Revelation and Science Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) 50-61

The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘ilm al-ÍusËlÊ); Its Reformation in the Discourse of Muslim Scholars

W. Mohd Azam b. Mohd Amin* Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM)

Abstract This paper examines the concept of acquired knowledge (‘ilm al-ÍuÎËlÊ) in the discourse of Muslim scholars in relation to the reforms made by many Muslim scholars and thinkers such as al-ShÉfi‘Ê (d.204/820), al- GhazÉlÊ (d. 505/1111) and al-DihlawÊ (d.1176/1762). Al-ShÉfi‘Ê contributed much to this field with his classification of knowledge into two categories, ‘ilm al-‘Émmah and ‘ilm al-khÉÎÎah. Al-GhazÉlÊ, who developed ‘ilm al-mu‘Émalah and al-mukÉshafah, suggested a method of revivification (iÍyÉ’) in order to integrate the sciences of acquired knowledge. Al-DihlawÊ developed and classified knowledge into ‘ilm al- ÍuÌËrÊ and al-ÍuÎËlÊ, and suggested the concept of taÏbÊq in reforming acquired knowledge. Their discussions on the reformation of acquired knowledge have paved the way for modern scholars to derive concepts for the integration of human knowledge.

Keywords: Islamic sciences, Narrated sciences, Sufism, Islamic Epistemology, Islamic Philosophy.

Abstrak Kertas ini akan meneliti konsep ilmu yang diperoleh (‘ilm al-husuli) dalam wacana para sarjana Muslim berhubung kait dengan pembaharuan yang dibawa oleh sarjana dan pemikir Muslim seperti al-Shafi‘i (d.204/820), al-Ghazali (d. 505/1111) dan al-Dihlawi (d.1176/1762). Al-Shafi‘i memberi sumbangan dalam bidang ini dengan mengklasifikasikan ilmu kepada dua kategori, ‘ilm al-‘ammah dan ‘ilm al-khassah. Al- Ghazali, yang mengembangkan ‘ilm al-mu‘amalah dan al-mukashafah, mencadangkan kaedah menggiatkan semula (iÍya’) agar dapat menyatukan ilmu sains yang diperoleh. Al-Dihlawi pula mengembang dan mengklasifikasikan ilmu dalam ‘ilm al-hudhuri dan al-husuli, serta mencadangkan konsep tatbiq dalam pembaharuan ilmu yang diperoleh. Wacana mereka tentang pembaharuan ilmu yang diperoleh telah menyediakan asas kepada sarjana moden memperoleh konsep bagi menyatukan ilmu pengetahuan.

Kata kunci: sains Islam, pengisahan sains, Sufisme, Epistimologi Islam, Falsafah Islam

Introduction the quality of man such as al-‘ulamÉ’,( Al-Qur’Én, In Islamic Epistemology there is a slight but 35:28.) ulË al-‘ilm (Al-Qur’Én, 3:18.), al-rÉsikhËn significant difference between the terms al-‘Ilm and fÊ ‘ilm i(Al-Qur’Én, 3:7.) and more. al-ma‘rifah. The former normally refers to one of the attributes of God who is al-‘Ólim (The By contrast however, the Qur’Én’s word ‘a, r, f and Omniscient) whereas the later refers to one of the its derivations are never attributed to God. Unlike attributes of mankind who is al-‘Érif. However, on God who is omniscient, man is lacking in all occasions regarding the derivation of the word ‘ilm aspects including knowledge and must make every there are terminologies in the Qur’Én that refer to effort to acquire it. Muslim scholars agree on the definition, ‘less of God’s ‘ilm’, as God’s intellect *Corresponding author: W. Mohd Azam Bin Mohd Amin Department of Usul al-Din and Comparative Religion, transcends the human intellect far beyond the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human capacity of man’s reason. For this reason God’s Science, International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), knowledge cannot be defined and discussed P.O. Box 10, 50728 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA deliberately; besides this, it is God alone Who E-mail: [email protected] grants knowledge to man.

The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A

However, a majority of Muslim wÉÍid (the single-transmitted report); ijmÉ‘ philosophers unanimously agree that human (consensus); qiyÉs (analogical reasoning); ijtihÉd knowledge (al-ma‘rifah) can be defined and (the effort to form a right opinion); istiÍsÉn (juristic discussed deliberately because its nature is limited. preference); and ikhtilÉf (disagreement). (Al- Instead of ‘human knowledge’ the term ShÉfi‘Ê, 2009), ‘knowledge’ is used in its universally understood Without defining what knowledge is, al- context, meaning human knowledge. Haji Khalifah ShÉfi‘Ê confines his discussion to the science of (1994) and F. Rosenthal (1970) have listed many uÎËl al-fiqh and employs the term ‘knowledge’ in definitions of knowledge in their respective and the sense of religious rulings. His main discussion voluminous works, Kashf al-ÐunËn and Knowledge on the ‘knowledge of ruling’ is that which is Triumphant. All definitions made by Muslim derived from Divine sources, ‘ilm aÍkÉm AllÉh and scholars and philosophers were based on the the rulings of the Prophet. In other words, the role concept that man is constituted of two elements; of man’s intellect in acquiring knowledge, body (jasad) and spirit (rËÍ), out of which their especially in understanding the Divine sources, is integration gives rise to the human soul (nafs al- deliberately discussed by al-ShÉfi‘Ê. Subsequently, insÉn). After undergoing certain processes, the soul it can be understood that al-ShÉfi‘Ê’s discussion of that receives the meaning of some ‘thing’ in its the concept of knowledge regards that which is actual form is said to be in a state of possessing acquired, as he discusses revelation in his jimÉ‘ al- knowledge. ‘Ilm separately. Many Arabic terms refer to concepts of acquired According to al-ShÉfi‘Ê (1993), human knowledge. Some of these are ‘Ilm al-ÍuÎËlÊ, ‘Ilm knowledge can be classified into ‘ilm al-dÊn al-kasbÊ, ‘ilm al-Íikmiyyah al-‘aqliyyah and others (religious knowledge) and ‘ilm al-dunyÉ (worldly as made evident in classic Muslim literature. This knowledge). What is readily deduced from al- kind of knowledge is normally called al-ma‘rifah ShÉfi‘Ê’s discussion is that religious knowledge is al-bashariyyah (human knowledge) as it derives the result of man’s intellectual effort to directly from man’s efforts to understand himself and understand the Qur’Én and Sunnah. Thus, it leads others. The Arabic words al-ÍuÎËlÊ, al-kasbÊ, al- to the development of other sciences such as fiqh, Íikmiyyah al-‘aqliyyah, refer respectively to man’s uÎËl al-fiqh, tafsÊr, ‘ulËm al-Qur’Én etc. For this intellect (al-‘aql), senses (al-ahsÉs) and effort (al- purpose al-ShÉfi‘Ê emphasizes the uÎËl al-fiqh in kasb) to understand something and consequently which the al-qiyÉs (religious analogy) became his acquire knowledge. most preferred methodology. On the other hand, worldly knowledge is the effort of man’s intellect Al-ShÉfi‘Ê’s Classification of Knowledge to understand this world and its phenomena, which, Though not explicitly stated, al-ShÉfi‘Ê’s to some extent, does not directly deal with the epistemology1 classified knowledge in two Qur’Én and sunnah. An in-depth analysis of his categories: revelatory (as the source of knowledge) works reveals that al-ShÉfi‘Ê gives special emphasis and human. He considered Revelation—al-Qur’Én to religious knowledge. and al-sunnah—the sources of knowledge given to Al-ShÉfi‘Ê (1993) suggested that religious mankind. These two sources are intentionally knowledge is of two categories; ‘ilm al-‘Émm introduced by al-ShÉfi‘Ê in KitÉb jimÉ‘ al-‘ilm of al- (common knowledge) and ‘ilm al-khÉÎÎ (specialist Umm, in which he discussed the comprehensive knowledge). Common knowledge is that which nature of the knowledge of God in the form of its every sane, mature, adult Muslim knows and of revelation as given to the Prophet. The which ignorance is impossible. This category interpretation, as made by the prophet, is al-sunnah comprises the five daily prayers, fasting during and also falls within the ambit of revelation. RamaÌÉn, alms giving (zakÉt), the pilgrimage, etc. In al-RisÉlah, al-ShÉfi‘Ê’s discourse on In other words, it is knowledge which all Muslims knowledge mainly centred on human knowledge must acquire to fulfil their religious obligations as like the uÎËl al-fiqh and uÎËl al-ÍadÊth (Calder, made evident by al-ShÉfi‘Ê’s words, kullifa al-‘ibÉd 1983; Shukri, 2008). The first two chapters mainly (individually obligatory). The source of this discuss the Qur’Én, al-sunnah regarding their knowledge is Revelation, i.e. the Qur’Én and relationship and elucidation. The remaining ten sunnah. As the Qur’Én is mutawÉtir wherein error chapters deal with man’s reason as a consequence is not possible, the same applies to the sunnah or of these two sources and include the naskh (the akhabar al-‘Émmah (al-ladhÊ lÉ yumkin fÊhi al- theory of abrogation); religious obligation; ghalaÏ min al-khabar), which qualifies it as a conflicting ÍadÊth; ‘ilm (knowledge); khabar al- source of knowledge also. Error in this type of

51 | Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A knowledge is impossible as no one disputes its Although analogical reasoning existed during the having been faithfully narrated over generations. lifetime of the Prophet, the first to apply it As a jurist al-ShÉfi‘Ê linked this type of knowledge systematically was AbË ×anÊfah (d. 150/767). to that which has the ethically legal status as an According to D. Bakar (1994), it is also said that a obligatory duty for all individuals (farÌ ‘alÉ al- semi-technical use of the term qiyÉs is found in a ‘Émmah). letter from the second Caliph, ÑUmar al-KhaÏÏÉb As for specialist knowledge (‘ilm al-khÉss), (d.23/644) to AbË MËsÉ al-AshÑarÊ (d. 51/672) on al-ShÉfi‘Ê refers it to the details of the common the issue of determining the minimum dower knowledge (‘ilm al-‘Émmah) which are subsidiary (mahr). duties and specific rulings (furË’ al-farÉ’iÌ, khÉÎÎ Unlike Aristotle’s analogy, al-ShafiÑÊ did not al-aÍkÉm) from God to mankind; for example, the base his analogy on the syllogistic method which detailed laws regarding the five daily prayers, consists of three premises or principles2 but by fasting, zakÉt, pilgrimage and others. Al-ShÉfi‘Ê, deducing the cause (Ñillah) of the Íukm as found in (1993) claimed that most of these rulings are not the Qur’Én and aÍÉdith (i.e. the aÎl), and then textually (naÎÎan) mentioned in the two major applying Íukm to a new case (al-farÑ). This is sources of revelation but are deduced by the commonly practiced in the field of fiqh since the practice of religious analogy (al-qiyÉs). absence of legal value (Íukm) in both sources Al-ShÉfi‘Ê further stated that the method of qiyÉs demands that man use his reason. In other words, is to be preferred when dealing with ‘ilm al- the scope of al-ShafiÑÊ’s analogy is narrower as it khÉÎÎah, although other methods such as ta’wÊl, only treats the Íukm of new cases (al-farÑ) not ra’y, istiÍsÉn, etc. may also be employed. In other presented in the Qur’an and Sunnah. Al-ShÉfiÑÊ’s words specialist knowledge emphasizes the use of analogy does not involve the discovery of new reason by select individuals who deduce rulings formulae as in the pure and applied sciences search from the Qur’Én and sunnah. Subsequently, al- for the laws of nature. One can term his type of ShÉfi‘Ê is of the opinion that the legal value of analogy as al-qiyÉs al-sharÑÊ (i.e., religious acquiring this type of knowledge is a collective analogy). Aristotle’s syllogism is discussed obligation (farÌ fÊ hi qaÎd al-kifÉyah). According elsewhere in this writing, as it was amply criticized to him this is evident in the many Qur’anic verses then modified by al-GhazÉlÊ as part of his efforts to on the obligation of striving for the sake of God revive Islamic religious sciences (‘ulËm al-dÊn). (jihÉd) (Al-Qur’Én, 9:29, 36, 38-39, 41, 111, 122). In his attempt to extrapolate legal values All of these verses indicate that JihÉd is obligatory (aÍkÉm), al-ShÉfiÑÊ and his followers introduced the for a group of people upon which God blesses with mechanism of qiyÉs which must be based high rank, whereas the rest of the community is not exclusively on the following (Hassan, obliged to do so. 1986): (a) takhrÊj al-manÉÏ (derivation of the basis for Al-ShÉfi‘Ê’s Reformation of Acquired Knowledge rulings); (b) tanqÊÍ al-manÉÏ (refinement of the basis for As the method of religious reasoning, according to rulings); and Kamali (1996) had already been used by the (c)taÍqÊq al-manÉÏ (the verification or companions and their successors, the effort made ascertainment of the basis for rulings), also known by al-ShÉfi‘Ê may deemed a reformation of their as masÉlik al-Ñillah (path to the cause). methodologies. It is worth mentioning that reforms Al-ManÉÏ al-Íukm or al-Ñillah may be defined as a made by al-ShÉfi‘Ê preceded the arrival of Greek thing to which the SharÊÑah has attributed the ruling philosophy in the Islamic world, especially the or that which anchored (naÏa) it or appointed it as a introduction of Aristotelian logic, mostly sign for the ruling. (D.Bakar,1994). The main introduced by al-FÉrÉbÊ (d.338/950). The purpose of the masÉlik al-Ñillah is to find reasons methodology of reasoning which fell under the for each Íukm as contained in the Qur’an and ambit of acquired knowledge was improved by al- Sunnah. In other words, the qiyÉs of al-ShÉfiÑÊ and ShÉfi‘Ê and his followers. He named his his followers are confined solely to the legal texts methodology ‘analogical religious reasoning’ (al- of the Qur’an and Sunnah; also known as ÉyÉt wa qiyÉs al-shar‘Ê), which deal solely with the two aÍÉdÊth al-aÍkÉm (legal verses and traditions). divine sources, al-Qur’Én and al-sunnah. However, these texts are small in both number and comparison to other verses. It is said that out of more than 6,000 verses, only 300 or so concern QiyÉs (Analogical Reasoning) legal rulings. This is also the case with aÍÉdÊth al-

Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) | 52 The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A aÍkÉm as based solely on the categories of either acquired knowledge, i.e., sciences that were based ÎaÍÊÍ (authentic) and Íasan (good). As for on intellection (‘ilm al-ÍuÎËlÊ); the “seeing of things aÍÉdÊth’s falling under the categories of ÌaÑÊf as they really are” (ma‘rifat al-shay’ ‘alÉ mÉ huwa (weak) and mawÌËÑ (fabricated), these are usually bih). rejected as sources for Íukm in Islamic law. In the spirit of reform, al-GhazÉlÊ Accordingly, in addition to either ‘obvious’ (qiyÉs contributed remarkable effort towards Greek jalÊ) or ‘hidden analogy (qiyÉs khafÊ) as per philosophy, especially Epistemology, Ontology, ×anafite jurists, ShÉfiÑite jurists divided qiyÉs into Cosmology and Axiology. He gave special three main categories: (a) al-qiyÉs al-awlÉ (superior attention to the methodology of Greek philosophy analogy);3 (b) al-qiyÉs al-musÉwÊ (equal analogy),4 in that he praises their efforts and exercise of their and (c) al-qiyÉs al-adnÉ (inferior intellectual power to find the truth. However, he analogy).5(Kamali,1999) isolated elements not in line with Islam, especially the wrong use of syllogism, the concept of the Al-Ghazali‘s Concept of Acquired Knowledge. human soul and its relation to mind and body as AbË ×Émid al-GhazÉlÊ is one of the outstanding examples. This is evident in his books on scholars in Islamic world who mastered many areas philosophy and Sufism: MaqÉÎid al-falÉsifah, of knowledge including jurisprudence and its TahÉfut al-falÉsifah, al-Munqidh min al-ÌalÉl, al- principles (fiqh wa uÎËlih), speculative theology QisÏÉs al-mustaqÊm, IÍyÉ’ ‘ulËm al-dÊn and others. (kalÉm), Sufism (taÎawwuf), Philosophy and others. His remarkable effort can be considered in modern Having trained under the ShÉfi‘ite school of terms as Islamicization and ‘relevantization’, jurisprudence, al-GhazÉlÊ followed his especially for conforming Greek philosophy and its predecessor’s juristic point of view. With the methodology to Islamic values. knowledge of kalÉm, philosophy and Sufism he Another salient feature of al-GhazÉlÊ’s concept developed several approaches to the classification of reform is his concept of iÍyÉ’ or the of knowledge, all of which begin with a profound revivification of religiously related knowledge or comprehension of revelation, al-Qur’Én and al- sciences (‘ulËm al-dÊn). Al-GhazÉlÊ,(1988) Sunnah. Al-GhazÉlÊ (1980) acknowledged that he confined his concept of iÍyÉ’ to practical religious had gone through the works of al-MuÍÉsibÊ sciences (‘ilm al-mu‘Émalah) to the exclusion of (d.857/242), al-Junayd (d.297/910) and AbË ÙÉlib the science of revelation (‘ilm al-mukÉshafah). We al-MakkÊ (d.386/996) in the field of Sufism. He can assume that this category of ‘ilm al-mu‘Émalah also probably had studied some other works of his is similar to another his classifications, that of the predecessors like AbË Bakr al-BÉqillÉnÊ acquired sciences (‘ilm al-ÍuÎËlÊ). Most branches (d.402/1013), ‘Abd al-KarÊm al-QushayrÊ of practical religious sciences scattered throughout (d.465/1072) and al-RÉghib al-IÎfahÉnÊ his categorization of farÌ ‘ayn and farÌ kifÉyah (d.502/1108). need revision as they are misused by certain learned men with worldly interests (‘ulamÉ’ al-dunyÉ). Al-Ghazali ‘s Classification of Knowledge This would comply with his classification of A study made by Bakar (1992) suggested that al- knowledge into worldly-related sciences (‘ulËm al- GhazÉlÊ employed several systems for the dunyÉ) and other worldly-related sciences (‘ulËm classification of knowledge in his epistemology; al-Ékhirah). Examples of worldly-related sciences some of which are presential (‘ilm al-ÍuÌËrÊ; ‘ilm are jurisprudence (fiqh), kalÉm, linguistics and al-mukÉshafah; ‘ilm al-laduniyyah)); acquired (‘ilm syntax, medicine and others while other worldly- al-ÍuÎËlÊ); religious (shar‘iyyah); intellectual related sciences are those concerning states of the (‘aqliyyah, ghayr shar‘Ê); individual obligations heart. (farÌ ‘ayn); collective obligations (farÌ kifÉyah); In JawÉhir al-Qur’Én, al-GhazÉlÊ (1983) clearly worldly sciences (‘ulËm al-dunyÉ); other-worldly relates that the Qur’Én can be divided into two sciences (‘ulËm al-Ékhirah); theoretical; practical parts: the outward part (al-Qashr, al-kiswah, al- (‘ilm al-mu‘Émalah); and finally, Islamically Îadf), and the inward part. The outward part is related sciences (‘ulËm al-dÊn). In his discourse on concerns the Arabic language (al-lughah al- knowledge, he was reluctant to talk in detail on ‘ilm Ñarabiyyah) from which branches three types of al-ÍuÌËrÊ or ‘ilm al-mukÉshafah and the like as knowledge: (a) TafsÊr, the science of Arabic syntax they are beyond the grasp of the human mind’s (iÑrÉb); (b) the science of reading (qirÉ’at); (c) the capacity. Al-GhazÉlÊ, (1988) described this type of science of pronunciation (alfÉÐ). The inwards knowledge as al-malakah fawq al-‘aql. Most of his component is the pith of the Qur’Én and holds two discourse on knowledge centred on humanly gradations. First are the lower grades (ÏabaqÉt al-

53 | Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A suflÉ) and second are the upper grades or roots aid their eradication. This area is discussed by al- (Ñilm al-ÎawÉb). From the lower grades stem three GhazÉlÊ in chapters on the destructive matters of types of knowledge: the history of the Prophets, life contained in his book the IÍyÉ’ ‘ulËm al-dÊn Ñilm al-kalÉm, and Jurisprudence. under the on the wonders of the heart’, whose main The upper grades of Qur’anic knowledge theme is the concept of iÍyÉ’ of the soul. This type contain the knowledge of purification of the soul of science conforms to his classification of ‘ulËm and the removal of the obstacles or ‘destructive al-Ékhirah (other worldly sciences). As a ShÉfi‘ite, qualities (al-muhlikÉt); and secondly, knowledge al-GhazÉlÊ seems to have modified and improved for equipping the soul with saving qualities (al- al-ShÉfi‘Ê’s concept of ‘ilm al-‘Émmah by naming it munjiyÉt). Both are included in the knowledge of farÌ ‘ayn and suggesting ways to protect the faith— the straight path (al-Ñilm bi al-ÎirÉÏ al-mustaqÊm) a discussion absent from al-ShÉfi‘Ê’s work. and the mystical way (ÏarÊq al-sulËk). The highest He divides farÌ kifÉyah into two sub-categories, and noblest knowledge is the knowledge of God the shar‘Ê (sciences derived from revelation directly (maÑrifah) and of the last day (yawm al-Ékhirah). via human reason), and ghayr shar‘Ê (sciences These are considered highest by al-GhazÉlÊ (1983) derived solely from human reason). The shar‘Ê because all other forms of knowledge are sought for sciences are of two types; the praiseworthy (al- their sake whereas knowledge is not sought for maÍmËdah) and blameworthy (al-madhmËmah). anything else. This sort of knowledge can be The praiseworthy are set on four foundations; the attained through the intuitive knowledge of inner uÎËl (sources), furË‘ (branches), muqaddimÉt realities (kashf). (auxiliary) and mutammimÉt (supplementary). The These are the sciences as derived from the sources are al-Qur’Én and al-sunnah comprising the Qur’Én by al-GhazÉlÊ who further classifies them consensus of all Muslims (ijmÉ‘) and traditions of under ‘ulËm al-shar‘Ê and ghayr al-shar‘Ê. From the companions (ÉthÉr). It seems that al-GhazÉlÊ their classification it is clear that according to al- (1988) follows al-ShÉfi‘Ê’s concept of ‘ilm al- GhazÉlÊ, kalÉm and fiqh derive from the lower khÉÎÎah (specialist knowledge) and shortens the grades of the inward part of the Qur’Én, whereas phrase farÌ fÊ hi qaÎd al-kifÉyah in to farÌ kifÉyah. the maÑrifat AllÉh is the highest and noblest The branches (furË‘) are the sciences derived knowledge of the upper grades. from the sources (uÎËl, and are adduced by the Like al-ShÉfi‘Ê, a further classification relates to mind to widen the understanding of the an ethical-legal position in the sense that each sources.(Al-GhazÉlÊ, 1983) They are like a science has or is subjected to legal values, either collection of laws from the Qur’Én and ÍadÊth that farÌ ‘ayn or farÌ kifÉyah. With regard to practical pertain to this world, and sciences that pertains to religion (‘ilm al-mu‘Émalah), it consists of three the hereafter such as the conditions of the heart. He things: beliefs, works, and prohibitions. A sane goes on to describe the auxiliary (muqaddimÉt) adult must observe the requirements of these three sciences that serve as tools for the shar‘Ê sciences areas on attaining the age of puberty. The first is such as the Arabic language. Sciences derived the obligation is to learn the two utterances of faith from the latter are linguistics, syntax and writing (al-shahÉdah) and understand them. Thus, it is that are required to understand the Qur’Én, sunnah called farÌ ‘ayn for it is an individual effort to etc. acquire such knowledge. A detailed discussion of The mutammimÉt (supplementary) sciences God and the Prophet is not required at the time of enhance the understanding of the sources. Such utterance but to understand them is acceptable. sciences are the sciences of Qur’Én, of ÍadÊth, of Once an individual acquires faith enough (ÊmÉn) to the biographic history of the Prophet (sÊrah), of confess the shahÉdah, he must next acquire Quranic exegesis (tafsÊr), of jurisprudence (fiqh) knowledge about the five daily prayers and what is and so on. Surprisingly, al-GhazÉlÊ classifies the related to them such as prayer times, ablution, and science of jurisprudence under the ambit of ‘ulËm method of prayer, and the requirements and al-dunyÉ (worldly sciences) as shar‘Ê is prohibitions entailed. praiseworthy because it deals with the In line with al-ShÉf‘Ê’s concept of ‘ilm al- administration and governance of this world. (Al- ‘Émmah, the science of farÌ ‘ayn of al-GhazÉlÊ GhazÉlÊ, 1988) covers knowledge about the tenets of Islam such as The ghayr shar‘Ê sciences comprise three the shahÉdah, ÎalÉt, Îawm, zakÉt and Íajj al-bayt. categories; the praiseworthy (maÍmËd), the The purpose of farÌ ‘ayn is to protect the faith from blameworthy (madhmËm) and the permissible deviation resulting from passing thoughts of doubt (mubÉÍ). As mentioned elsewhere, the (khaÏÊr), evil impulses, hypocrisy and envy and to praiseworthy are like the sciences of linguistics,

Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) | 54 The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A syntax, writing, and others. Adding to this list, al- GhazÉlÊ places medicine (al-Ïibb) and physician (al- ÏabÊb) to the praiseworthy. He classifies Philosophy into four main subjects; Geometry and The Concept of Revivification (ihya’) of Acquired Arithmetic (al-handasah wa al-ÍisÉb), Logics Knowledge (manÏiq), Divinity (ilÉhiyyÉt), and some subjects of Al-GhazÉlÊ developed the concept of iÍyÉ’ for Physics (ÏabÊ‘iyyÉt) under the ambit of permissible dealing with acquired knowledge or ‘ilm al- (mubÉÍ) sciences to be learned. However, these mu‘Émalah; this category covers the narrated may become blameworthy if one’s intention and sciences (‘ulËm al-shar‘Ê), the intellectual sciences means are incorrect. (Al-GhazÉlÊ, 2006) (ghayr al-shar‘Ê), the worldly sciences (‘ulËm al- Since the science of logics (manÏiq) and divinity dunyÉ) and other-worldly sciences (‘ulËm al- (ilÉhiyyÉt) are components of theology and Ékhirah), individual obligations (farÌ ‘ayn) and philosophy, pursuing them is also farÌ kifÉyah collective obligations (farÌ kifÉyah). It is worth whose task is to guard the laymen’s faith against mentioning that prior to this effort al-GhazÉlÊ had innovations that follow the philosophic disputations mastered the sciences related to Qur’Én and and erroneous theological views. It can be Sunnah. This is evident in books such as JawÉhir assumed that any science that contributes much to al-Qur’Én, al-WajÊz and others. Furthermore, he the religion of Islam and covers aspects of faith, also mastered many of contemporary sciences of laws and ethics can be included under Islamic his time such as jurisprudence and its principles sciences (‘ulËm al-dÊn). (fiqh wa uÎËlih), Sufism (taÎawwuf), speculative Al-GhazÉlÊ (1988) classifies the sciences of theology (‘ilm al-kalÉm), and Philosophy which magic, talisman, juggling, trickery and others under included Mathematics and Geometry, Divinity, what is blameworthy. However, these sciences in Logics, Physics and more. themselves are not evil but are considered The most remarkable effort made by al- especially blameworthy because of those who seek GhazÉlÊ is his reformation of Greek philosophy their worldly benefits. This also goes for the ‘ulËm which is mostly presented in the works of al-FÉrÉbÊ al-dunyÉ, shar‘Ê and ghayr shar‘Ê sciences which (d.338/950) and Ibn SÊnÉ (d.428/1037). His effort basically are praiseworthy in nature, but when in to reform philosophy began with his journey to the hand of bad people who seek worldly interests acquire ultimate truth during which he devoted become blameworthy. Al-GhazÉlÊ gives the more than four years in the study of philosophy. example of the sciences of ‘ilm al-kalÉm and al- He wrote that the aim of the philosophers (MaqÉÎid fiqh which are shar‘Ê in nature, and astronomy, al-falÉsifah) was to elucidate their goals, objectives geometry, arithmetic which are ghayr al-shar‘Ê, but and methodologies employed in their mission to can be misused by evil people. Therefore, in order find the truth. He later criticised them in TahÉfut to guide them to the right path he suggests that al-falÉsifah, al-QistÉs al-mustaqÊm, al-munqidh iÍyÉ’ be applied to the sciences of farÌ ‘ayn and min al-ÌalÉl and other works. farÌ kifÉyah or, for a wider scope, ‘ilm al- mu‘Émalah. Ghayr al-Shar‘i-Logic It can be assumed that from an ethical-legal Ghayr al-shar‘Ê sciences are acquired by the point of view, any science that falls under farÌ method of intellection much like arithmetic, ‘ayn, farÌ kifÉyah and mubÉÍ, or can be reformed medical experimentation, or sensory cognition such to farÌ kifÉyah or mubÉÍ, may be included under as the hearing of language and so forth. Logic can the ‘ilm al-mu‘Émalah (knowledge of practical be classified under several categories of al- religion) or on a wider scope ‘ulËm al-dÊn (Islamic GhazÉlÊ’s system of classification such as ghayr sciences). This is evident from al-GhazÉlÊ’s shar‘Ê, ‘ilm al-dunyÉ (worldly), mubÉÍ treatment of Greek philosophy, especially the (permissible), and farÌ kifÉyah. An example al- subject of Logics (manÏiq). Having known that GhazÉlÊ’s employment of the formula of iÍyÉ’ on Logics is of Greek origin, al-GhÉzÉlÊ reforms Logic is demonstrated in the following pages. This (iÍyÉ’) it until becomes an accepted methodology process kalÉm reasoning adopts the Aristotelian for the defence of the faith (‘aqÊdah) of Islam. By methodology of the syllogism in order to strengthen purifying it from elements not in line with Islamic theological arguments. Aristotle’s analogy as based values, he eventually classified it under ghayr on syllogistic reasoning is characterized by three shar‘Ê whose acquisition is farÌ kifÉyah. Until now fundamental premises or principles; the first is the this subject is studied as one of the Islamic sciences ‘major premise’, the second is the ‘minor premise’ (‘ulËm al-dÊn). followed by the third, which is the ‘conclusion’.

55 | Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A

The first premise must be a universal rule and also God is the agent-maker. an affirmative statement based on research and not Therefore, God has a body. on assumption, for example; Inductive Proving. Every man must die (First premise) The agent-makers like weavers, cuppers, shoemaker, Aristotle is a man (Second premise) tailors, carpenters etc., have bodies. Therefore, Aristotle must die (Conclusion) Thus, every agent has a body God is the agent-maker.

Every intoxicating item is prohibited(First premise) Therefore, God has a body. Liquor is intoxicating (Second premise) Therefore, liquor is prohibited (Conclusion) On the issue of God’s justice, al-GhazÉlÊ rebuts arguments made by the MuÑtazilites that it is Errors occur most often when the major obligatory on God to do the best for His servants. premise, being the most important contains a weak They were unable to substantiate their contentions statement which then determines the status of the except for personal opinions (ra’y). According to result or conclusion drawn. If the statement of the al-GhazÉlÊ, this is due to incorrectness in comparing first premise is based on conjecture or hearsay, or is (qiyÉs) Creator with creature; and of God’s not universal by nature and is axiomatically wrong, knowledge with their knowledge. Al-GhazÉlÊ it inevitably leads to the false result and vice-versa, (1980) gave his rebuttal as follows: “If the best even though the procedure (method) is were obligatory on God, He would do it. But it is syllogistically correct. Therefore, Aristotle’s known that He has not done it; so [that] proves that analogy does not give any new information except it is not obligatory-for He does not omit the for what transpires as a result of the first premise. obligatory”. If the MuÑtazilite doctrine as inferred There are many other examples of this point like: from its incorrect analogy were accepted, it would then lead to a corruption of faith as it interferes Every intoxicating item is liquid and prohibited (First with the Absolute Power of God. premise) After demonstrating the loopholes of Water is liquid (second premise) Aristotelian syllogism, al-GhazÉlÊ went on to Therefore, water is prohibited. (Result) discuss its purpose. The method of kalÉm is simply meant to protect the layman’s religious belief from The first premise of the examples given is not any confusion created by heretics (Al-GhazÉlÊ, universal as it is not special characteristic of the 1983). He mentions that he cannot attain his aim object under scrutiny (i.e. intoxicating item). through kalÉm, but argues that it can assist others in Hence, the result is also incorrect though the attaining their aims (theologians). This science also procedure is syllogistically correct. The syllogistic compels the layman to question philosophy with 6 mechanism is also used in deductive and respect of the study of essence (dhÉt), accident 7 inductive methods. It aims at finding the general (ÑaraÌ) and so forth. As a result, the layman will rule which can be applied to everybody especially be confused as regards truth and falsehood. when it relates to man’s daily life and the laws of Although he denied kalÉm personally, he nature. This method of reasoning is widely used in nevertheless approved of its use for those who the field of philosophy, applied sciences and prefer it (Al-GhazÉlÊ, 1980). theology. In summary, in order to defend and strengthen However, the reasoning can only be applied to the faith scholars of speculative theology apply the physical/sensible world and not to the Aristotelian logic, especially the syllogism. In the metaphysical realm (samÑiyyÉt, ghaybiyyÉt) as hands of al-GhazÉlÊ, the subject of Logic had been suggested by al-GhazÉlÊ (1980). He goes on to revived (iÍyÉ’) until it is qualified for inclusion as demonstrate the weaknesses of the syllogism one of the farÌ kifÉyah sciences. After this process especially when it involves metaphysical issues. is completed one must then observe the science of He refers to his polemics with the MuÑtazilites on the heart or ‘self’. issues like God having a body, God’s justice (al- As for other intellectual sciences, al-GhazÉlÊ ÑadÉlah al-ilÉhiyyah) and others which come under (1988) had high regard for al-Ïibb (medicine) and the subject of Metaphysics (al-ilÉhiyyah). He al-ÏabÊb (physician,) to the extent they are demonstrates the above issues as follows: equivalent with uÎËl al-fiqh as they are worldly sciences and their pursuit is considered farÌ Deductive Proving. kifÉyah. This is so because during his time a large Every agent-maker has a body.

Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) | 56 The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A number of non-Muslims (ahl al-dhimmah) studied Al-GhazÉlÊ’s concepts regarding the these subjects compared to Muslims who favoured revivification (iÍyÉ’) of the sciences can be viewed the study of fiqh and uÎËl al-fiqh. In other words, it as a process of integrating various sciences from can be assumed that sciences related to medicine acquired knowledge so they may be included within are Islamic sciences because they are included in Islamic sciences (‘ulËm al-dÊn). The process begins the farÌ kifÉya. with the person(s) involved who must undergo a process of purification of the soul and understand Shar‘i sciences the science of the heart so as to enable him to As all shar‘Ê sciences derive directly from integrate the other sciences. However, he faced revelation they are praiseworthy. Although all are problems with the sciences of astrology, magic and praiseworthy, “sometimes, however, they may be talismans as to how they might be tailored to confused with what may be taken for praiseworthy Islamic values in order to qualify them but, in fact, are blameworthy”.(Al-GhazÉlÊ, 1988) classification under the category of mubÉÍ In this case he appends that the science of (permissible). For this reason he classified them as jurisprudence (fiqh) potentially falls under this blameworthy. ambit. He went further to say that the main focus of jurisprudence is the governance of this world Al-Dihlawi’s Concept of Acquired Knowledge which is subjected to either the lawful or unlawful. Another outstanding figure reputed for his theories As the jurists make judgments based on outward of reformation is ShÉh WalÊ AllÉh al-DihlawÊ. One evidence, this science does not deal with the states of his theories is taÏbÊq, whose root word is Ï, b, q, of the heart which is the science of the hereafter. can be understood to mean the finding of common Should this science been in the hand of jurists who points or ideas in contradictory theories, ideologies are worldly inclined, their judgments would also be etc so they can be practiced in line with Islamic biased in that direction. He therefore, links this values. His theory of adjustment/adaptation/ science with the science of the states of the heart or accommodation (taÏbÊq) can be seen as an attempt soul. To study the science of the states of the heart to reconcile various schools of jurisprudence, Sufi was considered farÌ ‘ayn by al-GhazÉlÊ. orders, theology and so forth in the Islamic world. The underlying theme of the science of It is important to analyse his theory of ma‘rifah states of the heart is to revive the heart or soul of especially in his classification of knowledge as it is the individual so he/she will then observe and the underlying idea of his theory of taÏbÊq. implement the Islamic values of acquired Like al-GhazÉlÊ, al-DihlawÊ, classifies human knowledge. This science discusses the reality of knowledge into presentia knowledge (‘ilm al- the human soul (qalb, ‘aql, nafs) which has two ÍuÌËrÊ) and acquired knowledge (‘ilm al-ÍuÎËlÊ) qualities, the praiseworthy and the blameworthy. (Al-DihlawÊ, 1970). Following al-GhazÉlÊ, he is of Hence, praiseworthy qualities8 should be equipped the opinion that ‘ilm al-ÍuÌËrÊ is beyond the within the soul to replace those that are capacity of man’s reason and a gift to a selected blameworthy.9 few from God. According to al-DihlawÊ,(1974) in The soul should undergo a certain process his work Al-Khair al-Kathir, this type of of purification to equip it with good characteristic knowledge does not involve five external senses leading to salvation (munjiyÉt) so as to control (iÍsÉs) but is transmitted through the imaginative vices that otherwise lead it to perdition (muhlikÉt). faculty (takhayyul) and estimative faculty In order to purify the soul, al-GhazÉlÊ suggests the (tawahhum).Unlike al-GhazÉlÊ who refuses to speak method of mujÉhadah (self mortification) and of this type of knowledge, he describes this in a riyÉdah al-nafs (self training) to be practiced. It highly detailed explanation in which he puts the starts with repentance (tawbah) and ends with the waÍy (revelation) of the prophets and messengers love of God (maÍabbat AllÉh), all of which he on the primary list. According to him, the waÍy is a considers the stations (maqÉmÉt) of Sufism. Prior privilege of the prophets alone and cannot be to the achievement of these stations, he suggests obtained by ordinary people. that one should practice devotional actions The second on his list is knowledge of unveiling (‘ibÉdah) which are of two kinds; obligatory and (al-makshËfÉt) of which he includes many kinds of supererogatory acts. Details of his method for the intuitive knowledge such as unveiling (kashf), true purification of the soul can be seen in his theory of vision (ru’yah al-ÎÉliÍah), insight (firÉsah), divine Islamic ethics (akhlÉq IslÉmiyyah), which is also a whispers (hÉtif), spiritual vision (al-mubasshirÉt) part of philosophy. and others. This type of knowledge falls under the realm of extraordinary happenings (khawÉriq al-

57 | Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A

‘Édah) granted by God only to a select few. He of practical economy (fann ÉdÉb al-ma‘Ésh) (Al- the opinion that since this is only for a select few DihlawÊ,1996). This category is similar to that of there is no use for its elaboration it as it is not al-GhazÉlÊ’s ghayr al-shar‘Ê sciences. subject to his formula of adaptation (taÏbÊq). An in-depth analysis of al-DihlawÊ’s works Like al-GhazÉlÊ who classifies ‘ilm al- reveals that he gave much emphasis to acquired mu‘Émalah into shar‘Ê and ghayr shar‘Ê, al-DihlawÊ knowledge more so than intuitive knowledge as the has another classification that is also acquired former plays a greater role in man’s earthly life. As knowledge (‘ilm al-ÍuÎËlÊ). This type is defined as discussed elsewhere, acquired knowledge consists ‘portraying the form (of Reality) in the mind’ and of the transmitted sciences (al-manqËlÉt) and the ‘realization or comprehension of the known intellectual sciences (al-ma‘qËlÉt) as integrated object in the intellect of the knower (the subject) under al-DihlawÊ’s concept of taÏbÊq. This is (ÍuÎËl ÎËrah al-shay’). It involves the four faculties evident from his attitude towards the Islamic of man; senses (iÍsÉs), imagination (takhayyul), schools of jurisprudence, Sufism, Logics and so estimation (tawahhum), and intellection (ta‘aqqul). forth. Although practically he is a Íanafite, he held Al-DihlawÊ (1970, 1974) high regards for the method of analogical It branches out into transmitted or narrated reasoning, especially religious analogy (al-qiyÉs) as sciences (al-manqËlÉt) and intellectual sciences (al- per al-ShÉfi‘Ê while he abandoned the ×anafÊ’s ma‘qËlÉt). Al-ManqËlÉt signifies those sciences concept of istiÍsÉn (juristic preference). In this that derive by the use of man’s reason from the two regard he is in full accord with al-ShÉfi‘Ê and al- transmitted sources, al-Qur’Én and al-sunnah. GhazÉlÊ. He also regards al-MuwaÏÏÉ’—compiled Examples are ‘UlËm al-Qur’Én, ‘ulum al-ÍadÊth, in MadÊnah by ImÉm Malik (d.179/795) who was Qur’anic exegesis (tafsÊr), jurisprudence (‘ulËm al- among the tÉbi‘Ên (generation of Successors of the fiqh) and its principles (uÎËl al-fiqh), theology (uÎËl Companion)—as one of the basic references for all al-dÊn), Sufism (taÎawwuf) and others. It seems schools of Islamic jurisprudence. that al-DihlawÊ fully accords with al-GhazÉlÊ’s As a philosopher, on many occasions he relied categorization of the shar‘Ê sciences. on syllogism, especially as a Sufi as he integrated Accoridng to al-DihlawÊ (1999), al-Qur’Én also many orders (ÏarÊqÉt) such as the QÉdiriyyah, deals with at least five categories of science: Suhrawardiyyah, Naqshabandiyyah, Chistiyyah and 1) The science of divine injunctions (‘ilm al- others. The most remarkable effort in Sufism made aÍkÉm); by al-DihlawÊ was to reconcile the WujËdiyyah 2) the science of disputation (‘ilm al- school of Ibn ‘ArabÊ (d.637/1240) with the mukhÉÎamah); ShuhËdiyyah school of Ahmad Sirhindi 3) the science of divine favours (‘ilm al-ÉlÉ’); (d.1033/1624). According to him, both theories 4) the science covering the important events which recognized God as the absolute Being (wujËd al- God caused to take place (‘ilm bi ayyÉm AllÉh); muÏlaq) and the universe, including creatures, as 5) the science which reminds human beings of contingent beings or metaphorical being (wujËd al- death (‘ilm al-ma‘Éd). majÉzÊ). Ibn ‘ArabÊ employed the terms tajallÊ and Elsewhere, al-DihlawÊ (1974) adds other sciences ta‘ayyun (self-determination or manifestation) like metaphysics (‘ilm al-ilÉhiyyah), physics (‘ilm when referring to the process of how the Absolute al-ÏabÊ‘iyyah), eschatology (‘ilm bi mÉ ba‘d al- Being creates the contingent being. The use of mawt), the science of threats and encouragements these terminologies, i.e. of tajallÊ and ta‘ayyun, led (‘ilm al-tarhÊb wa al-targhÊb), science of creation to the misconception that God and creatures are (takwÊniyyÉt), and stories (qaÎaÎ). united in one being (waÍdat al-wujËd), which then In addition to al-Ma‘qËlÉt or al-‘ulËm al- led to a further misunderstanding in that God and Íikmiyyah (philosophical sciences) are sciences that creatures have the same qualities. Sirhindi, derive by man’s reason from other sources than the however employed the terms ‘shadow’ (Ðill) and two revealed origins. Examples are Logics ‘image’ in reference to ‘contingent’ beings (manÏiq), Physical philosophy (al-ÏabÊ‘iyyÉt), (creatures). This led to the understanding that God Mathematics (al-riyÉÌiyyÉt), Metaphysics (al- and creatures are different beings (ithnayyat al- ilÉhiyyÉt), Language (al-lughah) etc. Furthermore, wujËd) with different qualities. The creature exists there are many others that fall under a category for because of the existence of the absolute Being just which al-DihlawÊ employed special terminology, as the image of the object in the mirror exists due to that of skills or arts (funËn). These are disciplines existence of the object. However, the image will of home management (fann tadbÊr al-manzil), of have opposite and different qualities from the social transaction (fann al-mu‘Émalat), and of

Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) | 58 The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A object such as powerlessness, speechlessness, spirituality based on authentic (ÎaÍÊÍ) traditions. ignorance, etc. The person who wishes to apply the formula for According to al-DihlawÊ, the terminologies of taÏbÊq should purify his soul by following the manifestation (tajallÊ or ta‘ayyun) and image (Ðill) SharÊ‘ah and Sunnah of the Prophet. By doing so, render a common meaning that is based on unreal one draws closer to God and at the same time existence and dependent on the absolute existence. equips one’s soul with noble qualities (al-akhlÉq al- Therefore, both meanings can be reconciled and a karÊmah) while avoiding bad characters (al-akhlÉq new interpretation is needed to harmonize the al-madhmËmah). A person who has undergone this contradiction. He suggests that existence is a purification process is potentially granted intuitive matter or quality (Îifat) that can be conceptualized knowledge by God. in the mind. Moreover, there are two type of As al-DihlawÊ’s formula for taÏbÊq deals with existence (wujËd); the existence of the Absolute contradictory ideas, it is accordingly characterised Self-existence (wujËd li dhÉtih or fÊ nafsihi), and by a sound intellectual discussion (khiÏab al-‘ilmÊ) the contingent (wujËd li ghayrih). If there is an in which philosophical methodology and reasoning, object, its quality (existence) can be conceptualized especially Logic, is used. Like al-GhazÉlÊ, although by the mind through its form (ÎËrah). However, if he prefers religious analogical reasoning (qiyÉs al- its quality disappears from the contingent(s), it/they shar‘Ê) of UÎËl al-fiqh of al-ShÉfi‘Ê, he sometimes will also disappear. Therefore, according to al- employed the method of analogical reasoning from DihlawÊ both figures emphasize different issues. Greek philosophy. In other words, one of the Ibn ‘ArabÊ stressed the eternal knowledge (a‘yÉn characteristics of his formula for taÏbÊq is to master al-thÉbitah) of God who is Self-existent (wujËd li the subjects of UÎËl al-fiqh and Logic, both of dhÉtihi) whereas Sirhindi stresses the contingents which are classified under ‘ulËm al-dunyÉ (worldly (wujËd li ghayrihi), i.e., this new terrestrial sciences) considered farÌ ‘ayn by al-GhazÉlÊ. universe. As such there is no conflict between the two theories. Conclusion To comprehensively map his concept of taÏbÊq, It is obvious that ma‘rifah (knowledge) is one of he tried to integrate most of the sciences of the attributes (ÎifÉt) through which man is acquired knowledge under an Islamic framework. considered either knowledgeable or ignorant. The Close examination of his life and works reveals that attributes of man will always be in the righteous he emphasized knowledge drawn from the Qur’an position if he follows the teachings of Islam and and Sunnah as the basis for his concept of taÏbÊq. vice-versa. The acquired knowledge that is given The science of the Qur’an comprising topics like special position in Islamic epistemology covers the asbÉb al-nuzËl (reasons of revelation), al-nasakh narrated and intellectual sciences, arts and skills. wa al-mansËkÍ (abrogation and abrogated verses) They are the achievement of man’s reason which is and such are of great significant to the formula of granted by God for the development of this world. taÏbÊq and which improve one’s knowledge of the Since revelation and reason work hand in hand in Qur’an. His competency on this subject is made Islam, this implies that the concept of knowledge in evident in his book al-Fawz al-kabÊr fÊ uÎËl al- Islam is naturally integrated. Previous scholars tafsÊr. In other words, knowledge of the Qur’an made every effort to integrate these sciences for and its contents is of great importance to the inclusion within the Islamic framework. application of the concept of taÏbÊq. In order to include these sciences in the Islamic Practicing, following and studying the Sunnah is framework, al-ShÉfi‘Ê placed them under ‘ilm al- another important feature of his formula of taÏbÊq as ‘Émm and ‘ilm al-khÉÎÎ. The status of ‘ilm al-‘Émm it becomes the yardstick for evaluating exogenous is obligatory upon individual (kullifa al-‘ibÉd or values. The science of ÍadÊth which includes the farÌ ‘alÉ al-‘Émmah) and ‘ilm al-khÉÎÎ is the memorization and study of matn criticism is of collective’s obligation (farÌ fÊ hi qaÎd al-kifÉyah). great help in understanding his reform effort. The His discussion was mostly directed toward religious formula for understanding the concept of knowledge (‘ilm al-dÊn), especially the specialist abrogation (naskh and mansËkh) and the knowledge (‘ilm al-khÉÎÎ) of uÎËl al-fiqh which reconciliation of ikhtilÉf al-aÍÉdith (contradictory mainly uses man’s reasoning to understand traditions) become the basis of his effort of taÏbÊq revelation. However, he does not discuss other for the sciences of acquired knowledge (Al- intellectual or worldly sciences (‘ilm al-dunyÉ). DihlawÊ,(2000). As one of the ShÉfi‘ites, al-GhazÉlÊ further Another important aspect of al-DihlawÊ’s developed an idea from al-ShÉfi‘Ê and introduced formula for taÏbÊq is his emphasis on Islamic three terminologies: farÌ ‘ayn, farÌ kifÉyah and

59 | Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A mubÉÍ. Any science that suits or is tailored to these the traditional discourse of Islam’s Juristic and three would be considered by al-GhazÉlÊ an Islamic Philosophical teachings. science (‘ulËm al-dÊn). Whether narrated (‘ulËm al- Al-ShÉfi‘Ê, al-GhazÉlÊ and al-DihlawÊ held in shar‘Ê) or intellectual sciences (ghayr al-shar‘Ê), in common the sound knowledge of the Qur’Én, order to be included under Islamic science al- Sunnah, QiyÉs (religious analogy), Arabic GhazÉlÊ introduced IÍyÉ’ which covers many language, Islamic spirituality and Ethics. In al- disciplines. One of which is that a person involved ShÉfi‘Ê’s favour, he is the founder of the must undergo the purification of his/her soul methodology of religious analogy (al-qiyÉs) which processes which emphasize having right intentions is known as the science of uÎËl al-fiqh thereafter. In and choosing correct means and equipping the soul their favour, al-GhazÉlÊ and al-DihlawÊ also had with noble qualities while avoiding blameworthy sound knowledge of Greek Philosophy covering at characters and traits. In other words, such a person least Logic and Divinity. Hence, both employed should learn and practice the science of the heart. Logic and philosophical arguments via syllogism in As for the narrated sciences (‘ulËm al-shar‘Ê), it is their discussions on any issue. In al-DihlawÊ’s sufficient for this person to learn and practice the favour, he always based and concluded arguments science of the heart as in the case of uÎËl al-fiqh by quoting authentic traditions. Thus, their and ‘ilm al-kalÉm. frameworks for the concept of acquired knowledge As for the intellectual sciences, efforts should be lit the path for later generation to fathom concepts made to address the issue of making the teaching of concerning the integration of knowledge. these sciences fall in line with Islamic values by purging irreligious elements from their References methodology as was done in the case of Aristotle’s Shukri, Abdul Salam Muhamad,(2008) “The early Logic, Ethics and so forth. In the case of sciences discourse on knowledge (‘Ilm) in the work of al- related to medicine, linguistic, the applied sciences ShÉfi‘Ê (150-204/767-820)”. Hamdard Islamicus, and others, the person involved should abide by Vol.XXXI, No.4,pp.7-22. Islamic teachings and have the right intention and Al-GhazÉlÊ, AbË ×Émid, (1980), al-QisÏÉs al- correct means. mustaqÊm, in R.J McCarthy, (1980) Freedom and Although a ×anafite, al-DihlawÊ admired the Fulfillment, Boston, Twayne publisher. method of religious analogy (al-qiyÉs) as per al- Al-GhazÉlÊ, AbË ×Émid, (2006) AyyuhÉ al-walad, ShÉfi‘Ê. He introduced the formula for the in MajmË‘ah rasÉ’il al-ImÉm al-GhazÉlÊ, 7 vols., reconciliation and accommodation (taÏbÊq) of Beirut, DÉr al-kutub al-‘ilmiyyah,3:104. contradictory ideas in the narrated (al-manqËlÉt) Al-GhazÉlÊ, AbË ×Émid,(N.D) KimiyyÉ’ al- and intellectual sciences (al-ma‘qËlÉt) of acquired SaÑÉdah, tr. From Hindustani by Claud Field, The knowledge (‘ilm al-ÍuÎËlÊ). As a matter of fact he Alchemy of happiness, Lahore, n.d.p.18. added a sub-category to intellectual sciences Al-GhazÉlÊ, AbË ×Émid,(1983) JawÉhir al-Qur’Én, comprising the skills and/or arts that were absented tr. Muhammad Abul Quasem, The Jewels of the in discussions by al-ShÉfi‘Ê and al-GhazÉlÊ. These Qur’Én, London. skills (funËn) comprise the disciplines of domestic Al-GhazÉlÊ, AbË ×Émid,(1988) KitÉb al-‘ilm, tr. management, practical economy and social Nabih Amin Faris, The Book of knowledge, New interaction. Delhi, International Islamic Publisher.p.68. With regard to ‘ilm al-ÍuÌËrÊ, he is in full Al-GhazÉlÊ, AbË ×Émid, (n.d) IÍyÉ’ ‘ulËm al-dÊn, 4 accord with al-GhazÉlÊ’s idea for‘ilm al- vols., Beirut, dÉr al-ma‘rifah. mukÉshafah which is not subject to the concept of Al-GhazÉlÊ, AbË ×Émid,(n.d) JawÉhir al-Qur’Én, iÍyÉ’. With regard to ‘ilm al-ÍuÎËlÊ and like al- Beirut,al-Markaz al-‘arabÊ. GhazÉlÊ, he emphasizes the purification of soul of Hasan, Ahmad,(1986) Analogical reasoning in the person who will apply the formula of taÏbÊq. Islamic Jurisprudence, Islamabad. This person should have sufficient knowledge in Al-DihlawÊ, ShÉh W,(1974) Al-Khayr al-kathÊr, tr. the Qur’Én and its sciences, the Sunnah and its G.N. Jalbani, Al-Khair al-Kathir, Lahore, Sh sciences, the uÎËl al-fiqh, Logic and Philosophy. Muhammad Ashraf. As a traditionalist (muÍaddith), he stresses the Al-DihlawÊ, ShÉh W (1970) Al-BudËr al-bÉzighah, importance of basing every concept, idea, Hyderabad, Akademy Shah Waliy Allah. terminology and argument undertaken on the Al-DihlawÊ, ShÉh W (1996) ×ujjat AllÉh al- authentic tradition (al-ÍadÊth al-ÎaÍÊÍ). Therefore, bÉlighah, tr. Marcia K. Hermansen, The Conclusive any issue is to be intellectually discussed from a Argument From God, Leiden, E.J. Brill. worldview as based on the Qur’an and Sunnah, and

Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011) | 60 The Concept of Acquired Knowledge (‘Ilm Al-UØËLÊ); Its Reformation in The Discourse of Muslim Scholars / Mohd Amin W.M.A

Al-DihlawÊ, ShÉh W (1999) al-Fawz al-kabÊr fÊ al-ShÉfi‘Ê, MuÍammad b. IdrÊs. (1993) al-Umm, 8 uÎËl al-tafsÊr, tr. G.N. Jalbani, New Delhi,Kitab vols.,Beirut, DÉr al-kutub al-‘ilmiyyah. Bhavan. al-ShÉfi‘Ê MuÍammad b. IdrÊs. (2009) al-RisÉlah, Al-DihlawÊ, ShÉh W (2000) al-InÎÉf fÊ bayÉn sabab al-QÉhirah, DÉr al-‘aqÊdah. al-ikhtilÉf, Cairo, markaz al-kitÉb li al-nashr. Calder, Norman. (1983) ‘IkhtilÉf and IjmÉ‘ in Rosenthal, F,(1970) Knowledge Triumphant, ShÉfi‘Ê’s RisÉlah’, Studia Islamica, vol.58,pp.55- Leiden, E.J Brill. 57; Khalifah, H. (1994) Kashf al-zunËn, 5 vols.,Beirut, Bakar, Osman. (1992), Classification of Knowledge DÉr al-fikr. in Islam, Kuala Lumpur, Institute for policy Kamali, Hashim. (1999) Principles of Islamic research. Jurisprudence,Kuala Lumpur, Ilmiah Publisher. D. Bakar, Mohd. (1994), “A Note on QiyÉs and Article history Ratio Decidendi in Islamic legal theory”, IIUM Received:07/11/2011 Law Journal, vol.4, No.1&2. Accepted:28/12/2011

which lead to perdition (al-muhlikÉt). The root of the 1 Scholars like J. Schact, N.J. Coulson, W.B. Hallaq, vices are like gluttony, excess in sex, excessive speech Norman Calder, A. Hassan, H. Kamali and others have (sharah al-kalÉm), cursing (la‘n), false promises (al- studied al-ShÉfi‘Ê’s scholarship in depth. Their study wa‘d al-kÉdhib) proceeding from hypocrisy (nifÉq), basically centred on Islamic jurisprudence as al-ShÉfi‘Ê lying (kidhb), slander (namÊmah), backbiting (ghÊbah), was well versed in the methodology of al-qiyÉs strong anger (shiddat al-ghaÌb), rancor (Íiqd), envy (analogy). Not much research has been done on al- (Íasad), love of the world (Íubb al-dunyÉ), love of ShÉfi‘Ê’s epistemology, especially his classification of wealth (Íubb al-mÉl), miserliness (bukhl), love of knowledge. influence (Íubb al-jÉh), ostentation (riyÉ’), pride (kibr), 2 It is worth mentioning here that al-ShÉfÑÊ’s analogy is conceit (‘ujb) and others. slightly different from that of Aristotle’s syllogism. In Islamic Jurisprudence, Aristotelian syllogism is termed as qiyÉs al-Ïard (analogy), which is one of the sub topics of the methodology of al-qiyÉs developed by the followers of al-ShÉfiÑÊ. 3 An example of this is the case of beating one’s old parents the prohibition of which is deduced from the Qur’anic verse 23, chapter 17; “Say not to them a word of contempt, nor repel them…” Saying something like “uf” is prohibited, let alone beating them as the action of beating is more serious than saying something bad. 4 The example is the case of devouring the wealth of orphans as mentioned in the Qur’Én chapter 4:10; “Those who unjustly eat up the property of orphans, eat up a fire into their own bodies; they will soon be enduring a blazing fire.” Any action related to eliminating the wealth of orphans is tantamount to eating or destroying their wealth. Thus, it is prohibited. 5 For example, confiscating the wealth of unbelievers in war is permitted based on the permission to kill unbelievers in war. 6 Deduction is a conclusion reached by reasoning from general laws for a particular case. 7 Induction is a method of reasoning that obtains or discovers general laws from particular facts or examples. 8 The praiseworthy or noble qualities are repentance (tawbah), patience (Îabr), gratitude (shukr), hope (rajÉ’), fear (khawf), asceticism (zuhd), surrender (tawakkul), contentment (riÌÉ), love (maÍabbah) and others. 9 These qualities or those which lead to salvation (al- munjiyÉt) should be equipped by one to replace blameworthy qualities (akhlÉq al-madhmËmah) or those

61 | Revelation and Science | Vol. 01, No.03 (1433H/2011)