spain and 16 km north of San Fernando (Manwaring and McShine 199 1 : Boyle 1995; IMA 1998) (Figure 3.1). The area is situated within the Northem Basin that consists of flood plains and fiats lying below ten metres (EMA 1996). It is bordered on the West by the Gulf of Paria and by Figure 3.1: Location of the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in Trinidad (Boyle 1995) settIements and the southern main road on the east. Areas to the north and south are predominantly used for agriculture (Figure X). Prior to its development. the lands were primarily used for sugar cane cultivation with a fringing mangrove located dong the coast (Rajkumar 1997). At this time. a sugar factory was the only industry in the area. A fertilizer plant was established at Point Lisas in 1956. and in the 1960s. a large industrial estate with port facilities was proposed for the area (PLIPDECO 1979: Manwaring and McShine 1991). The land was subsequently designated for industrial development in the physical plan for Trinidad and Tobago (TCPD 1982). Several factors made the Point Lisas Industrial Estate attractive to the development of heavy industry including (PLIPDECO 1979: Manwaring and McShine 1991):

extensive area of tlat land of sugar cane that could be easily developed; good accessibility of site to developed areas in both north and south Trinidad: a coastal location where port facilities could be installed: cheap off-shore natural gas to provide fuel and feedstock for industries: an urban nucleus at the town of Couva equipped with a range of basic facilities; and, the presence of a fertilizer plant at Point Lisas with its own pon facilities.

The Govemment of Trinidad and Tobago rstablished the Point Lisas Industrial Port Development Company Ltd. (PLIPDECO) in 1966 to coordinate the development of the industrial estate md port facilities (PLIPDECO l998a). In 1968. a master plan for the estate was developed by PLIPDECO. Six hundred hectares of marginal sugar cane lands were acquired for this purpose: however. the plan was not impiemented for a number of years. In 1973, the economy of Trinidad and Tobago benefited fiom higher oil prices on the world market (Manwanng and McShine 199 1 ). At the same time. vast reserves of natunl gas were discovered off Trinidad's east coast. As a result. the Government decided to diversify the national economic base through the establishment of a heavy Figure 3.2 Point Lisas Study Site

Point Lisas Bay industrial complex that used natural gas as both a feedstock and a fuel. This development effort was viewed as a way to reduce the dependence of the economy on the oil sector. The Government acquired 98% of PLIPDECO shares and in 1975 began to work on the formulation of a new plan for the estate that included the construction of a heavy industnal estate. a light industnal estate and a bulk cargo port (McShine and Manwaring 1991: IMA 1998). Activities on the Point Lisas estate began in the late 1970s with the manufacture of steel products and the first of a series of petrochemical plants making me thanol. ammonia and urea for export. Expansion continued and included medium sized manufacturers. service companies. logistics providers and a Free Trade Zone. In addition to the industrial estate. the Point Lisas Port. a modem multi-purpose harbour. was built to handle the specific requirements of clients on the estate as well as general cargo. breakbu1k and containers (PLIPDECO f 998a). The Estate currently houses 79 tenants cornprised of a mix of world-class petrochemical and steel plants. medium-sized manufacturers and smaller service cornpanies providing a wide range of support facilities (PLIPDECO 1998a). A list of tenants is presentrd in Appendix II (PLIPDECO 1999a). At present. the Point Lisas Industrial Estatc covers 860 hectares and there are plans to expand this to 1.200 hectares in order to accommod~tenciw industries ( PLt PECO 1998a). Another methanol and steel rod plant are currently under construction and other developments including an aluminurn smclter plant and an ethylene-based complex are proposed for the industrial estate in the near future (IMA 1998). Figure 3.3' (sre back pocbt) shows the layout of the industrial estate and port in 1998 and includes the major existing and proposed heavy industries. The Estate has become a major producer of ammonia and methanol. producing 2 million tonnes of am-onia and 1.5 million tonnes of methanol in 1997. with production expected to increase in the future as new plants corne on Stream (PLIPDECO 1998a). Most of the industries at the estate have been developed by major foreign investors who were encouraged by the government policy of diversification through private sector investment. PLIPDECO serves as the estate landlord and its core activities include industriai real estate management. marine services and cargo handling. It is now a public Company

' Map provided courtesy of PLIPDECO and copied with permission (PLIPDECO 1998b). owned in part by the Governrnent of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (43%), the sugar Company (8%) and private shareholders such as banks. insurance companies and financial institutions (PLIPDECO 1 W8a). As Iandlord of the industrial estate, PLIPDECO has made a cornmitment to health. safety and the environment "that will be reflected in their company's policies and decision making" (PLIPDECO 1998a).

3.3 Surrounding Area and Communities

The general area surrounding the Estate is considered to be rural with the agricultural sector. particularly sugar cane cultivation. dorninating the land use in the area (EMA 1998). The other major land use is for housing. The main concentration of housing occurs along the Couva Main Road in Couva and at the Couva Housing Project (Lisas Gardens) to the north and nonheast of the estate and at California and Dow Village settleirents directly east of the rstatr i Manwaring and Gerald 1986). An overview of the study site is shown in Figure 3.2. In 1984. the Town and Country Planning Division (TCPD) identified Couva as a growth area (TCPD 1984). The town of Couva has a population of approximately 20,000 (McShine-Mutunhu 1985) and is a regional administrative centre. It has a courthouse. post office. police station. telephone exchange and offices of the Ministries of Health. Industry and Commerce. Works and Education (Manwaring and Gerald 1986). Also present are the district revenue office. library. fire department and a market. Couva provides many local services such as restaurants to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. A community centre is located at Couva that provides space for community activities and serve as nursery schools during the da! (hlanwaring and Gerald 1986). The Couva Housing Project (Lisas Gardrns) was developed by the Govemrnent of Trinidad and Tobago as part of a phasrd housing development (PLIPDECO 1979). It is located on land both east and West of the Southem Main Road. bounded by Couva in the north and on the south and west by the Couva River and on the east by an abandoned railway line (Figure 3.4). It contains 1.700 units intended to house approximately 10,000 persons. Plans are underway to expand the stock of housing in close proximity to the industricil site both to the north and to the east (NHA 1999). Figure 3.4 Aerial View of Lisas Gadens Housing Projeet Adjacent to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate

Source: T&T Lands and Survey 1994a The villages of California I Dow Village border the industrial estate directly to the east and have a population of about 7,000 people (Figure 3.5). Dow Village is one of the oldest settlements in the area, originally settled by indentured Indian labourers in 1845 (Cornmunity Resident 1999). As a result. a high percentage of perçons of Indian descent live in the area, with Hinduism being the major religion. A major outdoor recreationai facilit): is located at Gilbert Park, Califomia at the northeast entrance of the Point Lisas Industrial Estate (Manwaring and Gerald 1986). Other recreational grounds such as sports grounds for cricket and football are located in close proximity to each of the settlement areas. The surrounding area has several primary. junior secondary and secondary schools with an approximate student population of 5.200 (Manwaring and Gerald 1986). Education is free and cornpulsory between the ages of six and twelve. and there has been a steady but significant improvement in educational levels in recent years (EMA 1996). Literacy. as defined as people over the age of 15 who cm read and write, was estimated to be 97.9% for the country population (CIA 1998); however. there is growing concern over functional literacy (PAHO 1998a). Unemployment rates in the area are fairly high and reflect the national rate of 16.1% (December 1 W6),especially for women (CIA 1998). Most people in the area are employed in semi-skilled and unskilled occupations requiring relatively low levels of rducation (Cornmunity Resident 1999). Employment is dominated by sugar cane cultivation while fishing forms an important secondary activity. The Point Lisas Industrial Estate employs some people from the surrounding comrnunities, particularly during the construction of industrial plants; however, the permanent jobs at the industries generally require people with more technical knowledge and skills who tend to live outside the immediate area (PLIPDECO 1999b). An estimated 2 1-22% of the population in Trinidad !ive below the poverty line. with about half these individuals classified as extremely poor (Le., unable to afford the cost of a minimum food basket) (PAHO 1998a). Poverty has contributed to growing problems of crime and drug use. The study area contains several squatter settlements located along the edges of the planned settlements and near the industriai estate. The Governent has been attempting to move and regularize these settlements. Figure 3.5: Aerial View of California and Dow Village Adjacent to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate

Source: T&T Lands and Survey 1994b The study area is located within an administrative region known as the Couva / TabaquiteITalparo Regional Corporation (Couva/Tabaquite/Talparo Regional Corporation 1999). This local govemment has a mandate to take care of the welfare of the people including primary health care and providing a healthy environrnent. Health treatment is available fiom government-funded facilities or private practitioners. In addition, several of the Iarger industries provide medical facilities for their staff. Govemrnent schemes are also available for retirement, matemity. sickness. death and industrial injury. The main health facilities include the Couva Accident and Emergency (A&E) Unit and the Couva Health Centre (Ministry of Health 1993). The Couva District Hospital is no longer operational. The nearest in-patient facilities are located at San Fernando in the south. approximate!~16 km away. and at Mount Hope in the nonh. approximately 30 km away. The A&E unit provides 24 hour emergency service to the community. Patients are stabilized over an eight hour period and then are either discharged or transferred to another hospital (Ministry of Health 1999). The Couva Health Centre offers pnmary health care services through organized clinics held several times per week. Health resources have not expanded along with the population increase in Caroni County due to a reduction in public spending resulting in a deterioration of health infrastructure and services (Ministry of Heaith 1993). At present, the Couva A&E Unit is ill-equipped to deal with a major emergency because it has no laboratory, x-ray or trauma unit (Ministry of Health 1999). However. a new extended polyclinic unit is currently undrr construction directly to the east of the Couva at Camden. This new facility will offer more services including better diagnostics (Le.. x-ray, ultrasound. laboratory) as weil as a chernical decontamination area (Ministry of Health 1999). However. it will not have in-patient facilities and a bum unit originally proposed for the polyclinic has been rernoved fiom the current building plans. Of the 79 companies located at the Point Lisas Industnal Estate, some twenty of the companies are engaged in the use, handling and production of chemicals and products that are considered as hazardous to people, property or the environrnent (EMA 1999a). The release of these chemicals and products, either in the fonn of continuous or intermittent chronic emissions or through accidental discharges and their use, stomge and disposa1 may pose senous threats to the health and well-king of the workers and local residents as well as the surrounding environment. The population ai risk includes some 6,000 employees on the estate and approximately 18,000 residents (inclusive of schools) in the surrounding district within a 1.9 km (1.2 mile) radius (Republic of Tnnidad and Tobago 1994; EMA 1999a). The easterly trade winds dominate the wind regime and the prevailing wind directions are east by easthortheast and east by eastkoutheast across the Estate into the Gulf of Paria (EMA 1996). Limited information is available about the actuaI levels of emissions of air and rvater pollutants: the arnount of solid and hazardous waste produced. stored or disposed. either on or off the site; and about the existing quality of the environment. The Couva River, which enters the Estate from the northeast and flows westward to the Gulf of Paria. is the main river in the area (Manwaring and Gerald 1986). It receives industrial effluents fiom the sugar refinery pnor to entering the industrial estate. as well as runoff fiom nearby human settlements and sugar cane growing fields (IMA 1998). While the Couva River is not a source of drinking water to the local cornmunities. there is a strong public perception that the rivers and bays near Point Lisas are heavily contarninated by industrial wastes ([MA 1998). Although the Point Lisas Estate is the focus of the industnal activity. there are several other industrial developrnents present in the area (Manwaring and Gerald 1986). A sugar refinery. located to the east of the Estate is a source of pollution to the surrounding environment through its emissions and effluents. A cernent factory is located to the south of the Estate and has been a focus of concem with respect to its dust emissions. In addition. construction of a new industrial estate has begun directly to the east of Dow Village and will inciude a 225 MW power generating station and substation, a tissue paper recycling plant, a glas manufacturing plant and an ethanol pmcessing plant (CARONI 1998). This newest industrial estate has created some coniroversy and concem among local residents because it was approved with little to no public consultation (T&T Mirror 1998; Trinidad Guardia 1998a; 1998b; FM 102 Radio Show 1999). An environmentai impact statement (EIS) for this industnal estate does not provide details on the pollutant loads or potential effects of industrial emissions / effluents on human health (CARONI 1998). In addition to industry. there are several other sources of pollution to the study area. The Southem Main Road. bordering the Estate. is a main transport comdor to the north and south and inadequately controlled vehicle emissions are a source of air pollution. Moreover. smoke and soot from the burning of sugar cane fields during harvest also contribute to air pollution. Further, the dumping of rubbish into drains and the river can be a source of water pollution.

3.4 Institutional / Regulatory Context

3.4.1 Environmental Protection

Trinidad and Tobago is the most industrialized country in the Commonwealth Caribbean region (CIDA l988a: Pollard et al. 1991 : EMA 1998). Prospenty associated with its petroleum industry has allowed it to develop a relatively advanced institutional framework and has put it in a good position to address and manage environmental concems. However. resource exploitation and rapid indusvialization have been characterized by short-term economic gain with Methought to the environment (ECA 1996). For example, industrial discharges have led to widespread chernical pollution in the Caroni River and its tributaries and coastal areas such as the Gulf of Paria (Pollard et cd. 199 1 ). Moreover. large areas of coastal mangrove swamps have been converted for industrial use. In recent years. there has been a move towards increased protection of the environment in Trinidad and Tobago. partially rnotivated by the need to comply with international lending agency requirements (ECA 1996). However. the process has been inconsistent. and uncoordinated. resulting in more than 40 pieces of legislation addressing some aspect of the environment and over 28 govemment agencies responsible for various activities and fùnctions related to environmentai management (Pollard et ai. 199 1). As a result, there has been a lack of institutional and legal focus for the coordination and direction of initiatives for environmental regulation and management as well as some duplication of function and waste of resources. This fact. together with little or no enforcement of existing legislation and punishrnents not reflective of cunent reality. has led to a number of environment-related problems (ECA 1996). In 1992, the Government of Trinidad and Tobago made a commitment to foster and encourage sustainable development at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Earth Summit) (UNCED 1992). As a resuli of its commitments. the Government of Trinidad and Tobago enacted the Environment M~nagementAct (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1995) in March 1995 to provide the legislative framework for comprehensive control of the environment. The Environmental :tlunagernent .kt is legislation with a goal of ensuring the protection. conservation, enhancement and wise use of the environment of Trinidad and Tobago. It also establishes an Environmental Management Authority (EMA), sets out its functions and provides for an Environment Trust Fund and an Environmental Commission. The major objectives of the Act are to:

increase environmental awareness. integrate environrnental concems into decision making, establish an integrated environrnental management system (EMS). develop effective legislation. policies and p:ograms, and enhance the legal. reg ulatory and i nstitutional frarnework for environmental management (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1995).

Moreover. the Act has a provision for the Minister to make rules related to the following:

registration of pollution sources and releases. permitting and licensing requirements, designation of environmentally sensitive areas and species, incentive programs to increase environmental quality. designation of hazardous substances. environmental impact assessment, waste handling and disposal, pollution monitoring, establishment of environmental quality criteria and standards. and design. construction, operation, maintenance and monitoring of facilities (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1995).

Environmental Management Authoritv (EMA) In June 1995. the Government of Trinidad and Tobago established the EMA under the Environmental Management Act. Its role is:

" .. . to CO-ordinate,facilitate and oversee execution of the national environmental strategy and programmes, to promote public awareness of environmental concems. and to establish an effective regulatory regime which will protect. enhance and conserve the environment.. . "(Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1995).

The EMA is a corporate body govemed by a Board of Directors appointed by the President of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago on advice from the Prime Minister. The Board is empowered by a Managing Director as well as other personnel as it sees fit (ECA 1996). An initial budget of $7.3 million (which includes a USS6.25 million loan from the World Bank) was allocated for the startup operations of the EMA. Aside from the EMA, several other organizations play an important role in environmental protection related to industrial sites in Trinidad and Tobago. The role of these organizations is outlined in more detail below.

Ministrv of Planning and Develo~ment In 1991. the former Ministry of the Environment was disbanded and its environmental role was incorporated within the Environment Division of the Ministry of Planning and Development (ECA 1996). This move was intended to strengthen the institutional capability of integrated development planning. Their main role with respect to the environment is in the capacity of EIA. This department is the main licensing body and cm request ElAs for new industries and developments as part of the requirements for additional information under Section 9 of the Town and Country Planning Act (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1960). At this time, this Division is in a state of transition following more recent developments and altered legislation (TCPD 1999). The Town and Country Planning Act is in the process of being revised, with a clearer mandate for EIAs for any large scale development projects, especially in environmentally sensitive areas (ECA 1996). Moreover, with the advent of the EMA, it remains unclear whether this department will continue in the capacity of EIA (TCPD 1999).

Trinidad and Tobago Bureau of Standards (TTBS) The TTBS. a division of the Ministry of Trade. Industry and Tourism, is a corporate body established under the authonty of the Standards Act 1 997 (TTBS 1 998). in accordance with this Act, the TTBS "promotes and encourages the development and maintenance of standards and establishes standards for goods produced or used in TT. to promote public and industrial welfare. health and safety and for the protection of the environment" (TTBS 1998, p ii). The TTBS develops standards through consultation with relevant interest groups. and al1 draft standards are put forward for public comment. At present, there are no compulsory environmental standards set for industries (EMA 1999b). Voluntary standards have been developed for liquid effluents from domestic wastewater treatrnent plants (TTBS 1993) and from industnal plants (TTBS 1998) in collaboration with the EMA. These standards will become compulsory only after forma1 desare set down and passed in Parliament with respect to the implementation and enforcement of these standards (TTBS 1 998).

Ministrv of Energv and Enerm-Based Industries (MEEI) The MEEI is responsible for monitoring, controlling and regulating the energy and minera1 industries in the country (MEEI 1998). As part of its function to promote optimal growth and development of the energy and mineral secton in a safe and environmentally sound manner, it is required '90 assess and monitor the environmental impact of existing and planned development" as well as 'establish guidelinedstandards and/or codes of practice to ensure health and safety of employees, plants and the public" (MEEI 1998). The Ministry monitors environmental quality at energy-related facilities including the petrochemicd plants at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate (MEEI 1998). A monitoring programme is conducted by the lnspectorate Division and includes investigations of al1 oil spi11 and chernical discharge incidents and regular inspections of petroleurn installations and surrounding areas. In addition. the MEEI conducts monthly sampling of effluents from oil and petrochemical facilities. which are performed at strategic points where wastewater enters public waterways. These samples are anaiyzed by Caribbean Industrial Research Institute (CARIN) for levels of oil and grease, arnrnonia and pH. among others. Variance from allowable limits are communicated to the respective Company. in order to effect corrective measures. However, the nature of implementation and enforcernent of these corrective measures remains unclear, as there do not appear to be any legal-binding standards or penalties. The Ministry also plays a role in the EIA process. As a member of a Cornmittee chaired by the Town and Country Planning Division, it assists in the evaluation of EIA documents submitted by companies seeking approval for new plants and projects. In addition. it is the sole regulatory agency responsible for approving EIAs for offshore drvelopments.

PLIPDECO (Point Lisas Industrial Port Develo~rnentCom~anv): PLIPDECO has taken on a leading role in environmental management of the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. In recent lease agreements. PLIPDECO requires al1 new plants be built to maintain the environmental standards currently enforced in their country of origin or to conform to World Bank Standards as a condition of the lease agreement (PLIPDECO 1999b). This condition gives PLIPDECO the right to require industries to monitor their emissions and conform to the specified standards; however, the nature of enforcement remains unclear. Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) The Government of Trinidad and Tobago established the IMA in 1976 (IMA 1999a). Its mandate is "to collect, analyze and disseminate data relating to the economic. technological. environmental, social and legal development in marine affain generally, and to formulate and implement specific programmes and projects to achieve the overall objectives" (IMA 1999a). The [MA has actively conducted independent research in marine ecology and environmental management (ECA 1996). Research projects have included the monitoring of water quality in the environment with respect to pollution and its effects on living organisms in the environment. Recently. the Government mandated that the MAmust become more financially independent and this requirement has necessitated a shifi in focus awûy from independent research projects and towards the provision of consulting services to various clients (IMA 1999b). As a result. the IMA now offers consulting services to many of the tenants at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate with an emphasis on EIAs and water quality monitoring.

Caribbean Industrial Research Institute (CARIRI) CAMRI was established in 1970 by the Govenunent of Trinidad and Tobago. with the assistance of the United Nations Development Program (CMDP) and United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (CARIN 1999). This institution is based at the St. Augustine campus of the University of the West Indies (UWI) and is widely recognized for its research and training in environmentally sound technology, clean production, hazardous waste management and workplace practices (ECA 1996). its provides products and services in the areas of environmental management and monitoring, food and biotechnology, engineering, information, industrial and petroleum chemistry. industnal materials and quaiity management (CARIN 1999). The institution has the largest independent, laboratory-based facility in Trinidad and Tobago and offers consulting services to many of the tenants at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate especially in the areas of research and monitoring. Universitv of West Indies (UWI), St. Augustine Cam~us UWI is an educationd institution that promotes environmental training by providing technical advice and assistance as well as research into issues that may affect the environment (ECA 1996). The Centre for Environmental Studies was recently established at the St. Augustine campus in Trinidad (ECA 1996). As an interdisciplinary centre, it works with several organizations and institutions such as CARIRI, the IMA and the TTBS.This Centre offers a variety of services including: environmental monitoring and analysis. EIAs. environmental audits. environmental management, nsk assessment. hazard and operability studies. continuing education courses and an M.Sc. in Environmental Engineering. In addition. the departments of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering have been quite active in conducting research into environmental related issues. with some research directly involving industries in the Point Lisas area (UWI t 999).

Non-Govermental Oraanizations INGOs) There are numerous NGOs in Trinidad and Tobago; however. the activities of these organizations Vary considerably depending on time and fùnding available (ECA 1996). Generally, NGOs have little political clout and have been most effective in terms of public awareness and education programs. These organizations have also been instrumental in increasing the number of environment-related stories in the news media. There is a strong perception among some NGOs that most industries are more concemed w ith commercial objectives rather than concerns of their stakeholders or the environment. Many of the NGOs such as the Presbyterian Women's Group of Trinidad and Tobago and the Rotary Club promote environmental education and awareness among their members and other community memben through informai seminars and meetings or are involved in environmental beautification projects across the country (ECA 1996). The Fishermen and Friends of the Sea (FFOS) is one of the few NGOs that has been quite active in the Point Lisas area (FFOS 1999). They have been actively lobbying the government with regard to access to environmental information such as EIAs and environmental monitoring data as well as raising concerns about health and safety related to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. However. their efforts are, for the most part ignored by both the Govemment and industries on the estate who tend to view their organization as somewhat radical.

3.4.2 Health and Safety Protection

The Govemment of Trinidad and Tobago has accepted the responsibility, under its Constitution (Article 4). to adopt policies and measures with a view to improving human health and the quality of life (EMA 1998). It also recognizes that health. as a state of complete physical, mental and social well being, and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity, is a fundamental right of its citizens. As a result, achievement of the highest possible level of health is an important social goal for the country. The Public Health Ordinance of 1940 is the main piece of legislation goveming health within Trinidad and Tobago but predates World War 1 (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1940). It is currently under review and the drafling of a new health act is undenvay. With respect to factories and workshops. the Public Health Ordinonce allows for the developrnent of bylaws relating to 1) cleanliness. 2) removal of refuse. 3) ventilation and light. 4) sanitary conveniences. 5) protection of food and water, 6) protection from the spread of infection and 6) the registration of factories and workshops. The Facrory Ordinunces Act is the main piece of legislation that governs worker health and safety (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1950). However, this Act has since been revised and a new Occupationai Health and Safety Bill is currently pending in Parliament (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1997). This Bill sets out conditions in terms of safety and health in industrial establishments including such aspects as protective clothing and devices, removal of dust and fumes, confined spaces, cleanliness, respiratory protection. lighting, noise and vibration, overcrowding and ventilation. In addition. the Bill requires al1 employees to undergo medical examination as a pre-

COndi tion to permanent employment at an industrial establishment. The Minister also has the power to require rnedical supervision for illnesses or injuries that may be linked to the nature of work or conditions of work Trinidad and Tobago Ministrv of Health The Ministry of Health is the main governmental body responsible for issues related to human health in Trinidad and Tobago. It sets the national fiarnework and priorities. ensures that public funds effectively meet the population's needs and improve health status, and establish standards and monitor the achievement of these standards. In 1994. health services were decentralized from County Boards to Regional Health Authorities (RHAs) (PAHO 1998a). The RHAs act as independent statutory authorities accountable to the Minister of Health, encompass larger areas and are responsible for management and health service delivery to the local populations. The health delivery system in Trinidad and Tobago is organized around primary health care and environmental health (PAHO l998a). Community health services are provided by medical. nursing, awiliary staff and public health inspectors who are headed by a County Health Medical Officer. Health ueatment is available through a network of health centres. hospitals and private practitioners. However, these health facilities often do not deliver the desired range and quality of services to residents due to acute shortages of personnel. equipment and supplies due to chronic underfunding. A Public Health Inspectorate takes care of issues such as the certification of food handlers and food sold to the public, inspection of residential premises, commercial. industrial and agricultural enterprises and facilities, and control of rodents. insects and stray animals (Ministry of Health 1993). In addition, public health oficers are required to investigate any pollution cornplaints that may affect the health of the people. Aside from the Ministry of Health, several other organizations play an important role in the protection of health related to industrial sites in Trinidad and Tobago. The role of thesr organizations is outlined in more detail below.

Environrnental Management Authoritv: The EMA has a responsibility to manage the environment to protect human health (EMA 1998). Specific objectives in its Environmental Policy include the provision to "prevent. reduce or eliminate various foms of pollution to ensure the adequate protection of the environment and consequently the health and well-being of humans" (EMA 1998: p 5). As such, it works with the Ministry of Health to investigate situations that may have a negative impact on human health. For example. the EMA took a lead role in closing down a cernent factory because of health-related cornplaints from residents due to particulate emissions (Trinidad Express 1999).

Caribbean Environmental Health Institute (CEHI): The main goal of CEHI, a regional institute of Caribbean Cornmunity, is the protection of human health and the environment. and it provides technical and advisory semices to Member States in al1 areas of environmental management (CEHI 1998). Rrcently. CEHI has been involved in a major project initiative that looked at the Management of Industrial Chernicals and Wastes in CARKOM States (Chui et al. 1994; Côté and Chiu 1993). Part of this project aimed to reduce environmental and health risks and prevent future threats fiom the transport. use and disposal of industrial chernicals through chernical control and waste minimization.

Pan American HeaIth Oraanization (PAHO): PAHO is an international public health agency that works to improve health and living standards of the countries of the Americas (PAHO 1999). Its basic task is to collaborate with Ministries of Health and other organizations in Member States to strengthen iiational and local health systems and to improve the health of the peoples of the Americas. It has an office located in the capital city of Port of Spain in Trinidad and Tobago. PAHO. in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Planning and Development sponsored a National Consultation on Health. Environment and Sustainable Development in July 1995 in Trinidad (ECA 1996).

Caribbean E~idemioloavCentre (CARECI: CAREC is administered on behalf of 21 Member Countries by PAHO,the WHO'S Regional Office for the Arnericas (CAREC 1999). Under a Multilaieral Agreement. CAEC provides laboratory reference and epidemiology services to 2 1 Member Countries. Trinidad and Tobago is the host country for this organization. Its mission is to improve the health statu of Caribbean people by advancing the capabilities of member countnes in epidemiology. laboratory technology and related public health disciplines through technical cooperation. service. training, research and a well trained motivated staff.

3.1.3 Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Response

The Govemment oFTrinidad and Tobago has accepted the responsibiiity to adopt policies and measures to protect life and property during times of disaster including industrial disasters. As such, it established the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) by Cabinet Minute No. 2 101 in 1989 (NEMA 1998). In addition. it is also signatory to the agreement establishing the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency.

National Emergencv Management Authoritv INEMA): NEMA was established under the Ministry of National Security and is responsible for the national rmergency preparedness and relief planning (NEMA 1998). Its mission is:

"to coordinate a network of agencies and individuals within the country to direct their efforts to the maximum preservation of life and the protection of property in times of disaster" (NEMA 1998, p 1).

.4s part of its role and functions. it is required to compile. review and provide suppon for the completion and updating of emergency plans for various circumstances including industrial disasters. Aside from NEMA, several other organizations play an important role in disaster preparedness and emergency response related to industrial sites in Tnnidad and Tobago. The role of these organizations is outlined in more detail below.

Local Govemment: The local regional corporations have a mandate to take care of the welfare of the people within their rnunicipaiities (CouvalTabaquite/Talparo Regionai Corporation 1999). This mandate includes the responsibility to develop emergency plans for incidents/disasters that cari occur within their administrative areas (NEMA 1997). in addition. NEMA. as coordinator of dl activities related to emergency preparedness. response and recovery, relies on the local administration of disaster management plans.

Trinidad and Tobago Emergencv Mutual Aid Scheme (TTEMAS): TTEMAS is a not for profit, non-govemental industrial service organization committed to delivering industrial emergency preparedness and response services (TTEMAS 1998). It was launched in 1983 io provide more efficient fire suppression and emergency protection services to cope with potential major incidents on the Point Lisas lndustrial Estate that may endanger health. safety and property. Its membership consists of companies on the industrial estate, fire, police and defense forces. local govemment and Ministries of Health. National Security. and Energy and Energy-Based Industries). TTEMAS is supported by member companies that provide personnel. equipment. and supplies. accommodation and funding by way of rnembership fees. Although TTEMAS was formed as an emergency reaciive group, its ernphasis is also on prevention and mitigation (TTEMAS 1998). TTEMAS conducts workshops and training programs as well as annual hill-scale emergency response practice drills. It also expects its member companies to comply with the principles of Responsible Care. The focus of TTEMAS is first and forernost to its industrial members and containment of any incident.

Permanent Committee for Disaster Pre~arednessat the Point Lisas Industrial Estate: A Cabinet-appointed Permanent Committee for Disaster Preparedness at Point Lisas Industrial Estate submitted a report to Cabinet in November of 1994 (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1994). Their task was to identifj and mess the hazards at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. Recommendations within this report included: upgrading rnedical safety and rnedical facilities, improving waste management and telecornrnunications systems. and launching a public education program to inform the public of hazards present at the estate and actions they should take. Pan Arnerican HeaIth Organization (PAHO): PAHO has undertaken an education initiative with respect to environmentai health including emergencies in Trinidad and Tobago (PAHO 1998b). This initiative is being pilot tested within several comrnunities including the comrnunity of Lisas Gardens located adjacent to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. An environmental health manual that included a section on chemical emergencies was developed and will be distributed to residents in the near future.

Communitv-Based Organizations: Community-based organizations tend to be more geographically based and they tend to be more passionate as their members are usually trying to protect their homes, farnilies and way of life. In the Point Lisas area a Cornmittee for the Protection of Couva Residentsfrom the Risk of Chernical Explosion at Point Lisus was formed following the reiease of the Cabinet Report in 1994 (ECA 1996). The group wanted to pressure the govemrnent to take action to ensure their protection against the risk of a major chemical explosion at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. However. five years later. the researcher was unable to locate any members of this group suggesting that it had possibly disbanded and was no longer active within the community. Recently. several residents in the local community have been trying to organize an environmental group to protest health and safety concems about the new industrial rstate as well as continuing concem about the Point Lisas Industrial Estate (Anonymous 1998; Community Resident 1999). The group has highlighted several issues including:

the installation of early warning systems; a disaster preparedness and evacuation plan for residents; the need for training of youth and others to gain employment on the industrial estates; the protection of the environment and the historical heritage of the area: the protection of health from industrial emissions: planning to address flooding problems. and the need for regular public consultation. However. some dissent arnong the interested parties have made fonning a cohesive group difficult.

3.5 Background Summary

In surnmary, the background context of the study area is very cornplex. The Point Lisas Industnal Estate is a large industnal site located within a predominately d agricultural area on the Coast. Yrt, there is a large population of people living in the nearby comrnunities that may be afTected by industrial pollution through chronic discharges or accidental releases, and who may not be necessarily receiving any benefits from industrial development. The institutional 1 regulatory context with regard to the environmental protection, health protection and disaster preparedness and emergenc y response is complicated. Many organizations are involved to differing degrees and there tends to be a general lack of coordination among groups. In addition. availability and access to environmental and health information tends to be limited. 4.0 METHODOLOGY

4.1 Research Approach 1 Design

4.1.1 Research Philosophy

In an ecosystem approach to health, the ecosystem is viewed in an integrated holistic manner. recognizing that the health and well-king of people is not separate from, but rather dependent, on their environment (CCME 1994; Eyles et al. 1996; WHO 1997; IDRC 1998). Thus. health must be viewed within the context of a complex ecosystem. considering economic, social. political and cultural factors. as well as hazards within the environment that may affect health and well-being. The researcher has tried to adopt this approach as part of her research philosophy by applying it to her case study in Trinidad. This holistic approach has allowed the researcher to gain a better understanding about how an industrial estate interacts with the surrounding ecosystem, both natural and human. and recommend ways to improve the overall health of the ecosystem, thus. improving human heaith. In addition to viewing the ecosystem holistically, the researcher recognizes the importance of participatory research methods that value and seek out the knowledge of local people to shape the direction and content of the research (Gurnmesson 1991; Theis and Grady 199 1 : Whyte 199 1 ; Rahman 1993; Narayan 1996; Selener 1997). Participatory research advocates that al1 those affected by a study should be involved and contribute to the outcome as researchers themselves (Gummesson 199 1. Whyte 199 1). This type of research recognizes the importance of knowledge as power and attempts to empower disadvantaged communities. In developing countries, information is usually hekl by an elite few and out of the reach of the general community (Rahman 1993). Participatory research is an approach that integrates research, education and action in ways that allow people to address concems within their lives and communities (Theis and Grady 199 1; Selener 1997). Participatory research contrasts sharply with conventional modes of pure research in which there are only passive subjects and objective researchen (Theis and Grady 199 1 ;Narayan 1996; Selener 1997). It moves away fiom a positivist paradigm and the idea that there is only one "right" answer. It follows a naturalistic design of inquiry that does not view knowledge as pre-existing but rather is generated by different perceptions of reality (Lincoln and Guba 1985). While the researcher sought to adopt this approach in her research philosophy. the short period of field research within a cross-cultural context along with political sensitivities did not allow the researcher to fully develop a participatory approach in her research. Therefore, a decision was made to rely more heavily on conventional qualitative research methods such as open-ended, semi-structured interviews, documentation and participant observation. However, as much as was possible, a participatory approach was adopted in the research where feasible. As a means to beaer undentand the comrnunity context. the researcher lived in the local study area and took part in comrnunity life by attending community events and meetings. The researcher also tried to be transparent with her research objectives and methods and took direction t'rom various stakeholders as to research content and issues of concern. Certain participatory research tools were used including site area tours. photo documentation. focus group discussions and community validation. Prior to the researcher's retum to Canada. the preliminary research findings and recommendations were presented to interested stakeholders contacted throughout the study to obtain their feedback and validation and to provoke discussion. It is hoped that by trying to incorporate a participatory approach, the research was better able to address community concems and questions and was more applicable to developing appropriate solutions.

4. 1.2 Qualitative Research

The researcher originally set out to calculate health risks through quantitative risk analysis and to complement this data qualitatively through interviews. discussions and direct observations to achieve an integrated understanding of the site. However. due to a lack of availability and accessibility to appmpriate environmental data necessary for a quantitative risk analysis, it was necessary to change the methodology to a stricüy qualitative approach. The researcher felt that the qualitative approach proved particularly useful in drawing out perceptions and experiences of the local communities and allowing the researcher to gain a better understanding of the context of the situation. Qualitative research is based on interpretive techniques used to describe and corne to tenns with the meaning, and not the fiequency, of some phenornena (Van Maanen 1990; Creswell 1994). Qualitative research is ofien used for exploratory researfh where the variables are not known but the context is important (Creswell 1994). The data are descriptive, reported in words or pictures, rather than numbers, and are used to build a complex holistic picture of the situation. In addition. the theories are not established beforehand allowing the research to be flexible to diverse situations (Creswell 1994: Rubin and Rubin 1997). The major limitation of a qualitative technique is that there are few guidelines to follow when assessing the soundness of a given qualitative technique (Van Maanen 1990). In addition. there is a strong potential for researcher or respondent bias in primary data based on quotes and other anecdotal information. The researcher tned to compensate for these techniques by using and docurnenting multiple sources of information. as in trianguiation. and in verifj4ng data with key informants and in secondary sources (Yin 1989; DePoy and Gitlin 1991).

1.1.3 Case Study Approach

In a case study. the researcher explores a single entity or phenornenon bounded by tirne and activity. coliecting in-depth information for a sustained period (Yin 1989: Stake 1998). Case studies use multiple sources of evidencr such as direct observation and spstematic interviewing to address questions about a contemporary set of events over which the researcher has linle or no control (Yin 1989). Case studies can be used for exploratory, descriptive and analytical purposes. Case studies often follow a naniralistic design rather than an experimental design of inquiry, allowing for a more iterative approach. In a naturalistic design, the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the research setting (Lincoln and Guba 1985; Patton 1990). Rather, the research setting is based on naturally occumng events, prograrns, communities, relationships or interactions that the researcher studies as they naturally unfold. Unlike expetimental research that sets out to measure a limited set of variables, this type of discovery-oriented approach places no pnor constraints on what the outcornes of the research will be. The major strength of a case study approach is its ability to use many different sources of evidence, thus. making the conclusions more convincing and accurate and resulting in higher overall quality of the study (Yin 1989). In addition. a case study investigation retains the holistic characteristics of real life events within their context, making it more applicable to understanding real life issues and problems. However. there are two major limitations to case studies. First. researchers may allow weak evidence and biased views to influence the direction of findings and conclusions. Second. there cmbe very little basis for scientific generalization. These concerns cmbe allayed through sound research design. data recording and analysis (Silveman 1993; Marshall and Rossman 1995; Stake 1998). The use of multiple sources of data and different methods, as in triangulation, helps to corroborate findings and reduces thc likeliness of misinterpretation. Moreover, taking one's findings bûck to the subjects being studied, as in tespondent validation. helps to enhance the study's reliabili ty and validity. Finally. the careful documentation of methods and data collected helps to enhance the study's value in terrns of making generalizations or cornparisons to other studies. The site of the case study is the Point Lisas lndustrial Estate, a heavily industrialized are* located on the central western coast of Trinidad. It has been a source of considerable concem with regard to health. safety and the environment in the area (Sweeney 1998). After discussions with various stakeholders in Trinidad, this site was recommended to the researcher by CEHI as a suitable site to investigate the links between health and industrial development in the Caribbean.

4.4 Environmental Risk Management Framework

The research project followed a framework for hedth risk management as developed by the PresidentiaVCongressional Commission on Risk Assessrnent and Risk Management (Figure 4.1 ) (Omenn et al. 1997). This framework outlines six stages in the process including:

Define the problem and put it into context Analyze the risks associated with the problem in context Examine options for addressing the risks Make decisions about which options to implement Take actions to implement decisions Conduct an evaluation of the action's result.

The framework for risk management is dynamic allowing for subsequent iterations of the process as new data become available. For this reason. the framework encourages stakeholder involvement to the extent appropnate and feasible during ail stages of the risk management process. recognizing that this involvement is critical to making and successfully implementing rîsk management decisions. The researcher chose this framework because it appeared to fit well with the holistic nature of an ecosystem approach to human health. In addition the framework stresses that the work be conducted in collaboration with stakeholders making it a good fit with the participatory research philosophy. Moreover, the flexible and iterative nature of the fiamework allows for reevaluation of results as new data become available. The researcher applied the first ihree steps of the risk management framework to the case study, details which are outlined below in Section 4.4.

4.2 Study Boundaries

In any research study, it is important to set the boundaries of the study in terms of space. tirne and focus to provide direction for the scope of the study and the potential audience as well as provide a context in which to base the analysis (Creswell 1994). The spatial boundaries for the snidy site included the Point Lisas Industrial Estate as well as the surrounding area within a 1.9 km (1.2 mile) radius of the industrial estate. This area was chosen based on a briefing document on Point Lisas Industrial Estate by the EMA Figure 4.1 Health Risk Management Framework

Source: Omenn et al. 1997 that cited that the population within this area was at senous nsk fiom the release of substances. both through chronic discharges and accidental occurrences (EMA 1999a). Figure 3.3 shows the location of the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in relation to local communities and other industries. For temporal boundaries of the study, the researcher assessed current conditions as observed during the field research component occumng between January and May of 1999. The historical context was also considered. but only as it had an effect on the current conditions. The study set out to capture a "snapshot in time" and was not intended to be predictive of future health effects although results fiom the snidy can be used to highlight issues that rnay pose problems in the hiture. The researcher chose to focus the study on the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and other industrial developments in the area as sources of industrial pollution to the surrounding ecosystem. Specifically, the potential effects of industrial air emissions and liquid effluents on the heaith of the surrounding ecosystem. both human and natural. were considered. Solid waste was not specifically considered in this project. dthough it is recognized that solid waste can be produced as result of pollution control mechanisms and that the burning of solid waste can result in air emissions.

4.3 Field Research Component

The field component of the research took place between January 2 and May 1 5 of 1999. The first week was spent in St. Lucia at CEHI working with their staff to review the research study design. preparc lettea of introduction and review and finaiize the interview questions. Throughout the field research in Trinidad. the staff at CEHI also assisted the researcher at various times by Cacilitating introduction to key officiais. accompanying the researcher to meetings and presentations and providing guidance on a regular basis. Upon arrivai in Trinidad, the first two months were spent in the northem part of Trinidad near the University of West Indies, St. Augustine campus. During this tirne, the researcher accessed the university library and other institutionai libraries for background information and data on the site, held meetings with local governmental and institutional officiais in the nearby capital city, and initiated contacts at the industrial estate and within the community . At the mid-point of the research, the researcher flew back to St. Lucia for a progress review meeting with CEHI staK In March, the researcher relocated to the town of Couva. a local community near the case study research site. This relocation facilitated the field research component, particularly with respect to making contacts and conducting interviews within the local communities and at the industrial estate. During the final week of the field component in Trinidad. a debriefing session was held at the industrial estate for interested stakeholders contacted throughout the study. The final two days of the field research were spent in St. Lucia at CEHI to present and review the findings of the project and work with CEHI staff to develop ideas for Future initiatives in Trinidad.

4.4 Detailed Methodology

The detailed methodology for the research project is described below within the context of the first three steps of the risk management Framework.

4.4.1 Define the Problem and Put it Into Context

The problem definition stage is the most important stage in the risk management framework since a good risk management decision must address a clearly articulated problem within its context (Omem et al. 1997). It involves identifiing and characterizinp an environmental health problem. or a potential problem. caused by chernicals or other hazardous agents or situations. The goal of this stage was to undentand the main environmental issues related to health concems at the site. A conceptual mode1 for the site was developed that identified agents of concem. ways in which people cm be exposed and groups of people at potentiai nsk fiom exposure to hazardous agents as well as how they interrelate with other factors to affect hurnan health. In qualitative research, the use of more than one strategy to collect information. known as triangulation, is used to increase the accuracy of information gathering, validate the data. develop a more comprehensive picme of a phenomenon and draw out unbiased conclusions (DePoy and Gitlin 1991 ; Silverman 1993; Stake 1998). These strategies typically include three aspects: asking, exarnining and watching 1 Iistening and cm take the form of interviews, review of secondary materials and observation. Several different approaches were used to identify and characterize potential environmental health problems related to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and to understand the context of the study site. These are discussed in fbrther detail below.

Review of Secondarv Sources: The review of secondary sources of information is a fundamental step in any research. It helps the researcher gain a detailed understanding of a problem and its context. determine gaps in existing information, highlight issues of significance for iûrther exploration and corroborate and augment evidence from other sources (Yin 1989; Theis and Grady 1991, Depoy and Gitlin 1994). Secondary sources of information can include acadernic journals, organizational reports, local newspapers, legislation and regulations. proposais. letters. memos, maps. photos, census data, meeting minutes and, health statistics (Depoy and Gitlin 1994). A literature review was conducted in Canada prior to the researcher's departure to the field to farniliarize the researcher with any data and information that may be related to the research. However. this review was preliminary at best, as many of the secondary sources of information most relevant to the research were not available in Canada. Therefore, the major part of the secondary source review occuned in Trinidad. Upon arriva1 to the Caribbean, the researcher conducted an exhaustive search of libraries and documentation centres of key institutions for literatw, legislation and data relevant to the industrial estate and surrounding areas. The institutions that the researcher accessed for this search are listed below:

Caribbean Environmental Health Institute, St. Lucia University of West Indies. St. Augustine campus, Trinidad Environmental Management Authority. Tnnidad Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of Health, Trinidad Pan American Health Organization, Trinidad Caribbean Epidemiology Centre, Trinidad PLIPDECO,Trinidad Town and Country Planning, Trinidad Caribbean Industrial Research Institute, Trinidad Institute of Marine Affairs, Trinidad

In addition. maps, photos and other documents were obtained fiom the following offices: Central Statistics Office, Ministry of Housing, Trinidad and Tobago Bureau of Standards, Govemment Printery, Director of Surveys, and Department of Lands and Surveying. Moreover, other secondary materials were provided to the researcher dunng meetings and discussions with key informants. During the research process, the researcher also became aware of various reports and data that she was unable to access due to client confidentiality concems and a general reluctance to share the data. As a result. this information could not used for the research and represents a significant limitation in terms of comprehensiveness of the secondary source review. The review of secondary materials continued throughout the research process as a means to identify additional issues of concern and to clarify and cross-check data obtained through other avenues. Upon her return to Canada. the researcher conducted a focussed literature review to explore additional information related to the initiai findings from the field research. This information. dong with the materials obtained in the Caribbean, was incorporated into various sections of this thesis report.

S i te Reco~aissance: Upon arriva1 in Trinidad, a staff member from CEHI drove the researcher around the industrial estate and surrounding communities, noting areas of potential interest and concern in an initial site reconnaissance, A few weeks later, the researcher was taken on an officia1 tour of the industrial estate by the public relations ofticer of the PLIPDECO; however. this tour did not extend beyond the boundaries of the industrial estate. Later in the research, several concemed citizens accompanied the researcher on a tour of the Point Lisas Industrial Estate, the I~ercobIndustrial Estate cunently under construction and the surrounding communities and ecosystem pointing out areas of concem to them. The researcher documented these concems through photography and note taking. In addition, during discussions and interviews, several community members pointed out items and areas of concem to hem; these were again documented through photos and note taking.

Srmi-Structured Interviews with Key Informants Key informants are those people who have special knowledge on a particular topic (Theis and Grady 199 1 ; Narayan 1996). For example, for environmental health related issues, it would be important to interview local medical doctors and other health care workers. These key informants could be a major source of relevant information and contacts. Other key informants might include people who may have different views on events occuning at the study site and could include governrnent and institutional officiais. academic professon, private consultants, NGO membea, community leaders and concerned citizens. The researcher held informal semi-structured interviews / discussions with key informants who could provide important background information and data and offer insights about health and environmental management at the study site and in Trinidad. Semi-structured intewiewing differs from a structured interview or questionnaire in that the interviewer is not bound by a set of defined questions (Theis and Grady 199 1: Naraym 1996). Rather. it is a form of guided interviewing where the interviewer has a checklist of questions / topics as a guide but new questions can be fomulated dunng the interview. In addition. many of the questions were opensnded to allow for the expression of opinions and insights. The semi-structured interview process allowed the researcher to explore issues in funher detail through pro bing and provided an opportunity to interact with participants. Several sets of questions were used to guide the interviews, depending on the area of background of the key informant. These questions were developed to determine background context. applicable regulations and legislation. roles with respect to the environment. pollution and Point Lisas as well as specialized knowledge. These interview questions are docurnented in Appendix III. To avoid the danger of over identifying with the bias of particular informants, the information gained in these interviews was cross- checked with other respondents and through secondary materials, as in tnangulation (Yin 1989: DePoy and Gitlin 1991). Naturalistic inquiry relies on purposeful rather than representative sampling and emergent rather than preordinate design (Lincoln and Guba 1985; Patton 1990). In this study, the purpose of the interviewhg key informants was to gain a diverse range of specialized knowledge and views to provide a holistic overview of the local situation. Key informants were selected based on the suggestions of other respondents interviewed. This process allowed for the identification of respondents whom local people felt were important and could contribute significantly to the study. Although not statistically representative. this sarnpling method was chosen because it has the potential to provide a large effective sarnple size of knowledgeable informants. .At the beginning of the project. CEHI staff identified several key informants from various organizations and facilitated meetings through letters of introduction. Each key informant interviewed was asked to recommend other people who might be able to provide information or insights into the project. In addition, other groups were identified through the review of secondary materials. One limitation of this technique is that it could result in like-minded respondents. However. efforts were made to target a wide cross-section of groups to avoid this problem to obtain a range of diverse perspectives. In this study, key informants included government officiais, university professors, institutional staff. medical professionals, estate landlord employees, NGO members. private consultants. community group leaders and concerned citizens. A list of organizations contacted is presented in Appendix IV.

Structured Interviews with Industrv Officiais: The researcher conducted more suuctured open-ended interviews with environmental and safety officers at several industries in the Point Lisas area. A structured format was chosen to ensure better consistency and comparability of the responses for the data analysis. The interviews with industry were designed to obtain specific information about the nature and control of their emissions / effluent. pollution prevention. environmental initiatives. occupational heaith and safety, emergency response plans. community relations and education. The interview questions are listed in Appendix III. Given the time and budget restraints and the large number of industries, the researcher set out to interview 6 to 10 of the larger polluting industries. The researcher consulted with PLIPDECO to identiq those industries potentially having the greatest impact on the environment or health and safety. PLIPDECO suggested that the researcher target the members of the Point Lisas Environmental Technical Subcommittee, and provided a list of contact names and phone numbers. These industries were subsequently contacted and invited to participate in the study. Of the 1 I industries contacted, 7 were interviewed. Of the 4 industries that did not participate in the study, two industries were willing to participate but were unable to due to time and scheduling constraints, one industry did not return the researcher's phone messages and one industry formally declined.

Structured Interviews with Comrnunit~Members: Individual interviews with community members were used to gain more personal representative information since respondents will feel that they can speak more fieely without their peers present (Theis and Grady 199 1; Narayan 1996). Persona1 open-ended structured interviews were chosen rather than questionnaire surveys because it was exprcted that some of the people would be illiterate. In addition, personal interviews can provide more detailed data. give the researcher a chance to clarifi questions and allow interviewees to address issues that are important to them. Persona1 interviews were conducted in Dow Village and California. two of the villages directly adjacent to the industrial estate. Other villages such as Lisas Gardens and the town of Couva were not interviewed due to time constraints. Houses were chosen at random by the researcher while walking through the villages. Efforts were made to include a cross-section of houses fiom various socioeconomic levels. For safety reasons. a local comrnunity member accompanied the researcher on her interviews and also introduced the researcher to the interviewees. These interviews were conducted between April 16 and May 1. 1999 at various times of the day and week to ensure a diverse sampling of respondents. Table 4.1 presents background information about the interviewees.

Table 4.1: Background Information on Community Residents lnterviewed

Resident Sex Age No. of Distance to Point Anyone in Household No. People in Lisas Work at Point Lisas? House California 1 1 F 30-44 4 A quarter mile Yes. Worked on estate I for 19 years. i 1 3 - ' M 45-59 15 A half a mile No r I 3 F 15-29 5 Right across road No. 4 F 45-59 3 Right there, California No. 5 M 60+ 3 About 300 m Yes. His son for ten years 6 F 60+ 1 About 200 m Yes. Her son worked 1 there for a while during construction. 7 F 60+ 7 About 100 m Yes. Husband worked I there for 30 years 1 l 8 F 45-59 7 About 200 m No. 9 M 45-59 7 1O0 yards No 1O M 30-44 4 About 100 m NO 11 M 15-29 4 Less than 100 m, "a No stone's throw" 12 M 35-59 6 About 500 yards No 13 F t 5-29 6 1O00 feet Yes. Three people in 1 I home work for estate * 14 1 F 30-44 7 , Very dose, closest No i 15 j F 15-29 6 1 About 100 m Yes. Work at the bank. Dow Village 16 F 30-44 6 - east about a hdf mile No 17 F 45-59 3 East less than half a No mile 18 M 30-44 4 Within a mile radius No. 19 F 30-44 10 Within a quater mile No. I radius 1 i 20 M 30-44 7 "dead centre" No i 2 1 M 60+ 4 About a mile radius No. 22 M 60+ 8 A miIe and a half No 23 F 15-39 8 About a mile, ten No minute drive 24 F 60+ 2 About a mile 2 About a mile No. I No. of Distance to Point Anyone in Household ' Resident Sex Age People in Lisas Work at Point Lisas? House 26 M 15-29 4 Hal f mi le No. _. 27 M 30-44 10 Within a mile No. 28 M 30-44 8 Less than half a mile No. i 19 M 60+ 5 About a mile No. 1 >O 1 M 30-44 2 About a mile Yes. For two years 3 1 1 M 30-44 6 About half a mile No. I

Interview questions were targeted at one person in the household, although often other household rnembers were present. Interview questions related to environmental, pollution, health, and industrial development issues and are listed in Appendix III. A total of 3 1 interviews. lasting between 20 minutes to half an hour were conducted. Although not statistically representative. the results from these interviews provide some perspective on the knowledge, perceptions. and concems of people living near to the industrial estate as the y relate to health, environment and industry .

Group Interviews with School Children: .4 group interview is used to obtain community-level information and has the advantage of accessing a wider body of knowledge (Theis and Grady 1991: Narayan 1 996). In addition, there is an immediate cross-check on the information as it is received from others in the group. The danger of group interviews is that certain people who are very vocal or have strong opinions may dominate the responses (Creswell 1994). The researcher conducted focus group interviews with classrooms of school children in the cornmunities of Dow Village. California and Couva to gain knowledge and impressions of the younger people in the community. The researcher, accompanied bp a local citizen, gained permission from the principal of each of the schools. who then directed us to an available classroom. Interview questions were the same as those used in the local community. with minor adjustments (see Appendix III). A total of six classrooms in five area schools were interviewed with ages ranging from 10 to 19 years of age and classroom sizes ranging fiom about 20 to 30 students (Table 4.2). Table 4.2: Demographics and Location of School Classrooms

School Age Range of Population Distance to Point Lisas Classroom of School Industrial Estate Esperanza 1 0- 1 2 (mixed) 250 Within one mile Presbyterian School Holy Faith Convent 17- 19 (al1 girls) 720 Within 1.5 miles (cmsee l ammonia plant fiom 1 window) 1 Couva Junior 1 3- 1 6 (mixed) 1920 Within a mile Secondary 12- 1 3 (mixed) Within a mile Dow Village 10- 12 (mixed) 320 Within 1 mile Government School 1 California 10- 12 (mixcd) 460 Within half a mile. 1 Government School i

Direct Observation: Direct observation can be used to validate other sources of qualitative data and information as well as serve as a means to reveal themes that can be expiored with further probing (Yin 1989). The researcher made direct observations about the physical environment as well as activities and interactions in and around the industrial estate during her field research. Items of interest were logged through notes and photos. when appropriate.

4.4.2 Analyze Risks Associated with Problem in Context

A good risk management decision is based on careful analysis of the weight of evidence that supports conclusions about a problem's potential risks to human health and the environment (Omennet al. 1997). There must be a good understanding about the potential hma situation poses and how great the likelihood that people or the environment will be hamed. In this process. risks are analyzed by combining information on the scientific and contextual aspects of risk. stakeholder perceptions and other social or cultural impacts of the problem. The information and data collected in the Step 1 of the rkk management framework was analyzed to characterize potential health risks associated with hazards related to industrial developments in the Point Lisas area. Due to limited accessibility and availability of quantitative data, the researcher set out to qualitatively assess potential risks to human health and the ecosystem. Inductive analysis was used in this research, a method that allows theories to be generated from the data rather than using data to support pre-existing theories (Patton et al. 1990). The researcher must be flexible in ordet to gain a broad understanding of the situation and then look closely at specific topics or theones that reveal themselves to be important (Rubin and Rubin 1997). Analysis of the information and data began by documenting and compiling a11 information obtained fiom key informants. interviews, participant observations. literature and reports. Emergent trends and themes were noted and considered for future interviews and gaps in the information were noted for future data gathering. Most of the forma1 data anal pis took place after the researcher's retum to Canada. At that time, the remaining interview notes were complied and the interview responses were tabulated. Cross-case anaiysis was used to group the answers From different people to each interview question (Patton et al. 1990). For the closed interview questions. responses were quantified to determine how many respondents responded yes or no to a particular question. The answers to the open-ended questions were grouped to bring out ideas and concems of relevance to the respondents. Individual quotes were selected from the interview notes to capture recumng themes and ideas relevant to the study site. The researcher broke the analysis down into several areas of interest with which to guide the assessrnent of risks and understand the situational context including:

Physical Environment Perception of Environment Environmental Pollutants Industrial Pollutants Industrial Awareness and Initiatives Cornmunity Awareness and Education Human receptors Human rxposure pathways Health concems 1 effects The overall goal of this analysis was to produce a detailed snapshot of how the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and other industries in the area can affect the health and well-being of people and the surrounding ecosystem. This information was then used to examine options for addressing risks to health. In addition, the initial resuits and findings were presented to interested stakeholders for their feedback and validation.

4.4.3 Esarnine Options for Addressing the Risks

This stage of the nsk management process involves identifying potential nsk management options that can be implemented to reduce exposures and risks to improve health of the ecosystem. thus, irnproving the health of the people (Omenn et al. 1997). Many approaches are available to reduce heaith risks related to industrial pollution. These approaches may include encouraging pollution prevention by industry. limiting pollutant emissions by requinng operating pemits for industrial faciiities. 1im i t ing further industrial development, or educating affected communities about steps they cmtake to reduce their exposure and protect their health. To determine options for management of health risks. the researcher first exarnined what management mechanisms already existed and their effectiveness within the Trinidadian context. Then, based on this information as well as the results of the data analysis in step 2. the researcher suggested a variety of management options that could be implemented to reduce impacts on health at this site.

4.5 Ethical Considerations

Interviews constituted a large component of the research and were conducted in a cultural setting foreign to the researcher and for a limited time period of approximately four months. Therefore. the researcher took steps to familiarize herself with the history and cultures of Trinidad and Tobago as well as the social. political. and economic context of the Point Lisas area prior to conducting the interviews. Care was taken to respect different values and cultural noms and to avoid derneaning situations or questions. Efforts were made to be Myhonest with participants with regard to research objectives, time commitments, expectations and results of the study. Prior to the start of field research, a Human Ethics Review was submitted to and approved by Dalhousie University. Consent fortns were prepared for interviewees; however. upon arriva1 in Trinidad, the researcher found that it was generally not appropriate given the cultural and political setting and problems with illiteracy. Altemativeiy, researcher explai~edthe purpose of the research and how the information would be used to each of the respondents prior to each interview. The voluntary nature of the interview was emphasized and participants were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time or refuse to answer any question that they did not feel cornfortable answering. In this W.. oral consent was obtained prior to the interviews and gave interviewees a chance to ask questions about the research. In addition. ail interviewees were provided with a one-page summary of the research study (Appendix V). Contact information was included in this summary to allow interviewees to contact the researcher if they had any follow-up questions or concems. Tape recording of the interviews did not take place as originally proposed because of its intrusive nature as well as the potential sensitivity of the research issue. Many respondents were already somewhat reluctant to participate in the study and it was felt that the use of a tape recorder would increase their feelings of unease. potentially biasing the study. Instead. the researcher took detailed notes during the interviews and stressed that she \vas a student conducting independent research for her thesis project. In addition. the respondents were reassured that their narnes or Company would not be used in the thesis or thesis presentations and c~~dentialitywas maintained by keeping al1 interview notes in a locked room at ail times.

4.6 Limitations of the Research

Much of the emissions and effluent monitoring data and reports fiorn the industrial estate were not accessible because of issues of client confidentiality. Industries. the estate landlord and national government agencies were reluctant to release this information to the researcher. Trinidad does not yet have a freedom of intorrnation act, thus, information about industrial emissions. EIAs and environmental infractions are not available to the public. Moreover, there is a general lack of monitoring of ambient environmental media, particularly with respect to air quality. The lack of availability and accessibility of data with which to calculate health risks, represented a major limitation to the study, making the study less comprehensive and potentially reducing the validity and reliability of the case study. Originally. the researcher had set out to conduct a combination of quantitative and qualitative techniques. using a weight of evidence approach but was instead forced to rely, for the most part. on qualitative sources of information and data. To ensure validity of this study. the researcher relied on multiple sources of information. establishing a chain of evidence during data collection and analysis, and having preliminary conclusions and recornmendations reviewed by the local stakeholders as suggested by Yin (1 989). In addition. the reliability of the research was maintained by establishing and docurnenting any variations from the original design prorocol so that future researchers could recreate this study or analysis. The size of the industrial estate was a limitation that made detailed analysis of the site di fficult. Given the time and budgetary constraints, the researcher was only able to interview a limited number of industries at the industrial estate. However, the researcher, with advice from the estate landlord. chose industries thought to have the Iargest impacts on health. safety or the environment. While statistically not representative. the results hmthese interviews provided some perspective on the nature and control of their emissions. environmental and pollution prevention initiatives. disaster preparedness and cornrnunity relations and education. This information, together with other information gained from reports and other key informants, helped to characterize the current situation at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. Finally, the use of a case-study approach made it dificult to draw general conclusions that cm be applied to other sites. However, the intent of the research was to obtain specific conclusions with regard to this particular site and to provide an example of the reality of the Caribbean situation. While the results of the study are not directly tramferable. the researcher tried to relate the conclusions to findings in other studies to allow the conclusions to be extended over a wider context (Rubin and Rubin 1997). 4.7 Dissemination of Results

Preliminary findings and recommendations were initially presented to interested stakeholders in Trinidad in a debriefing session held at the industrial estate, pior to the researcher's departure to Canada. Upon completion of the thesis. copies will be sent to several libraries in the Caribbean including CEHI, EMA, UWI and PLIPDECO.In addition. a summary report of the overall findings will be produced and distributed to the various people contacted ihroughout the study in Trinidad. It is hoped that the dissemination of this work in the local area will assist local organizations and groups to make well-infomed choices with regard to heaith and work towards developing interventions to protect human health. This research is unique in that it seeks to combine an ecosystem approach to human health within a risk management frarnework to achieve a holistic understanding of complex health issues related to an indusuial estate in a developing country. As such. the researcher will seek to present the findings of this study at appropriate conferences and workshops. as well as seek publication within reputable joumals for dissemination to the larger academic community . 5.0 RESULTS

5.1 Define the Problem and Put It Into Context

In the problem definition stage, the researcher sought to develop a focussed understanding of key elements of the local ecosystem, industrial pollution and how it rnay impact the health of people in the local communities. This step was achieved by describing the surrounding environment, both physically and fiom the perception of the local residents. by characterizhg environmental pollutants. by outlining industrial and community awareness and education initiatives and identifying human exposure pathways and receptors sub-populations. The outcome of this stage is a qualitative conceptual mode1 of local conditions outlining environmental pollutants and ways in which people may be exposed to them.

3.1.1 Characterizition of the Pbysical Environment

As discussed in chapter tiuee, the physical environment surrounding the industrial estate is predominantly rural. with sugar cane being the dominant agricultural crop. Housing is concentrated within several nearby communities including the villages of Califomia and Dow Village and the town of Couva. located to the east and north of the estate [see Figure 3.3). The Southem Main Road borden the estate on the east and provides a major uansponation comdor to the area. The Couva River, which enters the industrial estate from the east, receives effluents hma sugar factory upstream as well as industries on the estate before it eventually drains into the Gulf of Paria. Several other small drainage ditches pass through the industrial estate and receive effluents from industries before draining into the sea. The Gulf of Paria borders the estate on the West and receives effluents from the estate both directly and through the Couva River and other drainage ditches. The coastline has been chanpd significantly since the development of the estate and port, with the destruction and infilling of much of the mangrove forests. During the dry season, the waters near Point Lisas are very homogenous and vertically well-mixed (IMA 1998). The waters become more stratified and adopt an estuarine circulation during the wet season due to the large input of fieshwater from the rivers of South America. The direction and intensity of currents are variable and are intluenced b y the tide and winds; however. bottom currents actively transfer sediments away from near shore areas. The area of study is dominated by the Northeast Trade Winds that blow fiom the northeast most of the year (IMA 1998). Dunng the months of August and October. the area is influenced by the Southeast Trade Winds. As a result. the prevailing winds are from east to West across the industrial estate pushing industrial emissions out over the Gulf of Paria, about 80% of the time. From time to time, particularly in July and August. the winds shifi From West to east resulting in emissions blowing across the industrial estate and into the surrounding communities.

51.2 Perception of the Surrounding Environment

An important component in the characterization of any environment is to understand how people perceive their surrounding environment. This issue was explored through interviews with 3 1 local community residents and six classrooms of school children (ages ranging from 10- 19) to gain sorne perspective on the local situation. Interview questions. which are listed in Appendix III. were related to various aspects of the environment including links to pollution and industrial deveiopment.

Environment: Individuals interviewed within the community most commonly (1 7 out of 3 1) associated the word environment with "their surroundings." Certain individuals elaborated on this definition by identi@ing specific components such as the "air. water. sea. school. plants. animals" or personalized it as "where you live." Othen (7 out of 3 1) associated the term environment with "cleanliness" or "upkeep of the place." Several other interviewees (6 out of 3 1) associated the word environment in a negative manner using responses such as "pollution," "bad for health." "unclean." and "unsafe." One respondent associated the environment with the word "health." Similarly, al1 six school classrooms interviewed associated the word environment with their "sunoundings" or "everything around you". They also included descriptions of the various components including "trees. plants, community, entire country, atmosphere. and animals." One reference was made to "keeping the environrnent clean." When individuals were asked to describe the state of the environrnent in their community, there was a wide range of responses. Opinions ranged from "good in eeneral" and "alright" to "poor." very bad, "dangerous." "deplorable," "a disaster." Out C of 3 1 respondents. 18 gave negative responses with 5 respondents citing industries as the reason for the negative state of their environment. Another 1 I respondents indicated that they considered their environment to be "alright"or "good" although 2 respondents qualified their answers by saying "o.k. so Far" or "not afTected yet" indicating some fears that things may change in the Future. One respondent related the state of the environrnent to economics citing "not getting work." One respondent did not answer the question. School children's opinions were similar to those of the community members. with three of the six classroorns indicating their environment was bad. one indicating that it was good and two classrooms were evenly split between good and bad. Factories. air problems. smell. pollution. litter and safety were cited as reasons why they thought their environrnent was bad while cleanliness was associated with a good environrnent. In general. the majority of individuals interviewed felt that there were threats to the environment in their community. Of the 3 1 interviewees. only 3 answered no to this question. However. al1 of these 3 respondents qualified their answers by stating they had "grown accustomed to the dust, keep windows closed". that the threats were "not severe. were controlled". and "not yet, maybe later." These responses indicate some recognition and adaptation to present or huethreats. Al1 six classrooms of school children indicated that there were threats to their environment. The top five threats narned by area residents in descending order included:

arnmonia plants with concerns about safety. health and smell(16 out of 3 1 respondents) general safety at the industrial estate in terms of explosions and gas releases (1 1 out of 3 1 respondents). black dust from the sugar factory (9 out of 3 1 respondents) dust in general. including construction dust (9 out of 3 1 respondents) noise pollution (6 out of 3 1 respondents).

The top five threats listed by area school children in descending order included:

general pollution fiom industries (4 out of 6 classrooms) garbage and litter (3 out of 6 classrooms) himes and toxic gases (3 out of 6 classroorns) car exhaust (2 out of six classrooms) smoke from burning rubbish / sugar cane (2 out of six classrooms)

When asked to compare the environment in their comrnunity to other similar communities. four of the 3 1 respondents felt that their community was unique and could not be compared to other communities. Factors such as high risk, no disaster prcparedness. economic burden of cleaning and differences in air quality were given as reasons that made their cornmunitics unique. Another 12 out of 3 1 respondents indicated that they thought their environment was worse than other similar comrnunities. Reasons for their responses included industries, chemicals, dust, gases, safety, being sandwiched by industry, and arnmonia pollution. Four of the respondents indicated that they thought their environment was the *.worst'?because other communities "don't have industries". they were felt they were "living on the industrial estate," and that this is the "most dangerous place." Six of the respondents indicated that they felt their environment was good or better than other communities and four felt that it was the same as other communities. Two interviewees did not answer the question. School children were also asked this question but it was felt that results were less reliable sirxe children in area schools live in various comrnunities spread throughout the region and often associated the question with their home community rather than the cornmunity where their school was located.

Pollution and Environment: Individuals interviewed within the community oflen associated the word pollution with "sickness." or "unhealthiness" ( 1 4 of 3 1 respondents), with three respondents associating pollution with "death."Two respondents also cited the financial costs of pollution affecting health. Many of the respondents (14 out of 3 1) gave exarnples of pollution such as "smell," "smoke 1 fumes", "cane ash". "noise", "air". "water," "dust". "ammonia". "bagasse". "dumping". "drains", "garbage". "contamination of the ocean." "rubbish in water" and "chemicals". Only three respondents directly associated industry or factories with the word pollution. Others associated pollution with "uncleanliness" or "dirtiness" (4 out of 5 1 respondents). One respondent cited chemicals because you "don? know what is out there." Two respondents did not answer the question. Five of the six school classrooms interviewed gave examples of pollution. Various types of air pollution were rnentioned in 4 of the 6 classrooms with exarnples given such as "gases". "smoke", "burning rubbish" and "toxic fumes." Garbage and littering were also recurring themes in four of the six classrooms. Two classrooms associated pollution with being "bad for health", two classrooms associated it with destruction of the environment and two associated it with being "unclean" or "dirtiness". Only two classrooms directly associated pollution with industries. Twenty-one out of 3 1 individuals interviewed felt that the natural environment in their local area had been affected by pollution while seven respondents said that it had not been affected. Three respondents said they didn't know. Of the respondents who answered yes. their main concems were dust in the air, effects on the ocean and marine life including fish. crabs and oysters. fungus and mildew on trees from the dust. destruction of the mangroves and conversion of sugar cane land. Similady, al1 six school classrooms felt that their natural environment had been affected by pollution. Examples given were effects on the fish in the ocean and rivers frorn oil leaks, chemicals and garbage, the tlees being cut down or affect by soot or dust and air pollution by smoke, gases and exhaust fumes. Pollution was thought to have affected the ability to use the natural environment for 20 of the respondents. Major concems included not being able to swim at the local beaches anymore, not being able to catch fish or crabs anymore because they have died out. mutated, or taste like amrnonia, and having to deal with the dust that damages houses and clothes and increasing the need to clean. Several people also specified that poor air quality affected their breathing and ability to go for walks outside. Al1 six school classrooms felt that their ability to use the natural environment had been affected by pollution. The rnost common concem, cited by every classroom was not being able to use the river or the sea for swimming or playing. Other concems included not being able to eat the fish. not being able to play outside due to srnoke. dust and amrnonia scent. and not being able to use park because of garbage and flies. There did not appear to be any age differences in these responses.

Industrial Development and Environment: Most interviewees felt that industrial developrnent had had an impact on their comrnunity (26 out of 3 1). Of these respondents. 14 felt that industrial development had positively impacted their communities through employment. economic spinoffs and recognition of the area. However. three othen argued that industrial development is supposed to provide jobs but in reality outside people take the jobs. Only seven interviewees reported that they or someone in their household were employed or had at one timr been employed by the industrial estate. Interestingly enough. two of these seven interviewees did not cite employment as a positive impact of indusmal development but only reported negative impacts of industrial development such as noise and pollution. Pollution was cited most fiequently as a negative impact (16 out of 3 1) of industrial development with noise pollution, air pollution (dust. fumes), smells and the dangers of amrnonia being cited. Other negative impacts reported were health problems. being surrounded by industry, changes to the quiet community, changes to the naturd environment. influx of people to the area and not being sure what was going on. Al1 of the school classroorns felt that industrial development had had an impact on their communities. Positive impacts of industrial development reported by five of the classrooms included jobs. income. skills development, infrastructure. revenue for the country, putting up basketball courts. tourism and educational programs. The most frequently reported negative impacts of industrial development were related to safety and pollution and included industries blowing up or catching fire. amrnonia and methanol lraks, dust emissions and smoke. Other negative impacts included getting sick, being surrounded by industrial plants, increased traffic and effects on trees. When asked about specific concerns about industrial development, the most frequently cited concem was about safety at the nearby industries with respect to accidents and disasters. explosions. evacuation plans, disaster preparedness and emergency facilities. Pollution was also a concern with dust. noise, and smell being cited as specific issues. Other concems about industrial development included buffer zones, the expansion of industry, being surrounded by industry, traffic, and dangers of associated infrastructure such as gas and water lines. Three respondents cited health concems while two others cited economic concerns including getting jobs. benefits for the poor and the corrosion of buildings by dust. Sirnilarly. school children were most concemed about the safety at nearby industries part icularl y with respect to the "plants blowing up." Another major concem was the effects of industrial emissions including smoke, gases and dust and how they may affect the ozone layer and global warming as well as the development of agricultural land and clearing of vegetation.

5.1.3 Characterization of Environmental Pollutants

This study focused on the broad categories of pollution - air, water, noise and smell. A fîrst step in the characterization of environmental pollutants was to outline the major sources of pollutants based on a review of the literature as well as perceptions of the local community.

Air Pollution: Various sources cm contribute to the cumulative load of air pollutants in the local area. Four main sources of air pollution were identified including: air emissions fiom operating industries in the area, construction dust (mainly from new industrial development). smokr from buming of sugar cane, rubbish and grass, and vehicle emissions.

The main sources of industrial air emissions are the Point Lisas Industrial Estate as well as other industries located to the east and south of the estate. In future. proposed industrial developments to the east and south of the estate may also contribute to the total load of industrial emissions to the area. Industrial emissions are typically released at lower levels on a continuing basis; however. from time to time. there have been chemical leaks where higher volumes are released over a short period. Area residents perceived industrial emissions as a significant source of pollution to their comrnunities. They were particularly concemed about aminonia, black dust and the release of other toxic gases and how these substances may affect their health and safety . Dust cmbe a significant source of air pollution during the construction of new industrial piants that can last for several months to yean. Excavation and construction can release dust particles that can become airborne and be deposited downwind of the site. In addition, construction vehicles ofien deposit particles of dust on the road and nearby houses as they drive through the local communities. Dust tends to be a more visible source of pollution and has direct economic and social impacts in terms of the need for continued cleaning of'clothes. homes and driveways. In addition. many residents had health concems about the dust, particularly those who had family memben with asthma or other types of respiratory illnesses. Cornmunity residents in Dow Village were more concemed about this issue than those in California since Dow Village is currently esperiencing the rffects of dust due to the construction of the new power plant and substation directly east of their community. The EMA has intewened on their behalf on several occasions and required the regular wetting of roads to ease the dust problem: however, cornpliance with these requirements appears sporadic at best. Smoke and cane ash from the buming of sugar cane fields is a significant source of air pollution, often to the point of reducing visibility. However. it tends to occur sporadically and for only short penods of time during the crop season. This type of pollution appears to be more accepted by the local communities, perhaps because of its Location and history within the sugar cane growing district as well as the reliance of many community members on sugar cane industry for employment. The burning of rubbish and grasses also produces smoke but tends to occur on a sporadic basis in the area. Again, this type of pollution appears to be more accepted by the community. The Southern Main Road, which borders the industrial estate on the east. is a main traffic corridor to areas south and north of the indusuial estate, used by trucks. maxi-taxis and other vehicles. As such. traffic cm at times be heavy, particularly during shifi change at the industrial estate. resulting in substantial vehicle emissions in the area. Many of the vehicles in Trinidad are older than five years and in poor condition. The use of leaded gasoline and high sulphur diesel fuel coupled with poor maintenance of vehicles contributes to atmospheric and roadside air pollution (EMA 1996). The principal contaminants in vehicle emissions are particdate lead, nitrogen oxides. sulphur dioxide. unburned fuel, bumt lubricating oil and soot. A recent study of air quality at major road junctions indicated that the levels of carbon monoxide. hydrogen sulphide. benzene and toluene were above acceptable levels during moming rush hour (EMA 1996).

Water Poliution: Similarly. various sources cm contribute to the cumulative load of water pollutants in the local area. Three main sources of water pollution were identified including:

liquid effluents fiom industries operating in the area. dumping of rubbish in drains and rivers, and ninoff of pesticides and fertilizea.

The main sources of industrial effluents are industries at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. as well as other industries located to the east and south of the estate. Severai industries at Point Lisas discharge their effluent into drains or directly to the Couva River. al1 which eventuaily drain into the Gulf of Paria. In addition, industrial effluents from industries to the east of the estate are emptied into drains, some of which pass through the local communities and eventually pas through the industrial estate. Some residents had health concems about the fumes from these drains. The industrial estate has no control over the discharge of pollutants into these drains or into the Couva River upstream of the industrial estate (PLIPDECO 1999b). The dumping of nibbish in the drains and river was identified by several members of the community as a significant problem and can be a source of water pollution. For exarnple. the waste from battery recycling could result in high levels of lead. In addition. rubbish can block drains and result in stagnant water that can provide breeding grounds for mosquitoes. The local governrnent is responsible for cleaning the drains but many residents felt that it was not done on a sufficiently frequent basis. The major land use in the surrounding area is the cultivation of sugar cane and pesticide and fertilizer runoff from agricultural practices is a significant source of water pollution. However. this type of pollution appears to be more accepted by the local community, given the reliance on the sugar cane industry for employment.

Noise Pollution: Many residents cited noise pollution as a recurring problem and a threat to their environment. The Point Lisas Industrial Estate is a major source of noise. particularly during the maintenance or commissioning of industrial plants. In addition. construction of new industrial plants can lead to increased noise with the sounds from construction activity. Noise pollution tends to be a localized problem. Residents in California more frequently cited noise pollution as a problem, given their proximity to the industrial rstatr. and some had received ear plugs and information letters from local industries.

Noxious Odours: Many residents reported smell to be a problem and most ofien associated it with industry. The two main sources of bad smells were the effluent from the sugar factory. particularly from "skirnming" as weil as amrnonia smells. Other sources of objectionable odours were garbage and liner left lying around. 5.1.3 Characteruation of Industrial Pollutants

Since this study focussed on industrial pollutants as a source of environmental pollution and the efTects on surrounding ecosystem, the researcher sought to develop a list of industrial pollutants that may have a significant effect on health or the environrnent. Separate lists were developed for air emissions and liquid effluents and are shown in Tables 5.1 and 5.2. Industrial pollutants in solid wastes fiom industries were not addressed in this study. The following lists were derived from several sources including interviews with indus.. a review of the industries. a pollutant inventory study and 0th reports as well as the perceptions of the local community. Unfortunately. industrial emissions and effluents in Trinidad are generally not well characterized and these lists rnust be considered as preliminary.

Table 5.1: Industrial Pollutants in Air Emissions

! Industrial Pollutant 1 Sources 1 Ammonia Amrnonia production Chlorine Chlor-alkali production Nitrogen oxides Combustion, ammonia production, fertilizer plants. cement WK) production; power generation; oil and gas refining, industrial boilen and engines ! 1 Sulphur oxides (SO,) Combustion; power generation Carbon Monoxide Power generation; iron and steel. fertilizer planis ! (CO) ! Hydrocarbons (HC) Combustion Suspendrd particulate Flyash, dust, sugar cane refining, iron and steel; power matter (SPM) generation Carbon dioxide (COz) Combustion; petrochemicals Ground-level Ozone Produced From oxygen and hydrocarbons reacting with (03) VOCs and NOx Volatile Organic Power generation; petrochemicals; fertilizer production: oil Compounds (VOCs) refuing Lead Leaded g asoline, paints and metal manufacturing Table 5.2 Industrial Pollatants in Liquid Effluents

[ Industrial Pollutaat Sources 1 Temperature' Chemicals'; iron and steel; metal fabricatos', metal 1 1 1 smelting; mini steel mills: fertilizer plants; petrochemicals"; / i ' power generation; sugar refining 1 PH' Chemicals; iron and steel; metal fabricators, metal smelting; 1 1 mini steel mills; fertilizer plants; petrochemicais; power 1 generation; sugar refining ~eth&ol,power generation Biological Oxygen Petrochemicals; power generation; sugar refining 1 Demand i 1 Chemical Oxygen Chemicals; glass manufacturing; iron and steel: metal Demand fabricators; oil refining; petmchernicals; sugar refining Total suspended Chemicals; iron and steel; metal fabricaton. metal smelting; solids mini steel mills; fertilizer plants; petrochemicals; power generation; sugar refining Phosphorus Chemicals; power generation; fertilizer plants; sugar refining Residual chlorine Petrochemicals; power generation; Ammonia Petroc hemicals ! Ammonical nitrogen Iron and steel; metal smelting; fertilizer plants: oil refining; I petrochemicals; sugar refining i L Cyanides Iron and steel: metal fabricators, oil refining; Sul phides Iron and steel, oil refining Oil and grease Chemicals: iron and steel; metal fabricators. mini steel mills; petrochemicals; power generation; sugar re fining 1 Phenoiic compounds Petrochemicals; iron and steel; ( Chromiurn , Chemicals; metal fabricators; mini steel mills; oil refining: 1 power generation; iron and steel; petrochemicais: Iron Iron and steel; metal smeiting i Nickel Chemicals; power generation; iron and steel; metal l fabricators; mini steel mills; oil refining; petrochemicals; Copper Chemicals; power generation; iron and steel; metal 1 1 fabricators, metal smelting; mini steel mills; 1 petrochernicals; Chemicais; power generation; iron and steel; metal j Zinc fabricators; petrochemicals; oil refining; Arsenic Metal fabricators, metal smeiting; i Cadmium 1 Power generation; iron and steel; petrochemicals; chemicals; metal fabricaton; metal smelting; mini steel 1 mills; oil refining Table 5.2 Industrial Pollutants in Liquid Elfluents (cont'd)

Industrial Pollutant Sources t Mercury Chemicals; iron and steel; metal smelting; Lead Chemicals; metal fabricators; iron and steel; glass manufacturing; metal smelting; mini steel mills: oil refining

' "temperature". while not typically considered a pollutant. effects can occur if tempeatum exceed certain limits or if emuents cause an increase in temperatures in receiving waters ' "chemicals" includes the following manufacturing industries: batteries: chlor-alkali; glues and adhesives: matches; paints; phannaceuticals; soaps and clean ing preparations 3 "metal fabricators" includes electroplating and foundries ' "pH" while not typically considered a pollutant. can exen effects if pHs become too high or too low: a range between 6 and 9 is considered normal 5 "pstrochemicals" includes ammonia, gas processing Iiquefied natural gas, lube oiI; methanol and urea

5.1.4 Characterization of Industrial Awareness and Initiatives

As part of the study, the researcher sought to understand industry awareness and initiatives with regard to industrial pollution. Representatives fiom seven industries in the Point Lisns area were interviewed to determine their knowledge and cornpliance with environmental regulations. emission and effluent controls. and environmental initiatives. These results are presented below. Most industry representatives swveyed indicated that they were aware of and trying to comply with various environrnental legislation or standards (Table 5.3).

Table 5.3: Industry Awareness of Environmental Regulations

( Legislation / Standard 1 No. of Industries ( Industry Comments 1 Aware of Environmental ~e~ulations' Environmentai A. B, C, F, G - Rules not gone through .Vanagement Act ( 1996) (5 of 7 industries) Par1 iarnent - Needs the Environmental Commission - doesn't specif jr- anything- - TTS - 547 - industrial A, B, C, E. F - Voluntary 1I effluent standards (5 of 7 industries) 1 Table 5.3: Industry Awareness of Eavironmental Replations (con't)

Legislation l Standard No. of Industries Industry Comments Aware of

~egwlations' TTS - 4 17 - sewage B, F - Voluntary treatment standards (2 of 7 industries) 1 World Bank standards A, B, E. F - as outlined by PLIPDECO in 1 I (4 of 7 industries) lease agreement - voluntarily Other international A, C, D, E. G - EPA , standards (5 out of 7 - British I industries) TTS - air emission B. C - Stillnotdevelopedyet standards (2 out of 7 industries) Parent Company standards B (1 out of 7 - Duty of care, responsible of care i industries)

I To ensure confidentiality and anonymity. alphabetic leaers (Le.. A. B. C. D. E. F. G)were used to identifi the seven industries surveyed.

In addition, most industries surveyed also had some fom of effluent or emission controls. These are summarized in Table 5.4 below.

Table 5.4: Industry Use of EPnuent and Emissions Controls

Industry Effluent Controls Emissions Con trols 2

A Yes. Effluent treatment to Yes. Scrubber systems to collect neutralize chemicals. residual gases. B Yes. Oil traps on drains. No. C Yes. Efnuent treatment including Yes. Wet scrubbers on boilers. aeration and chcmical treatment in holding ponds. I D Yes. Sump collects oily water. Yes. Vapourless recovery systems. smokeless flaring. E Yes. Effluent treatment to No. neutralize it. F Yes. Oil and water separation; No. sewage treatment. j G 1 NJ NI Moreover. al1 seven industry representatives interviewed indicated that they had taken some initiatives to minimize the release of pollutants during operations. Some of these initiatives included:

Installing scrubber systems for air emissions Trapping and selling carbon dioxide Trapping oil in oil traps Reducing the amount of condensates Decreasing amount of wastewater released Decreasing amounts of pollutants in wastewater Dyking and bonding to prevent spills Substituting non-hazardous c hemicals for hazardous chernicals Implementing systems to reduce odour

Most industries at the industrial estate have become more environmentally conscious and have been pursuing initiatives in terms of environrnental management such as the development of environrnental policies. EMS and conducting EIAs. Interview results are summarized in Table 5.5 below.

Table 5.5: Environmental Initiatives by Industry

1 Industry 1 Eavironmental 1 Environmental 1 Environmental 1 Policy Impact Assessmeat Management System (EW (EMS) A No response Yes, when plant was No. Beginning to explore built. options. B Y es No. Yes. lC 1 Evolving. in early No. No. Beginning to explore , 1 1 stages options. I i D Yes.Launchedlast Yes. No. In process of i year. developing one. E Yes. Developing one Yes for newer plants, i No. In process of 1 1 but not yet 1 not for older plants. / developing one. 1 1 approved. 1 1 Table 5.5: Environmental Initiatives by Industry

( lndustry ( Environmental 1 Environmental 1 Environmental 1 ! Policy Impact Assessrnent Management System ( i (EW (EMS) 1 F / Yes. No. No. In process of implementation. G Yes. Yes. No. In process of 1 implementation

Several of the industry representatives (4 of 7) reported that they had received complaints about their industries. These complaints included concems about ammonia releases. ash. odour. colour of air emissions. safety, VOCs and the dying of mangroves. Many of these complaints originated from other industries on the estate rather than fiom the community. One industry representative reported that the industries and PLIPDECO try to work together in an informal cooperative process to deal with problems and complaints. Only two of the industries reported having a fornial community educational program consisting of outreach programs in the schools, distribution of information pamphlets in the cornmunity and safety exhibitions. Four of the industry representatives indicated that their companies were involved with educational activities coordinated by PLIPDECO and TTEMAS. These programs consisted of seminars, brochures, handouts, videos and disaster simulation drills. One industry representative reported that their Company maintained informa1 contact with the community to get their feedback and to discuss ment innovations. Two industries indicated that they sponsored some projects. games or activities within the local communities. Al1 industries surveyed indicated that they would benefit from additional information on pollution and the environment. Specific areas of interest included international best practices, latest pollution control technologies and hardware and air emissions monitoring equipment. One industry also wanted to get better information on local demographics and community concems. 5.1.5 Characterization of Community Education and Awareness

As part of the study, the researcher sought to understand the level of cornmunity education and concems with regard to industrial development and pollution. Results fiom community interviews are summarized below and suggest that there is much that could be done to improve community education and awareness.

Communitv Education: The majonty of respondents (26 of 3 1) surveyed indicated that they had never received any type of information fiom industries in the area. OP the five who had received some type of information. al1 were located in the village of California while no one in Dow Village had ever received any information, possibly given the closer proximity of California to the industrial estate. Information consisted of letters informing about noise dunng industry commissioning, being given earplugs for noise. an information pamphlet about ammonia and a general safety pamphlet. Only one of the six classrooms reported that they had received any information from any of the industries in the area. This classroom received a blue safety booklet to take home from PLIPDECO during their classroom seminar. Two classrooms indicated that they had been on a school field trip to an arnmonia plant where they learned about the process and safety of that industry. Several of the other classrooms expressed some fnistration that -'no one has ever come to talk to us" or that they had not received any information -- "not from anyone." When asked about their knowledge about how to protect themselves in the event of a chemical emergency at the industrial estate, the majonty of respondents (27 out of 3 1) did not feel that they knew enough to protect themselves or their families, although they felt that they should know. One respondent felt that the "tirne frame was too short to escape anyway" while another expressed that al1 they could do was 'pray." One respondent reported that people would come and direct them if anything happened: however. this person also indicated that the annual disaster simulations weren't very efficient bccause people in the cornrnunity were not aware of what was happening. Of the four respondents who reported that they knew how to protect thernselves, three either worked or had a relative who worked on the estate and had received some training. The fourth respondent felt it was suficient to know to leave the area. Children in five of the six classrooms indicated that they did not know what to do to protect themselves in the event of a chernical emergency at the industrial estate. Even the classroom that had received the safety booklets and seminar fiom PLIPDECO feit that they still wouldn't know what to do in a reai situation and raised concems that there was no emergency plan or drills. Some children in one of the ciassrnoms felt that they knew what to do from the emergency simulation drills and suggested using wet towels and getting under water. It was noted that this school is located closest to the industrial estate and had previously been involved in the annual simulation drills at the industrial estate. The majority of respondents (29 out of 3 1) indicated that they would like information on ways to protect their health. safety or the environment. When asked what information would be most useful. the majority of respondents (34 out of 3 1) requested information about safety in the event of an emergency. Specifically. they wanted to know how to protect themselves, what to do. where to go (i.e.. shelters or "safe" places) and what disaster preparedness and evacuation plans are in place. Information was also rrquested about how to protect their health from mosquitoes. dust and poilution as well as information on the dangers of industries. One respondent emphasized the imponance of "having ail companies inform us." All six classrooms indicated that they would like more information on safety in the event of an emergency including what to do, where to go and what the evacuation plans were in place. Information about new industries. medication for breathing problems and a career guide to local industries was also requested. Community respondents most frequently suggested that house to house visits ( 12 times). written information sent to them in the mail (12 times), or meetings held close by in the village (9 times) were the best methods to disseminate information. Other options suggested less frequently included phone (7 times), public address (3 times). media (3 times) and fax (1 time). School children felt the best way to get the information to them was through classroom lectures. seminars, or field trips. One classroorn wanted information pamphlets handed out in classrooms so that they could take them home to their families. Radio and TV were also indicated to be a good information medium "so that everyone can know."

Cornmunitv Concerns: Of the 3 1 people surveyed in the community, 26 out of 3 1 reported that no organization or industry had ever contacted them to find out if they had any concems about industrial development in the area. Several respondents expressed mistration by stating that "we don't exist" while another expressed that there has been "no consultation." This lack of consultation cm lead to a sense of apathy. making residents feel that there is "nothing we can do." Of the five respondents who had been contacted, only two were contacted by industries. The fint contact was by an ammonia plant following an incident of ammonia smell and the other contact was by an industry about noise during commissioning and had handed out earplugs for the noise. The other organizations that had contacted people were the local village council and a local community group who had both raised concems about industrial development. However. there was a sense that these organizations could do "nothing concrete". and that there were "no real benefits" in getting involved. The majority of community respondents (27 of 3 1) reported that they had never contacted the estate landlord or any industry to make a complaint or raise a concern. When asked why not. two respondents indicated that they felt that their concerns would "faIl on deaf ears" or that "you wonTtget a positive response." One respondent indicated that their Company at work had raised concems. Only three people indicated that they were aware of PLIPDECO's environmental help hotline. Of the four people surveyed who reported that they had contacted the estate landlord or industry, two indicated it was because of the arnmonia smell, one indicated it was about the ash, and one indicated for both arnrnonia smell and noise. In addition, the majority of respondents (24) had never contacted other organizations to make a complaint or raise a concem. One respondent indicated that they had been involved in a collective effort with other villagers but had never personally made a complaint. Of the seven respondents who had made complaints, four indicated they had contacted government. either their Member of Parliament. councillor or the EMA. Three respondents reported that they had contacted the sugar factory about ash problems. Four respondents expressed hstration because they felt that their concems were not adequately addressed as indicated by the following quotes -- "you try but get fed up." "cornplain but they don't listen to our concems, " "waste of time. " and 'didn't address concerns."

5.1.6 Buman Receptors

There are two main groups of people who may be exposed to pollution fiom industry in the Point Lisas area -- community residents and worken at local industries. Although it is recognized that industrial workers may be exposed to higher levels of industrial pollutants, these exposures are generally better regulated under occupational health and safety prograrns. In addition, workers have better access to training, personal protective equipment. "safe" rooms. medical surveillance programs and medical facilities. Further. many of the workers at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate do not reside in the local community but commute from larger centres such as Port of Spain. Given the above factors. the researcher chose to focus her study on the health impacts of pollutants on residents in adjacent communities who aren't necessarily protected by any legislation and who may not have adequate access to medical facilities. The exposed population within a 1.9 km radius (1.2 mile) of the industriai estate was estimated by the EMA to be most ai risk and consisted of approximately 18.000 residents including children attending area schools (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1994; EMA 1999a). People intewiewed for the study lived either in Dow Village or California and lived within this 1.9 km radius of the industrial estate. Residents in the village of California are Iocated substantially closer to the industrial estate. generally within a 1 .O km radius but with some houses located within less than 100 m of the industrial estate. Dow Village residents, while generally further from the Point Lisas Industnal Estate. were located closer to the sugar factory and the new industrial estate being built to the east. The majority of respondents (22 of 3 1) indicated that they had lived in the area ail of their lives with two of these respondents reporting that they had spent short periods of time away. Six respondents indicated that they had spent over 20 years in the area while two had spent more than 10 years in the area. Only one penon indicated that they had been in the area for only about a year. The majority of respondents (24 out of 3 1) reported no one in their household was working for or had ever worked for the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. Of seven respondents who responded yes, six were fiom the village of California and only one was from Dow Village. Three respondents had someone in their household who had worked at the estate for over ten years while one respondent indicated that her son had worked for a while during construction. One respondent indicated that three people in their house worked at the estate and another respondent worked for the bank. One respondent had worked at the estate for two years. Children. the elderly. asthmatics and those with other illnesses were perceived by the community to be most at risk to health problems related to pollution. In developing exposure scenarios for a health impact analysis, these types of human receptors should be considered.

5.1.7 Human Exposure Pathways

In this section, the objective was to identify potential routes through which people could be exposed to pollutants and to determine the relative importance of operable cxposure pathways. For pollutant exposure to occur and potentially lead to health effects. there rnust be a way for the pollutant to reach a person through some type of exposure pathway. If no such exposure pathway exists. there can be no health risk, regardless of the source concentration. Human exposure to pollutants can occur in several ways depending on the type of environmentai media (Le., water, air, mil, etc.) in which the pollutants are present. The researcher sought to identify al1 possible exposure pathways and then to evaluate which pathways are likely to be realistic and applicable to the site under study. The primary sources for exposures related to the industrial activities in the area are through air emissions. liquid effluent. noise, odoun and industrial accidents and these were linked to human exposures and thus to potential effects on human health and well- being (Figure 5.1 ). Potential environmental exposure media could include:

Air Water (freshwater, seawater, groundwater) Food (fish or plants) Soils / sediments

Potential exposure pathways associated with the industries in the Point Lisas area are outlined below for people.

Inhalation of Air: Inhalation of pollutants in air can result in direct exposure for people living in the area. Exposure can occur in two ways -- inhalation of volatile pollutants in air. and inhalation of pollutants bound to particulate matter (i.e.. dust). The arnount of exposure will depend on the concentration of pollutants. a person's time spent outdoors. infiltration of outdoor air into houses and time spent in area. Outdoor air pollution is difficult to avoid unless a person rernains in an enclosed building with specially filtered air. wears a respirator or mask. or leaves the area. Given the air pollutant loads in the area. this exposure pathway is a significant route of exposure for area residents.

Ingestion: Ingestion of fugitive dust - Fugitive dust generated fkom surface soils can result in exposure to people through the ingestion of pollutants bound to soi1 particles. Given the recurring dust problems, both From construction and the local industries. this is a potential exposure pathway for people living in the area. Ingestion of surface water - While industrial effluents are released into drains and the Couva River potentially polluting fieshwater, drinking water is supplied fiom the Water and Sewerage Authonty (WASA) and not fiom any nearby surface water supplies. Al1 of the houses surveyed indicated that they had access to drinking water through WASA. either directly piped hto their houses or through a public pipe used to Figure 5.1 : Linking Industrial Activities to Health and Well-Being of Local Residents

- I *l *l Emissions pk Noise Industrial Discharge Accidents

Changes Changes in Water in Air Aest hetic Quality Quality

in Fish Changesin Soil 1 Changes / Tissue QUaii' 1 / In Food LQuality auaiity 1

Health and Well-Being of Local Residents fil1 water barrels. A few people also indicated that they drank bottled water. Since local surface water is not used for drinking water. the ingestion of surface water was not considered to be a significant exposure pathway for pollutants fiom local industries. However, for a comprehensive health impact assessment, it would be necessary to establish water quality of WASA water to determine if it contributes any significant pollution to the people in the local cornmunity. Ingestion of groundwater - Groundwater cm be impacted through the infiltration of pollutants through soils or surface water. In the Point Lisas area, industriai effluents drain eirher directly to the sea or travel a short distance down the Couva River to the sea. As a result. there is little opponunity for groundwater to become affected except through accidental spills. Moreover. groundwater is not generally used as a source of dnnking water. Therefore, exposure through groundwater was not considered to be a potential pathway of exposure for people living in the local community. Ingestion of plant fi- Fugitive dust and particulate matter can deposit on plants or on soils. Thus. plants that are growing in the local area can accumulate rnetals or organic compounds in their tissues. Although the majority of people surveyed indicated that they did not grow their own hits or vegetables. about a third of people surveyed reported that they either grew fmit trees, some vegetables or seasonings in their backyards. Since people could be exposed to pollutants by consurning plant foods, this is a potential exposure pathway for people in the local comrnunity. Ingestion ojjirh /shel/f'îh - Fish and other shellfish caught near the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and its effluent outfalls may accumulate metals and organic compounds in their tissue from water or sediment. The majority of people sweyed indicated that they do not catch or eat fish or shelifish from the nearby bays anymore, mainly because of pollution concems such as the amrnonia taste and smell. However, one third of the respondents indicated that they did eat fish from the local area. although many indicated that they were uncertain exactly where the fish they bought came fiom. At least one respondent indicated that they sornetimes go and catch fish nearby as a means of subsistence. Since people could be exposed to pollutants by consuming contaminated fish or shellfish, this is a potential exposure pathway for people in the local cornmunity. Skin Absorption: Direct corrtact with air - Pollutant exposure can result in direct exposure to people through dermal uptake of pollutants present in the air. This is generally considered to be a minor pathway of exposure but can be significant if pollutant concentrations in air are high and cmnot be discounted given the uncertainty of pollutant concentrations in air. Direct contact with surface water - Since large volumes of industrial effluents are deposited into freshwater and seawater. water is an important environmental medium for exposure to people. People can be exposed through bathing or swimming in local rivers or the sea. However, most people surveyed said that they no longer bathe or swim in the nearby rivers or seas due to pollution concems. Given that the contribution of dermal exposure to pollutants in surface waters tends to be small compared to other routes of exposure and that most people do not bathe or swim in the area, this pathway is not expected to be a significant exposure pathway. Direct contact with soifs /dusi - Contact with soils or particulate dust can result in exposure to people through absorption of pollutants bound to particles. Given the recumng dust problems. both from construction and the local industries. this is a potential exposure pathway for people living in the area. Children may be at a greater risk of exposure because they spend more time playing outdoors. Direct exposure tu noise and odoun - Local residents may be directly exposed to noise and odours from industry ai various times. This type of exposure, while localized, is a recumng problem and is likely to worsen with the expansion of industries in the area. Exposure during industrul occideri& or upsets - Local residents rnay be directly exposed to pollutants through the al1 of the above exposure pathways dunng industrial accidents or upsets. While these types of exposures are generally of shorter duration. the concentrations tend to be much higher and can lead to high exposures to pollutants.

5.1.8 Conceptual Model

The conceptual mode1 is an end point of the problem definition stage and outlines ways in which pollutants may affect people. This step involves detailing the sources of pollutants, pollutant rnechanisms, transport pathways and media and important exposure routes. This information can be subsequently used to analyze risks of pollutants. A graphical representation of the conceptual mode1 for hurnan health, detailing critical exposure pathways, is presented in Figure 5.2.

5.2 Analyze Risks and Put into Them Context

The overall goal of the risk analysis was to produce a detailed snapshot of how industrial pollution in the Point Lisas area can impact the health and well-being of people living in the surrounding communities. Information that had been collected on potential pollutant exposures and health effects is presented in the following sections. This information was then integrated to form the basis of the health risk analysis.

5.2.1 information on Pollutant Exposures

Pollutant exposures are typically quantified through an analysis of the magnitude. duration, fiequency and route of exposures to pollutants using data on pollutant sources. pollutant distributions in air. water, soi1 and food as well as consideration of human activities. In general. a combination of data collection. modeling. literature review and professional j udgement are used. Since no data collection was conducted for this research project. a review of available studies and data was conducted to put the potential for pollutant exposure into context. The area has been subject to a nurnber of monitoring and research studies over the years since the development of the industrial estate. These studies are reviewed in more detail below.

Pollutant Inventorv: A pollutant inventory study for Trinidad and Tobago was undertaken to estimate pollutant discharges from al1 economic secton (Ecoengineering Consultants Limited 1997). The most important finding of the study was that very large data gaps exist in

estimating pollutant discharges in al1 environmental media. Many organizations had no relevant data on their discharges to the environment and rnany were reluctant to release data on production rates or raw material and fuel use that could be used to estimate these discharges. Pollutant loads were estimated for 42% of liquid effluents, 40% for air etnissions. 29% for solid waste, 15% for hazardous waste and 16% for noise of the sectors of interest. Partial estimates of annual emissions and effluents for Tnnidad and Tobago are listed in Table 5.6 and Table 5.7.

Table 5.6 Partial Estimate of Emissions Loads for Trinidad and Tobago

Parameter Partial Estimate Main sources 1 (tons I year) Total suspended particulate 2 1.000 Quarries, milling matter operations. urea plants. road ) uaffic. sugar cane burning. 1 l l I cernent plants 1 1 Sulphur dioxide 8,000 Road trafic. petroieum 1 1 1 I 1 refining. shipping, cement ! 1 production I Nitrogen oxides 4 1,000 1 Power generation, road 1 trafic ammonia production Volatile organic compounds 27,000 Amrnonia production, oil refining, road trafic Carbon monoxide 77,000 Oil refuiing, road traffic: sugar cane burning Carbon dioxide 3.7 million Arnmonia production Ammonia 1 11,061 Ammonia plants; urea I plants I / Lead 5 1 Road traffic. battery manu fac turers Methanol 8 Methanol piants Chlorine gas 91 C hlor-alkali plants Table 5.7 Partial Estimate of Effluent Loads for Trinidad and Tobago

Parameter 1 Partial Estimate 1 Main sources (tons / year) Biological oxygen demand 15,000 Sewage treatment. septage, livestock rearing, nun distilling, oil refining, 1 amrnonia production Total suspended solids 32,000 Livestock rearing, sewage treatment. septage. oil exploration and production: .-- rum distilling Total dissolved solids 1.5 milhcn Arnmonia production Ni trogen 8,000 Urea plant, sewage I ) treatment, rurn distilling,- 1 livestock rearing

[ Phosphorus 390 l l 1 Sewage treatment. livestock rearing Oil and grease 30,000 Ammonia production Copper 4 Steel mil1 Nickel 4 Steel mil1 Zinc <1 Steel mil1 Chromium <4 Steel mill; oil refining Cadmium 4 Steel mil1 Iron 365 Oil production

Pollutant loadinn: The total loading of pollutants into the Couva River and the marine area was estimated by the IMA from several pollutant loading studies ([MA 1997; 1998). Their results are summarized in the table below:

Table 5.8: Pollutant Loads Associated with the Couva River

Parameter Pollutant Loading into the Pollutaot Loading from Couva River (kglday) the Couva River into the I Sei) Biological Oxygen Demand 533.91 868.82 (5-day) (BOD) Chemical Oxygen Demand 44 14.78 - Total phosphates 2 1.95 42.04 Nitrates 104.2 1 145.74 Nitrites 5 .O0 7.0 1 .hmonia 240.97 255 .O4 Table 5.8: Pollutant Loads Associated with the Couva River (cont'd)

Parameter Pollutant Loading into the Pollutant Loadiog from Couva River (kglday) the Couva River into the Sea) Suspended solids - 22000 Total oil and grease 448.67 482.17 Dissolved and dispersed 0.98 1.29 petroleurn hydrocarbons (DDPH) Cadmium 0.1 1 O. 13

C hromium I

1 1 Nickel 1 0.94 1.36 1 Lead 0.98 1.11 Vanadium 0.02 0.04 ----

Source: IMA 1997.

Monitored industrial effluents fiom the industrial estate contributed 61% of BOD. 94% of ammonia. 80% of nitrogen compounds and 65% of metals to the loading of the Couva River (IMA 1997; 1998). The contribution of the Couva River to the sea is important because it concentrates the discharge of several industries into one Stream that is subsequently released to the sea at one point. Pollutant loads for several major air pollutants were estimated for the Point Lisas Industrial Estate by Raj kumar ( 1997) using a Rapid Assessrnent Methodology (WHO 1993). The pollutant loads were estimated based on industnal sector (Table 5.9).

Table 5.9: Air Pollutant Loads for the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in 1995 (Tonslyear)

1 Source Total SO2 NOx CO VOC Ammonia Suspended Particulate CTW 1 Manufacturing 3386 90 5540 16388 9697 1 Electrk Power 178 2 5524 1463 535

, Transport Pollutant loads for main liquid pollutants were also estimated for the Point Lisas Industrial Estate by Rajkumar (1997) using a Rapid Assessment Methodology as outlined by the WHO (1 993). The pollutant loads were estimated based on industrial sector and are presented in Table 5.10 below.

Table 5.10: Liquid Pollutant Loads for the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in 1995 (Tonslyear)

Source Total Biological Total Total Oil 1 Suspended Oxygen Nitrogen Phosphorus Solids 1 Demand I Manufacturing 4 195 5977 1 1468 - 173620 Sanitary 2124 1636 412 112 980 I Services

Monitoring of Pollutants in Industrial Effluents and Emissions: Al1 of the industries interviewed indicated that they had routine monitoring programs set up for industrial effluents. These monitoring prograrns typically included temperature. pH, suspended solids. oil and grease. ammonia, chlorine. and metals as specified under the TTS 547: 1998 industrial effluent standards for specific industries. However, this data was considered to be "confidential" and could not be released to the researcher. tndustries reported that this information was either submitted to PLIPDECO or to the EMA. When the researcher approached either of these organizations. she was again told that the information could not be released due to "confidentiality" concems. Monitoring of industrial emissions remains relatively undeveioped. Only four of the seven industries surveyed indicated that they had any type of emissions monitoring prograrns. Two of these industries only had gas leak detection systems and were not monitoring for other pollutants. The other two industries monitored for oniy NO,, S02or CO. None of the industries were monitoring for particulate matter or VOCs. PLIPDECO is in the process of formulating an environmentai management plan for the industrial estate and plan to initiate an ongoing monitoring programme for al1 industries on the estate (IMA 1998). In addition, PLIPDECO has incorporated effluent monitoring a part of recent lease agreements, requiring its tenants to conform to World Bank or US EPA standards (PLIPDECO 1999b). If monitoring indicates that effluents exceed standards, PLIPEDCO will send a formal letter asking for a plan of action and further monitoring. Further. PLIPDECO conducts independent checks once a year to verify monitoring results (PLIDPECO 1999b).

Monitoring of Pollutants in Ambient Environmental Media: In 1978, PLIPDECO commissioned the IMA to conduct baseline studies to provide data, information and advice to assist in the environmental management of the estate (IMNPLIPDECO 1982). These studies were carried out during the construction phase of the industrial estate and port. Since that time, there have been sporadic studies including a study to mess pollution effects on benthic fauna (Gobin 1988) as well as water and sediment quality (Hall 1985; 1989; Hall and Chang-Yen 1986). The above studies demonstrated that the marine environment had suffered less impact than local rivers. probably due to its greater assimilative capacity. However, a report by IMA (1981) reported rnethyl mercury contamination in 40% of finfish and shellfish caught near Point caught in the Gulf of Paria. In addition. a number of fish kills have occurred in nearshore areas of Lisas and Couva Bays (Heileman and Siung-Chang 1990). More recently, in 1994, environmental quality studies were undertaken by the IMA in conjunction with PLIPDECO in response to public perception that the rivers and bays at Point Lisas were becoming heavily contaminated by industrial wastes (IMA 1998). The project included an assessrnent of pollution and pollution sources. physical oceanographic surveys. and recommendations for environmental management for the industrial estate. Results for the Couva River at the weir indicated high BOD,COD and total phosphate levels with low dissolved oxygen and pH during the dry season. coinciding with sugar harvesting and refinery operations at the sugar factory. The effluents fiom the sugar factory enter the Couva River at the weir. Anaiysis of different industrial effluents outfalls indicated exceedances of ammonical nitrogen. temperature, pH, BODYCOD and suspended solids for World Bank lirnits for industrial wastewates (MA 1998). These effluents are discharged into the Couva River. Levels of some metals (lead, zinc and iron) BOD and nitrates showed an increase fiom upstream locations, although not above lirnits. The levels of arnmonia recorded in seawater in Couva Bay and Lisas Bay far exceeded the U. S Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) limit (1.1. PM), sometimes 10 times the acceptable level (IMA 1998). Trace levels of metals in marine waters off Point Lisas were within USEPA regulatory limits. with the exception of zinc, but were lower than those recorded in previous studies (MA / PLIPDECO 1982; Gobin 1988). Marine monitoring did not indicate any significant changes in sediment or water quality from 1980 baseline studies. Fish and shellfish were not sampled in this snidy. Ambient air quality has not been rnonitored at the Industrial Estate and there is no established monitoring system. Farabi and Charles (1996) reported that ambient concentrations of particulate matter ranging from 80 to 350 ugfm3 in an area located near a sugar factory. It is expected that the sugar factory near Point Lisas would yield similar arnounts of particulate matter. These concentrations coupled with particulate matter being emitted from other industries in the area are likely to result in even high concentrations of particulate matter in air, particularly during the sugar hawest season. No other recent monitoring data were located for any other type of environmental media such as soils. fish, shellfish. hits or vegetables. However. it should be noted that Point Lisas was selected as a pilot site for collection of environmental baseline data under the Business Expansion and Industrial Restnicturing Loan (BERL) project. Under this project. noise, air, soils. marine water / sediments. shellfish. river water / sediments, mangrove sediments and groundwater will be analyzed for various parameters. The sampling was lirnited to a one-time collection of three samples collected over a period of three months. Unfortunately. the results of this project were not available at the time of this study.

5.2.2 Information on Healtb Effects

Since no quantitative data were available. the researcher used qualitative methods to gather and analyze information relevant to health effects, applying several different methods to trianguiate the data and gain a good overall perspective of the local situation. These rnethods included: 1) Examination of health statistics and reports for region; 2) discussions with medical professionals; 3) interviews with residents about their perceptions of health effects; and, 4) review of compiled list of air pollutants for their potential health effects.

The results of this analysis are reported in more detail below.

Review of Health Statistics / Reuorts / Studies for Region: Asthma appears to be prevalent in Caroni County, in which the Point Lisas Industrial Estate is located. Recent annual reports by the County Medical Oficer of Health have highlighted asthma as a significant concern for the county (Ministry of Health 1993; 1994). Moreover, asthma was the single highest category of medical treatment in both the Chaganus and Couva Accident and Emergency units. with many of the cases presented being young children (Ministry of Health 1999). The Couva A&E Unit reported an average of 250 asthma cases per month. with a trend of more asthma cases dunng the rainy season. In addition. asthma was the major diagnosis (>50%) of al1 patients presented to pediatric clinics at the Couva Health Centre in 1998 (Ministry of Hraith 1999). The Couva A&E Emergency Unit has one bed set aside specifically for asthma patients, and asthma clinics are held at the Couva Health Centre on a regular basis to assist people in the management of their asthma. Preliminary results of a research study on asthma in Trinidad also suggested that Caroni County had increased prevalence rates compared to the Mayaro region. a rural area with no industrial or urban pollution. but similar to those in the Toco. Arima and San Fernando regions (Monteil et al 1999). However this study did not include cases fkom the Couva A&E. thus, underestimating the prevalence of asthma in the county.

Discussions with Medical Professionals: Several medical professionals indicated that asthma and respiratory illnesses are a problem in the local communities, particularly among young children. OAen asthma and respiratory problems were associaied with the dust and smoke of the sugar cane industry . One general practitioner reported that he saw an increase in upper respiratory symptoms during the crop season. Al1 medical professionais interviewed reported concems about the potential for an industrial incident such as a fire, explosions or gas leaks that could result in acute illnesses or mass casualties at the estate and in the sunounding communities. Most felt that medical facilities in the area are not well equipped to deal with a major emergency. Others expressed concem that the medical facilities are located too close to the industrial estate and would fa11 within a "red zone" of a major gas reiease and that there are not enough gas masks to protect staff at these facilities.

Interviews with Communitv Members: Community membee most often associated the word health with well-being relating it to bcing healthy and well. not being sick. being able to work. being physicaily fit and long-living (22 out of 3 1). One person surnmed it up by saying that "health is the most importÿnt thing in life." Health was also associated with having a clean environment with fresh air and clean water. A smaller number of people associated health with sickness. dangers and deterioration of the body and two people associated it with pollution and mosquitoes. Three people mentioned medical costs and the lack of hospital facilities. School children also ofien associated health with well-king and fieedom fiom sickness. They also specified persona1 hygiene, cleanliness and a clean and safe environment as important factors in health. Sickness and hospitals were also mentioned. ALI respondents. both individual and school children, felt that pollution could cause health problems and were then asked to give examples to indicate their understanding. Respondents most fiequently associated pollution with respiratory problems including in descending order of frequency mentioned:

Asthma ( 17 times) Colds and coughs (8 times) Bronchitis (6 times) General wheezing, breathing difficulties (6 times) Sinus problems (5 times) Other health problems also associated with pollution were mosquito-borne and water-borne diseases, skin rashes and infections, hearing problems, heart disease. headaches. lung cancer and eye imtation. Several respondents also indicated concem about the accumulation of pollutants in food or the body and its potential to affect health. Approximately half of community respondents (1 5 out of 3 1) felt that their health or that of someone in their household had been affected by pollution. Again respiratory difficulties were the most frequently reported health problem associated with pollution including colds. cough. sinus, asthma, allergies, sneezing and shortness breath. Two respondents reported breathing difficulties following exposure to ammonia. Othen reported health problems included skin rashes, hearing problems due to noise, headaches and heart disease. Nine of the respondents indicated that medical attention was needed for their health problems. Every school classroom had some pupils who indicated that their health or that of someone in their household had been affected by pollution citing asthrna. allergies and sneezing as common problems. When specifically asked about the occurrence of asthma and respiratory difficulties in their households, 2 I respondents indicated that they or sorneone in their household suffered from asthma or respiratory difficulties. The most fiequently cited problems were asthma. allergies, colds and cough, breathing difficulties and sinus and boat problems. The majority of community respondents (23 out of 3 1) and al1 school classrooms surveyed felt that certain groups were more susceptible to health problems caused by pollution. Children and the elderly were most fiequently cited as being more susceptible but rnany people also indicated that people who already had other health problems such as asthrna, sinus, respiratory, and hem problems or those who were not very strong were also more susceptible. Similar results were obtained by school children who most often reported that children and the elderly were most susceptible but also identified asthmatics and sick people as being susceptible.

Toxicological Review of Health Effects: Since asthma and other respiratory illnesses appeared to be the main heaith concern for the Point Lisas area, a list of potential air pollutants being released from industries in the Point Lisas area were reviewed for their potential health efiects using several toxicological sources and databases (Table 5.1 1). The types of health effects were broken down into acute and chronic effects. Acute effects are expressed over a relatively short period of time ranging from minutes to days and tend to be associated with high levels of pollutants. Chronic effects may develop after an extended petiod of time, usually several weeks to years and tend to be associated with lower levels of pollutants. Effects, other than health effects, were also noted. where appropriate.

Table 5.1 1: Health Effects for Major Air ~ollutaats'

Pollutant: Acute Health Effects Chronic Health Other Effects Effects Ammonia - Eye irritation, - no known long- - Pungent odour imtation of throat, terrn effects nose and upper I respiratory tract; 1 - Coughing, branchial I spasms. 1- Bums - Asphyxiation, can be 1 fatal at high concentrations Methanol * - Visual disturbances - Conjunctivitis. - May explode when such as biurred or headache, exposed to an open 1 dimness of vision, giddiness, flame I leading to blindness - Insomnia, gastric - Can contribute to 1 1 - Neurological darnage. disturbances. visual the formation of 1 specifically disturbances, and smog permanent motor blindness dysfunction may also

l 1 I 1 Chlorine 1 - imtates the eyes, skin ] - not known 1 - Pungent odour 1 and respiratory system - coughing, chest pain, water retention in the IU~~S i

Carbon dioxide - Global wanning 1 Table 5.1 1: Health Effects for Major Air ~ollutants'(con't)

Pollu tant Acute Health Effects Chronic Health Otber Effects Effects Nitrogen - irritates lungs - lowers an - Acid min formation oxides (NO,) - visual and olfactory individual's and haze disturbances resistance to - Pungent, imtating - cari be fatal at very respiratory odour high concentrations infection - sensitivity for people with asthma, bronchitis and emphysema Sulphur oxides - Aggravates asthmas - Worsening of - Pungent smell 60,) - Eye irritation. existing lung and shortness of breath. cardiovascular and reduction of Iung disease, asthma, function chronic heart and - Increases incidences lung disease of coughs, colds, - Also contributor to asthma, bronchitis, skin allergies and emphysema and other reproductive respiratory diseases problems - Reduces ability of - Low birth weight. - most harmfùl to blood to transport slowed postnatal people with severe oxygen development in anemia chronic - Headaches, babies lung disease and drowsinesss, cardiarc - impaired work cardiovascular arrhythrnias, coma. capacity, decreased disease and death aerobic capacity, visual perception. manual dexterity

/ Hydrocarbons variety of compounds - variety of that can have a wide compounds that can range of health concems have a wide range of health concerns - Irritate eyes, nose and - damage lung - can reduce crop ozone thsoat function yields - aggravates asthma - intensify heart and - damage forests and other respiratory lung disease problems such as - reduce resistance to coughing and painiùl infections. allergens deep breathing and ~neumonia Table 5.11: Health Effects for Major Air ~ollutants'(con't)

Pollutant: Acute HeaIth Effects Chronic Health Otber Effects r-- Effects - variety of solvent-like - variety of solvent- - Formation of Organic compounds linked to like compounds ground-level ozone Compounds a wide range of linked to a wide and acidic heaith concems range of health compunds 1 I concerns I I f- Particulate - irritates lungs - increased - Reduces ! i matter - increases asthma respiratory amiospheric attacks symptoms visibility - increascs - decreased level of hospitalization for lung function respiratory and - some chernicals cardiovascular that bind to conditions particles can cause - increased mortality cancer

- Poisoning resulting in - Effects on the convulsions, brain central and and kidney damage. peripheral nervous paralysis, coma and systems even death - Reduced IQ and growth in children - Neurobehavioural problems

' Information compiied fiom the following sources (ATSDR 1990: EMA 1996: Health Canada 1998)

5.2.3 Health Risk Analysis

The researcher could not quantifi health nsks due to a lack of access and availability of quantitative data. However. based on the review of qualitative information. several observations cm be made that provide insights into potential health risks for the Point Lisas area. Overall. pollutants released in the environment by the industries located near Point Lisas have not been well-characterized in terms of their nature, volumes or concentrations in the ambient environment. Various estimates suggest that large volumes of industrial pollutants are being released into the ambient environment, both to the air and to water. Data only exists for several of the main pollutants while analysis for many other pollutants has not yet been cornpleted. Despite the lack of definite data, the large volumes of industriai pollutants being released to the environment suggest that there is a definite potential for exposure to people living in the adjacent communities. These exposures should not be discounted until it can be proven through environmental monitoring and assessrnent that they do not pose a human health risk. Asthrna and other respiratory illnesses appear to be a concem in the Point Lisas area based on a review of medical statistics and discussions with medical professionais. In addition. there is also a perception in the community of increased respiratory illnesses. Moreover. many of the air pollutants present in the area have been known to cause irritation of the throat, nose and upper respiratory tract and aggravate the symptoms of asthma and other respiratory illnesses (see Table 5.1 1 ). These observations coupled with the large voiumes of air pollutants being released in the Point Lisas area suggests some cause for concem for the health of people living in the adjacent communities. At present, there are insufficient data to link incidents of asthrna and other respiratory illnesses to air pollution in the Point Lisas area. Despite the large data gaps, the initial observations suggest some cause for concem; however, fûrther investigation is necessary to delineate exposures and effects in a quantitative manner. As more data becorne available. a quantitative health risk analysis that considers cumulative exposures should be conducted to bener determine risks to people living in the local community. 6.0 DISCUSSION

6 1 Potential Health Effects

In this section. the potential health effects associated with pollution from industries operating in the Point Lisas will be discussed. Three key areas will be reviewed including the nature of industrial pollution. the nature of human exposure. and nature and perception of health effects and concems.

6.1.1 Nature of Industrial Pollution

The Point Lisas area is currently intiuenced by several large industries. the majority of which are currently centred on the Point Lisas lndustrial Estate (PLIPDECO 1998a). The study found that these industrial plants are a source of pollution to the local ecosystem through their air emissions and industrial effluents. either through continuous low-level discharges as well as accidental releases of higher volumes. Noise pollution and noxious odours were also ofien cited as a concem among area residents. Pollution from solid and hazardous wastes from industries were not considered in this study. The nature of chronic discharges of industrial emissions and effluents have been not well-characterized. Most industries surveyed have only recently begun to regularly monitor industrial effluents. in response to the new industrial effluent standards (TTS 547: 19%: TTBS 19%). Howrver. these standards are not compulsory and are dependent on the voluntary cornpliance by individual industries (TTBS 1998; EMA 1999b). While industries are required to regularly submit monitoring data to the government and PLIPDECO. the industries were reluctant to share this information with the researcher citing 'konfidentiality" issues. Local residents have expressed concern about industrial pollutants partly because they "don't know what is out there.* Monitoring of air emissions remains relatively undeveloped with only two of the seven industries surveyed conducting any emissions monitoring, and then only for a lirnited number of air pollutants (Le.. NO,. SO, or CO). The lack of comprehensive emission monitoring programs likrly results from the lack of industrial emission standards. The EMA in conjunction with the TTBS are presently drafting such standards; however, it may be another year or two before they become implemented (EMA 1999b). Most of the industries interviewed were evaluating options for more detailed emissions monitoring in light of the impending emission standards but many reported that the costs were quite prohibitive. The nature and concentration of industrial pollutants in the surrounding environment (i.e., water. air, soil, fish), is also not well-characterized. Over the years several monitoring studies have been conducted but these studies have focussed primarily on water and sediment quality in the Couva River or the Gulf of Paria (IMA 198 1; IMA / PLIPDECO 1982; Hall 1985; Hall and Chang-Yen 1986; Gobin 1988; Hall 1989: IMA 1998). One study reported elevated concentrations of mercury in fish caught in Point Lisas Bay (IMA 198 1). No ambient air quality data were located for the Point Lisas area. Several accidentai releases of gases have occurred over the yean, some of which have resulted in fatalities of workers on the industrial estate (Industry Representative 1999). While most of these incidents have been confined to the industrial estate: several residents reported respiratory symptoms following incidents on the estate. Therefore. if a large-scale gas release. explosion or fire were to occur on the estate. there is a potential for significant impact on residents in adjacent communities. A fiequently cited concem among the residents was for their health and safety with respect to the amrnonia plants. explosions, fire and gas releases. Industries do not typically monitor for noise and there are no regulations for noise pollution at present. Noise pollution fiom industry is a common problem, particularly during maintenance and commissioning of industriai plants and was cited by local residents to be one of the major threats to their environmeni. Close proximity of residential areas to industrial areas can lead to recurring cornplaints, particularly if the noise is loud and cames on for sustained penods of time. Although a localized problem. it cm have effects on the heaith and well-being of those affected, including hearing loss as well as interfering with communication, startling people, disturbing sleep and rest, and causing severe annoyance and stress (WHO 1980; Health and Welfare Canada 1992; Health Canada 1997a; 1997b). At least one of the local industries has provided ear plugs to nearby residents to help alleviate noise concems. Noxious fumes and smells fiom industries cm be a source of discornfort and stress to area residents. Several residents indicated that they were concemed about various smells including ammonia, urea and other chernical srnells as well as the sou smell fiom the practice of "skimming" at the sugar factory. Apart fiom aesthetic concems, these odours may generate fear in residents because they are uncertain if these srnells are dangerous to their health. The number of incidents related to smell or fumes is not documented but industries address problems on an ad hoc basis in response to complaints. The lack of monitoring for pollutants in environmental media, particularly air, makes it dificult to determine cumulative exposure levels for people living in the area. and thus difficult to quanti@ human health risks. In addition. the lack of an early warning system or emergency response plan for the local cornrnunities may increase the risk of significant health impacts. should a major incident occur. Moreover, the effects of noise and odours on health and well-being have not been studied. The high volumes of pollutants being released by industries in the Point Lisas area coupled with ongoing industrial expansion in the area will undoubtedly increase the pollutant loads to the local ecosystem as well as increase the risk of accidental releases (EMA 1996; Raj kumar 1997). Similarly, the fiequency of incidents related to noise and odours are also likely to increase with increasing industrial developmed.

6.1.2 Nature of Human Exposure to Industrial Pollutants

As discussed in Chapter 5.0, the main exposure pathway for people living in the area is through air. Exposure can occur through direct inhalation of pollutants, absorption of gases or particulates though the skin or ingestion of pollutants adsorbed to particulate dust, either directly or deposited ont0 hits and vegetables. Prevailing winds are fiom the northeast and blow the emissions fiom the industrial estate into the Gulf of Paria about 80 percent of the time. However, these sarne prevailing winds blow ernissions fiom the sugar factory located to the easi into the local comrnunities. Therefore, residents are subject to industrial emissions Erom different sources at different times, depending on the wind direction. In addition, vehicle emissions fiom transportation routes such as the Southem Main Road can contribute to the cumulative load of air pollution to residents. Water is less of a concem for human exposure because residents obtain their drinking water through a pipe-borne supply (Le., WASA) rather than fiom local surface waters or groundwater wells. Yet. exposure may still occur through the eating of fish and shellfish that may have accumulated pollutants or through swirnming in the sea or rivers. However. it is noted that many respondents indicated that they do not eat local fish or shellfish or swim in local waters anymore because of pollution concems. Exposure to noise and odours was also a frequently cited concem by residents and is important not only as an aesthetic concem but because it can affect the overall well-being of people living in the area. Children. the elderly, asthmatics and people with other health problems were perceived by local residents to be more susceptible to pollution exposures. Thus, any exposure scenarios developed for the Point Lisas area should include children and sensitive individuals as receptors who are more susceptible to pollution than the average person. Moreover. residents in the area have a strong attachent to place and majority of people interviewed said thai they had lived in the area a11 of their lives. with some families having been in the area for generations. In developing a human exposure scenario. lifetirne exposures to pollutants should be considered for area residents.

6.1.3 Nature and Perception of Health Eflects and Concems

Phvsical Health: Discussions with local medical professionals and a review of health statistics and reports for the region suggest that asthma is a major health concem in Caroni County (Ministry of Health 1993; 1994; 1999; Monteil et al. 1999). The fact was also recognized by local residents who ofien cited asthma. breathing difficulties and other respiratory illnesses as a health problem in their cornmunities, particularly related to air pollution. Many of the known air pollutants in the Point Lisas area can produce or aggravate respiratory symptoms (see Table 5.1 1). However, since the concentrations of these pollutants have not been characterized in the Point Lisas area, it is not possible to directly link air pollution to effects on human health. In addition, there are many other triggers for asthma such as pollen and moulds, making it difficult to determine cause and effect due to confounding factors without detailed epidemiology studies. Moreover. the relationship between asthma and pollution is not well defined and remains controversial: however. data suggest that high levels of certain air pollutants can aggravate the symptoms of asthma and other respiratory illnesses (WHOmEP 1989: Weiss and Wagener 1990: Bates 1993; Smith 1993; WHO 1997). The other major health impact related to industry in the Point Lisas area relates to the potential for a large scale gas release, fire or explosion that may cause acute health effects such as respiratory difficulties. asphyxiation. burns and even death (Farabi. no date: Cooper Weil et al. 1990: Bertazzi 1991; Mohan 1993; Shafi 1993; Republic of Trinidad and Tobago 1994; Chari 1997; Porto and de Freitas 1997; WHO 1997). Concems about industrial safety were frequently articulated by many of the community members interviewed. as well as local medical professionals and members of other organizations. Major issues related to emergency risks include generd safety at the industrial plants to prevent industrial accidents as well as disaster preparedness in the event an incident did occur. Local residents cited the need for an early waming system and an ernergency response / evacuation plan for the communities. Many of those interviewed felt that fire and medical staff and facilities were insuficient to cope with a large emergency and that there was a need to develop "safe" buildings within the community to serve as shelters. Given the number of potentially hazardous industries in the Point Lisas area, and the deficiencies in disaster preparedness planning, the potential health impacts. should a major industrial incident occur. cannot be discounteci lightly. While gemrally a more localized problem. several residents were concemed about noise from industry affecting their hearing. In addition to hearing loss. noise can cause stress. and as such it can temporarily affect heart rate and blood flow to the skin (WHO 1980; Health Canada 199%). Some studies have suggested that noise may also affect the immune system and biochemistry of the blood but the results of these studies were not conclusive (Bly et al. 1990; 1993). Residents reported that noise was a particular problem during the construction, commissioning, maintenance and venting of industrial plants. One local resident indicated that there was noise "90% of the time" while another resident reported that one incident lasted for "three months straight." While some residents had received ear plugs and some written information about noise problems. these responses by industry seem insuficient to protect residents from long term health effects of noise, particularly given the rate of industrial expansion in the area.

Well-Beinpl: While the above impacts on health are physical, industrial pollution, if perceived as a threat to their environment can also have effects on the well-being and quality of life (WHO 1997). The interviews with local community members helped the researcher gain a perspective of how residents perceive industrial pollution and how it may have disrupted their way of life. changed their quality of life or affected their well-being. These resuits are discussed below. The majority of respondents reported that industrial development had affected their use of the natural environment (see Section 5.1.2). Most commonly, respondents indicated that they no longer fished. swarn or played in the Couva River or at the nearby beaches. Several respondents fondly recalled their younger days, pnor to the development of the industrial estate, when they used to go out to Monkey Point and "catch crab and have a cook" or go "have a bath in the sea." These respondents felt bad for the children in the community who could no longer enjoy these activities. Now. as one respondent said "you are bathing at your own risk" while another indicated that "you have to go to the North to bathe." Several respondents reported changes to the local fisheries -- "crab and oysters have disappeared." " fish breeding grounds have been affected," and " fish are dying fiom waste pollution." Others reported changes to the quality of local fish - "crabs taste like ammonia," and the "sealife is polluted and mutated." Many respondents attributed these changes to destruction of the mangroves and pollution associated with industrial development. Concem was expressed for local fishemen while other expressed fnistration about being unable to go fishing or obtain fish f'rom the local area anymore. Overall. there appears to be a perception by local residents that industriai development has changed their natural environment and thus limited their ability to use it for recreational and other purposes. Air pollution bas also afFected the quality of life of community residents in several ways. First, it has limited the ability of some residents to enjoy normal activities due to their respiratory conditions. Several children indicated that they could not play outside or play cricket at certain times because of the smoke. dust or scent of amrnonia. An adult respondent said that he could not "ride down the road. go for wdks, can't do that anymore" and related it to dust problems. Several others reponed that air pollution had affected their ability to breathe properly. Some residents also attributed a "sooty mouldt' or "fùngus" on their fmit trees to the dust and suggested that it was affecting the health of these trees. Noise and odours, while typically viewed as an aesthetic concem. cm also affect the well-being of cornrnunity residents because it can create anxiety and stress (WHO 1980; Rosenberg, 199 1; Health Canada1997a; 1997b; Health Canada 1998). Moreover. noise and odours can force people to remain inside their houses. preventing them from using their yards or interacting with their neighbours, thus disrupting their daily activities and decreasing their quality of life. Noise was a commonly cited concem of local residents and some residents reported that they had difficulty sleeping at times because of the noise or that they could not use their yards. Residents also frequently expressed concern about various smells including amrnonia. urea. other chernicals and the sou smell from the drain that runs through the village. These results indicate that both noise and odours are a concem for local residents and have afTected their quality of life. Fearful or stresshl situations cm also affect the well-being of a person (WHO 1997). Many of the residents expressed fears about their safety if something were to happen (Le.. gas release, explosion or fire) at the industrial estate. They used words like "dangerous." "hazardous," "unsafe," "high nsk," "a time bomb" to describe their local environment. Others frequently indicated fears about "being sandwiched by industry" as well as not knowing "what is out there" and what it could do to their health. The lack of dissemination of information by local industries has created merdistrust and fear because local residents feei that industries are keeping vital information fiom them that could protect their health and safety. Many local residents also experience a general sense of helplessness and lack of control of the effects of industrial development on their lives. Many felt that it was useless to make cornplaints to the industries or the govemment. When asked why, residents said "it's a waste of time," "you try but get fed up," "it will fa11 on deaf ears." "we don't exist," "you feel can't fight them." "you can't do anything about it" and "you feel like you won't get a positive response." These feelings of powerlessness can create bittemess, apathy and stress among locai residents who feel they cannot control the factors that directly affect the safety and security of their cornmunities (Amstein 1969; Rahman 1993; WHO 1997). As a coping mechanism, many of these residents simply accept the status quo because they feel that they don't have the power to promote changes that could improve their overall sense of well-being (Amstein 1969; Smith 1998). The economic impacts of pollution can have an effect on the quality of life and well-being of local residents. Many residents expressed concem about the additional burden of medical costs for doctors and rnedicine related to increased pollution. particularly for the poor in their community. As discussed in chapter 2.0. it is the poor who are oflen the most vulnerable to health hazards associated with industria1 development because they do not have the financial resources to cope properly (Cooper Weil et al. IWO; Roy 1993). Many residents also cited the economic costs of having to regularly replace or fix roofs and buildings because of the corrosive nature of dust in the community. Others reported the need for constant cleaning and sweeping of dust, creating an additional burden for the upkeep of their houses and yards and taking time away From other household or farnily activities. As discussed in Chapter 2.0, the increased need for cleaning and building maintenance due to increased levels of pollution represents an cconomic and social cost to the local communities and can affect overall well-being and quality of life (Cole et al. 1998). Many of the local residents do not work for local industries but work either within the community or are employed as labourers in the sugar cane fields. Thus. they do not receive the benefits of employment fiom the industry but are subject to the effects of industrial pollution in their comrnunity. Severai residents expressed frustration that the jobs at the industrial estate go to people who live outside the area Othen wanted industries to make better training prograrns available to local cornmunity residents so that they could upgrade their skills and get better jobs at industries. Several residents, despite strong ties to the ara, indicated that they would move away from the area when *,iey could aord to, mainly due to heaith concems and what they see as a deterioration in their community. This comment is important because it highlighis the issue of industrial pollution being linked to econornic statu. In the coming years. it is plausible that the majority of people remaining in the area may be those who are too poor to move elsewhere, thus, putting them at greater risk of health impacts fiom pollution. As discussed in Chapter 2.0. the poor tend to be most vulnerable to health hazards associated with industrial development because they tend to live closer to industrial areas and are exposed to higher levels of emissions (Cooper Weil et ai. 1990: Roy 1993).

6.1.4 Summary

In summary,given the methodology employed, specific health effects could not be directly related to pollution releases from industries in the Point Lisas area. The lack of detailed characterization of the nature and concentrations of industrial pollutants present in the environment. the extent of human exposures and nature and extent of health effects makes it difficult to establish casual links between industrial pollution and hralth effects. However. the lack of scientific causality does not mean that specific health effects do not occur. Qualitative data suggests that there is some cause for concem related to incidences of asthma and respiratory illnesses as well as effects on the overall well- being and quality of life of local residents. Funher investigation is necessary to better delineate the association between industrial pollution and risks to health of local residents.

6.2 Options for Health Risk Management

While further research and studies are completed, it is nonetheless prudent to take srrps to manage actual and potential exposures to industrial pollutants and thus reduce possible health risks. as outlined by the precautionary principle. In this section. different options for health risk management will be explored in light of current management structures that exist in Trinidad.

6.2.1 Planning and Development

The first step to managing possible health impacts related to industrial development occurs during the initial planning, design and development stages incorporating the idea of pollution and accident prevention rather than future mitigation of e ffects. Management at this stage cm be achieved in several ways including through industnal siting requirements, regional planning and environmental impact assessment.

Industrial Siting Reciuirements: Proper planning and siting of industrial developments well away from residential cornmunities can decrease or eliminate exposures and thus reduce risks to human hedth (Cooper Weil et al. 1990: Mohan 1993; UNEP 1997). However. Trinidad. like many developing countries. has not established any guidelines for industrial siting or the use of buffer zones. and siting is generally conducted on an ad hoc basis. As a result. industry is sometimes located close to residential areas without an adequate assessment of the potential health risks or the implementation of proper safeguards to protect the health of people living in the area (Cooper Weil et al. 1990: Shafi 1993). The Point Lisas Industrial Estate is an excellent example of the lack of proper siting of industries in Trinidad in relation to residential areas. Although the communities of Dow Village. Califomia and Couva existed prior to its development, the govemment made a decision to develop the area into an industrial estate based on economic and political interests and did not evaluate potential impacts on health. safety or the environment. Moreover. no provisions were made for adequate buffer zones for potentially hazardous industries such as amrnonia, chlorine and methanol. One medical professional remarked that there is a "red zone of about mile or so that shouldn't have any residents in it"; however the residents were there f~stand the estate just grew up around them. While some people might argue that times have changed since Point Lisas was developed, the construction of a new industrial estate directly to the east of Dow Village seems to suggest differently. The industrial estate is literally located across the road from residential homes with no provision for a buffer zone. In addition, an aluminum smelter has been proposed immediately to the south of Dow Village. Many residents in Dow Village and Califomia expressed hstration at being "sandwiched by industry" and feel that they are "living on an industrial estate." Health and safety concems result from the problem of proximity potentially creating a disaster situation as well as exposing residents to chronic pollution. The size of the industrial estate along with the type of industries can result in unacceptable risks for the people in local communities. Unfortunately. both residents and industries are now firmly entrenched in the area and the problem of proximity is likely to worsen with further industrial developmeni. There has been some talk of relocation of residents living closest to industries: however, this option is financially prohibitive. Moreover. some residents have a strong attachment to place and may not want to move away from their homes.

Regionai Planning: Regional planning that considers ail developrnents in an area can be used to develop an area so that housing and other developments are located well away from industries. thus decreasing the potential risks to human health. In 1984. TCPD identified Couva as a growth area (TCPD 1984). As part of the structural plans. the government built the Couva Housing Development (also known as Lisas Gardens) directly adjacent to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. At that time, health and safety concems related to the proximity of housing to the industrial estate were not considered. Unfortunately. the proximity of residential development to industry is still not being addressed through the use of regional planning. The growth of housing continues along with industrial development in the Point Lisas area At present, plans are undenvay to expand the stock of housing in close proximity to the industriai estate both to the noah and to the east (NHA 1999), despite concems raised about heaith and safety by various stakeholders (PLIPDECO 1999b). In addition, a new shopping plaza is under construction on the industrial estate which will draw more outside people into the area, putting more people at risk if a major incident were to occur at the industrial estate (TTEMAS 1999). Petitions were filed by TTEMAS against such a proposal but the plaza went ahead as planned. Moreover. the location of the new extended polyclinic has been under some controversy because it is still located within the "red zone" of a major release.

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs): EIAs are used to anticipate effects of a project on health and the environment and recommendations are made to mitigate any potential effects prior to construction of a project (Khanna 1993). Trinidad, like many developing countries. is beginning to implement legislation requiring EIAs as part of its Environmental Mamgement Act (Cooper Weil 198 1; UNEP 198 1 ;EMA 1995; ECA 1996). At present, EIAs are required for al1 new developments and for signifiant expansions to older developments that are likely to significantly impact the environment (TCPD 1999). While the EIA process in Trinidad is proactive and beneficial in theory. in practice. there is still much to be desired. First. older industries are exempt from the process and are not required to conduct retrospective EIAs (EMA 1995). Therefore, older. often heavy polluting industries. are not required to evaluate their health or environmental impacts or upgrade their facilities. The Governrnent is currently developing a system of permits for industries that release pollution into the environment. but it will probably be several more years before this system is hlly implemented (EMA 1999b). In addition, environmental audits could be usefui as an appropriate alternative in evaluating pollution problems in older industries. Second. the evaluation of health impacts in EIAs is generally not comprehensive and rarely assesses current or future impacts of industrial pollution on human health (i.e.. health impact analysis or health risk assessment). This situation is typical of many developing countries that do not have the professional capacity or the quantitative data to accurately evaluate health impacts (UNEP 1 98 1; Cooper Weil et al. 1990; Shafi 1 993: Davies and Sadler. 1997; Singh 1999). Moreover. the hedth impacts from cumulative pollution loads from al1 industries in the area are seldom. addressed. At present. PLIPDECO has commissioned a programmatic EIA for the no& expansion where they are trying to address the issue of cumulative impacts (PLIPDECO 1999b); however this document was not available to the researcher. Moreover, the Minister has the power to approve a project before it has undergone an EIA. through a Ministerial Decree. thus, negating the consistent application of EIA (TCPD 1999). This type of approval has occurred in several instances where economic and political interests were deemed to ovemde the need to review the possible impacts on health or the environrnent. Afier a project has been approved, there is little that can be done to ensure the proper evaluation, management and mitigation of health risks. In addition. such blanket approvals leave little room for public consultation. Further. the jurisdiction of EIAs remains in a state of flux between TCPD and the EMA. At present. TCPD continues to play a major role in the review and approval of ElAs since the EMA does not presently have the resources for this task (TCPD 1999). With time. this responsibility should shift to the EMA as it develops its resources and fully implernents the provisions of the Environmental Management Act. Finaily. the EIA process in Trinidad remains relatively inaccessible to the general public. At present. EIAs are not public documents and the public consultation process does not appear to be well developed. Residents and members of NGOs have expressed frustration at not being able to access EIA documents, particularly when a development may have an impact on their communities. Provisions have been made under the Environmenral Malanagemen[ Act to make the EIA process more open and accessible to the public: however. implementation has not yet occurred (EMA 1995).

6.2.2 Disaster / Safety Management

Industry provides the first line of defense in the management of acute health and safety risks through safety and disaster preparedness programs to prevent chemicd releases. fires and explosions. Al1 industries surveyed had individual emergency response plans for their industrial plants. These plans included "safe" rooms. warning sirens. personal protective equipment, evacuation plans and practice driils. In addition. PLIDECO has built a "safe" room in the port to protect workers who may become trapped and unable to evacuate because of the port's location at the edge of the industrial estate (PLIPDECO 1999b). Certain industries also have sensors at their perimeters to detect gas leaks and 24-hour monitoring linked to a control room. The second line of defense is provided by TTEMAS, an industrial emergency response group, developed to cope with major incidents at Point Lisas. as described in Chapter three. This group mobilizes in the event that an incident goes beyond the capability of an individual industry and tries to contain the incident to the boundaries of the industrial estate. The group has been proactive, conducting annual emergency drills and providing training and workshops for industries but only has limited interaction with the iocal cornmunity. Should an incident at the industrial estate become a national disaster. NEMA will step in and put into place their national emergency response plan and mobilize additional resources. In addition, the Regional Corporation has set up a Disaster Cornmittee to assist NEMA in safeguarding local communities. Overall. the Point Lisas Industrial Estate appears to be fairly well organized in tems of disaster / safety management with disaster preparedness plans in place, annual emergency simulation drills and communication grids. However, there are still several major weaknesses that could compromise the health and safety if a large-scale incident were to occur. First. arrangements for treating casualties are not sufficient. Local medical facilities are presently ill-equipped to deal with a large nurnber of casualties. The new extended polyclinic will have a better equipped accident and emergency unit but there are concems because it is located within the "red zone" of a major gas release. In addition, industry has been downsizing the number of dedicated medical staff and relying instead on employees trained in first aid who may not have the confidence or practice to respond in an emergency situation. Similady, the Point Lisas area is not well equipped to fight a major fire. The local fire service has insuficient fire equipment and training to deal with a chemical fire. There is a need to upgrade the Couva fire station as it is very run-down and to train its personnel in hazardous chemical management. In addition, dedicated fire crews at the industrial estate are being downsized or phased out as industries focus on preventing fires and instituting controls. Moreover, TTEMAS depends on its members to provide people and equipment in the event of an emergency; however, downsizing by companies cmthreaten the integrity of the scheme. Employees may be unable to assist in an ernergency because they are short staffed and are needed to run their own industnal plants. Finally, limited public involvement, awareness and education are a serious weakness to the disaster preparedness plans. Most members of the community reported that they were unaware of "what to do" if an incident were to occur at the industrial estate. This fact could lead to increased health effects if residents take incorrect courses of action as happened in B hopal, India (Stevens 1997). NEMA has tried to implement UNEP's APELL prograrn in the Point Lisas area but industries have been hesitant about releasing sensitive information and the prograrn, thus far, has not been very effective (UNEP 1988: NEMA 1999). In addition, the rnembers of the comrnunity are at a definite disadvantage because there are no early warning system. windsocks, evacuation plans. "safe" airtight emergency shelters. gas masks or emergency response plans available to the community . Mile to date no major incidents have occurred, there is a potential for catastrophic consequences if a major incident were to occur. As one respondent put it - "there is a lot of trust that nothing will happen, that God is a Trinidadian." Industries. organizations. govenunent and local communities need to work together to ensure that adequate mechanisms are available to address the weaknesses of the present system and to minimize health risks related to a major incident.

6.2.3 Environmenta1 Management

Environmental management of industrial pollution is a means to decrease poilutant loads to the environment. thus decreasing possible health and environmental exposures and resulting risks. The role of various organizations is discussed in detail below. Institutional Role: Exposures to industrial pollution and the subsequent health nsks cm be managed through the development, implementation and enforcement of environmental policies and standards. However, at present, regulatory mechanisms in Ttinidad are still in their infancy and much of the subsidiary legislation has yet to be developed. Standards that have been developed are typically not fully implemented or enforced due to a lack of resources, resulting in a strong reliance on voluntary cornpliance by individual industries. Although many industries have been proactive in terms of environmental management. there is a need to strengthen the regulatory mechanisms to achieve more consistent levels of environmental protection. The Environmental Commission which is necessary before penalties can be levied. still has not passed through Parliament, thus restricting the ability to properly enforce any standards. The EMA is the main govemment entity involved in environmental management and has been a key player in the environmental management of industrial pollution with the development of the industrial effluent standards. However. having only been established in 1995, the organization is still in its infancy. Many people are skeptical of its ability to effectively fulfill its mandate to protect the environment. Some people view the organization as a "toothless bulldog" with not much power or resources to implement and enforce restrictions on polluters and subject to the whims of politicians. Yet, given sufficient time. resources and staff. the EMA seems to be the most likely govenunent de partment to evo ke signi ficant change with regard to industrial pollution.

Role of PLIPDECO: The estate landlord, PLIPDECO. has also taken a leading management role in environmentai management at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. It has incorporated requirements for monitoring and adherence to World Bank Standards into its recent lease agreements with its tenants. It also has commissioned environmental research and monitoring including water quality studies. a programmatic EIA. and mangrove studies. PLIPDECO tries to facilitate discussion and collaboration arnong its tenants with regard to environmental and safety issues; however. it must for the most part rely on moral suasion and has little power to enforce. In addition, the Point Lisas Environmental Management Comrnittee was developed to improve environmental performance and safety management at Point Lisas. It examines issues including environmental management plans. inventories of existing environmental data, incident response plans. pollution inventory, ambient environmental monitoring. ambient criteria / standards, public awareness and disaster preparedness. However. again this cornmittee has no power to enforce but must try to persuade industries to comply with their suggestions. While efforts have been made by PLIPDECO and the Environmental Management Cornmittee, there is still no well-designed EMS in place for the individual industnes or for the industrial estate as a whole. EMS is potentially an effective way to ensure environmental responsibility arnong industnes and at the industrial estate. Such a system cm help to ensure compliance with existing laws; identification. control and monitoring of environmental impacts; improvement in environrnental performance; open communication with government and cornmunities; minimization of waste; and better response to environmental emergencies.

RoIe of Industrv: Industry has a key role to play in environmental management by preventing pollution or controlling the release of pollution to the environment. Several avenues are available to industries for environmental management including compliance with environrnental regulations. emission and effluent controls. environmental management systems and various initiatives to minimize the generation of waste. Industries surveyed in the Point Lisas area are becoming more proactive, environmentally conscious and are taking steps toward better environrnental management. Most industries try to meet al1 national legal requirements; however, given the lack of compulsory environrnental standards. there is little that industries must legally comply with. In addition. industries are begiming to implement pollution control and monitoring systems; however. there remains much to be done. particularly with respect to air ernissions. Al1 industries surveyed were considering options for implementing environmental management systems but rnost companies are still in the early stages. The proximity of industries in the Point Lisas area provides an excellent opportunity for cost sharing of infrastructure. equipment and training necessary for integrated environmental management; thus. significantly reducing the overall investment required by any one industry (Hadjivassilis et al. 1994; LTNEP 1997). Such a system would help to ensure that industries do their utmost to prevent pollution before it is released to the environment, thus decreasing exposures to the local community and the surrounding environment.

6.2.4 Community Health Management

Treatment of symptoms and illnesses by local medical staff in cornrnunity health facilities is a means of managing health effects related to pollution. However. an ovenvhelming majority of residents felt that their local health facilities were not sufficient to meet the needs of the community. When asked how the facilities could be improved. several important themes came out including access. cost, quality and efficiency of present health care facilities. Residents felt that there was a need for a local in-patient hospital given the proximity to the industrial estate, and because the poor found it difficult to pay to travel to in-patient facilities. San Fernando, the nearest in-patient facility is located 16 km south. while other in-patient facilities are located at the Mount Hope Medical Cornplex (30 km north) and the Pon of Spain Hospital (40 km north). Many residents also suggested that local health centres be set up in each of their communities. rather than just one in Couva. so that it would be easier to access health services for poor people. The need for more funding and access to free health care was also mentioned several times. Suggestions for improvements to the existing health facilities included structural repairs. more doctors and nurses, more emergency crews and emergency equipment, more ambulances, more diagnostic equipment and medical supplies, more space and faster service. The need for education of the people about health and environment as well as safety and disasters was also repeated. The construction of an extended polyclinic in Camden outside Couva will alleviaie some of the above concems when it is completed. The new polyclinic will have better diagnostic capabiiities including x-ray, laboratory and ultrasound as well as a minor operating room and plaster room; however, it will still not have impatient facilities. Another feature will be a chernical decontamination area; however, a proposed bum unit was not included in the latest plans (Ministry of Health 1999). Several respondents were cognizant about the new heal th facility but many have expressed frustration that it will not be an in-patient facility or did not like its location.

6.2.5 Community Education and Awareness

Another way to manage exposures to industrial pollutants is to educate residents about the local industries. Knowledgeable citizens are better able to act in a ways that reduce their potentiai exposures as well as lobby for changes to improve their health and safety. Equally important, industries need to be aware of concerns that local community members may have about industrial development so that these concerns can be addressed. Results of the research indicate an obvious need for more widespread dissemination of information about industries and their potential impacts on the heaith of locaI communities. While there have been some initiatives such as classroom seminars and distribution of emergency guides conducted by PLIPDECO,these prograrns have not been very extensive. Most residents interviewed did not feel well-informed about health and safety issues as they relate to industry. Residents rnost frequently requested information about "what to do" if an industrial incident occurred. since many felt that they didn't know how to protect themselves or their families. Cornprehensive comrnunity education and awareness programs can be used to disseminate health and safety information to adjacent communities. These types of prograrns cm provide good basic information on general industrial safety, personal protection, cvacuation procedures and comrnunity emergency response plans. Moreover. these programs can be expanded to include aspects of the environment, pollution and health. 6.3 Environmental Health Risk Management Framework

This study set out to apply a framework for Environmental Health Risk Manzgement as developed in the United States to a case study in a developing country (Omenn et al. 1 997). However, the use of this approach raises the question of the appropriateness of uying to apply a western framework in a developing country where circumstances may vastly differ from those in a developed country. Thoughts on this issue are presented in the following sections.

6.3.1 Applicability of the Framework in a Developing Country

The researcher applied the fint three steps of the framework using the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in Trinidad as the case study. However, at the end of the process, the researcher was unable to calculate health risks due a lack of appropriate quantitative data with which to evaluate these risks. Some people may view this end result as a failure of the risk management frarnework and may suggest that the researcher chose a framework that was inappropriate for use in a developing country context. However. the researcher feels that despite this outcorne, the application of the risk management framework was usehl and provided valuable information for risk management at this site and other industrial sites within the Caribbean. First. the process highlighted the issue of the lack of quantitative environmental data in Trinidad. a situation that ofien occurs in developing countries (Cole et al. 1998). Typically. there are inadequate fùnds. facilities and staff to develop comprehensive environmental monitoring prograrns (Cooper Weil et al. 1990). Yet this information is essential when trying to determine the effects of pollution on health and the environment. The lack of quantitative data points to the need for environmental monitoring prograrns. particularly in areas that may be subject to high levels of pollution such as Point Lisas. International agencies. local govemments and industries need to work togetber to develop and finance pollution monitoring programs. both in the Trinidad and in other developing countries. Second, the issue of accessibility to environmental data and information becarne apparent to the researcher throughout the process. On many occasions. the researcher was made aware of certain data and reports bu? was unable to access them due to "confidentiality" constraints. Without al1 existing data, the comprehensiveness and reliability of risk analysis and the success of potential risk management solutions are compromised. This problem suggests that organizations such as the EMA or PLIPDECO. which have better access to such confidential information. might be in a better position to conduct this type of research. Moreover, a lack of awareness of existing environmental data can result in duplication of efforts by researchen. industries and other organizations, resulting in an inefficient use of time, money and resources. Finally, the lack of public access to environmental data can create distmst between industries and the public. Third. the researcher was able to provide a holistic overview of the ecosystem in the Point Lisas area. integrating physical, chemical. social. political. legal and economic aspects. To date, most studies have focussed narrowly on specific issues such as water quality or economics, or an EIA of one industrial plant, and have not tned to present the larger picture of the Point Lisas area. A holistic overview can enable risk managers to recognize other factors that may contribute to the generation of risks (Ome~et al. 1997). These factors may not be readily apparent in a strictly quantitative research approach but may be instrumental in developing cost-effective solutions in the management of nsks. Fourth. the researcher while using risk management framework was able to highlight significant issues of concem and data gaps. This information is usehl because it allows risk managers to prioritize future research to address these issues and data gaps. Since the risk management framework is intended to be iterative, new information or data can be later used to refine the conclusions about health risks and thus the risk management options. Fifth, the overview and context were developed in collaboration with local stakeholders. As an outside researcher in a developing country. it is extremely important to obtain the input of local people who cm best characterize the local situation (Gummesson 199 1; Theis and Grady 199 1 ; Whyte 199 1 ;Rahman 1993; Narayan 1996; Selener 1997). The emphasis of the Framework on the collaboration with stakeholders allowed the incorporation of public perception into the analysis, producing more rneaningful results. OAen in developing countries. the public is not consulted on issues that may directly affect them, leaving them feeling powerless (Rahman 1993). By interviewing local residents, in addition to other stakeholders. the researcher was able to increase awareness about the public's concems related to industry, their health and the environment. Risk management decisions based on input fiom ail stakeholders are more likely to be successful (Ome~et al. 1997). Another fundamental flaw of the environrnental health risk frarnework is its inability to take into account social factors such as poverty that can have an overwhelrning influence on health and well-being in developing countries. As discussed earlier in Section 2.3.1, people living in developing countries may be exposed to modem environmental hazards such as industriai pollution before the traditional hazards of poverty (e.g., poor sanitation) have been eradicated (Benazzi 1989; WHO 1997). The assessment of environmental risks is based on a substance-by-substance approach and does not generally include the quantification of health effects from biological hazards or infectious diseases (Brantly 1995; Davies and Sandler 1997). Thus. any assessment of health risks in a developing country should include a mechanism to determine the cumulative risks of both environrnental and traditional hazards. to give a better indication of the overall health risks faced by people living in a developing country.

6.3.2 Alternatives to the Risk Management Frarnework

While the researcher feels that the application of the risk management framework to the case study was a useful exercise and generated valuable information about the research site. she recognizes that it was not ideally suited to a developing country context. The framework assumes access to environmental monitoring data with which to quanti& health risks. The lack of availability and accessibility of quantitative data is a comrnon problem in developing countries and it could take years, in many cases, before such data becomc available. As such. it is necessary for organizations to be able to assess and manage potential health risks without such detailed data. An alternative approach to quantifiing health risks is to develop generic indicators to represent health risks rather than relying on a formal quantitative risk analysis (Edgarton et al. 1990). Such indicators consist of selected physical observations that are used as sunogate measures to represent a more complex environmental condition, and can be tailored to a region and rnight be based on hazard, ernissions, concentrations. exposures, doses or health effects. These simplified measures can then be used to make decisions and policies based on some preset trigger level of the indicator. For example. detenoration of air quality could be represented by a defined number of respiratory illnesses (e.g. asthma attacks) presented at A&E units in the region on a particular day. Altematively. simple measurements of key pollutants (e.g. particulate matter) could also serve to indicaie poor air quality when a certain level is exceeded. Although some indicators would necessitate the collection of new data. this data does not need to be as extensive as required in a comprehensive risk assessment and can still function to hel p understand and reduce health risks. Comparative health risk assessment is another approach that can be used to prioritize health and environrnental risks. In this methodology. environmental problems are ranked on the basis of the seventy of impacts on human health: using a variety of sources including interviews, reports, public health statistics. as well as environrnental quality data and typically involves stakeholder participation. This process allows the identification of environmental problems that are likely to have significant health impacts but which cannot be fully characterized because of a lack of adequate data. 7.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Conclusions

The analysis identified several substantial information gaps with respect to environmental health risk management at Point Lisas and within greater Trinidad. These types of deficiencies limited the ability of the researcher to calculate health risks related to pollution in the Point Lisas area. However, a qualitative analysis of the available information and data was still informative and allowed the researcher to draw several conclusions that are surnmarized below.

1) The nature, volume and concentration of industrial pollutants have not been well characterized in the Point Lisas area.

Overall. pollutants released in the environment by the industries located near Point Lisas have not been well characterized in terrns of their nature, volumes or concentrations. Industry monitonng programs are not well developed. particularly for air cmissions. Various pollutant inventories suggest that large volumes of indusuial pollutants are being released into the arnbient environment, both to air and water. Monitoring data for industrial emissions and effluents exist only for several of the main pollutants while analysis for many other pollutants has not yet been completed. In addition, no monitonng data were available on incidents of noise pollution or noxious odours. industrial monitoring data that had been collected was generally not accessible to the researcher due to confidentiality concems on the part of industries.

2) Concentration data for environmental pollutants in ambieat environmental media are very limited for the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and surrounding area.

At present, there are very little ambient environmental monitoring data available for the Point Lisas Inciustrial Estate and surrounding areas, particularly for air quality. While several studies have evaluated water and sediment quality in the Couva River and the Gulf of Paria, there have been no studies within the local communities that have monitored air, soi1 or food quality. Given the many sources of pollution. a lack of monitoring data makes it very dificuit to determine what types and levels of pollutants may be present in the local comrnunities and how they may affect hurnan health.

3) There is a potential for human exposure from chronic low-level releases of industrial pollutants, noise and noxious odours

Despite the lack of definite data, the large volumes of industrial pollutants being released to the environment suggest that there is a definite potential for exposure to people living in the adjacent communities. These exposures should not be discounted until it cm be proven through environmental monitoring and assessrnent that they do not pose a human health risk. The main human exposure pathway appears to be through the air and could occur through direct inhalation of pollutants. absorption of gases or particulates through the skin or ingestion of pollutants adsorbed to particulate dust. Water is less of a concem for hurnan exposure because drinking water is not supplied fiom local surface water or groundwater supplies. However, exposure still may occur through eating fish or shellfish that may have accumulated pollutants or through bathing or swimrning in the nearby rivets or sea. In addition. to industrial pollutant releases. local residents are cxposed to noise and noxious odours on a sporadic. localized basis.

4) There is a potential for human exposure to the accidental release of gases during an industrial accident

In addition to the chronic emissions fiom industries and other sources, there have been minor gas releases over the years, some of which have resulted in injury and fatalities of wocken. The primary route of exposure would be through the inhalation of gases or the absorption of gases through the skin. In general. these types of incidents have been confmed to areas on the estate; however, there is a potential for significant exposures for residents of adjacent communities, if a large scale gas release. fire or explosion were to occur. Local residents were very concerned about safety of the industries in the area.

5) Asthma and other respiratoy illnesses are a health concern in the Point Lisas area

Asthrna and other respiratory illnesses appear to be a concem in the Point Lisas area based on a review of medical statistics and discussions with medical professionais. In addition. there is also a perception in the community of increased asthma and respiratory illnesses. Moreover. high levels of certain air pollutants have been known to aggravate the symptoms of asthma and other respiratory illnesses. These observations coupled with the large volumes of air pollutants being released in the Point Lisas area suggests cause for concem for the health of people iiving in the adjacent comrnunities. At present. there are insufficient data to link incidents of asthrna and other respiratory illnesses to air pollution in the Point Lisas area.

6) Planning and development legislation does not provide for the assessmeat of health risks or adequate buffer zones to safeguard residential communities from industrial development

A significant issue related to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and other industrial developments in the area is the proxirnity of industry io residential areas. Local residents have raised concems with regard to safety as well as the potential for health problems related to the exposure of chronic pollution fiom these industries. At present, planning and development legislation does not require an assessrnent of potential health risks for residents in these adjacent comrnunities, address the issue of cumulative health nsks or provide for adequate buffer zones. As result. industries are located in close proximity to residential areas without the proper safeguards. 7) Emergency response mechaaisms are inadequate to protect the adjacent communities during a major indushial incident

While the Point Lisas Industrial Estate appears to be fairly well situated in ternis of disaster and safety management. there are still several major weaknesses that could compromise health and safety of local residents if a large-scale incident were to occur. First. local medical and fire facilities are il1 equipped to deal with mass casualties associated with a large-scale gas release, explosion or fire. Moreover. local residents are at a definite disadvantage because there are no early warning systems. windsocks. evacuation plans. "safe" airtight emergency shelters, gas masks or emergency response plans available to the comrnunity. Finally. community members have not kenproperly educated about "what to do" if an incident were to occur at the industrial estate.

8) Implementation and enforcement of environmental regulations and standards is not well-developed in Trinidad

At present. the regdatory mechanisms necessary to manage exposures to industrial pollution are still young and much of the subsidiary legislation has not been developed. Standards that have been developed are typically not fully implemented or enforced due to a lack of resources, resulting in a strong reliance on voluntary cornpliance by individual industries. The Environmental Commission, an appeals court necessary before penalties can be levied, still has not passed through Parliament. thus restricting the EMA's ability to properly enforce any standards. Moreover. the EMA is viewed with some skepticism by many stakeholders who feel it does not have the "teeth" to fulfill its mandate.

9) Health facilities and programs are not sufficient to neet the needs of the community

An ovenvhelrning majonty of residents felt that the present health facilities were not adequate to meet the needs of the community. Ongoing concerns include access. cost, quality and efficiency of the present health care facilities. Major concerns included the lack of an impatient facility, the lack of health centres and programs in al1 communities and health care accessibility and affordabiiity for the poor. Other concems included the need for structural repairs, more staff, equipment and supplies. Some of these concems will be alleviated when the consmiction of the new extended polyclinic is completed: however. some of these problems stem from chronic under fbnding of the health care system in Trinidad.

10) Public education and awareness programs a bout industrial pollution and safety are not well developed

Public education and awareness programs about industrial pollution and safety have been not been very extensive within the adjacent communities. Some safety seminars have been held in local school classrooms and there has been some distribution of emergency guides; however, these initiatives have been very limited in scope. Most area residents did not feel well informed in terms of health and safety issues as they relate to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and other industrial developments in the area. There is a need for regular and relevant dissemination of information to nearby communities.

Il) Environmental data and information are not accessible to the public in Trinidad

Access to environmental monitoring data and information in Trinidad is limited and tends to be restricted to consultants, the industries themselves and certain governrnent departments. Other stakeholden such as NGOs. researchen, and members of the local communities have expressed fnistration at not king able to access information they feel is necessary to protect their hedth and environment. There is a need to make environmental reporting an integral step in environmental management and regulation of environmentai pollution and make this information publicly available. 12) The risk management framework is not ideally suited to a developing country context

Although the industrial estate and its industries are of a scale and type similar to those in use in more industrialized countries. the health risk management fiamewoik used in this study was not ideally suited for use in Trinidad. The framework was too dependent on quantitative data to calculate health risks in a developing country context. However. the framework was still useful because it allowed the researcher to gain a holistic overview of the ecosystem in the Point Lisas area. identify issues of concern and data gaps that require fiher research and characterize public perceptions of industrial pollution and health. This information can be used to prioritize future research initiatives and to develop cost-effective strategies for management of industrial pollution.

7.2 Recommendations

Rased on the analysis of available information. several recommendations for tùture policy or research initiatives were identified to address the deficiencies and improve the management of potential environmental health nsks in the Point Lisas area. These recommendations are listed and discussed in more detail below:

1) Develop an extensive ambient environmental monitoring prognm (air, water, fish, food) to determine cumulative pollutant loads in the surrounding environment

Given. the many sources of environrnental pollution in the Point Lisas area it is very difficult to determine what types and levels of pollutants may be present in the environment and how they may affect human health. An extensive ambient environrnental monitoring program should be developed to determine cumulative pollutant loads to the surrounding environment, given the continuhg industriai expansion in the area. Ambient monitoring data inherently take into account pollution loading from al1 sources as well as environmental fate processes (e.g.. dispersion, degradation, accumulation). Thus, these type of data provide an accurate and simple way to determine cumulative exposure concentrations that could be compared to health reference standards or be used as a basis for a cumulative health impact assessment. The pilot program, currently underway at Point Lisas under the BEIRL project. represents a first step towards developing a database of arnbient environmental data. However. there is a need to expand the frequency of the monitoting prograrn and to include a more extensive network of sampling sites, particularly within the local communities. A more detailed monitoring program would allow for the identification of trends and potential problerns so that the proper steps can be taken to minimize potential health risks.

2) Establish a database of health standards related to ambient concentrations of pollutants in the environment

In addition to an ambient environmental monitoring prograrn. there is a need to establish a database of health standards related to ambient concentrations of pollutants in various environmental media. This database could be compiled €rom various standards available internationally and could be designed for use within Trinidad and the greater Caribbean. Such a database could be used as a first screening step to detemine potential health effects from environmental pollutants and should be made available to various governments. other agencies. industries and the general public.

3) Conduct a quantitative health impact assessment based on ambient cumulative exposures for residents in the surrounding areas

No quantitative studies have been completed to determine the potential environmental health impacts of cumulative exposure to pollution in the Point Lisas area. Consequently, it was determined that this industrial region could benefit fiom such an exercise which could provide useful information for identifying potential environrnental health issues and aid in the management of environmental hedth risks. The basethe data obtained through the BEIRL project could be used as input for an initial screening health risk analysis and would give an indication of the potential for health effects based on the present levels of pollution in the Point Lisas area. The analysis could be refined as more extensive environmental data become available or as new industrial developments are proposed. Results from such a snidy could also be used to increase awareness about the relationship between pollution and health among local industries and cornmunities and allow health authorities to take measures to better protect human health. Moreover, it could lead to the mitigation of pollution releases by industries and aid in the planning and siting of industnal developments in the area to minimize future impacts on human health. Further. this type of methodology could be adopted at different sites throughout Trinidad and Tobago and the wider Caribbean.

4) Initiate research programs on prevalence of asthma and otber respiratory illnesses in the local area and investigate links to environmental pollution

The scientific literature suggests that high levels of certain air pollutants can aggravate the symptoms of asthma and other respiratory illnesses; however. without a detailed epidemiology study. it is difficult to determine cause and effect due to possible confounding factors. At present, no epidemiological or research studies have been conducted in the Point Lisas area to establish incidences or prevalence rates of illnesses and possible links to environmental pollution. Since asthma and other respiratory illnesses have been highlighted as a concem, a detailed research program on asthma and other respiratory illnesses in the Point Lisas area should be initiated. Currently, Dr. Monteil of the Mount Hope Medical Complex is conducting a research study on asthma prevalence rates in several areas of Trinidad including Caroni County. It would be usefiil if more bding could be obtained to expand the study to include the Couva Accident and Emergency unit so that a better estimate of asthma prevalence rates can be established for the county. In addition. it wouid beneficial if other research studies on respiratory illnesses could be initiated in the Point Lisas area. 5) Review planning, siting and EIA requirements for industrial developments and develop guideünes that would srfepard the health and safety of residential communities

Given the issue of industrial developments being sited in close proximity to residential areas. there is a need to review planning and siting requirements for industries to ensure the health and safety of nearby residential communities. Guidelines should be developed for type of land use, siting and the provision for buffer zones. These types of guidelines could be developed and standardized for different types of industries and become an integral part of the planning and development process in Trinidad and be applied throughout CARICOM member States. In addition. EIA requirements should be revised include detailed evaluations of potential hurnan health impacts. not only for a proposed project but also for cumulative impacts of multiple industries in the area. Such changes in the planning and development process would help avoid the situation that currently exists in the Point Lisas area.

6) Implement emergency response mechanisms to protect the adjacent communities during a major industrial incident

Emergency response mechanisms to protect the adjacent comrnunities during a major industrial incident need to be developed and implemented. Several measures can bt: raken that would better protect the health and safety of local comrnunities. An integrated emergency response plan should be developed that includes such measures as an early warning system, windsocks. evacuation plans. "safe" airtight emergency shelters and gas masks available to the community. In addition, residents should be included in emergency simulation drills and be educated about what measures are in place to protect their health and safety. Since emergency risks could be significant, there is a need for the development of the proper infimcture and plans to rninimize the impacts to human health in the local communities should an incident occur. Models such as the üNEP1s APELL program? as described in Appendix 1, could be applied to the Point Lisas area to aid in this process. 7) Strengthen means for eaviroamental management through governmental regulation and enforcement of environmental standards

Govemment agencies need to Follow through on their cornmitments to protect health and environment by developing the necessary regulatory mechanisms and then implementing, monitoring and enforcing in a consistent manner. Adequate infiastructure and resources should be provided to adequately address this issue. Moreover, there is a need for the development of dedicated trained staff who could ensure adequate compliance of environmental regulations by carrying out independent inspections and enforcing breaches of environmental regulations through the imposition of penalties.

8) Prevent and control the release of pollution to the environment through industry initiatives

Given the potential for health risks and the lack of baseline information on the nature and scope of these risks. it is important that industries seek to prevent and convoi the release of pollution to the environment through various environmental management initiatives. These initiatives could incliide the deveiopment of environmental policies. compliance with environmental standards. installation of effluent and emission controls, implementation of environmental management prograrns. establishment of monitoring programs. and minimization of waste generation. Such initiatives can help to reduce pollutant releases and allow local industries to take more responsibility for protecting health and the environment in the Point Lisas area. in the absence of strong regulatory mec hanisms.

9) Upgrade community health care facilities and programs

Health care facilities and prograrns need to be upgraded so that they can adequately meet the needs of their comrnunities. In the Point Lisas area in particular. there is a need for well-equipped and well-trained medical staff that cm deal with mass casualties in the event of an industrial incident. Moreover. health care facilities and programs need to be designed to treat and educate those who may suffer the effects of industrial pollution as well as be accessible to the poor. The local industries cmplay a role in assisting the chronically under hnded Ministry of Health by providing funding towards the upgrade of such facilities and prograrns while developing better links between health and the environment by facilitating research on environmental health issues.

10) Develop more extensive public education and awareness programs about health and safety issues related to the industries in the Point Lisas area

More extensive pub1ic education and awareness prograrns need to be implemented to ensure regular and relevant dissemination of information to nearby communities. These types of progms should provide basic information on general industnal safety. persona1 protection. evacuation procedures and community emergency response plans. Moreover, these programs can be expanded to includr more other aspects of the environment. pollution and health. Whatever information is disseminated in these programs. the approach should be multi-faceted in order to maximize the number of residents that are reached. Various stakehoiders should be involved in the development of these community rducation and awareness programs. Obviously. local industries and PLIPDECO have a corporate responsibility to the local cornmunity to initiate these programs as part of their commitments to safety of the local environment. Local govemrnent should also play a major role in the development of these prograrns as part of their mandate to provide a safe and heaithy environment to their constituents. Finally. the local residents need to be actively involved so that they cmensute that the programs will be usefiil and beneficial to their communities. 11) Enhance the sharing of environmental information, especially information that bas bearing on health issues, both within government and industry and to the general public

The sharing of environmental infornation and data should be encouraged and facilitated through the development of environmental reporting requirements for monitoring and EIAs. lncreased accessibility to such information can create a better awareness among the various stakeholders. facilitate research. and increase accountability among industries. Access to environmental data could be provided by the EMA through an environrnental database as well as its resource library.

12) Refine the environmental health risk framework to prioritize health risks in that absence of quantitative data

Although the environrnental risk management framework provided a basic understanding and overview of the case study site. it should be refined to address the lack of quantitative data available in developing countries. One suggestion is to incorporate the development of indicators to represent health risks. rather than relying on a formal health risk analysis. Altemativeiy. comparative risk assessrnent could be used to rank various risks. The incorporation of either simple health risk indicators or comparative risk assessrnent would provide a cost-effective way for priotitizing health risks where quantitative data are not avaiiable.

7.3 Closing Thoughts

As a case study. the Point Lisas Industnal Estate in Trinidad provides an intrresting perspective about the realities of environmental health risk management in a developing country. While present management mechanisms in Tnnidad provide some control of industrial pollution. much remains to be done. Overall. there appears to be a need to place public health and safety as well as environrnental protection higher on the political agenda. Too often. the economic benefits of industrial development ovemde the consideration of environmental, safety and health concerns. Therefore, a proactive precautionary approach must be applied to industrial development initiatives to prevent pollution and minimize the potential effects on health and the environment. Finally. in the case of Point Lisas, al1 stakeholders must take responsibility and work together to seek innovative ways to protect the health and environment of the local communities. APPENDIX I APELL PROGRAM

The Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at the Local Level (APELL) program was developed by UNEP to minimize the occurrence and hannful effects of chernical accidents and emergencies. particularly in developing countries (UNEP 1988). The prograrn is directed at the local level because recent evidence shows that the extent of an accident's impact depends heavily on the immediate response to an emergency at the plant site and at the local level. The program is based on the concept that a well- informed local comrnunity can develop an effective response plan. The program uses two basic approaches. First. the program attempts to increase community awareness of possible hazards involved in the manufacture. handling and use of hazardous materials and of the steps that the authorities and industry have taken to protect the community from them (UNEP 1988; Stevens 1997). Second. the prograrn seeks to develop emergency response plans for the community based on this information and in cooperation with the local communities. The prograrn recognizes that local authorities. industry and local community and interest groups must work together if the program is to succeed. The APELL process is implemented through a ten-step approach as summarized below and outlined in detail in a handbook by UNEP (1988).

1 ) Identi fy the rmergenc y response participants and establish their roles. resources and concerns; 2) Evaluate the risks and hazards that may result in emergency situations in the comrnunity; 3) Have participants review their own emergency plan for adequacy relative to a coordinated response; 4) Identify the required response tasks not covered by existing plans; 5) Match these task to the resources available fiom the identified participants; 6) Make the changes necessary to improve existing plans. integrate hem into an overall community plan and gain agreement 7) Commit the integrated comrnunity plan to writing and obtain approvals fiom local governments; 8) Educate participating groups about the integrated plan and ensure that al1 emergency responders are trained: 9) Establish procedures for periodic testing, review and updating of plan; and 10) Educate the general community about the integrated plan.

This APELL planning process can be used to develop a usefil and effective integrated community emergency response plan and achieve a high level of preparedness for emergencies at the local community level. APPENDlX II LIST OF TENANTS AT THE POINT LISAS INDUSTRIAL ESTATE

t I i COMPANY PRODUCTISERVICE [ Allied Petroleurn Marketing Services Automotive Chem.(Brake Fluid) Analytical Technologies Ltd. Laboratory Testing-Env. Ansa McAL Chemicals Ltd. Chernical Production API Pipeline Construction Co. Ltd. Fabrication Workshop Asphalt Products Trinidad Ltd. Asphaltic Paints Auto Rentals Ltd. Car Rentals Awad Beharry & Sons Limited [Contracting i Bechtel International Inc. Construction l

I Buffalo Bill Limited l Building Maintenance Security Managea , Janitorial Services Cargo Consolidators Agency Ltd. Cargo Handling Caribbean Ispat Limited Iron & Stee1 4 Caribbean Methanol Company Limited. Methanol /(CMC) Caribbean Safety Producis Limited Safety Products Caribbean Steel Mills Lirnited Steel Products i Car1 King Company Limited Contractor i

CC Customs Brokerage Limited Beer Packaging I Central Trinidad Steel Limited Iron & Steel Ceramic Design Limited Ceramic Produc ts \ CLIC0 Energy Company Limited Meîhanol Cliffs Reduced Iron Corporation Iron Briquettes Container Examination Station (CES) Container Examination -- -- Customs Division ExportAmport Customer Services. /Damus Roofing Supplies Limited Roofing Systems J Doc's Engineering Works Limited FabricationNanufacturhg 1 IFarmland MissChem Limited Ammonia t 4 l First Citizens Bank Limited 1 Financial 1 Gemini Concrete Limited Ready Mix Concrete 1 Grneral Coating & lnsulation Services Pipeline. Air Condition Coatings Limited Gordon Grant & Co. Limited Shipping Gould Security Caribbean Limited Secun ty Services Handy Equipment Company Limited U rea Formaldehyde Resin Hec ken Multiserv Operations Limited Specialized Eng. ServicedSlags Home Construction Limited Construction Management t Hydro Agi (Trinidad) Limited Ammonia COMPANY PRODUCT/SERVICE Industrial Gases L imited Atmospheric Gases Industriai Welding Equipment Sales Rentals Welding Services Ltd. (IWES) Insertech (Caribbean) Limited Contractors Interchange Engineering Limited Engineering International Trade Managers Limited John Williams Construction & L.J. Construction 1 Williams Construction 1 Kelloggs Pan American Contractors Laughlin & De Gannes Limited Automotive & Industrial Products Maritime General Insurance Co. Ltd. Insurance Master Mix of Trinidad Ltd. Green Storage Feed & Miiling Feed Melville Shipping & Trading Brokerage Shipping Agent Methanol IV Company Ltd. Methanol National Agro Chemicais Fenil izer B lending Nucor Iron Carbide lncorporated Iron Cartide Nutrimix Feeds Ltd. Warehousing/Grains OGA Contractors Ltd. Construction Paramount Transport & Trading Co. Ltd. Contracting Services PCS Nitrogen (formerly Arcadian) Ammonia & Urea Phoenix Park Gas Processors Ltd. (PPGPL) Gas Liauids Recoverv d l

'phoenix Plastics Plastics l l 6iPizza Boys , Restaurant i !Point Lisas Industrial & Technical Services /Technical Services j I yPLITS) i Point Lisas Steel Products Ltd. Steel Products Power Grneration Company of T&T Generation of Electricity (PO WERGEN) Precision Environmental Labotatory Ltd. Meihanol Process Components Limited Engineering Rene Investments Ltd. Warehousing Rubber & Chemicals Company Ltd. Tyres Screen Manufactunng Company Management Services Shell Trinidad Ltd. Automotive Lubricants Southern Sales & Services Ltd. Car Rentals Supermix Feeds Ltd. Warehousing/Grains TCL Ponsa Manufacturing Ltd. Warehousing/Slings ~Te~communicationsServices of T&T Ltd. ~elecomm~ Jmr-r) 4 jThe Bank of Nova Scotia T&T Ltd. Banking 1 khe National Gas Company of T&T Natural Gas I I COMPANY PRODUCT/SERVICE Tourism Industrial Development Company Expon Certification Titan Methanol Company Methanoi Trinidad & Tobago Electricity Commission 'Distribution of Electricity 1 Trinidad Ni trogen Company L td. (Tringen) Ammonia 1 & II Truspec Plastics Company Ltd. Plastics United Engineering & Services Ltd. Mec hanical & Engineering Services Universal Foods Ltd. Manufacturing Venture Credit Union F inancid !

Source: PLIPDECO (1 999a) APPENDIX II1 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

General:

What department(s) within the govemment of Trinidad and Tobago are responsible for issues related to protection of the environment and human health? Descnbe their role. Describe the role of your organization 1 department. if any, with regard to the protection of the environrnent and human health. Are you aware of any legislation that exists. or is being developed, to protect the environme~tor human health from industrial pollution? If yes. please describe. Who administers this legislation? In your opinion. is industrial pollution a significant concem for Trinidad and Tobago? If yes. please stare the major sources of industrial pollution. In your opinion. is industrial pollution a significant concem for the Point Lisas Industrial Estate'? If yes. please state the major sources of industrial pollution. Do you know of any emission 1 effluent standards that may exist, or are being developed. for industry operating in Trinidad and Tobago? If yes. what are they? Who administers them? Descn be enforcement procedures. Do you know of any air or water quality standards / cnteria that exist. or are being developed. to protect the environment or human health in Trinidad and Tobago? If yes. what are they? Who administen them? Describe enforcement procedures. Are you aware of any reports / studies related to industrial pollution and how it may affect the environrnent or human health in Trinidad and Tobago? If yes, please describe and identiQ source. Do you know of any reports / studies related to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and how its industrial emissions I effiuent may affect the environrnent or human health? If yes. please describe and identify source. 10. Are you aware of any EIAs that have been conducted at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate? If yes. please describe and identify source. Did any of these EIAs include a heal th impact assessment? 1 1. .Are you aware of any community groups. NGOs or other organizations / groups that have raised concems about industrial pollution and its etTects on health or the environment at or near the Point Lisas Industrial Estate? If yes, please describe. 12. Do you know of any initiatives that are being undertaken to reduce industrial pollution in Trinidad and Tobago? If yes, please describe. 13. Cm you suggest other persons or organizations who may be able to provide mer information for this study? 14. Would more information about industrial pollution and the protection of the environment and human health be beneficial to your organization? If yes, what information would be most useful? What is the best way to get this information to you? 15. Would you be willing to participate in a follow-up interview, if necessary? Medical Professionals:

Describe your role as a medical practitioner with relation to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and surrounding area. How long have you been practicing in the area? What sort of medical facilities are available in the Couva / Point Lisas area? Are they sufficiently equipped in the event of an industrial emergency? Disaster emergency plans? TTEMAS? Contacts? Arc there health statistics available for the Couva / Point Lisas area? Caroni county? Where is the best place to obtain these types of statistics? Contacts? Are you aware of any epidemiological studies that have been completed for the Couva I Point Lisas region? In Trinidad & Tobago in general? (Le.. occupational or community). In your opinion. are there any type of illnesses that have been observed at higher rates within the Couva / Point Lisas area compared to other areas in Trinidad & Tobago? Caroni county? If yes, please describe. Any suggestions as io reasons why? (e.g. respiratory illnesses. asthma). Are you aware of any health concerns that have been raised by employees that may be related to industrial operations within the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and surrounding area? Are you aware of any type of medical surveillance programs for employees at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and surrounding area? If yes. please describe. Are you aware of any incidents where employees on the estate required medical attention due to a release of chemicals at the estate? If yes. please describe. 10. Are you aware of any health concems that have been raised by nearby residents that ma) be related to industrial operations within the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and surrounding area? 1f yes. please describe. 1 1. .4re you aware of any community groups. NGOs or other organizations / groups that have raised concems about industrial pollution and its poiential effects on health at or near the Point Lisas Industrial Estate? If yes. please describe group and concems. Do you have any contacts? 12. Are you aware of any community relations / public education initiatives that have been conducted to increase awareness about industrial operations at PLIE and al leviate concerns? 13. Do you know of any reports / studies 1 libraries that may be able to provide more information for this research study? On Point Lisas? Trinidad & Tobago in general. If yes. please describe and identify source. 14. Can you suggest other persons or organizations that may be able to provide Mer information for this study? Especially medical staff. cornmunity groups. 15. Would I be able to contact you again if 1 have funher questions and /or require clarification? Community Groups / NGOs:

What does your organization 1 group do in the comrnunity? Describe the role of the group, if any. with regard to protection of the environrnent and human health. Has your group ever raised any concerns regarding the environrnent or human health? Are puaware of any other groups people that may have raised concems related to environment or the human health? If yes, please descnbe. Is your group involved in any way with the Point Lisas Industrial Estate or surrounding industry? (e.g. planning, development. awareness, disasters, etc. ) Do you know of any reports / studies that have been done that may be usefùl for this study? Can you suggest other people 1 community groups that may be able to provide more information? What do you feel is the best approach to interview people within the general community?

Industry Officiais:

How long has your company been operating within the Point Lisas Industrial Estate? How man. people do you employ'? What is your company's main product(s)? Ask for a company brochure. Describe any environmental legislation / standards that your company is expected or encouraged to comply with. Who administers these? Does your company have an environmental policy? Has an EIA ever been completed for this plant? If yes. in what year and by whom? Would a copy of it be available for my review? Has your company implemented or is it planning to implement an EMS? Does your company have any effluent / emission controls to prevent the release of po l lutants to the environrnent? If yes. please describe. (i.e.. wastewater treatment. scrubbers. filters. incinerator. cyclones. baghouseetc.)? Where does the wastewater drain to (i.e. what is the receiving waterbody)? During the manufacture or processing of your company's product. are any chemicals released to the environment? If ses. please list the chemicals. Are any of these chernicals a potential concern for human health or the environrnent? 10. Is there a monitoring program set up to determine the level of any chemicals that might be released? What is currently monitored for? Are these monitoring data available for review as part of my research exercise? 1 1. Has your company taken any initiatives to minimize releases of chemicals during its operations? If yes. please descnbe. (e.g. wastewater reuse, recycling, reduction). 12. Has your company ever received any complaints regarding its operations related to: smeil. air pollution, water pollution, chemical spills, noise, fish kills, dust, radiation, toxic chemicals, industrial accidents, smog, soi1 contamination, aesthetics etc.? If yes. describe the type of cornplaint, who it was expressed by (neighbours, govemment, workers. other industries. environmentalists. PLIPDDECO.other) and any remedial measures that were taken to improve to situation? Does your company have an emergency response plan? If yes, please descnbe. What. if any, are the major hazards associated with your company's operations? Has there ever been an incident where the disaster i emergency plan was put it into practice? Are you a member of TTEMAS? Does your company have an occupational health and safety program? If yes. please describe. 1s this information available or may 1 speak with the person in charge of it? Do you have any type of medical clinic / facilities or staff assaciated with your company's operations? Would 1 be able to speak to the staff? Contact info? Do you have any type of rnedical surveillance program for employees? Have any of your employees expressed concem about potential health effects related to your company's operations? Please describe. Have any of your employees ever become sick due to a release of chernicals from your operations? If yes. please describe. Was medical attention required? 1s there a process in place through which employees can make cornplaints with regard to health effects and/or environmental pollution? Please descnbe. What about groups outside the company? Have any members of the adjacent cornmunitirs or any other groups ((i.e., pcliticians. local government, national governrnent. environmental organizations. investors. other tenant corripanies. PLIPDECO. etc.) ever expressed concem about the effluent / emissions associated with your company's operations? If yes. please descnbe the nature of the concem and how your cornpany addressed it. Does your company have a comrnunity relations programme? If yes. how does it interact with the neighbouring cornmunities? Please describe some of your initiatives. Have you ever implemented a public education programme regarding your cornpany's operations and the environment? Would more information about ways to decrease industrial pollution and protect the environment and people's health be beneficial to your company? If yes, what sort of information would be most useful? What is the best way to get information to you? Would I be able to contact you again if I have tiinher questions and /or require more information'?

Community Members:

What cornes to mind when you hear the word "environment?" How would you describe the state of the environment in your comrnunity? Are there any threats to the environrnent in your comrnunity? If yes. can you tell me about them? Which one of these threats concems you most? What cornes to mind when you hear the word "pollution"? Has the natural environment in your local area been affected by pollution? If yes, please describe. Has pollution ever affected your ability to use the natural environrnent in or near your community? If so. how? Kas the health of you or anyone in your household been af5ected by pollution? If yes. please cm-ou tell me more about it? Did these problems require medical attention? If yes. please describe. 9. How would you compare the environrnent of your community to other similar communities? 10. Do you think that industrial development has had an effect on your community? If yes. how? 1 1. Have you ever received any type of information fiom the industries in your area? PIease describe. What was your reaction ro it? 12. Do you know what to do to protect yourself in the event of a chemical emergency at the industrial estate? If yes, can you tell me more about it. 13. Has anyone ever corne to talk to you to get your opinions on any industrial developments in the area? If yes. can you tell me about it. If yes. was this process sufficient to address your concerns? 14. Do you have complaints or concems related to the industrial development near to your community? If yes. please describe. 15. Have you ever contacted PLlPDECO to make a complaint or raise a concem? If yes. please tell me about it. Are you aware of their environmental hotline? [636-2201 ~2411 16. Have you ever contacted the EMA to make a complaint or raise a concem? If yes. please tell me about it. Are you aware of their environmental hotiine? [ 17. Do you require information on ways to protect your health or your environrnent fiom pollution? 18. Mat sort of information would be most useful? 19. What is the best way to get information to you? 20. Sex: Male i Fernale? 2 1. How old are you? Under 14; 15-39: 30-44; 45-59, 60+. 22. What is your occupation? 23. Where do you live in relation to the Point Lisas Industrial Estate? 74. How many people live in your house? Describe. 25. How long have you lived at this location? 26. Do you eat fish or shellfish caught locally? If yes. how many times per week? 27. What is the source of your drinking water? 28. Do you grow your own fmits and vegetables? 29. Do you or any members of your household work or have you 1 they ever worked at the Point Lisas Industrial Estate? If yes. for how long did yodthey work there? 30. Would you be willing to participate in a follow-up interview. if necessary? APPENDIX IV ORGANIZATIONS CONTACTED

Caribbean Forest Conservation Association (CFCA) P.O. Box 679 Pon of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago

Caribbean Epidemiology Centre (CAREC) 16- 1 8 Jamaica Boulevard, Federation Park Port of Spain. Trinidad

Caribbean Industrial Research lnstitute (CARIRI) University of West Indies. St. Augustine Campus Tunapuna. Trinidad

Couva Improvement Cornmittee Couva. Trinidad

Couva / Point Lisas Chamber of Commerce Southern Main Road Couva. Trinidad

Couva f Tabaquite Talparo Regional Corporation Rai 1way Road. Couva. Trinidad

Ecoengineering Consultants Limited. 62 Eastern Main Road Tunapuna. Trinidad

Environmental Management Authority (EMA) 16 Queen's Park West Port of Spain. Trinidad

Fishermen and Friends of the Sea (FFOS) 34 Frederick Street Port of Spain. Trinidad

Green Engineering 1 1 Hillside Avenue, Cascade Port of Spain, Trinidad

Institute of Marine Affairs Hilltop Lane C haguararnas, Trinidad Lisas Grirdens Welfare CounciI Lisas Gardens Couva, Trinidad

Ministry of Energy and Energy-Based Industries Level9. Riverside Plaza, 3 Besson Street Port of Spain. Trinidad

Ministry of Planning and Development Fric Williams Finance Building Lrvr l 14. Eric Williams Plaza. Independence Square Independence Square Port of Spain. Trinidad

National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) Ministry of National Security 1 7 Abercromby Street Port of Spain. Trinidad

Pan Amencan Health Organization (PAHO) 49 Jemingham Avenue Pon of Spain. Trinidad

Point Lisas Industrial Port Development Corporation Limited (PLIPDECO) Point Lisas Couva. Trinidad

Rapid Environmental Assessmrnts Limited (REAL) 74 Ana Street, Woodbrook Port of Spain. Trinidad

Trinidad and Tobago Emergency Mutual Aid Scheme (TTEMAS) Point Lisas, Couva. Trinidad

Trinidad and Tobago Ministry of Health Independence Square Port of Spain. Trinidad

Tourism and Industnal Development Company of Trinidad & Tobago Limited (TIDCO) 64-70 Vincent Street Port of Spain. Trinidad

University of West Indies (UWI) St. Augustine Campus St. Augustine. Trinidad In addition to contacting the above organizations. interviews were also conducted with members of the local community who could not be identified and included:

local medical professionals local health care workers, and concerned citizens APPENDIX V PROJEXT SUMMARY

OPPORTUNITIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RlSK MANAGEMENT:

A Case Study of the Point Lisas Industrial Estate in Trinidad

Project Summary:

My name is Nellie Roest. I am a university student who is attending Dalhousie University in Canada. I am doing a Master's degree in Environmental Studies. As part of my studies, I am conducting a research project on health. environment and industrial pollution. I am working with the Caribbean Environmental Health lnstitute and the Ministry of Health on this project.

For my project, I am interesting in learning more about possible effects on human health related to pollution from industrial development. The focus of my study is the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and the surrounding area. 1 want to find out more about possible health effects - what they are, how often they occur and how people view them. l will do this in two ways.

First, I will look at scientific information to help me understand what pollutants may be leaving the industrial estate, how much is leaving, where the pollution is going and what industry is doing to prevent the release of pollutants. I will also try to understand how people rnay be exposed to these pollutants and their possible health effects.

Second. I will interview different people ftom various groups to get their views on the local situation. As such, I would like to conciuct an interview with you to find out what you think and what you know about pollution as it may relate to your health or the health of others in your community. This interview will be last less than one hour during which I will ask you a range of questions related to your background, the environment, pollution and health issues.

The information 1 gather will be put together into a report that will describe the current situation at and near the Point Lisas Industrial Estate. I will also make recommendations about what could be done to help decrease industrial pollution and protect human health and the environment. When I am finished. I will summarize rny results and make them available to you and other people.

For tùrther information. please contact:

Ms. Nellie M. Roest Phone: (902) 494-3632 Dalhousie University Fax: (902) 494-3728 School for Resource and Environmental Studies Email: [email protected] 1312 Robie Street Halifax, Nova Scotia CANADA

Local phone: (868) 663-1 853 Local ernail: [email protected] REFERENCES

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Oversize maps and charts are microfilmed in sections in the following manner:

LEFT TO RIGHT, TOP TO BOTTOM, WlTH SMALL OVERLAPS

This reproduction is the best copy available.

POINT LISAS INDUSTRIA ESTATE LAYOUT PLAN

GULF O F PARIA