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FOOD, TRADE, and ENVIRONMENT in WEST-CENTRAL GHANA in the SECOND MILLENNIUM AD by Am

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FOOD, TRADE, and ENVIRONMENT in WEST-CENTRAL GHANA in the SECOND MILLENNIUM AD by Am A HISTORY OF FOOD WITHOUT HISTORY: FOOD, TRADE, AND ENVIRONMENT IN WEST-CENTRAL GHANA IN THE SECOND MILLENNIUM AD by Amanda L. Logan A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology) in the University of Michigan 2012 Doctoral Committee: Professor Carla M. Sinopoli, Co-Chair Professor Ann B. Stahl, University of Victoria, Co-Chair Professor Elisha P. Renne Professor Raymond A. Silverman Professor Henry T. Wright Professor A. Catherine D’Andrea, Simon Fraser University Our knowledge of African cuisines, past and present, is particularly dependent upon archaeology and ethnography. Even today, the vast majority of recipes are not written down but are passed on from mother to daughter. As different foods and tastes are increasingly imported, and as large-scale disasters such as famine and civil war destroy local patterns of life, these fundamental elements of cultural identity are changing at an increasing rate. Archaeology may prove important in Africa, not only when considering long abandoned cuisines, but also in reconstructing cuisines of the recent past. -Rachel Maclean and Timothy Insoll (1999: 79) To the Bemba, millet porridge is not only necessary, but it is the only constituent of his diet which actually ranks as food…I have watched natives eating the roasted grain off of four or five maize cobs under my very eyes, only to hear them shouting to their fellows later, “Alas, we are dying of hunger…We have not had a bite to eat all day.” -Audrey Richards (1939: 46-47) © Amanda L. Logan 2012 To my father, for having faith in me from the beginning and ever since ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation has roots in all of my archaeological experiences, and particularly those since I have been involved the study of people and plants. In every project that I have taken part in—from Ecuador and Bolivia to Sudan, Ethiopia, Senegal, Togo, and Ghana—I observed what people were growing and eating nearby, and for most of them was struck by the ‘global’ nature of what was being produced and consumed. Archaeologists are often taught not to appreciate the complexity of the present, for it complicates our imaginings of the past. Whether maize in Africa or barley in South America, cuisines of today are profoundly altered by the Columbian Exchange and what came afterwards—but this too is not a new process. For a time I just attempted to ignore or subtract alien crops from my observations. I eventually came to realize that understanding how those crops and technologies spread is integral to getting a handle on what came before, understanding how culture is made and remade, and demonstrating the relevance of the past for the present and the present for the past. I must first acknowledge the women and men of Banda for their willingness to talk with me, and Mr. Enoch Mensah for allowing me to understand. Their openness to a foreign researcher and to the objectives of the research was reassuring, and I learned a lot on the art of negotiating a living in an ever changing world. In particular I would like to acknowledge the women, men, and chiefs of the villages in which I worked: Banda- Ahenkro, Bui, Dumpofie (Kuulo), Ngre (Nyire), Makala, and Dorbour. The Banda paramount chief, Tolɛɛ Okokyeredom Kwadwo Sito, and the Banda Traditional Council permitted me to conduct this research and were supportive of my time in Banda. I also acknowledge the assistance of Lɛlɛɛ Akosua Kepefu, the Queen Mother of Banda, who shared her knowledge, contacts, and life story. Kwesi Millah and Afua Nimena’s vibrant recollections of the past significantly colored my visions of it. Enoch Mensah was my research assistant and friend throughout my fieldwork; his astute observations and iii wisdom inform much of the present dissertation. The hospitality of Mr. Sampson Attah, Afriye, and family helped make me feel at home in Banda. Carla Sinopoli has been instrumental to my success; she has been a great support, careful editor, and avid listener at all stages, and has been there to think through every challenge and opportunity since my arrival at Michigan. Her articulate and level-headed advice was more than any student could hope for. I thank her for selflessly taking the time with me. Ann Stahl has provided excellent support at every level of this project, from the mundane details to the major theoretical issues. I benefited immensely from the 30 year relationship that she has maintained with the Banda community. She has been generous with sharing data, and had the foresight to rigorously collect archaeobotanical samples at a time when flotation was rare in Africa, and phytolith analysis a distant dream. Most of all, I owe her thanks for providing exactly the intellectual challenges I needed. Special thanks to Cathy D’Andrea who has tirelessly mentored me since my undergraduate days at Simon Fraser. She trained me in paleoethnobotany, piqued my interest in African archaeology, and first exposed me to the rigors of academic writing and publishing. Her insights have provided much of the methodology and motivation behind this work, and her role as my sounding board and friend has helped navigate through more than a few challenges. Henry Wright’s support of paleoethnobotany and my work in particular has provided much needed reaffirmation throughout my years at Michigan. His fascination with African archaeology and botany provided refreshing bursts of encouragement and insight. Elisha Renne and Ray Silverman both offered on the ground advice to working in Ghana, and were eager advocates of my work from the beginning. Both provided refreshing perspectives that greatly added to the interdisciplinary side of my work. Dr. Gabrielle Hecht (History) gave me the right advice at precisely the right time and read and commented on an early draft of Chapter 1. Her insights into the craft of writing strongly impacted my writing style, narrative structure, and writing schedule. Faculty, students, and staff of the Museum of Anthropology have been my community for the past 6 years; we are united by our support of each other— academically, administratively, intellectually, and socially. In particular the following iv individuals have put up with more of me than others: my fellow Africanists past and present—Anne Compton, Dr. Cameron Gokee, Andy Gurstelle, and Dr. Daphne Gallagher and Dr. Stephen Dueppen, now at the University of Oregon; Margaret Wilson and Jeannette Bond for listening and brainstorming with me incessantly; Alice Wright, my co-organizer of the Social Theory in Archaeology Reading group, for providing a forum to talk about theory; my cohort, the ‘Fist of Science’ (who will surely laugh at my nod to the humanities); Dr. Allison Davis (Oberlin College) for first encouraging me to look at actions and performances; Dr. Veronique Belisle (Trent University) for reminding me to make my dissertation manageable; Anna MacCourt, of the Anthropology and History program, for indulging my flirtations with history; Karen O’Brien, for helping arranging all the permits and essentials of Ethnobotany; and Judy Hartsuff, Donna Steiner, Marie McKnight, and Laurie Marx for helping with the critical administrative tasks and good conversation. Kate Franklin (University of Chicago) engaged my theoretical senses with conversations of the peripheral, the entangled, and the sensuous at a time when I needed it most. Though it lacked a Curator or Faculty in my time at Michigan, I thank the Ethnobotany Laboratory and those who worked so hard over its history to make it into the wonderful research institution that it is, especially Dr. Richard Ford; without those efforts my research would not have been possible. I also thank those who have worked hard to support it: Daphne Gallagher, Jamie Merkel, Karen O’Brien, Carla Sinopoli, Margaret Wilson, and Henry Wright. Margaret Wilson set up an excellent and functional phytolith lab on a shoestring—no small feat as a grad student. The assistance and expertise of Sarah Oas, now at Simon Fraser University, in sorting the macrobotanical samples and listening to me talk through my ideas was invaluable. There are a great many individuals in Ghana that made me feel welcome and facilitated this research. I gratefully acknowledge the permissions of the Ghana National Museums and Monuments board, particularly Mr. Achaempong. I’d like to thank the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies at the University of Ghana, especially Drs. Kodzo Gavua, Derek Watson, Wazi Apoh, as well as William Gblerkplor, now at the University of Texas. I owe Derek particular thanks for getting me interested in v working in Ghana in the first place, and helping with the permit process in 2011. The Department of Botany and Herbarium, also at the University of Ghana, identified many of my comparative specimens and was helpful with advice, especially Dr. Patrick Ekpe. Nana Akwesi Prempeh, his nephew Michael Asante, and their family members have been welcoming, helpful, and excellent company. They are also responsible for the Asantehene passing right in front of me—a (literally) golden experience I will always remember. I must also thank my field compatriots in Ghana in 2008 and 2009—Dr. Amy Groleau (Colgate University), Andrew Gurstelle, Abass Iddrissu, Mr. Harry Monney, Benjamin Nutor, Devin Tepleski, and David Tei-Mensah, and those who in years previous were part of the Banda Research Project and painstakingly collected the data that became part of this dissertation. My identifications were substantially improved thanks to a Wenner-Gren funded visit to the African Archaeology and Archaeobotany work group at the Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany. Special thanks to Dr. Katharina Neumann for hosting, as well as providing good advice and discussions about phytoliths and how best to make them work for my purposes; Dr.
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