June 2002 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 1 Transitions in Folk Culture National among the Mongolians of Museum of Qinghai Province: the Case of Ethnology Nastní Jil Alquulaq Bayar Osaka Number 14

Sarangerel June 2002

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Nationalities, Beijing, China Mongolian residence areas MINPAKU in Qinghai Province include the Haixi Mongolian and Tibetan Autonomous Prefectures, Haibei Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Henan Mongolian Autonomous County of Huangnan Prefecture and Gonghe County of Hainan Prefecture. In 1999, the Mongolian population in Qinghai was a little more The Costume of Mongolian women in Chinkhai region, China than 90,000 persons. About 30% of the population lives in Haixi Prefecture, 31% in Henan County of Huangnan Prefecture, and 15% in four Mongolian Autonomous Xiang (towns) of Haibei County. The remaining 23% lives dispersed in various counties of Hainan Prefecture. The full population of Qinghai Province is multi-ethnic, and the Mongolian minority has experienced cultural change in many ways. Many Mongolians do not speak their original mother language, and some of them speak Tibetan or only Chinese. Folk customs and religion have also changed in many ways. I will examine the links between cultural changes by focusing on the ritual of what is called ëNastní Jil Alquulaq Bayarí. The literal translation of this title is to congratulate (bayar) an Contents old person (nastn) who rides (alquulaq) a year (jil). Sarangerel In Haixi Prefecture the Mongolians Transitions in Folk Culture among the who speak Mongolian celebrate the Mongolians of Qinghai Province: the birthday of an old person of 81 years Case of Nastní Jil Alquulaq Bayar 1 with the ritual of Nastní Jil Alquulaq James M. Savelle Bayar. There, the ritual celebrates the Bowhead Whaling among Prehistoric change from 81 to 82. In contrast, the Thule Inuit in the Central Canadian Mongolians of Mongolian Xiang in Arctic 2 Henan County of Huangnan Prefecture and Gonghe County of Hainan Thaw Kaung Prefecture do not have the idea of Ethnographical Studies on the Ethnic Groups of 4 ëriding a yearí. They just celebrate longevity for those who have reached Ho-won Park the age of 80. The Mongolians in four Historical Change and Continuity in Xiang of Beihai Prefecture who speak Communal Belief Systems in Korea 6 three languages (e.g., Mongolian, Tibetan and Chinese) also hold a Exhibition 8 banquet (Bashi Dashou in Chinese) for Conferences 9 those reaching the age of 80. The dates and times of these New Staff 11 celebrations are not fixed. However most Mongolian people usually Visiting Scholars 11 celebrate great longevity in the first Publications 11 month of the lunar calendar, because they traditionally think that people 2 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 June 2002

Sarangerel obtained advance in age in that month. Thus the that performing the ritual helps prevent her Ph. D. at the ritual is carried out on the 3rd, 5th, 8th 81 misfortunes. According to them, if Institute of Chinese and so on of the first month of year. someone dies at the age of 81, then 81 Literature, Academy Sometimes they choose dates of good misfortunes will happen to their of Social Sciences, fortune in summer and autumn to Beijing in 1998. She children or their grandchildren. To became an associate celebrate. In the two areas where the prevent this, people who reach the age professor at age of 80 is celebrated, there seem to of 81 will celebrate January twice to add Northwest Minorities be no clear rules about the date of one more year. The Mongolians in University, in 1993 celebration. Henan County consider the age of 80 and has been The Mongolians in Haixi Prefecture as the achievement of a long life, and Professor at the carry out Nastní Jil Alquulaq Bayar on a celebrate this as good luck. Generally, Central University large scale just as they do the people think that living until 80 is rare, for Nationalities in celebration of January of the lunar so they must celebrate the birthdays of Beijing since 1998. calendar. They provide alcoholic drinks Her main books are such long-living persons. The Customs of the and sheep boiled whole and greet the Mongolians in Haibei Prefecture Qinghai Mongolians old person by presenting him or her remember the actual date of reaching (1992), A Study of with ceremonial silk. The Mongolians the age of 80. This is just like the Change in the in Henan County do not seem to birthday celebration held by Han people Heroic Epic of celebrate January of the lunar or other nations, and the original Mongolia (1992). calendar. However they do hold a meanings of Nastní Jil Alquulaq Bayar She has also special banquet to celebrate Nastní Jil can not be found here. published many Alquulaq Bayar. I was told that By focusing on the ritual of Nastní Jil papers on folklore and folk literature. sometimes they would call some Alquulaq Bayar , we can find that relatives together to celebrate this on a customs among the Mongolians in small scale. In Qilian County of Haibei Qinghai Province vary in different Prefecture, the Mongolians hang the areas. Why did such differences Chinese character shou (longevity) from emerge? Were these differences caused a ceiling, let the old person sit in front by historical circumstances? Or did of it, and then his or her children and cultures historically develop in different grandchildren kneel down in respect. ways? For the moment, I am assuming This is just how the Han people that the ritual of Nastní Jil Alquulaq celebrate someoneís eightieth birthday. Bayar is derived from ancestor worship. This practice is not regarded as a I have been examining the ritual in common greeting or a special greeting relation to the old traditions of all for January in the lunar calendar. Mongolians. I hope to investigate the What are the symbolic meanings in ritual further in relation to historical, carrying out Nastní Jil Alquulaq Bayar ? social, geographical and cultural The Mongolians in Haixi Prefecture say aspects of Mongolian life. Bowhead Whaling among Prehistoric Thule Inuit in the Central Canadian Arctic

James M. Savelle McGill University, Montreal, Canada

James Savelle is The focus of my research while at sites are typically characterized by Associate Professor Minpaku is on the ecological large semisubterranean dwellings in the Department of relationships between prehistoric Inuit constructed from stone, sod and Anthropology at McGill University, whaling societies in the central bowhead whale bones (Figure 1). The Montreal. He Canadian Arctic Islands and migratory, immediate question raised is whether received his Ph.D. in but seasonally abundant, bowhead or not the bones represent the active Anthropology at the whales (Balaena mysticetus). The hunting of bowheads, or merely the University of Alberta bowhead whale is one of three species scavenging of carcasses for bones. Allen in 1986, and has of right whales, with adults attaining McCartney, a co-investigator in much carried out archaeological and lengths of up to 18-20 m and weighing of my research, and I have spent the geological research in excess of 50,000 kg. Thule Inuit past 20 years engaged in field surveys in the Canadian occupied many of the central Canadian and excavations in an attempt to Arctic and Alaska. Arctic Islands from approximately A.D. address this question. Our results to His research has 1000-1600, and their winter village date suggest that Thule Inuit were June 2002 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 3 indeed active bowhead whalers, and alternative method based on focussed on that their relatively complex osteometrics is therefore being used. prehistoric Inuit technological, economic and social Basically, the method involves taking a subsistence- settlement systems, structure was to a great extent centered series of measurements on specific and on early upon this resource. In particular, there bone types. Regression models based on historic Inuit- is substantial evidence from our own measurements of various bones from European contact. and other research, in particular that by bowheads of known length are then Peter Whitridge, that Canadian Thule used to determine the length of the whaling societies, like their historic Thule-derived animals. Length in turn 1) A karigi was a North Alaskan counterparts, were can be used to estimate the relative community 1) structure organized around karigi-based whaling degree of maturity of the individual traditionally built crews with an associated competition animals. Thus far, approximately 1500 and owned by a for wealth and status. individual length estimates have been whaling crew What is less clear, however, is why made for Thule-derived whales, and captain and was whaling throughout the entire further analyses are in progress. While the focus of many Canadian Arctic Island region ceased determinations of sex would also be village ceremonial as an economic pursuit by extremely useful, there is currently no activities. approximately A.D.1600, together with a reliable method for determining sex complete abandonment of this region by based on bowhead bone characteristics. Thule Inuit. This period pre-dates However, given that the sex of an intensive European and Euroamerican individual bowhead cannot be bowhead whaling in the area, and some determined until it is out of the water researchers have attributed the decline and being processed, selection by sex to decreasing availability of bowhead can be expected to have been random, whales, due to deteriorating summer as it is amongst Inuipiaq bowhead sea ice conditions. However, to date whale hunters in Alaska today. there has been no attempt to determine A third important data set relates to if Thule whaling practices per se estimates of the original bowhead contributed to the whale population whale population characteristics (e.g., decline, or alternatively, were size and recruitment rates). Some consistent with sound resource estimates can be derived from the well- management practices but were unable studied Bering Sea bowhead population. to prevent the decline. In the eastern and central Canadian Any attempt to address these issues Arctic, however, the bowhead population must necessarily incorporate several was extremely depleted during the 19th types of data, and must also rest upon a century by European and Euroamerican number of assumptions. The first type whalers, and has yet to recover to any of data required relates to the actual extent. For this area, whaling records numbers of bowheads represented at have been thoroughly reviewed by a Thule sites. At this point, surface whale number of scholars, and provide one bone counts have been recorded for 36 basis for estimating original population Thule winter villages (where the whale characteristics. A further approach is bone dwellings are found) and several based on the abundance and associated bowhead butchering distribution of whales that were Figure 1. localities. These include all known naturally stranded in the pre-Thule era. Prehistoric Thule Inuit major winter village sites in the central As part of the research associated with whale bone dwelling in the central Arctic Island region. These counts have our project, and in conjunction with Canadian Arctic involved the identification of each bone type and in the case of paired bones, the side (left or right). With this information, the minimum numbers of individual whales (MNI) represented in the surface assemblages can be determined. While many of the sites have yet to be fully excavated, sufficient numbers of dwellings have been excavated to estimate the total numbers of bones by type, and thus the total MNI, in unexcavated dwellings. A second important data set relates to whale age, since any attempt to interpret the impact of hunting on wild resources necessarily depends on interpreting selection by age. Unlike many other mammals, bowheads do not possess teeth or other bones that permit age estimates based on incremental growth layer analysis. An 4 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 June 2002

geologist Arthur S. Dyke, bowhead base will thus provide the basis for carcass stranding rates over the past developing a series of computer 10,000 years have been estimated from simulations based on known and subfossil bowhead remains on relic modeled population dynamics of modern beaches in the central Arctic Islands. bowheads. As indicated, it will The remains of several thousand represent the first attempt to examine bowheads have been recorded in this Thule Inuit whaling practices within context, and age/length estimates the context of whale ecology and based on osteometrics have been made population dynamics. The study will be for approximately 500 individuals directly relevant to current concerns (further analysis is in progress), thus relating to modern Inuit whale providing an independent archive of harvesting. Modern Inuit whaling has bowhead population structure and generated a considerable amount of distribution through time. Several research and discussion into whale bowhead population ëpulsesí and stock management, and ethical issues ëdeclinesí are evident in this stranding associated with indigenous whaling. record, and one of our aims is to The present study will, we hope, determine during which part of these contribute to an understanding of the population cycles Thule whaling took extent to which modern Inuit whaling place. practices have their ecological and The extensive, and unique, cultural basis in prehistoric or archaeological and paleontological data traditional whaling practices.

Ethnographical Studies on the Ethnic Groups of Myanmar

Thaw Kaung Myanmar Historical Commission, , Myanmar

Dr. Thaw Kaung Myanmar (or Burma/Biruma) has often that the Union of Myanmar is slowly was Chief Librarian been called a melting pot because opening up, scholars and researchers of Yangon members of many ethnic groups have are again coming to our country as they University, from entered the country from Southwestern 1969 to 1997 when did in the 1950s. During that period, he retired. Since China and Tibet, mixing with the well-known foreign scholars including then he has been a original inhabitants and other the anthropologists Edmund Leach, member of the migrants. The Union of Myanmar came Chris Lehman, and others came on Myanmar Historical into being on 4th January 1948 as a field studies and wrote important books. Commission. With a nation of many ethnic groups. The At the , the keen interest on Bama (Burmese) majority live in the history, culture, Department of Anthropology was set up literature and main river valleys of the Ayeyawady in 1950 by Dr. Htin Aung, Rector at the ethnology of his (Irrawaddy), the Than Lwin (Salween) time, who had a keen interest in folk- country, he has and Sittaung, while tribal minority lore, anthropology and history. From the written a number of groups mostly inhabit the hills and early 1960s anthropology was down- papers on these mountains that surround Myanmar on graded to a minor subject until 1982, subjects. the east, north and west. when it was again revived as a major Ethnographies of the different ethnic field of study. A number of theses have groups of Myanmar are of much been written by staff and postgraduate importance to scholars who study the students at the Masterís and doctoral country. Surprisingly, there are few levels. Most of these are ethnographical good scientific studies by professional studies, but only a few on the Wa and anthropologists and ethnographers. At Salon people have been published for the same time it is important to example. A few Ph.D. theses written by identify what writings are already Myanmar and foreign scholars have available, who wrote them, when they been submitted to universities outside were written and with what purpose in Myanmar. In Japan, Professor Katsumi mind. This is the aim of my work for ëA Tamura of the National Museum of Bibliographical Study on Ethnographies Ethnology (Minpaku) in Osaka has and Ethnic Relations of Myanmarí. Now written a number of articles on village June 2002 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 5 life and ethnology in Myanmar. Although there are no specific bibliographies dedicated to Myanmar ethnology specifically, there are several good general bibliographies of Myanmar that cover ethnology. An excellent bibliography for books in English was compiled by Patricia Herbert, Curator of the Southeast Asian Collections at the British Library. This was entitled Burma and was published as vol.132 of the World Bibliographical Series by the Clio Press of Oxford in 1991. There is also an earlier bibliography compiled by Frank Trager and associates called Burma, a Selected and Annotated Bibliography. This was published by the Human Relations Area Files of New Haven in 1973, with an earlier edition called Annotated Bibliography of Burma in 1956. I am compiling a short annotated guide to what is available in the English and Myanmar languages on Myanmar ethnic groups and their relationships. Races of Burma: In this bibliographical study I will cite cover of 2001 reprint the main works that have been published up to the year 2001. At the Civilizing Mountain Men on the Karen University of Yangon, a number of people. bibliographies mainly in Myanmar The British colonial administration language with some items in English, commissioned studies on the ethnic 1) Hla Min 2000. have been compiled by students as groups of Myanmar that were either Political Situation of partial requirement for the published as monographs like Cecil C. Myanmar and its Postgraduate Diploma in Library and Lowisí The Tribes of Burma (1910)4) or Role in the Region. 24th ed. Yangon: Information Studies. There are incorporated into the main gazetteers Office of Strategic bibliographies for Shan (two and census reports. Major C.M.D. Studies, Ministry compilations), on Chin, Kachin, Karen, Enriquez, a Recruiting Officer for the of Defence. See Kayah, Mon and Rakhine (Arakanese), British Indian Army, wrote the small especially the but none of them have been published but practical book Races of Burma (1923 official list of 135 up to now. and 2nd ed. 1933) which was aimed at national ethnic Officially the government of finding which ethnic groups provide groups, pp.95-98. Myanmar recognizes 135 different good soldiers for defending the British 2) U Min Naing ethnic groups in the Union of Empire. Before the British came there 2000. National Myanmar.1) Researchers like U Min were no ethnographies, but we find Ethnic Groups of Naing, who has written many books and references to ethnic groups in the main Myanmar; tr. by articles on the ethnic groups of Myanmar chronicles, inscriptions and Hpone Thant. Myanmar, state that there are about other historical texts, for example, the Yangon: 2) Swiftwinds Books. 129 different ethnic groups while Ayedawbon kyan (Campaigns and Distributed by earlier writers of the British colonial Achievement of Kings). Myanmar Book times like Cecil C. Lowis (1864-1948), Myanmar has been an ethnic mix Centre. Sir George Scott (1851-1935) and Major with a multitude of different ethnic C.M.D. Enriquez recognized about 120 groups from the earliest times. From 3) Enriquez, Colin 3) Metcalf Dallas ethnic groups. I found that the earliest Bagan (Pagan) lithic inscriptions we 1933. Races of writers on ethnology were Christian know that the Pyus, Mons, Thet, Ka- Burma. Delhi: missionaries, British government yans and other ethnic groups inhabited Manager of officials, or British Army staff. They the Myanmar Kingdom founded by King Publications. New were not professional anthropologists or Anawrahta (A.D.1044-1077). Of these York: AMS, 1981. ethnographers and they studied the groups, the Pyu people had a high level Reprinted Yangon: Myanmar Book minority ethnic groups. of civilization during the early years of Centre, 2001. The Christian missionaries at first the Christian era, but have been made few converts among members of completely absorbed by the Bama 4) Lowis, Cecil C. the Bama (Burmese) majority who were (Burmese) ethnic group. 1910. The Tribes of staunchly Buddhist. They found the hill Myanmar kings from earliest times Burma. Rangoon: tribes, mainly animists, more to the Konbaung Dynasty (A.D.1752- Supdt., Govt. Print. Reprinted in susceptible to Christian doctrine and so 1885), the last line of kings which 1919 they studied and wrote books about ended with the Annexation by the as Ethnological these tribal people. For example Mrs. British in January 1886, tried to solve Survey of India: Ellen Mason wrote a book called ethnic problems by various means. Burma, no.4. 6 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 June 2002

5) The Glass Strong warrior kings like Anawrahta problems and these erupted into civil Palace Chronicle of (A.D.1044-1077), and Alaungpaya wars soon after Myanmar regained the Kings of (A.D.1752-1760) used military strength Independence.6) Since 1988 the present Burma.1923; tr. by G. H. Luce and to conquer the minority ethnic groups. military government has been able to Pe Maung Tin. More politically astute though equally negotiate cease- fire agreements with Rangoon: Burma powerful kings like King Kyanzittha about 17-20 armed ethnic groups.7) Research Society. (A.D.1084-1112) and King Bayinnaung The bibliographical study that I am (A.D.1551-1581) combined military force undertaking is not a comprehensive 6) Tha Hla 1973. with alliances, based on oaths of survey of all ethnographical books and ëEthnic Communalism in allegiance, by establishing tributary articles on the ethnic groups of Thailand and kings and chieftains who were left on Myanmar and their relationships; it is Burmaí, Journal of their own so long as they remained a selective one, giving only the salient, the Burma loyal to the Myanmar sovereign. In important works. More comprehensive Research many ways the Myanmar kings were bibliographies compiled in Myanmar Sociology, vol. LVI, successful in (i) solving the Mon and in English already exist, although pts. 1 & 2 (Dec.1973) pp.31- problem, (ii) incorporating the Mon and some remain unpublished. I will give a 45. Rakhine (Arakanese) kingdoms into list of these bibliographies in my work Myanmar kingdoms, and by (iii) so that scholars who want to go further 7) Myanmar. keeping the Shan Sawbwa chieftains as can find them. I am glad that Minpaku Ministry of tributary vassals.5) is sponsoring this bibliographical Information. The British conquest established the survey, and I hope it will give an 2000. Myanmar Facts and Figures. modern nation of Myanmar and fixed impetus to other librarians and Yangon: the boundaries permanently from scholars to compile more The Ministry of around 1886. British colonial policies comprehensive bibliographies of Information. left behind many political and economic Myanmar ethnographies.

Historical Change and Continuity in Communal Belief Systems in Korea

Ho-won Park National Folk Museum of Korea, Seoul, Korea

Park, Ho-won is a A community can be defined as a group community has its communal beliefs. curator at the maintaining mutual solidarity and These can be understood as National Folk cooperation with close face-to-face contributing to the achievement of Museum of Korea. He studied folklore relationships among its members in a religious goals. In Korea, there is a at the Academy of small and restricted area. Each community ceremony called ëDongjeí. Korean Studies of This ceremony is a part of a communal A shrine for mountain gods (Sansindang) belief system, and has been maintained by local people in villages throughout Korea. In this essay, I wish to delineate historical changes and continuities in the ceremony as a basis for comparing communal belief systems in Korea and Japan. The communal ceremony ëDongjeí is a periodic ritual in Dong or Ri ( the smallest administrative unit in Korea) and is carried out by local people wishing for well-being and good harvests of crops and fish. Communal features of the ceremony are obvious since it involves the collective preparation and participation of local people during all the ritual processes. According to the Japanese Government- General of Korea in 1930, 58 % of all villages in the country held communal June 2002 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 7 ceremonies. Dongje, Sansindang, and developed with Confucianism was the Graduate School Seonghwanje were recorded as general very different. where he received names for the ceremonies in the 1930 Confucianism was first adopted as a his Ph.D. in sociology and research report. ruling ideology by the Josen dynasty, folklore. His main A survey by the Cultural Property which tried to prohibit civilian interest is the Preservation Bureau in 1967 showed, memorial services deviating from history of Korean with almost the same results as those of Confucian rituals. In short, the folk beliefs from the a 1930 survey by the Japanese Joseon dynasty was based on the 10th century government, no significant changes ideology of the Zhu Xi School of through 20th century. during the previous 35 years. Even Confucianism, and central and local though the 1967 research was limited to government officials, and influential South Korea, 5,577 out of 21,211 villages local men, regarded the communal maintained the communal ceremonies. beliefs observed in local villages as Shrines for the ceremonies were called superstition. They made an effort to either Sansindang or Seonghwangdang. Confucianize and control local The main gods for these ceremonies societies. Local and central were presumably mountain gods and governments prohibited native local tutelary gods (Seonghwangsin). communal rituals during the entire In the history of Korean religion, period of the Joseon dynasty. mountain gods appeared before the 3rd Nevertheless, the communal belief century. The rites for the mountain gods system of local societies was never at that period were very similar to those completely eradicated. of the present communal ceremonies. Ancestor worship reflecting filial However, because rites for the mountain piety could be respected by everybody. gods were incorporated into the state However, Confucian rituals memorial service after the emphasized a system of social establishment of the ancient Kingdoms, differentiation based on Confucian the rites were performed by both civilian ideology. Even in ancestor worship, and state sectors. It is presumed that the extent of worship could be limited after the rites had been incorporated into by social status. the state memorial service, they were The different access to Confucian practiced in Confucian style, while those rituals by people of different social performed by civilians were held in the status was most apparent in royal traditional fashion. ceremonies for natural gods such as Beliefs and practices concerned with the river gods and mountain gods. tutelary gods diffused from China to Only the dynastic kings, as sons of Goryeo in the end of the 10th century Heaven, were allowed to perform and were also incorporated into the state memorial services for the heaven and memorial service. They spread earth gods, and the river and throughout the country as local shrines mountain gods. Influential local men for the tutelary gods were founded in could only hold services for the regional administrative centers. Since mountain and river gods in their own the shrines for tutelary gods were built districts. These examples clearly in the mountains, the tutelary gods and illustrate the hierarchical nature of mountain gods were fused by local people Confucian rituals. The exclusive and tutelary gods became shamanistic rituals of kings for the mountain and gods. This resulted in the folklorization of river gods reflected their wider control the tutelary gods. In addition, over territories. influential local men instead of central The royal memorial services for government officials took care of the tutelary, mountain and river gods are tutelary gods. historically significant because they In the 14th and 15th centuries, at the can be associated with the end of the Goryeo period and beginning of establishment of a national identity the Joseon period, the Ri emerged as a and the reinforcement of sovereignty new administrative unit. Members of the along with the unified operation of Ri performed funeral services and Confucian rituals. But the fact that memorial services for natural gods. local government officials played a Ritual practices of the Ri have been role of officiant at state services in transmitted to the communal place of religious specialists implies ceremonies of present day Korea. as emphasis on ideological and formal The introduction of Buddhism and concerns rather than religious Confucianism from China influenced the purposes. Moreover, a sense of class native belief system in Korea. Although difference was created by prohibiting Buddhism was initially in conflict with voluntary beliefs and memorial native beliefs, local people eventually services for the mountain gods and accepted it and fused Buddhism with tutelary gods in the civilian sector, native beliefs during the Three and by excluding ordinary people from Kingdoms period. The relationship that the state memorial service. This had 8 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 June 2002 somewhat negative effects on system is inferred to have been rituals for the mountain gods the state memorial service and established during the late and tutelary gods in the villages Confucian goals. Guryeo and early Joseon continued to follow some After the mid-Joseon period, Periods. Confucian rituals, and were Confucian rituals in state Present day communal transformed into communal memorial services were ceremonies developed in ceremonies. The Confucian performed improperly or accordance with the rituals apparent today in local perfunctorily. This was because traditional belief system, the memorial services are the the rituals were not based on growth of natural villages, result of compromise between the beliefs of ordinary people. and the daily necessities of local and central governments. The central government had common people. The Confusianized communal attempted to integrate rituals Religious activities and ceremonies signified the arrival for the mountain and tutelary memorial services among of Confucian rituals in the gods into the state memorial common people have survived countryside. service, so local gods were despite frequent oppression by As the kings formalized the promoted to state gods. In a the central government. People rituals for the mountain gods sense, this attempt supported maintained their own activities and the tutelary gods after the the spread of central and services because they mid-Joseon dynasty period, the government authority among served practical needs. State original meaning of the state local societies. However, local memorial services emphasized memorial service was power holders practiced their ideological aspects of Confucian weakened. The practical ethics own beliefs and memorial rituals rather than religious, so of Confucianism eventually services in the countryside, in changed or disappeared in became prevalent among the order to distinguish themselves accordance with the collapse common people, and communal from the central government. and emergence of dynasties. ceremonies over which the Conflicts between the central When the Joseon dynasty state had lost control became and local governments collapsed, the state rituals for Confucianized. developed concerning the mountain and tutelary gods Describing historical enforcement of the state disappeared. change in the communal memorial service. With the downfall of the ceremonies in Korea provides The formation of the Joseon dynasty, the memorial a basis for comparing communal belief system in services managed by local power communal beliefs in Korea and Korea was closely related to the holders in the countryside also Japan. In my next project, I fact that local people worshiped lost their practical importance. will compare communal the mountain gods and tutelary With reformation of social and beliefs in the two countries gods as their primary gods, and administrative systems, local while focusing on the divinities, carried out their communal memorial services started to processes and spaces related to ceremonies regularly. This disappear. On the other hand, such beliefs.

business, and other fields. When we reflect on academic Exhibition However, very few attempts approaches in the past and have been made in both nations representations in our to know the ordinary life ways of museums, it is possible to the other nation, due to recognize the power of Seoul Style 2002: Life as historical and political stereotyped images of Korean or it isñwith the Lee family circumstances. At our museum, Japanese culture. To escape the special exhibition from stereotype making in the Special Exhibit committee decided to facilitate present exhibition, we wished to mutual understanding between understand the other culture The 2002 FIFA World Cup is Korea and Japan by preparing not in terms of the State but in being held under the joint an exhibition on the present life terms of daily life. For this we sponsorship of Japan and Korea, style and life cycle of Korean made an empirical study with and the year has been people. We wanted to show the Lee family in Seoul. designated ëThe Year of Japanñ family life, household economy, With generous permission ROK National Exchangeí by the beliefs, and the life wisdom and cooperation from the Lee governments of both countries. expressed in everyday family in Seoul, we could carry In recognition of this activities. We think that much out a comprehensive study of all designation and to deepen can be learned about Korean the utensils and goods used by mutual understanding, our culture and society in this way. this three-generation family in museum and the National Folk We also organized a joint their apartment in a tall city Museum of Korea agreed to hold research project entitled ëBasic building. The researcher Koji exhibitions on the other nationís Studies of Modern Life and Sato at our museum culture in the spring of 2002. Culture in Koreaí. This project investigated approximately 3,200 There is currently frequent involved Japanese and Korean items and identified uses and contact between Korean and scholars from several meanings for each item Japanese people in tourism, universities in Japan. according to its user in his/her June 2002 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 9

the central space, we exhibit we use several special present the living devices to help visitors discover spaces of each differences and similarities in member of the family. these two cultures. These include a In the basement below the classroom of Mr. Leeís exhibition hall, commercial child, Mr. Leeís office vendors have a space to create at work, a local ëdisplays on Korean Food market where Mrs. Cultureí and ëKorean Food in Lee goes shopping, Japaní. The museum itself and the hometown of offered a ëMinpaku Sijang Mr. Leeís mother. On (museum market)í. In this area the second floor, we visitors could walk or sit at show the life cycle tables and experience a world of from birth to death of Korean food. Outside in front of people in modern the exhibition hall, a ëMinpaku Korean society. This Madang (museum plaza)í is display covers being used for performances seventeen topics such as dances, mask plays, including birth, and folk songs, in cooperation entrance with Korean residents in Japan, examinations, from northern and southern military service, love, Koreas. Their efforts can help to marriage, old age, build cultural and social bridges religious activities, between Japanese and Koreans. and so on. Finally, I would like to note We think the that a special exhibition ëOur research and Neighboring Country, Japan: Peeking at Korean culture through 126 exhibition will be historically the Life Culture of items kept in Leeís refrigerator significant because they will Contemporary Japaní was held preserve a view of contemporary from 20 February to 6 May 2002 life. life in Seoul in a time capsule, at the National Folk Museum of The resulting exhibition is for future generations. The Korea. being held from 21 March to 16 exhibition is also giving July 2002 at our museum in Japanese visitors a chance to Osaka. In a central space on the rethink their own life style. In Toshio Asakura first floor, we show Mr. Leeís Japan, many of us tend to think Chief Organizer apartment and all the that the cultures of Japan and National Museum of Ethnology belongings of his family. Around Korea are very similar. In this

this symposium. This large learning to include life-long Conferences audience reflected the fact that learning. education is a major role for David Anderson, the Director museums in modern society. of Education and Visitor Museum Education Lynn D. Dierking, a sub- director of the Institute for to Support Free Choice Learning Innovations, USA, Learning: Examining Concluding Discussion at the Auditorium, introduced a new theoretical National Museum of Ethnology Case Studies of U.S.A. & framework U.K. for learning. The model she drew is International Symposium really 20 January 2002 innovative because it We have held what may be the places the first international symposium physical in Japan on museum education. center of Two guest speakers from USA learning not and England gave lectures on in schools museum education and but in answered questions from the museums, audience. as well as More than two hundred and extending fifty people who work at the time museums in Japan attend at dimension of 10 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 June 2002

Services at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London described many interesting workshops conducted at his museum. The interactive methods used succeeded in stimulating the creativity of visitors. Through discussions with these experienced guests, we could identify three main points regarding museum education. First, the role of museums has been getting much more important in the modern ëlearning societyí, where people live long and never stop learning until the end of life. Second, museums must collaborate with a variety of other institutions including schools. Third, within collaborative projects, the Globalization and Internal Border-Crossing. International Symposium. researcher who is working at a 26-28 February 2002 museum must maintain equal relationships with all kinds of multiethnic society, with around and the final discussion. The visitors. 1.7 million officially registered sessions, each consisting of two On the second day, we heard foreigners. This figure, papers and discussion, were as about domestic case studies constituting roughly follows: (1) Municipality and from the Kyoto University 1.4% of Japanís total population, Family (Toru Onai, Sachi Museum, the National Museum might really be more like 2 Takahata); (2) Labour Customs in Tokyo, and various local million, if so-called illegal (Makito Minami, KyÙnosuke museums and cultural centers migrant categories are Hirai); (3) Nationality and in Japan. included. The presence and Identity (Hiroshi Komai, Eika Through this symposium we significance of immigrants has Tai); (4) Language (Florian could share the experiences of recently been expanding in Coulmas, H. Shoji); (5) Religion the other museums in Japan, many spheres of Japanese (Akira Nakagawa, Hirochika England and the United States society. It is not surprising that Nakamaki) and (6) Japanese of America. This feeling of foreigners have had Culture (Nagao Nishikawa, Chie sharing has given us both the considerable impact in Japan, a Otsuka). Other participants challenge and courage to make nation-state that has built itself included Min Han, Mitsuhiro much more effort for visitors on the illusion of a highly Shinmen, Fumiya Hirataka, and the learning society. uniform society with a single Konosuke Fujii, Satoru Furuya, At present the National ethnic composition, culture and Shunji Hosaka, Keshav Lall Museum of Ethnology has no language, all contained within Maharjan, Teiko Mishima and section for education and no the state border. Shizuyo Yoshitomi. specialist researcher for To understand the social, During this three day education. We clearly need a cultural, conscious and symposium, the notion of strategy to join the new era of unconscious changes resulting ëinternal border-crossingí was museums. from interactions with repeatedly examined in the light foreigners, we must reconsider of phenomena that may be the reality of mental/ideological forcing Japanese to realize the Yuki Konagaya boundaries between ëusí and relativity and vacillation of ëourí Convenor ëthemí. For this purpose an borders. Some very specific National Museum of Ethnology international symposium was observations also drew the held at Minpaku from 26 to 28 attention of participants. For February 2002, under the title example, members of the Globalization and ëGlobalization and Internal Japanese Catholic Church have Border-Crossingí. Twenty-one almost doubled in number in Internal Border-Crossing participants were invited both recent years mainly because of from abroad and Japan to an influx of Brazilians and International Symposium discuss this central issue from Filipinos. Some Brazilian 26-28 February 2002 different points of view. The communities have established symposium included a keynote somewhat self-supporting and With the marked influx of presentation (Hiroshi Shoji), independent social systems by immigrants from the late 80ís followed by six sessions focussed themselves. A considerable onwards, Japan has been on social spheres where foreign number of immigrant workers gradually transformed into a impacts appear to be salient, have become deeply immersed June 2002 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 11 in Japanese society, and lack Udagawa, Taeko (U.K.) in 1985 and an Honorary almost any contact with public Taeko Udagawa joined the Doctor of Letters by the authorities. Department of Cultural University of Western Sydney The symposium proceedings Research as an associate (Australia) in 1999. He has will be published as a book in professor in April 2002. After written frequently about the Japanese, next year. finishing her MA in sociology at history, culture and literature of Tokyo University, she carried his country. He is on his third out intensive field research in visit to Japan and will stay at Hiroshi Shoji one agro-town near Rome, Italy, Minpaku from March to June Convenor from 1987 to 1988. Since then 2002 to compile a bibliography of National Museum of Ethnology she has been to Italy many ethnographies and ethnic times, and written more than relations of Myanmar (see ten articles about Italian family, article, p.4). gender and sexuality, friendship, and sociability. She is also interested in modernism New Staff and ideas of subject and identity relating to gender issues. Publications

Ishii, Masako Hidaka, Shingo Masako Ishii joined the Japan The following were published by Center for Area Studies (JCAS) Shingo Hidaka joined the the Museum during the period at Minpaku as a research fellow Department of Museum January to June, 2002: in March 2002. After obtaining Research as a research fellow her MA in International in April 2002. After graduating Relations at the University of from Tokai University, he ∏ Bulletin of the National Museum Sussex, UK, she obtained her worked at the Gangoji Institute of Ethnology, vol.26, no.3, March Ph.D. at Sophia University, for Research of Cultural 2002. Tokyo in 2001. She has recently Property from 1995 to 2002. He Contents: M. Kashinaga, ëNotes published a book entitled has studied the conservation of on ìThe Customary Law of the objects made from wood, leather, Stories of Muslim Women in the Tai Dam in Muong Muoiî í; X. rice straw, and clay. He is Philippines: Armed Conflict, Zheng, ëThe Hua Yao Dai of the currently investigating methods Development, and Social Change Upper Reaches of the Red River: of efficient pest control for (Akashi Shoten, 2002). She is Their Culture and Its Changes museum objects. extending her research in the Contemporary Ageí; H. interests to NGO activities in Yang, ëThe Hui Rebellion in 19th peace-building and Century Mongolian History: reconstruction assistance after Focusing on the Comparison armed conflict, and will Visiting Scholars between the General and continue research in the Regional History of China southern in Philippines. Compiled as a State Project and Thaw Kaung the Mongolian Chroniclesí; T. Dr. Thaw Kaung is a member of Nishio and S. Nakamichi, the Myanmar Historical ëArabic Linguistic Studies in Commission, Japan: A Bibliographical Surveyí. Komori, Hiromi located on Hiromi Komori joined the Japan the main Center for Area Studies (JCAS) campus of ∏ Bulletin of the National Museum at Minpaku as a research fellow Yangon of Ethnology, vol.26, no.4, March in March 2002. She studied University, 2002. Russian and east-central Myanmar. Contents: S. Tanabe, ëThe European history at Waseda He is a Concept of Practice in Reflexive University in Tokyo, where she librarian by Anthropology: On Bourdieuís obtained her MA. She also profession Habitus and Beyondí; H. studied Estonian history at with a Kawanami, ëProperty Holdings Tartu University in Estonia Postgraduate and Vicissitudes of Burmese from 1994 to 95. Her main Diploma in Nunnery Schoolsí; M. Mio, interest lies in the nation- Librarianship from the ëFormation and Its Avoidance of building processes of Estonia . He studied Identity Politics in the during the interwar period as Anthropology and Ethnology at Mausoleums: Ethnographical well as after regaining Yangon University for three Considerations on the independence in 1991. Her years. He was the Chief Mausoleums Related with the publications include The Librarian of the Universities Sufism in the Mewar Region of Authoritarian Regime in Central Library in Yangon Rajasthan, Indiaí; M. Yoshioka, Estonia 1934-1940 (1997) and University for 28 years until his ëThe Kava Bar as ìPidgin The Issue of the Russian- retirement in December 1997. Cultureî: A Study on Urban Speakers in Estonia and Latvia He was made an Honorary Culture in Vanuatuí; and A. (1998). Fellow of the Library Association R¯kkum, ëMeat and Marriage: 12 MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter No 14 June 2002

An Ethnography of Aboriginal ëPart Two: Pollution Theoryí; ë4. pp., February 2002. Taiwaní. ìPollutionî and ìImpurityî í; ë5. Blood Sacrifice and ìPollutionî ∏ Eguchi, P. K., Ndaa Biy ∏ Stewart, H., A. Barnard and K. Ideologyí; ë6. Pollution Concepts Marvaíen: The Narrative of a Omura (eds), Self- and Other- Manipulatedí; ëPart Three: Giziga Pastor. Senri Images of Hunter-Gatherers. Harijan Strategiesí; ë7. The Ethnological Reports, no.27, 197 Senri Ethnological Studies, Socio-Economic Position of The pp., February 2002. no.60, iv+216 pp., March 2002. Paraiyars (The Harijans)í; ë8. (Project Editors: Koyama, S. and Funeral Ritesí; ë9. The Festivals ∏ Sugita, S., J. K. Hong, T. Fujii, J. Tanaka) Contents: H. Stewart of Lineage Deitiesí; ë10. The J. Reeve and G. Gay (eds) Global and A. Barnard, ëIntroduction: Politics Around The Cooperative Digital Museum (GDM) for Self- and Other-Images of Societyí; and ëConclusionsí. Museum Education on the Hunter-Gatherersí; A. Barnard, Internet. Senri Ethnological ëThe Foraging Mode of Thoughtí; ∏ Nakamaki, H. (ed.), The Culture Reports, no.28, 221 pp., March B. Kaare, ëCosmology, Belonging of Association and Associations in 2002. and Construction of Community Contemporary Japanese Society. Identity: The Politics of Being Senri Ethnological Studies, ∏ Sam, S. A., Musical Instruments Hunter-Gatherers among the no.62, i+178 pp., March 2002. of Cambodia. Senri Ethnological Akie-Dorobo of Tanzaniaí; M. Contents: H. Nakamaki, Reports, no.29, 162 pp., March Guenther, ëEthno-tourism and ëIntroduction: Shaen in 2002. the Bushmení; B. Buntman, Contemporary Japanese ëTravels to Otherness: Whose Societyí; T. Yoneyama, MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter Identity Do We Want to See?í; H. ëComment to Introduction: Stewart, ëEthnonyms and Memoir on Shaen (Sodality)í; The MINPAKU Anthropology Images: Genesis of the ëInuití ëPart I Voluntary Associationsí; Newsletter is published semiannually, and Image Manipulationí; K. C. Brumann, ëDeconstructing in June and December.ëMinpakuí is a Omura, ëConstruction of the Pont des Arts: Why Kyoto Did Japanese abbreviation for the National Inuinnaqtun (Real Inuit-way): Not Get Its Parisian Bridgeí; O. Museum of Ethnology.The Newsletter Self-Image and Everyday Moon, ëVoluntary Associations in promotes a continuing exchange of Practices in Inuit Societyí; R. Japan: A Functional Factor in information with ëMinpaku fellowsí who have been attached to the Ridington, ëWhen You Sing It the System or a Changing Museum as visiting scholars from Now, Just Like New: Re- Force?í; G. P. Witteveen, ëCivil overseas. The Newsletter also provides Creation in Native American Society in Japan and Takefu a forum for communication with a Narrative Traditioní; S. Suzuki, Cityís Efforts to Involve Citizens wider academic and anthropological ëCulture Learning of Urban in Community Buildingí; ëPart II audience. Aboriginals: Background, Overseas Japanese Characteristics and Communitiesí; J. Sakai, MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter is accessible through our homepage at: Implicationsí; M. Hokari, ëGender and Globalisation: the http://www.minpaku.ac.jp/english/ ëImages of Australian Japanese diasporaí; Wai-Ming Colonialism: Interpretations of Ng, Benjamin, ëThe Japanese General Editor: Naomichi Ishige the Colonial Landscape by an Association and the Kowloon Editor: Nobuhiro Kishigami Aboriginal Historianí; T. Kinase, Club: A Study of the Japanese Editorial Panel: Min Han, Isao ëDifference, Representation, Community in Singapore from a Hayashi, Peter Matthews, Shigeharu Positionality: An Examination of Comparative Perspectiveí; Yun Tanabe, Yoshitaka Terada the Politics of Contemporary Hui Tsu, ëPost-Mortem Identity Production: Akiko Kida Contributions and correspondence Ainu Imagesí; H. Ogawa, and Burial Obligation: On Blood should be sent to: ëImages of Jomon Hunter- Relations, Place Relations, and Nobuhiro Kishigami, Editor, Gatherers Represented by Associational Relations in the MINPAKU Anthropology Newsletter, Japanese Archaeologyí; J. Japanese Community of National Museum of Ethnology, Kenrick, ëAnthropology and Singaporeí; ëPart III Gender, Senri Expo Park, Suita, Osaka 565- Anthropocentrism: Images of Company and Religioní; T. 8511, Japan. Hunter-Gatherers, Westerners Tsukaguchi-Le Grand, ëGender Tel: +81-6-6876-2151 and the Environmentí; and ëList and Employment Policy in Fax: +81-6-6878-7503 E-mail: [email protected] of Contributorsí. Japan: The Case of University Graduatesí; H. Nakamaki, ëThe Please note that signed articles ∏ Sekine, Y. (ed.), Anthropology Company Funeral as Shaen represent the views of their writers, of Untouchability ìImpurityî and Cultureí; W. A. Smith, ëThe not necessarily the official views of the ìPollutionî in a South Indian Corporate Culture of a National Museum of Ethnology. Globalized Japanese New Society. Senri Ethnological © National Museum of Ethnology Studies, no.61, xxxvii+385 pp., Religioní; and ëList of Contributorsí. 2002. March 2002. Contents: Y. ISSN 1341-7959 Sekine, ëIntroductioní; ëPart One: Theoretical Perspective ∏ Nakamaki, H. (ed.) Educational This newsletter is printed on recycled and Settingí; ë1. Reconsideration Programs and Volunteer Activities paper. of Theories of Pollutioní; ë2. The during a Joint American and Printed by Nakanishi Printing Co., Ltd., Problem in Studies of Japanese Exhibition. Senri Kyoto ìUntouchablesî í; ë3. Settingí; Ethnological Reports, no.26, 168