The Three : Planning and Colonial Control Jeff Halper

Whether in negotiations or in the public mind, the issue of is usually framed as a contest for control of the holy places in and around the and in the context of the Palestinian demand to establish their capital in the eastern part of the city. Although these are important and difficult issues, they mask another vital element of Jerusalem's role in perpetuating the Israeli Occupation: its ongoing transformation from an Israeli-controlled city into a region that occupies and controls the entire central portion of the . Quietly and without attracting much public attention, Jerusalem-the- region has become a central element in preventing the emergence of a viable Palestinian state. To understand Jerusalem's role in

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Winter15.p65 6 08/04/23, 08:46 ã perpetuating the Occupation, we must look the city (with the exception of part of Beit at three concentric Jerusalems: "municipal Safafa) was the product of the 1948 war - Jerusalem," as defined by the city's not urban development. Before the war, boundaries unilaterally imposed by around 40 percent of the land of West in 1967; "," which seeks Jerusalem belonged to , to incorporate the "outer ring" of West including residential, commercial, and Bank settlements surrounding Jerusalem village areas, and almost half of the city's into an expanded municipality; and 65,000 Christians and Muslims lived "Metropolitan Jerusalem," a regional there (Habash and Rempel 1999:184-185; conception that seeks not the annexation of Davis 1999:52). Furthermore, while Israel large areas of the West Bank to Jerusalem goes to great pains to stress the centrality (including Bethlehem and Ramallah), but of the Old City to Jewish life and identity, their transformation into hinterlands by 1948, 98 percent of the 100,000 Jews dependent upon an Israeli-controlled urban lived in the western part of the city. To area. strengthen its territorial control of tiny In addition to its importance as a "fact on Arab "" (6 sq. km., the ground" for future negotiations, the compared to the 38 sq. km. of West case of Jerusalem highlights the use of Jerusalem), Israel appended another 64 planning, administration, and construction sq. km. of West Bank land to the city in as means of both perpetuating the order to embed it in a thick ring of Israeli Occupation (de facto, if not de jure) and settlements. In other words, almost 93 foreclosing the emergence of a viable percent of East Jerusalem was added to Palestinian state. the city after 1967 for purposes of domination. Overall, 60 percent of Municipal Jerusalem municipal Jerusalem was appended in In purely urban terms, "municipal" order to encircle Palestinian parts of the Jerusalem is easy to define: it is a city of city and isolate them from the wider some 630,000 people (430,000 Jews and Palestinian society of the West Bank. 200,000 Palestinians) living within the Political considerations based on Israel's municipal boundaries drawn by Israel demographic and geo-political concerns following the 1967 war. But "municipal" have thus determined the form and nature Jerusalem is an artificial entity that of municipal Jerusalem far more than embodies less a real urban entity than urban processes. Israel seeks to bolster its Israel's desire to assert its claim over the claim to exclusive "ownership" of historic Old City and the "Holy Basin" Jerusalem by attempting to maintain the surrounding it. There is little connection 72 percent/28 percent majority of Jews between contemporary municipal form of over Palestinians that it found in the Jerusalem and its organic growth as a city. "reunited" city of 1967. (It has only been (An example of this can be found in a moderately successful: the Israeli comparison of the Old City in the 19th majority in Jerusalem currently stands at century and its expansion until 1948.) about 68 percent.) In fact, the very consolidation of "West One method for achieving this is Jerusalem" as an exclusively Jewish part of gerrymandering: in 1967, the new borders of "municipal" Jerusalem were drawn by 7

Winter15.p65 7 08/04/23, 08:46 ã Israeli generals (Shlomo Lahat and the Planners with the city engineer's notorious late Rechavam Ze'evi) in office, when drawing the zoning accordance with two principles: boundaries for the Arab z The incorporation of the maximum neighborhoods, limited them to amount of undeveloped Palestinian land already built-up areas. Adjoining for Israeli construction (thereby open areas were either zoned foreclosing the urgently needed "green," to signify they were off- construction of 30,000 housing units and limits to development, or left new industrial areas of Arab Jerusalem), unzoned until they were needed for and the construction of Jewish housing z The exclusion of large concentrations of projects. The 1970 Kollek plan Palestinians from the municipal area (al- contains the principles upon which Azarariyyeh, Abu Dis, and al-Ram in Israeli housing policy is based to particular) in order to reduce the number of this day - expropriation of Arab- Palestinian residents (Campbell 1998). owned land, development of large Israel then adopted a policy of "partisan" Jewish neighborhoods in east (or "hostile") planning in order to ensure Jerusalem, and limitations on its demographic domination. In the period development in Arab following 1967, it expropriated a third of neighborhoods." (Cheshin 1999:37) the land of East Jerusalem for the construction of its massive settlements and Palestinians remaining within the their required infrastructure. On 80 percent gerrymandered borders of Jerusalem were of the remaining land (39 of 46 sq. km.), thereby confined to small, disconnected Palestinians were denied the right to build, islands, each accessible only through either because the land fell outside the Israeli neighborhoods. Although they restricted "master plans" of Arab East comprise a third of the Jerusalem Jerusalem (where there were master plans) population today, Palestinians have access or because the land was designated for to less than 10 percent of the urban land "public use" or zoned as "open landscape for residential use - and most of that has areas." The public purposes for which already been built upon. "green space" was intended - parks, Even where they are permitted to build, playgrounds, schools, community centers it is important to note that Palestinians are and the like - were, of course, never restricted to far lower densities than actualized. (Ironically, East Jerusalem Israelis are. For instance, while the possesses more "open green space" per residents of the Palestinian village of person than any city in the world, Issawiyyeh cannot build houses higher suggesting a Garden of Eden - at least on than two stories, the Israeli residents of paper.) nearby , which is built on land According to Amir Cheshin, the long- expropriated from Issawiyyeh, live in serving Advisor on Arab Affairs for the eight-story buildings. Discriminatory Jerusalem municipality under Kollek and, zoning also prevents the development of for a time, Olmert: commercial and industrial areas common to the Israeli sector, as well as accessible,

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Winter15.p65 8 08/04/23, 08:46 ã well-maintained roads and infrastructure. housing policy in east Jerusalem The Palestinian areas of Jerusalem receive was all about this numbers game only eight percent of the annual municipal (Cheshin et al. 10, 31-32) budget (Meir Margalit, personal communication). Cheshin summarizes the While Palestinian construction has been municipality's approach as follows: severely restricted, Israel has built an "inner ring" of new suburban settlements -- [In 1967], Israel's leaders adopted Ramot, Ramat Shlomo, Neveh Ya'akov, two basic principles in their rule of Pisgat Ze'ev, French Hill, Ramat Eshkol, east Jerusalem. The first was to East , Har Homa, and Gilo, as well rapidly increase the Jewish as the nuclei of settlements in the Muslim population in east Jerusalem. The Quarter and around the Old City -- that second was to hinder growth of the both defines the expanded municipal Arab population and to force Arab borders and preserves Israeli domination. residents to make their homes The effects are stark and far-reaching. elsewhere. It is a policy that has Since 1967, while only 9,000 housing units translated into a miserable life for have been approved for Palestinians, the majority of east Jerusalem 85,000 housing units have been built for Arabs…. Jews in East Jerusalem alone. And while Palestinians must build with their own In Jerusalem, Israel turned urban private funds (the cost of merely securing a planning into a tool of the building permit and connecting to the government, to be used to help municipal services can cost a Palestinian prevent the expansion of the city's family $20,000-60,000), Israeli non-Jewish population. It was a construction enjoys a wide range of incentives - subsidies, tax breaks, low- ruthless policy, if only for the fact interest loans, and other economic that the needs (to say nothing of the incentives - intended to attract large rights) of Palestinian residents numbers of Israelis into the affordable but were ignored. Israel saw the high-quality settlements. (The settlements adoption of strict zoning plans as a are called "neighborhoods" to sanitize way of limiting the number of new them of political connotations and homes built in Arab neighborhoods, minimize their size.) Today, around and thereby ensuring that the Arab 200,000 Israelis live in the eastern part of percentage of the city's population - Jerusalem that was annexed in 1967, 28.8 percent in 1967 - did not grow surpassing the Palestinian population. beyond this level. Allowing "too Israel also employs a number of many" new homes in Arab administrative policies to keep the neighborhoods would mean "too Palestinian population artificially low. Its many" Arab residents in the city. restrictions on Palestinian building have The idea was to move as many Jews created an induced housing shortage of as possible into east Jerusalem, and some 25,000 units in that sector of move as many Arabs as possible Jerusalem society (Kaminker 1995). out of the city entirely. Israeli Although an estimated 5,000-7,000 9

Winter15.p65 9 08/04/23, 08:46 ã housing units have been built "illegally" that conceal its political agenda. Thus, out of simple necessity, the government's occupation becomes "proper and municipality's aggressive policies of administration." Israel argues that it is fining Palestinians for building without following a master plan for the city that permits and demolishing their "illegal" addresses the needs of all its inhabitants, houses (see Table 1) have worsened the and that it demolishes illegally built houses housing shortage. In turn, this has caused a of Palestinians just as any other steep rise in housing prices. Since 70 municipality anywhere in the world would percent of the Palestinian population in do. Being unfamiliar with the arcane Jerusalem lives below the poverty line details and procedures of municipal (Israeli National Insurance Report, 1998), planning in Jerusalem, outsiders find this many residents are forced to seek cheaper argument persuasive. But "master plans" accommodations beyond the municipal that severely restrict Palestinian borders. In so doing, however, they also construction while allowing massive move their "center of life" from Jerusalem, Israeli construction only present a legal thus losing both their Jerusalem residency facade for what is essentially politically- and their National Insurance payments, an motivated discrimination. important part of their income. In the Such is also the case of road building, words of a recent B'tselem report (1998): usually presented (and perceived) as positive steps toward urban development The Jerusalem municipality and more efficient transportation. Thus, expropriates land, prevents there has been virtually no discussion of preparation of a town planning Road 80, which is called the "Eastern Ring scheme for Palestinian Road" when it enters Jerusalem (Brubaker neighborhoods, and refuses to 2001). This highway plays a key role in grant building permits causing a controlling Palestinian movement in the severe housing shortage, forcing West Bank: with the north-south West residents to build without a permit, Bank corridor closed by "E-1" (the after which the Ministry of Interior planners' term for the 13,000 dunums of and the municipality demolish the land expropriated from Palestinians that houses. Thus the residents move link Ma'aleh Adumim to Jerusalem and), into homes outside the city, Palestinians traveling the length of the following which the Ministry of West Bank will be forced to enter into the Interior revokes their residency and municipal borders of Jerusalem, thus banishes them from the city forever. leaving their movement to the mercy of Israeli security. Since the "Eastern Ring Road" (Road 80) also opens up the hitherto Known as the "Quiet Transfer," this isolated settlement of Ras el-Amud and the administrative policy has resulted in projected settlement of Kidmat Zion (the thousands of Palestinians losing their "Front Line of Zion") in Abu Dis for Jerusalem residency since 1967. Israeli development, it will strengthen a Partisan planning is an ideal mechanism weak link in the inner ring and block any for control, since it is couched in neutral, connection between Abu Dis (proposed as technical jargon, and professional plans the Palestinian capital) and Jerusalem. 10

Winter15.p65 10 08/04/23, 08:46 ã Presenting Jerusalem as a "unified," of the West Bank, and prevent the integrated city also helps Israel press its establishment of a viable Palestinian state. claims to exclusivity. Claims based on But the planning and construction of Jerusalem's ancient holiness and political Greater Jerusalem was done quietly and significance to the Jews are applied to the never became a major issue of political entire city, despite the fact that most of it is debate. It took on new meaning, however, of recent origin and that most of that, as at Camp David. Faced with Palestinian we have seen, is connected to a Palestinian demands for a presence in East Jerusalem, rather than a Jewish presence. People and realizing that acceding to these unfamiliar with the modern gerrymandered demands would make Israel appear borders thus assume that Wallejeh, forthcoming, Barak came to the conclusion Sawahreh, Talbieh, , and Kufr Aqab - that a Greater [Israeli] Jerusalem would all Palestinian parts of municipal permit such flexibility - and indeed, allow Jerusalem - have the same religious and Israel to "rid itself" of up to 150,000 historical significance to Israel as the Palestinian Jerusalemites - while and, therefore, are led to strengthening Jerusalem as a Jewish city. support Israel's exclusive claims. This Why would we want to "keep" the notion of "expandable exclusivity" is as Palestinian population of Jerusalem, Barak obviously specious as it is self-serving. asked? We have no desire to offer them urban services or financial supports (such "Greater Jerusalem" as National Insurance payments) and With the election of the Begin certainly not Israeli citizenship. He agreed government in 1977, settlement growth that "dividing" Jerusalem would be outside Jerusalem proceeded apace, with extremely problematic for Israel within the Ma'aleh Adumim becoming a full-fledged confines of the municipal borders. city as early as 1979. Despite the Oslo But expanding Jerusalem outward to negotiations that dealt, in part, with the include the outer settlement ring would future , the Israeli make the division of the city not only government in 1995 adopted the "Greater possible but also advantageous to Israel: Jerusalem" Master Plan that includes an expanding Israel's territorial control and outer ring of Israeli settlements - Har Adar, boosting its demographic majority in order Givat Ze'ev, New Givon, Kiryat Sefer, Tel to neutralize the demographic and political Zion, the settlements to the east of costs of "conceding" parts of East Ramallah, Ma'aleh Adumim, Israeli Jerusalem. The outer ring would envelop a building in Ras al-Amud, Efrat, the Etzion Greater Jerusalem in a thickly settled layer Bloc, and Beitar Illit - extending over more of suburban cities, isolating Arab East than 300 sq. km. of the West Bank (de Jerusalem from the wider Palestinian Jong 2000). The goals of such a Greater society of the West Bank. With its current Jerusalem were obvious: the construction population of 80,000 settlers, it would also of a Greater Jerusalem extending far into contribute measurably to the "Judaization" the West Bank could strengthen the of the city. When the settlements reach settlement presence, secure Israeli their projected population of 250,000 by domination over the entire central portion the year 2010, the Jewish majority of the Greater Jerusalem area will rise from the 11

Winter15.p65 11 08/04/23, 08:46 ã present 68 percent to about 85 percent. were raised more than once during Meanwhile, the inner ring would ensure the course of the negotiations over that Palestinians within the city would be the definition and growth of isolated into small and disconnected Jerusalem to dimensions that it enclaves. never had at any stage of Jewish Transforming Greater Jerusalem from a history, with an extremely city into a region would create an effective significant strengthening of its wedge between the northern and southern Jewish majority and a guarantee of parts of the West Bank, breaking the a solid [Jewish] majority for territorial contiguity of any Palestinian generations. [This would be state and controlling Palestinian movement accomplished] through taking some - thereby rendering a state non-viable and of the cities surrounding Jerusalem sovereignty a hollow fabrication. A - Ma'aleh Adumim, Givat Ze'ev, the Greater Jerusalem region would also deal a Etzion Bloc - attaching them to devastating blow to the prospects of an Jerusalem and placing them under economically viable Palestinian state. Israeli sovereignty, thus creating a While Palestinians may be granted a situation in which the whole world certain access to the city, a highly fortified recognizes this expanded and Greater Jerusalem - thickly-settled by Greater Jerusalem as Israel's Israelis with transportation patterns and capital, at a price of transferring a security measures planned to control rather than integrate the Palestinians - would few [Palestinian] villages and neutralize Jerusalem as a locus of neighborhoods situated within the Palestinian social, cultural, and economic municipal boundaries to life. With around 40 percent of the Palestinian sovereignty. Palestinian economy revolving around Jerusalem in the form of tourism, If Israel is able to implement its "Greater commercial life, and industry, the removal Jerusalem" plan and persuade (or force) of Jerusalem from the Palestinian realm the Palestinians to accept it, then, as Barak would fatally compromise the viability of a points out, the entire world would not only prospective Palestinian state. recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital but Barak attached so much importance to would do so within significantly expanded Greater Jerusalem in his scheme of boundaries and with an overwhelming "peace" that he cited it as the main reason Jewish majority. for the breakdown of the Camp David negotiations. In a July 25, 2000 press Metropolitan Jerusalem conference called after the collapse of the The least known of the "Three talks, Barak laid out the issue clearly and Jerusalems" is "Metropolitan Jerusalem:" a candidly: huge area of 950 sq. km. with boundaries that stretch from in the west Arafat's position on the issue of up through Kiryat Sefer until and Jerusalem is what prevented the including Ramallah, then southeast reaching of an agreement….Ideas through Ma'aleh Adumim almost to the River, then turning southwest to 12

Winter15.p65 12 08/04/23, 08:46 ã Map: Metropolitan and Greater Jerusalem - 1997

JPS, Issue 10, p.48

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Winter15.p65 13 08/04/23, 08:46 ã encompass Beit Sahour, Bethlehem, Efrat Mikhmas, Almon, Psagot, Adam, and and the Etzion Bloc, and then west again others stretching all the way to Beit El and through Beitar Illit and Tsur Hadassah Ofra - that otherwise would be isolated back to Beit Shemesh. It also provides a from the Israeli and Jerusalem economy. crucial link to the Kiryat Arba and the Importantly, Sha'ar Binyamin also robs settlements in and around Hebron. (See Ramallah of its economic vitality by Map) providing jobs in Israeli industries that Adopted by the Rabin government in operate in direct competition with those 1995, the "Metropolitan Jerusalem Plan" is located in or around Ramallah. By turning designed as a regional infrastructure of Ramallah, Bethlehem, and other control rather than a region to be annexed Palestinian cities and towns into satellites to Israel. In many ways, Metropolitan dependent on Israeli-controlled Jerusalem Jerusalem is the Occupation. As part of an and introducing transport patterns that extensive matrix of control extending connect Tel Aviv to Amman but throughout the Occupied Territories, marginalize Palestinian areas, Metropolitan Metropolitan Jerusalem illustrates Israeli Jerusalem serves to extend Israeli intentions to maintain control even if economic, demographic and geographic conceding territory, thereby foreclosing the control directly over some 40 percent of emergence of any viable Palestinian state. the West Bank. Once again, the issue is Seventy-five percent of the West Bank one of control and viability, not simply settlers and the major centers of Israeli how much territory the Palestinians can settlement and infrastructure construction wean away from Israel. are found within the limits of Metropolitan Jerusalem. Once again, the planning and Conclusion: the creation of infrastructure "facts on the Planning in the Service of Occupation ground" prove to be effective means of Every occupation, colonization, or determining the parameters of negotiations oppressive regime uses planning, and prejudicing their outcome. A regional demolition, and construction to assert its approach creates an Israeli-controlled presence on the ground. However, the metropolis that determines de facto the Israeli occupation has employed "partisan nature of urban activity, employment, and planning" to a much greater extent - more transportation. It renders political systematically and more effectively - than boundaries, such as those between any other dominating power. Jerusalem and Ramallah or Jerusalem and "Partisan planning," then, contributes to Bethlehem, absolutely irrelevant. Israel's attempts to maintain its occupation A graphic example of how this is already is two major ways. Firstly, it provides a happening is the new industrial park, legal, administrative, and professional Sha'ar Binyamin, now being built facade to the political purposes of southeast of Ramallah at the "Eastern occupation and control. Couched in the Gate" to Metropolitan Jerusalem. Sha'ar neutral, technical, and professional jargon Binyamin provides an economic anchor to of planners, buried in the offices of the small and scattered settlements - government bureaucrats and inaccessible Kokhav Ya'akov, Tel Zion, Ma'aleh to the wider public (including its victims),

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Winter15.p65 14 08/04/23, 08:46 ã "partisan planning" renders much of walk at night, enter Israel, go occupation and oppression invisible. By abroad, or visit his family in Gaza embedding Palestinians in a thick web of or Jordan without a permit from us. plans, procedures, permits, legal processes, The apparatus for managing this and fees, the administrative matrix of octopus was huge. control constrains them in every aspect of their everyday life, permitting the military Some of these restrictions stemmed (ideally) to retire into the background. It is from legitimate security concerns. no accident that Israel's military But many were the products of government in the Occupied Territories is inertia and a burgeoning called the "Civil Administration." bureaucratic monster with a Just how far this obfuscation extends is bottomless budget to feed on.. graphically illustrated by this remarkable During the twenty-eight years of passage by Uri Savir, Israel's chief occupation [until 1995], about a negotiator in the Oslo process and the head third of the Palestinian population of the Foreign Office under Rabin and in the territories had, at one time or Peres, in his book The Process: another, been detained or imprisoned by Israel. And the The negotiations [with the whole of the population had, at Palestinians at Oslo, in 1995] over some time, been grossly humiliated the powers Israel has exercised by us…. over a whole generation, opened an entire world before me. Over the The personification of the years Israelis has cultivated a self- occupation, according to many serving myth that ours was an Palestinians, was an officer in the 'enlightened occupation.' I knew Civil Administration named this was a contradiction in terms, Moskovitch. If Moskovitch but I did not know -- and I think few approved, you could build. If other Israelis did - how thoroughly Moskovitch didn't approve, you we had invaded the lives of our could not, and until Moskovitch Palestinian neighbors. We approved you could tear your hair repressed this knowledge as we may out. Moskovitch had become an have been the first conquerors in institution in himself. When I finally history who felt themselves met him - a thin, religiously- conquered. Our self-image as a observant, amiable man - he in no humane society and history's way impressed me as tyrannical. eternal victim, as well as Arab 'Moskovitch is a good man,' one of antagonism, blinded us to what was his superior officers told me. And going on in the territories. What I this was just the problem - a good discovered [in Oslo] was that a man carrying out the orders of an Palestinian could not built, work, unfeeling bureaucracy makes an study, purchase land, grow impossible situation, for there is no produce, start a business, take a

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Winter15.p65 15 08/04/23, 08:46 ã way under such conditions for conditions are created, and discriminatory goodwill or common sense to land-use policies are followed that play a function (Savir 1998:207-208). decisive role in determining the contours and viability of a peace agreement and yet If, in fact, a person in Savir's position are only dimly perceived and understood. was unaware of the controlling aspects of Only by grasping the nature - indeed, the Israeli planning and administration in the existence - of the "Three Jerusalems" and Occupied Territories several years into the the effective use of planning and negotiating process, imagine how little the construction as tools of occupation will it average person perceives of this subtle be possible to dismantle the "matrix of means of control. control" that prevents a just and viable Partisan planning also "creates facts on peace. It is not enough to follow the the ground" that, in the end, determine the political process of negotiation or even parameters of negotiations to the degree campaigns of military repression. One that the political agenda does and must understand the realities "on the effectively prejudices the outcome of ground" in order to evaluate the nature of negotiations. Ma'aleh Adumim is a perfect the "peace" that is emerging. example of this: a settlement located in "Greater Jerusalem" that - perhaps more House Demolitions in East Jerusalem* than any other - disrupts Palestinian Year Number of demolitions territorial contiguity and calls into question 1988 30 whether a viable Palestinian state is possible at all. Yet, Ma'aleh Adumim was 1989 - 91 Unknown conceived, is presented, and is perceived 1991 12 by all Israelis as a "non-political" suburban 1993 48 city - in fact, not a settlement at all. 1994 29 Because it is a "non-ideological" community (as opposed to the ideological 1995 25 settlements of the Gush Emunim 1996 17 movement), it falls into what Barak termed 1997 16 "the Israeli national consensus" - and was 1998 25 therefore a "non-issue" not even to be negotiated. The acceptance of this "non- 1999 31 settlement settlement" - indeed, its very 2000 9 internalization as a "normal" part of the 2001 48 landscape - can be seen in the reaction of the Palestinian negotiators at Taba, who 2002 17 (until mid-February) indicated a willingness to see Ma'aleh *About 1,000 demolition orders are outstanding in Adumim (and much of the rest of Greater Jerusalem, affecting up to 6,000 families. Jerusalem) remain. Thus, new urban (Source: B'tselem; LAW, Jerusalem Municipality) entities are established, populations are moved, new communications patterns established, prejudicial economic Jeff Halper is professor of anthropology at Ben Gurion University in Beer Sheva.

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Winter15.p65 16 08/04/23, 08:46 ã Bibliography Brubaker, Matthew "The Jerusalem Ring Road." News Jerusalem 1948. Jerusalem: The Institute of Jerusalem From Within 17(4):11-13 (2001). Studies, 1999:32-66. B'tselem. The Quiet Deportation Continues. Jerusalem: De Jong, Jan. "Israel's 'Greater Jerusalem' Engulfs the B'tselem, 1998. West Bank's Core." Jerusalem Quarterly File 10 Campbell, Elizabeth. "’Maximum Territory, Minimum (2000). Population' - Jerusalem: The Laboratory for the Policies Habash, Dalia and Rempel, Terry. "Assessing of Zionist Colonization." News From Within 13(11):8 - Palestinian Property in the City." In Salim Tamari (ed.), 13(1998). Jerusalem 1948. Jerusalem: The Institute of Jerusalem Cheshin, Amir et al. Separate and Unequal: The Inside Studies, 1999:154-188. Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem. Cambridge: Kaminker, Sarah. "East Jerusalem: A Case Study in Harvard University Press, 1999. Political Planning." Palestine/Israel Journal 2(2):59-66 Davis, Rochelle. "The Growth of the Western (1995). Communities, 1917-1948." In Salim Tamari (ed.), Savir, Uri. The Process. New York: Vintage, 1998.

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