The Journal of the International Society for Frontier Missiology
Int’l Journal of Frontier Missiology
Kingdom and Church in Frontier Mission
47 From the Editor’s Desk Brad Gill Kingdom and Church on a debatable frontier 49 Articles
49 The Kingdom of God and the Mission of God: Part 2 Rick Brown How does the Gospel of the Kingdom address the diversity of religions?
61 Integral Mission and the New Mission Applicant Bradford Greer Can we build on the missionshift in this generation?
67 Mission as Word and Deed: Transcending the Language of Priority Alan Johnson Can we find a better paradigm for integral mission?
75 How do Cultures Really Change? A Challenge to the Conventional Wisdom William Bjoraker Is the ‘transformation of culture’ capturing a new generation in mission?
89 Sustaining Kingdom Advance: Discovering the Role of Church Movements T. S. John Is the Church really essential to Kingdom transformation? 94 Book Reviews 94 The Lost History of Christianity 96 The Church under the Cross: Mission in Asia in Times of Turmoil 98 In Others’ Words 98 The Negotiable Frontier
April–June 2011 Kingdom and Church on the Debatable Frontier April–June 2011 Volume 28:2
he death of John Stott this past month will prompt many a fond Editor retrospect. At a crucial time in the emergence of contemporary Brad Gill missiology, he represented the gold standard of biblical mission to a Editor-at-Large Rory Clark T 1 generation of baby boomer Christians. Any young student attending the Inter- Assistant Editor Varsity Urbana missionary conferences can’t forget the authoritative clip of Fred Lewis his English-accented diction as he exposited the biblical basis of mission. His Consulting Editors editorial brilliance in drafting the Lausanne Covenant in 1974 helped synthe- Rick Brown, Gavriel Gefen, Herbert Hoefer, Rebecca Lewis, H. L. Richard, Steve Saint size the controversial mission perspectives emerging at the time.2 It was Stott’s Graphic Design biblical integration that effectively umpired the arguments in and around the Jennifer C. Swain, Rory Clark “evangelism vs. social action” debate that intensified that historic week in Secretary Lausanne. Now more than three decades later, after many sign posts of discus- Karen Watney sion and debate, the Lausanne declarations from Cape Town 2010 indicate Publisher that this conflict is almost passé. Stott’s early advocacy of the equal partnership Bradley Gill, representing the student-level meeting at Edinburgh 1980. of these ‘two wings’ of mission seems to have succeeded. 2011 ISFM Executive Committee This issue of the IJFM contends that a residue of this missiological tension still Greg Parsons, Brad Gill, Rory Clark, Darrell Dorr remains. A more complex dichotomy now runs silent and deep and profoundly shapes how we identify and classify the frontier of mission. This competition is Web Site sharp and clear in Dana Robert’s recent review of the changing definitions of www.ijfm.org ‘mission frontiers’ through twentieth century Protestant mission discourse.3 Editorial Correspondence (p. 98) Two world wars tore at the mandate of world evangelization and the 1605 E. Elizabeth Street idea of a mission frontier broadened to include a church crossing boundaries Pasadena, CA 91104 into the problems of the world. Her assessment indicates that the language of (734) 765-0368, [email protected] the frontier swings between the unreached and the oppressed. Subscriptions Both these emphases were given a platform at the Lausanne Congress in 1974. One year (four issues) $18.00 Two years (eight issues) $34.00 Ralph Winter’s anthropological sensitivity to cross-cultural distance in evan- Three years (twelve issues) $48.00 gelism introduced a new demography of the world’s ‘unreached peoples’. Latin Single copies $4.00, multiple copies $3.00 American leaders Rene Padilla and Samuel Escobar introduced a political Payment must be enclosed with orders. sensitivity that exposed the social injustices and economic inequities in many a Please supply us with current address and majority-world context.4 One prioritized the cultural differences in translating change of address when necessary. Send all subscription correspondence to: and communicating the gospel for cross-cultural extension of the church; the IJFM other emphasized the ethical disparities that called for the transformation of 1605 E. Elizabeth Street social, economic and political institutions. Ralph Winter’s more recent rein- Pasadena, CA 91104 Tel: (626) 398-2119 terpretation of Protestant mission history reframed this same binary tendency Fax: (626) 398-2337 Email: [email protected] Editorial continued on p. 48 IJFM (ISSN #2161-3354) was established in 1984 by the International Student The views expressed in IJFM are those of the various authors and not necessarily those Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. of the journal’s editors, the International Society for Frontier Missiology or the society’s It is published quarterly. executive committee. COPYRIGHT ©2011 International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. PRINTED in the USA 48 From the Editor’s Desk, Who We Are
in his two paradigms of Kingdom Part two of Rick Brown’s article tive of John Stott, we’ll continue to Mission and Church Mission.5 While might also resonate with a genera- examine this interface of Kingdom not inherently contradictory, they tion which faces increasing religious and Church at this year’s ISFM in represent two distinct ways of mark- pluralism (p. 49). His theology of the Scottsdale, AZ, September 27-29. ing the frontier of mission. Kingdom might help younger minds Stay informed at ijfm.org. transcend a ‘conflict-of-religions’ This issue of the journal continues Looking forward, approach they so often suspect to explore the tension between these of traditional ‘church mission’. two classifications. The second part According to Bradford Greer, it’s of Bill Bjoraker’s interaction with a new voluntarism calling for a Brad Gill Editor, IJFM James Davidson Hunter’s To Change more integral mission among the the World captures how a new under- unreached (p. 61). Their praxis Endnotes 1 standing of culture orients mission indicates a greater demand for the Christian Mission in the Modern World, InterVarsity Press, Downer’s towards the transformation of institu- strategic intersection of church pant- Grove, IL 1975. 2 tions (p. 75). Hunter’s ‘slight twist’ ing and Kingdom transformation John Stott, The Lausanne Cov- enant – An Exposition and Commentary, in mission agency thinking. Alan on the great commission reclassifies Lausanne Occasional Papers, No. 3, the ta ethne of the world as ‘spheres of Johnson picks up on Christopher (Lausanne Committee for World Evange- Wright’s paradigm of ‘ultimacy’ lization, 1975). life’, as ‘realms’ of engineering, health 3 Dana Robert, “Mission Frontiers as a most effective paradigm for care, commerce, art and law.6 He calls from 1910 to 2010”, in Missiology: An Inter- this integration (p. 67). And after national Review, Part I (Vol XXXIX no. 2, for a mission “that seeks new patterns years of work with disability in the April, 2011) Part II (Vol. XXXIX, no. 3, of social organization that challenge, July, 2011) (Electronic Issue). overwhelming conditions of India, 4 Rene Padilla, Evangelism and the undermine, and otherwise diminish T.S. John has discovered the com- World, Let the Earth Hear His Voice: oppression, injustice, enmity, and Int’l Congress on World Evangelization plimentary role of church planting (Worldwide Publications, Minn., MN, corruption and, in turn, encourage movements (p. 89). Of course, a 1975) p. 116f. 5 harmony, fruitfulness and abundance, new generation isn’t waiting around, David Hesslegrave and Ed Stetzer, ed., Missionshift (Baker Academic, Grand wholeness, beauty, joy, security and but spawns new hybrid ministries Rapids) pp. 164f. well-being.”7 He distills how many from their own intuitive blend of 6 James Davidson Hunter, To Change the World (Oxford University Press, 2010) would identify Kingdom-minded evangelization and emancipation. pp. 256, 257. mission today. In a spirit of integration so indica- 7 Hunter, p. 247.
The IJFM is published in the name of the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions, a fellowship of younger leaders committed to the purposes of the twin consultations of Edinburgh 1980: The World Consultation on Frontier Missions and the International Student Consultation on Frontier Missions. As an expression of the ongoing concerns of Edinburgh 1980, the IJFM seeks to:
promote intergenerational dialogue between senior and junior mission leaders; cultivate an international fraternity of thought in the development of frontier missiology; highlight the need to maintain, renew, and create mission agencies as vehicles for frontier missions; encourage multidimensional and interdisciplinary studies; foster spiritual devotion as well as intellectual growth; and advocate “A Church for Every People.” Mission frontiers, like other frontiers, represent boundaries or barriers beyond which we must go yet beyond which we may not be able to see clearly and boundaries which may even be disputed or denied. Their study involves the discovery and evaluation of the unknown or even the reevaluation of the known. But unlike other frontiers, mission frontiers is a subject specifically concerned to explore and exposit areas and ideas and insights related to the glorification of God in all the nations (peoples) of the world, “to open their eyes, to turn them from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God.” (Acts 26:18)
Subscribers and other readers of the IJFM (due to ongoing promotion) come from a wide variety of backgrounds. Mission professors, field mis- sionaries, young adult mission mobilizers, college librarians, mission executives, and mission researchers all look to the IJFM for the latest thinking in frontier missiology.
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Kingdom and Church The Kingdom of God and the Mission of God: Part 2 by Rick Brown
alph Winter said “the Bible consists of a single drama: the entrance of the Kingdom, the power, and the glory of the living God in this R enemy-occupied territory.”1 Mark Driscoll writes, “At its simplest, the kingdom of God is the result of God’s mission to rescue and renew his sin-marred creation.”2 Thus the mission of God is to bring people into his Kingdom and extend its blessings to those outside as well. In the first part of this article I began to frame this drama, and we examined some characteris- tics of the Kingdom of God. We noted that the word ‘kingdom’ would have evoked a complex web of concepts—a schema—in the minds of people living in biblical times. They were familiar with what it was like to live as a citizen in a kingdom and to have allegiance to a king, and they were expecting God to overcome sin and evil by establishing a global and eternal Kingdom in which righteousness dwells, ruled by God through his Son the Messiah. 4. Stages in the Development of God’s Kingdom One aspect of the Kingdom of God that is different from earthly nation king- doms is that it has stages of development. (1) It was prefigured in the nation Kingdom of Israel and was foretold by the prophets as its ideal successor. (2) Editor’s Note: An earlier version of God then inaugurated the Kingdom by sending Jesus his Son, the Savior- this article was published in the bul- King, in whom the Kingdom was visibly present. Ridderbos wrote: letin of the Asian Society for Frontier Mission, Oct-Dec, 2010. Due to its The secret of belonging to the kingdom lies in belonging to him (Mt. 7:23; 25:41). length, part one was published in In brief, the person of Jesus as the Messiah is the centre of all that is announced in the preceding issue of IJFM, where the gospel concerning the kingdom . . . The kingdom is concentrated in him in its 3 the author introduces the first three present and future aspects alike. aspects of the Kingdom and Mission: the Old Testament background, the (3) Since Jesus’ ascension and enthronement in heaven, the Kingdom has c conceptual grid that characterizes this undergone a stage of growth under Jesus’ invisible reign that continues at the Kingdom, and the people or ecclesiae present time. (Most modern amillennialists and postmillennialists identify the of the Kingdom. millennium with this period of growth.) (4) This stage will end when Jesus Rick Brown is a missiologist who has returns manifestly to judge all people, eliminate dissenters, remove all evil, and been involved in outreach to the Muslim world since 1977. He has a “consummate” (i.e., complete and perfect) the total reign of his kingdom over PhD in Biblical Studies. all the earth. (Premillennialists identify the millennium with this stage.) International Journal of Frontier Missiology 28:2 Summer 2011•49 50 The Kingdom of God and the Mission of God: Part 2
(5) Finally, when every evil has been dom,” “the Kingdom consummated,” Blessed are the merciful, for they shall receive mercy. eliminated and the world has been and “the eternal Kingdom,” and in the made new (1 Cor 15:22–28), the Bible “the age to come,” “salvation,” and Blessed are the pure in heart, for they “kingdom of the world” will become “eternal life.” It is this last stage that shall see God. “the kingdom of our Lord and of his is frequently mentioned in the New Blessed are the peacemakers, for Christ” (Rev 11:15–19), also called Testament as the “hope” of the Gospel. they shall be called sons of God. “the kingdom of Christ and of God” It is important to keep in mind, how- Blessed are those who are persecuted (Eph 5:5), “the kingdom of their ever, that these are two stages of the Father” (Matt 13:43), and “the age for righteousness’ sake, for theirs is same kingdom, named “the Kingdom the kingdom of heaven. to come” (Luke 18:30; 20:35). This of God,” which includes the very same is commonly called “the Eternal citizens in this age and the next. This is Blessed are you when others revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of Kingdom” (based on 2 Peter 1:11) represented in Figure 6. and includes “new heavens and a new evil against you falsely on my account. earth in which righteousness dwells” Paul wrote, “If in Christ we have Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is (2 Pet 3:13). MacArthur refers to hope in this life only, we are of all great in heaven, for so they persecuted these five stages as the (1) prophesied, people most to be pitied” (1 Cor the prophets who were before you. (2) present, (3) interim, (4) mani- 15:19). He went on to explain, “For Nevertheless, members of the King- fest, and (5) eternal stages of God’s this perishable body must put on the dom do have a “taste” of the blessings Kingdom.4 It is significant to note imperishable, and this mortal body of the future Kingdom, especially in that during the interim Kingdom, must put on immortality” (1 Cor the fruit and gifts of the Spirit: between Jesus’ ascension and his 15:53). It is clear from the future tenses in most of the beatitudes But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, return, his throne is in heaven, as are peace, patience, kindness, goodness, that while the disciples of Christ the saints who die before his return. faithfulness, gentleness, self-control; have citizenship in the Kingdom Paul refers to this as Christ’s “heav- against such things there is no law. enly kingdom” (2 Tim 4:18). and receive many blessings in its (Gal 5:22–23) present stage, the full blessings of It is common for theologians to lump the Kingdom are in its future stage Paul describes the life we have now in the three middle stages together and (Matt 5:3–12): the Kingdom of God as “righteousness describe the whole period from the Blessed are the poor in spirit, for and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit” inauguration of the Kingdom to its theirs is the kingdom of heaven. (Rom 14:17). final consummation as a single devel- Blessed are those who mourn, for Jesus said it was the Holy Spirit opment. This is variously called “the they shall be comforted. present Kingdom,” “the provisional who would empower his followers Blessed are the meek, for they shall Kingdom,” “the mediatorial Kingdom,” to become his witnesses throughout inherit the earth. “the Messianic Kingdom,” “the King- the world (Acts 1:8). This they did dom of Christ,” or in Western tradition, Blessed are those who hunger and in both word and deed, as Jesus had regnum Christi. The last stage is called thirst for righteousness, for they shall said when he commissioned them “to “the future Kingdom,” “the final King- be satisfied. proclaim the kingdom of God and to heal” (Luke 9:2). Ralph Winter Figure 6: The stages of development of the Kingdom of God has characterized the word and deed of ministry as “Church mission” and “Kingdom mission”: I employ two phrases: 1) Church Mis- sion, which I define as the winning of people into the Church wherever in the world, and thus extending the membership of the Church, and 2) Kingdom Mission, which we define as the work of the church beyond itself, going beyond Church Mission to see that His will is done on earth outside the Church.5
Here the word “Church” means all the people of God’s Kingdom as a community, and by “Church mission”
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Rick Brown 51
Ralph Winter meant the ministry of y “Kingdom mission” he meant their benevolent calling people into the Kingdom as disciples of Christ. By “Kingdom mis- ministry to people and societies outside the sion” he meant their benevolent minis- kingdom, in which their actions bear witness . . . try to people and societies outside the B Kingdom, in which their actions bear Jesus proclaimed the good news that Jesus said “this gospel of the kingdom witness to the love and grace of God people could be forgiven and become will be proclaimed throughout the that overcomes evil. As N.T. Wright citizens of the Kingdom by repenting whole world as a testimony to all said, “If we believe it and pray, as he and believing in him. This offer is nations, and then the end will come” taught us, for God’s kingdom to come implied in his initial proclamations: (Matt 24:14). That task in the mission on earth as in heaven, there is no way Mark 1:15: “The time is fulfilled, and of God was passed from Jesus to we can rest content with major injus- the kingdom of God is at hand; repent, his disciples; he said, “As the Father 6 tice in the world.” and believe in the gospel.” The phrase has sent me, even so I am sending May [we] know what is the hope to translated as ‘at hand’ has been explained you” (John 20:21). The mission he which he has called [us], what are the several ways, but the one that best fits delegated to his followers involves riches of his glorious inheritance in the the context is that the Kingdom is more than proclamation; it involves saints. (Eph 1:18). now available, “within your grasp.” The the discipleship of people in every statement in Luke 17:20–21 that “the ethnic group: “Go therefore and make 5. The Good News of kingdom of God is in the midst of you” disciples of all nations, baptizing them the Kingdom is explained similarly by some to mean in the name of the Father and of the The Old Testament prophets, especially “within your reach,” meaning present in Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching Isaiah (Isa 40:9; 52:7), proclaimed Jesus and available to you but requiring them to observe all that I have 7 in advance the “good news” of God’s your response. More importantly, Jesus commanded you” (Matt 28:19–20). mission. They said God was planning is the sacrifice of the new covenant by Paul said, this involves “training” them to establish an eternal age of perfect which it is possible for people to be “to renounce ungodliness and worldly righteousness and blessing, and that he accepted into the Kingdom. passions, and to live self-controlled, would do so through his special “ser- Jesus entrusted his disciples with the upright, and godly lives in the present vant” (Isa 42:1; 52:13). Isaiah described same message (Matt 10:7; Luke 9:2, age,” that they might be “a people for this Mediator as the very “arm” of God 60) to all the nations (Matt 24:14), his own possession who are zealous for (Isa 40:10; 52:10), suggesting the in- telling them to say “The kingdom of good works” (Titus 2:12, 14). carnation, and as a divine and everlast- God has come near to you” (Luke Earthly kingdoms do not allow for- ing king who is like a son to God (Isa 10:9), and this is what they conveyed eigners to become citizens unless they 9:6–7; Ps 2) “his name shall be called (Acts 20:25; 28:31). They announced pledge loyalty to the king. Applicants Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, in Christ the inauguration of the who reject the king are rejected as can- Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace.” Kingdom and the opportunity to be didates for citizenship. The same ap- Daniel said God would establish this accepted into it as full citizens and as plies to the Kingdom of God: people eternal and righteous kingdom through heirs of eternal life when the Kingdom cannot enter the Kingdom unless they a heavenly figure who is “like a son of is consummated after Christ’s return. accept Jesus as their King. Jesus made man” (Dan 7:13–14) and that it would W. F. Arndt wrote: this fairly clear when he condemned grow to encompass all the earth (Dan What is offered to those that accept the people of Chorazin and Bethsaida 2:35). The New Testament reveals Jesus the Savior and King and be- for not responding when they saw that person to be Jesus. He began his come citizens in that blessed realm of his miracles (Luke 10:13). He made ministry by proclaiming “the Gospel of which He is the Ruler is not wealth, it clear in a parable, when the king the Kingdom,” meaning the good news not power, not health, at least not says on his return, “But as for these directly. With the forgiveness of sins that God was now inaugurating his enemies of mine, who did not want me they have received rest for their souls, Kingdom and calling people into his to reign over them, bring them here Kingdom community. Jesus indicated a joyful outlook upon the future, the assurance of heavenly bliss, and with and slaughter them before me” (Luke that he is the Savior-King whom God 19:27). He uttered a similar judgment had sent and the heavenly “son of man” this righteousness all other things will be added unto them (Matt 6:33).8 against the wicked tenants in the par- whom Daniel foresaw. able of the tenants (Matt 21:33–41), Unfortunately, the people of this world Jesus highlighted the gift of the Holy and “when the chief priests and the are all sinners and do not qualify for a Spirit as a major blessing of the King- Pharisees heard his parables, they Kingdom that is free of sin and evil, but dom (Luke 11:13). perceived that he was speaking about
28:2 Summer 2011 52 The Kingdom of God and the Mission of God: Part 2 them” (Matt 21:45). Jesus went on to future Kingdom will have no temple gift, and have shared in the Holy Spirit, make it explicit that the “son” in the or religion, but will be filled with the and have tasted the goodness of the word parable was also the “cornerstone” of glory of God and the Lamb, by whose of God and the powers of the age to (the Messianic) Psalm 118:22, whom light all the “nations will walk” in love come” (Heb 6:4–5), but our hope, as Paul the (religious) builders had rejected and harmony (Rev 21:22–24). often says, is for the glory of the age to (Matt 21:42). “Therefore I tell you,” Je- come. This is “the hope to which he has The biblical words for ‘send’ usually sus said to the Pharisees, “the kingdom called you” and “the riches of his glorious mean to commission someone to carry of God will be taken away from you inheritance in the saints” (Eph 1:18). out a mission. For that matter, the and given to a nation producing the English words ‘mission’ and ‘commis- Paul summarizes this gospel in his let- fruits of it” (Matt 21:43). sion’ come from the Latin word for ter to Titus (2:11–15a): Jesus gave similar warnings for those ‘send.’ Clearly the sending of Jesus For the grace of God has appeared, who reject the proclamation of the as the Savior-King, God’s Son the bringing salvation for all people, train- gospel by his disciples. He said: Messiah, is central to God’s mission ing us to renounce ungodliness and And if anyone will not receive you of love. The gospel can be seen as the worldly passions, and to live self-con- trolled, upright, and godly lives in the or listen to your words, shake off proclamation of both God’s Kingdom present age, waiting for our blessed the dust from your feet when you mission in Christ and God’s invitation leave that house or town. Truly, I say hope, the appearing of the glory of to join the Kingdom, enjoy its present to you, it will be more bearable on our great God and Savior Jesus Christ, the day of judgment for the land of and future benefits, and be his channel who gave himself for us to redeem us Sodom and Gomorrah than for that from all lawlessness and to purify for town. (Matt 10:14–15) himself a people for his own posses- sion who are zealous for good works. Nevertheless know this, that the Declare these things . . .. kingdom of God has come near. (Luke 10:11) Peter summarizes the gospel in a simi- His eternal Kingdom lar way (1 Pet 1:3–5): What had come near to those people Blessed be the God and Father of our but passed them by was the opportu- will reveal the fullness Lord Jesus Christ! According to his nity to enter the Kingdom of God as of his love and glory great mercy, he has caused us to be sons of God, brothers of Christ, and born again to a living hope through heirs of eternal life. Charles Erdman the resurrection of Jesus Christ from wrote, “The very essence of the Gospel the dead, to an inheritance that is im- becomes embodied in the promise of a perishable, undefiled, and unfading, place in the Kingdom for all who will kept in heaven for you, who by God’s repent of sin and believe in Christ.”9 power are being guarded through of blessing to others. Thus one cannot faith for a salvation ready to be re- It is evident that the mission of God fully understand the gospel without vealed in the last time. is not to institute a religion but to also understanding the mission of replace this fallen and sinful world God, the Kingdom of God and the We can praise God forever that we are with his perfect and eternal Kingdom role of Christ the King in that mis- among the people of God, whom he and to save into this glorious new sion. These all go together and are best has called “into his own kingdom and world all who believe in the Savior- understood as a whole. glory” (1 Thess 2:12), and that God has King whom he has sent. By their faith commissioned us to extend his call to they are born again of God’s Spirit Jesus sent his disciples to help fulfill people in every ethnic group. this mission, telling them to “go into all as children of God and become heirs But you were washed, you were sancti- the world and proclaim the gospel to of eternal life in the age to come. fied, you were justified in the name of Jesus said, “Truly, truly, I say to you, the whole creation” (Mark 16:15). This the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit requires us to inform everyone of God’s whoever hears my word and believes of our God. (1 Cor 6:11) him who sent me has eternal life. mission in Christ to save people from He does not come into judgment, this fallen world, to cleanse them from 6. Mysteries of the nature but has passed from death to life” sin by Christ’s death and resurrection, ( John 5:24). God’s saving mission to sanctify them by his Holy Spirit, and of the Kingdom of Christ reveals his love for humankind, and to make them citizens of his kingdom Many first-century Jews had great his eternal Kingdom will reveal the and heirs of the age to come, after Christ expectations of the Messiah and his fullness of his love and glory, not in a returns in glory. For in this present kingdom. Some of them anticipated a new religion, but in a new world. The Kingdom we “have tasted the heavenly messianic kingdom that would include
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Rick Brown 53 all nations (based on prophetic passages cloaks, and he sat on them. wine desires new, for he says, such as Isaiah 2:4; 11:10; 42:1; 52:10, (Matt 21:7) ‘The old is good.’” (Luke 5:39) 15; 55:4–5; Psalm 2:7–8; Daniel 2:44; 7:13–14). It seems, however, that most One becomes a citizen of the Kingdom, Citizenship in the Kingdom will be Jews of the time were expecting the not by birthright as a descendant of offered to the lowly and to Gentiles, Abraham and not by the Mosaic cov- some of whom will accept it. Messiah to set up a Jewish state and • The banquet (Luke 14:15–24) defeat its enemies. But the kingdom enant, but by entering a new covenant of faith in Jesus as one’s Savior-King. • The two sons (Matt 21:28–32) that Jesus brought differed from what • “Whoever does not receive • The tenants (Matt 21:33–41) was generally expected, and these dif- the kingdom of God like a ferences constitute what Jesus called the child like a child shall not enter The number of those who become “mysteries of the Kingdom.” In general it.” (Mark 10:15; Luke 18:17) citizens of the Kingdom will he taught a very different concept of • “I am the door. If anyone increase gradually. the Messianic stage of God’s Kingdom • The kingdom of heaven is like 10 enters by me, he will be saved” from that which people expected, and ( John 10:9) a grain of mustard seed that a in doing so he taught a very different man took and sowed in his field. concept of the Messianic King. Personal regeneration is a requisite for It is the smallest of all seeds, but when it has grown it is larger Jesus revealed the true nature of the citizenship in the Kingdom. • Truly, truly, I say to you, unless than all the garden plants and Kingdom through many parables, figu- one is born of water and the rative sayings, and symbolic actions.11 becomes a tree, so that the birds Spirit, he cannot enter the king- Thus the Kingdom parables are also of the air come and make nests dom of God. ( John 3:5) parables about the person and work of in its branches. (Matt 13:31–32) • “Truly, I say to you, unless you Jesus the Messiah, and to understand • The mustard seed and the leaven turn and become like children, the mysteries Jesus revealed, it is help- (Matt 13:31–33 and parallels) you will never enter the king- ful to know the common misconcep- dom of heaven.” (Matt 18:3) Growth will come by divine grace. tions that he was correcting. • And he [the king] said to him, • The growing seed (Mark The benefits of Kingdom citizenship “Friend, how did you get in 4:26–29) are present now only in part, but fully here without a wedding gar- in the future. ment?” And he was speech- Citizens of the present Kingdom • The beatitudes (Matt 5:3–12) less. Then the king said to the may experience ill-treatment and loss • The wheat and weeds attendants, “Bind him hand and rather than safety and prosperity. (Matt 13:1–43) • “A disciple is not above his foot and cast him into the outer • The vineyard workers teacher” (Matt 10:24–25). darkness. In that place there (Matt 20:1–16) • “I have not come to bring peace, will be weeping and gnashing • The faithful servant but a sword” (Matt 10:34) of teeth.” (Matt 22:12–13) (Matt 24:45–47.) • Whoever does not bear his own cross and come after me cannot Most people will reject the king’s offer The Messiah came, not in glory, but as be my disciple. (Luke 14:27) of citizenship in the Kingdom and will a servant. • So therefore, any one of you • And they went with haste and be excluded. • For the gate is narrow and the who does not renounce all that found Mary and Joseph, and the way is hard that leads to life, he has cannot be my disciple. baby lying in a manger. (Luke and those who find it are few. (Luke 14:33) 2:16) (Matt 7:14) • And Jesus said to him, “Foxes • The sower (Matt 13:3–8, 18–23) The present Kingdom and its surpass- have holes, and birds of the air • The banquet (Luke 14:15–24) ing value are not visible to most people. have nests, but the Son of Man • The kingdom of heaven is like leaven that a woman took and has nowhere to lay his head.” Many Jews and their leaders will reject hid in three measures of flour, till (Matt 8:20) the King and be excluded from the it was all leavened. (Matt 13:33) • Then he poured water into a Kingdom. basin and began to wash the • The nobleman (Luke 19:11–27) • The kingdom of heaven is like disciples’ feet and to wipe them • The tenants (Matt 21:33–41) treasure hidden in a field, which with the towel that was wrapped • The cornerstone (Matt 21:42) a man found and covered up. around him. ( John 13:5) • The unfruitful fig tree (Mark Then in his joy he goes and sells • They brought the donkey and 11:12–14, 20; Luke 13:6–9) all that he has and buys that the colt and put on them their • And no one after drinking old field. (Matt 13:44)
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• Again, the kingdom of heaven • “I will show you my faith by my that there was not just one mystery is like a merchant in search of works.” ( James 2:18) about the Kingdom, whether the mes- fine pearls, who, on finding one • “They profess to know God, but siahship of Jesus or the interim stage pearl of great value, went and they deny him by their works.” of the Kingdom, but there were many sold all that he had and bought (Titus 1:16) ways in which the King and his King- it. (Matt 13:45–46) • The sheep and goats (Matt dom differed from expectations.17 25:31–46). “Truly, I say to you, What no eye has seen, nor ear heard, nor The King will be killed. as you did it to one of the least • The tenants (Matt 21:33–41) the heart of man imagined, what God of these my brothers, you did it has prepared for those who love him”— to me.” (v. 4) The King will triumph, rising from these things God has r evealed to us • “These trials will show that the dead. through the Spirit. (1 Cor 2:9–10) • The cornerstone (Matt 21:42–44) your faith is genuine . . . So • The sign of Jonah (Matt when your faith remains 7. The Kingdom of God or a 12:40–42) strong through many trials, it will bring you much praise conflict of religions approach The King’s death will bring life to many. and glory and honor on the Historically, many mission endeavors • Truly, truly, I say to you, unless day when Jesus Christ is re- have followed a conflict-of-religions para- a grain of wheat falls into the vealed to the whole world.” digm that sought to extend a particular earth and dies, it remains alone; (1 Peter 1:6–7) denomination or a particular religious but if it dies, it bears much fruit tradition in competition with other ( John 12:24) One of the greatest mysteries is the Christian denominations and non-Chris- • I am the good shepherd. The suffering of the Messiah. This had tian religions. So they have promoted good shepherd lays down his been foretold in Isaiah 53 and Psalms the distinctives of their various forms of life for the sheep. ( John 10:11) 22, 110, and 118, but Jewish theolo- Christian religion, such as their particular • The cornerston e (Matt 21:42–44) gians expected this to occur near the theological formulations, their form of completion of his conquest, not the The King will leave, return, and judge church polity, their professional clergy, beginning, and none of them expected their religious calendar, their rituals, their his servants. him to be killed and rise again after • The ten talents (Luke 19:12–27) 12 order of worship, their denominational • The two servants (Matt three days. Bright noted that “a associations, their style of religious build- 24:45–51) Messiah King who should suffer and ings, etc. While all of these institutions die was the last thing in the world can be useful for nurturing God’s people that Jewish nationalism expected or During his absence, the King will rule, 13 and for advancing the Kingdom, these bless, and empower his people. wanted.” In contrast, as Matera customs and institutional religion in • The vine ( John 15:1–6) shows, Jesus clearly understood Psalms general should not be viewed as ends in 22 and 118 to prophesy “that the Mes- themselves, because the New Testament The King will not immediately destroy siah King would suffer before he inau- does not even mention them, much less the unrighteous but will postpone the gurated his kingdom,” and he clearly mandate them for Kingdom communi- reckoning until the judgment day. understood the suffering servant of • Weeds among the wheat (Matt ties (ecclesiae). Instead of religious rituals, Isaiah 53 in the same way.14 13:24–30) it recommends kindness and purity: • The fishnet (Matt 13:47–50). Some scholars assert that the main Religion that is pure and undefiled be- mystery is that the Kingdom is present fore God, the Father, is this: to visit or- Judgment will be based, not on reli- in a hidden form in Jesus, who hides phans and widows in their affliction, gion or claims, but on the evidence of his kingship until his exaltation.15 and to keep oneself unstained from faith in Christ as seen in love for him The theme of Ambrozic’s book on the the world. (James 1:27) and his people. subject is to demonstrate that from the In place of religious rites and rituals, • “Not everyone who says to beginning Jesus’ kingship and kingdom the New Testament emphasizes the me ‘Lord, Lord’ will enter the were kept nearly invisible: “The present Kingdom of God, living “in Christ,” Kingdom of heaven, but the one kingdom is thus a hidden kingdom, praising God, praying in one’s heart, who does the will of my Father a reality which is already with us and and meeting together frequently as who is in heaven.” (Matt 7:21) yet is still coming, a fulfillment strain- loving faith communities. • “For in Christ Jesus neither ing for its completion, a glory visible circumcision nor uncircumcision only to those to whom its mystery has The conflict-of-religions approach counts for anything, but only faith been entrusted.”16 It should be clear, assumes the Bible encourages a social working through love.” (Gal 5:6) however, from the discussion above, struggle with the different religions and
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Rick Brown 55 religious groups in the world, in which The ultimate question is the question sians nor their goddess (Acts 19:37). of discipleship—of one’s proximity to, people of other religions are persuaded They proclaimed “the word of the or distance from, Jesus the Lord.18 to convert to one’s own, but this is not Lord” regarding his Kingdom (Acts the biblical mandate. The Bible says Paul encouraged fellowships (eccle- 19:8–10), without polemics, and they “we do not wrestle against flesh and siae) of believers to grow through love looked to God to confirm the word blood, but against . . . the cosmic powers and obedience to Christ’s teaching. with grace and power. The result was over this present darkness, against the These faith communities were far that many believed and then aban- spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly different from the pagan religious doned their idolatry and secret arts places” (Eph 6:12). So the struggle is institutions, which focused on temples, on their own. Thus Paul is a model of spiritual rather than social, and “conver- idols, priests, rituals, and sacrifices. the Kingdom-of-God paradigm of sion” is likewise spiritual rather than They were not competing on the same mission, as opposed to the conflict-of- social, a struggle between the Kingdom level. Paul was polite towards Gentiles religions paradigm. of God and the kingdom of Satan (see rather than polemical, drawing them Jesus is the perfect model of the Matt 12:26, 28). Biblical “conversion” is towards the Savior (1 Cor 10:32–33). Kingdom paradigm of mission. When spiritual as well, not from one religion Rather than revile their idols, he Jesus proclaimed the Kingdom of God to another, but from the kingdom of proclaimed “that God was in Christ, among Samaritans in Samaria (Luke darkness to the Kingdom of God. “For reconciling the world to Himself ” 17:11–19; John 4:5–42), to Gentiles he has rescued us,” Paul says, “from the (2 Cor 5:19). He showed respect to in Lebanon and Decapolis (Mark dominion of darkness and brought us each socioreligious group by adapt- 5:1–20; 7:24–8:10), and to Romans in into the Kingdom of the Son he loves, ing his lifestyle to fit its customs and Galilee (Matthew 8:5–13), he did not in whom we have redemption, the background (1 Cor 9:20–23). When command them to observe the Jewish forgiveness of sins” (Col 1:13 NIV). speaking to Pharisees, he adapted his religious practices that he and his own Thus the Bible represents a Kingdom identity and preaching style to that disciples observed. He did not prosely- perspective of God’s mission, in which of the Pharisees (Acts 22; 23). When tize at all. Although in Galilee he lived the goal of mission is to advance the preaching to Greeks, he praised their in close proximity to pagan temples, Kingdom of God in all social groups religious fervor and cited verses from and he traveled in the pagan regions rather than to promote one religious their sacred poems (Acts 17), while of Lebanon and Decapolis, he did not tradition over all others. Charles Van staying true to the oneness of God condemn their religious traditions Engen wrote: and the lordship of Jesus Christ (1 and institutions but revealed to them Thus the major question is not if one Cor 9:21). In Ephesus, for example, something far better: the Kingdom of is a member within a particular reli- Paul and his “fellow workers for the God and the surpassing grace of the gious system, even if it is a Christian Kingdom of God” (Col 4:11) taught King. The ones he criticized were the tradition. Rather, the crucial issue is daily for over two years, and they had leaders of the “house of Israel,” who whether or not one relationally be- a great impact, yet they never insulted were too judgmental and narrow- longs to the person of Jesus Christ. the traditional religion of the Ephe- minded to receive the Kingdom. Sectarian Mission versus Kingdom Mission (based on Hiebert 1994, Anthropological Reflections on Missiologibal Issues, Grand Rapids: Baker, chapter six.)
Sectarian Mission: The goal of mission is to expand a particular Kingdom Mission: The goal of mission is to encourage denomination or religious tradition by encouraging people people to enter the Kingdom of God by becoming disciples to join it and to comply with the membership criteria of its of Jesus as their King, Savior and Lord, and to obey all he has boundary markers. commanded.
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When Jesus commissioned his apostles religion. It is open to everybody, Many Christians regard this situation everywhere on equal terms. Jesus to make disciples in all ethnic groups, he as less than ideal and want believers never used the word religion, for he told them to teach the new disciples to in other denominations and sociore- was not founding a new religion to do everything he had commanded. This set over against other religions, for ligious groups to leave them and join would have included his command to religion is man’s search for God. The one like their own, so they can be alike believe that God is one and is due their Gospel is God’s search for man. So and can benefit from the advantages of undivided love (as commanded in Mark anything good in any race, religion, their own tradition. However, what is 12:29) and what he taught about the or culture, which is worth preserv- clearly important for spiritual growth Kingdom of God, as well as the good ing, will not be lost in the Kingdom. is that people (1) belong to the invis- attitudes and behavior he commanded “I come not to destroy but to fulfil.” ible ecclesia of God’s Kingdom and for the people of God’s Kingdom. Jesus Anything good that can be fitted (2) be part of a local ecclesia of fellow did not, however, command everyone to into the Kingdom in culture or reli- members of the Kingdom. observe one particular pattern of worship, gion will be fulfilled in the Kingdom. The Greek word ecclesia originally and he did not establish one himself. He “Into it the kings of earth bring their meant an assembly of citizens, called commanded his people to be constant in glories . . . they shall bring to it the out of their homes and places of work prayer, faith, love, peace, and joy. In prac- glories and treasures of the nations” to meet together. In the New Testament tice these virtues have been encouraged (Rev 21:24–25 Moffatt). it usually signifies local assemblies of by religious services of a variety of forms, But the Church is not the exclusive citizens of the Kingdom of God or the highlighting the fact that various religious agency of the coming of the King- citizenry of the Kingdom as a whole. In activities and institutions are instruments dom. Wherever men bring forth the the Greek Old Testament it translates of God’s mission rather than the goals fruits of the Kingdom, there the qāhāl, meaning an assembly, usually of of mission. Their encouragement should Kingdom is, to that degree, inside the 21 God’s people, and sometimes the whole therefore be in accord with what is best Church or outside the Church. for the individuals and faith communities community. The question then arises as Jones observed from experience that concerned rather than for purposes of to what constitutes an authentic ecclesia there are people belonging to diverse proselytism. Guidelines for this concern of the people of God’s Kingdom? There socioreligious groups who accept were clearly established in a 1997 report are, of course, diverse ecclesiologies, as the authority of the Bible, believe 22 issued by the Roman Catholic church Kärkkäinen’s survey ably shows, but in Jesus Christ as their Lord and and global leaders of Pentecostal and historically theologians have distin- Charismatic churches after seven years Savior, and “bring forth the fruits of guished an authentic local ecclesia by its of dialogue. They agreed that evangelism the Kingdom,” and who must there- spiritual qualities and its visible practices. is “an essential part of the mission of the fore belong to the Kingdom. Today Irenaeus wrote in 180 AD that it is Church” (§8), but “proselytism is an un- there are hundreds of thousands of through the Holy Spirit that we have ethical activity” (§93) and “must be avoid- born-again followers of Jesus and the “communion with Christ . . . and the lad- ed” (§94). Evangelists and church leaders Bible within non-Christian sociore- der of ascent to God,” and that “where ligious groups, such as Jews, Mus- the Spirit of God is, there is the Church, should “respect the dignity of persons and 23 their freedom to make their own choices” lims, Buddhists, and others, and the and every kind of grace.” So, by his (§93).19 Mark Driscoll writes, “Therefore, amazing evidence of God’s grace and definition, the spiritual indicator of an while not imposing religion on anyone, spiritual fruit among them is unde- authentic ecclesia is that the Spirit of the church of Jesus Christ is to constantly niable. This situation is represented God is present, conveying God’s mani- be proposing reconciliation with God again in Figure 7. fold grace to his people through Christ. to everyone . . . [using] timely biblical Figure 7: The Kingdom of God includes people from many different socioreligious groups. methods that are changing depending upon culture. This is the essence of what it means to be a missional church that contextualizes its ministry.”20 E. Stanley Jones described the rela- tionship between the Kingdom of God and religions, including forms of Christianity (which he called “the Church”). He wrote: This kingdom is bound up with no culture, no nation, no race, and no
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As for the practical indicators of a he spiritual indiactor of an authentic ecclesia is local ecclesia, John Calvin described them as follows: that the Spirit of God is present, convenying Wherever we see the word of God God’s manifold grace to his people through Christ sincerely preached and heard, T wherever we see the sacraments administered according to the in- It is evident from the variety in the claimed the opportunity for people to stitution of Christ, there we cannot natural world and from the teachings become heirs of the Kingdom of God have any doubt that the Church of of the New Testament that God values through faith in him; he taught them God has some existence, since his diversity. At the time of Christ there what to believe, what to value, and promise cannot fail, “Where two was religious conflict among Jews, how to behave as citizens of the King- or three are gathered together in Samaritans, and Gentiles, but Christ dom; he died for their sins and rose my name, there am I in the midst 24 “himself is our peace, who has made to life for their salvation; and he sent of them.” us both one and has broken down in the Holy Spirit to guide his disciples, his flesh the dividing wall of hostility,” This implies leadership as well, which empower them, and sanctify them. 25 making all believers “fellow citizens L. D. Waterman makes explicit. Jesus then commissioned his disciples with the saints and members of the Different Christian traditions have to serve the mission of God them- household of God” (Eph 2:14, 19). different leadership structures, observe selves by proclaiming this Gospel of When John was granted an end-time the Lord’s Supper in different ways, the Kingdom to every ethnic group vision of the redeemed in heaven, as and baptize differently, some not (Matt 24:14; Mark 16:15), by dis- 26 recorded in Revelation, he could dis- even using water, yet they do have cipling those who believe in each cern representation of every language these things in some way. Even Jesus group, by baptizing them in the name and social group. As for religions, there fellowships outside Christianity, such of the Father, the Son, and the Holy is no temple in the world to come, and as ones among Orthodox Jews and Spirit, and by teaching them to obey presumably no religions: “his servants Sunni Muslims, have leaders, study all that Jesus had commanded (Matt will worship him,” and “they will see the Scriptures, celebrate the Lord’s 28:19). God gave the people of his his face” (Rev 22:3–4), knowing God Supper, and baptize in various ways. Kingdom—the global ecclesia—the fully, even as He knows them (1 Cor Some Christians object to Kingdom Bible, the Holy Spirit, the fellowship 13:21). Then it will be clear, as E. assemblies like these which do not of the saints, and gifts of ministry to Stanley Jones said, that God’s “king- identify with a form of Christian equip them to minister and lead them dom is bound up with no culture, no religion, but they exist anyway, and to maturity in Christ. Local ecclesiae nation, no race, and no religion.” it is important to give God time to foster the spiritual growth and minis- After this I looked, and behold, a great develop these faith communities in the try of God’s people by facilitating their multitude that no one could number, way he wants. God spent two thou- from every nation, from all tribes and meeting together to study the Bible, sand years working with the Hebrews peoples and languages, standing be- to praise God, to pray for one another before he sent Christ and inaugurated fore the throne and before the Lamb, and for others, to be instruments of his Kingdom. It was more than a clothed in white robes, with palm God’s grace to their whole community, thousand years after that before the branches in their hands. (Rev 7:9) and to nurture the Kingdom quali- satisfaction theory of the atonement ties of love, righteousness, peace and was developed, and centuries more Conclusion joy ( James 2:8; Rom 14:17). Thus the before it took the penal substitution- Bible reveals a Kingdom paradigm of From the foundation of the world, ary form that evangelicals now take for the mission of God and of the role of God prepared the future Kingdom granted as the Gospel.27 God’s people in this mission. This shows for his children to inherit at the end that God works over time, and that we of this age (Matt 25:34), and we can Jesus did not found an institutional need to be patient while he works with say that the mission of God has been religion or commission his disciples to new bodies of believers in contexts to direct history towards this goal. To propagate one. Nevertheless, organized outside the Judeo-Christian cultural that end God gave us the Scriptures religions have enormous instrumen- sphere, using them to spread the Word and the Savior, Jesus Christ—who is tal value in serving God’s mission. throughout their societies while God himself, the Word of God in- Christian religious institutions provide bringing them into maturity as King- carnate—to be the Messianic King of an organized means of evangelizing, dom communities. God’s present (and future) Kingdom baptizing, discipling, and teaching, While humans tend to value unifor- and to save people into it for God’s supplemented by home groups. When mity and oppose differences, these eternal glory. Jesus fulfilled the divine disciples of Christ in non-Christian natural tendencies create division. mission in several ways. He pro- cultures remain outside of institutional
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Christianity, they usually rely on home (Washington, D.C.: Catholic MacArthur, John Biblical Association of America). 1985 Matthew 1-7 (Chicago: Moody meetings alone for these services. On Arndt, W. F. Press). the other hand, when these disciples 1950 ‘The New Testament Teaching on Matera, Frank J. retain their native social identity and the Kingdom of God’, Concordia 1982 The Kingship of Jesus: Composition and take a Kingdom-of-God approach to Theological Monthly, 21/1, 8–29. Theology in Mark 15 (SBL Disser- mission and ecclesia, the Gospel of the Beasley-Murray, G. R. tation Series 66; Chico, California: Kingdom often spreads throughout 1992 ‘The Kingdom of God in the Scholars Press). Teaching of Jesus’, Journal of the O’Neill, J. C. their social networks, leading many Evangelical Theological Society, 35/1, 1993 ‘The Kingdom of God’, Novum more to faith in Christ, including 19–30. Testamentum, 35, 130-141. whole families. Bright, John Ridderbos, Herman 1953 The Kingdom of God: The Biblical It is evident from the Bible and 1962 The Coming of the Kingdom (Phila- Concept and its Meaning for the delphia: P&R Publishing). from observation that the ultimate Church (Nashville: Abingdon). 1982 ‘Kingdom of God, Kingdom of mission of God has not been to Calvin, John Heaven’, in J. D. Douglas (ed.), make some particular denomination 1972 [1559] Institutes of the Christian New Bible Dictionary (2nd edn.; or socioreligious group triumphant Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge Leicester, England: IVP), 656-659. over others, nor to limit his grace to (London: J. Clarke). Van Engen, Charles E. Driscoll, Mark one of them, but to lead history and 2009 ‘The Uniqueness of Christ’, in Ralph 2010 Doctrine: What Christians Should Be- Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne humankind into a new and perfect lieve (Wheaton: Crossway Books). (eds.), Perspectives on the World world, his eternal Kingdom. That Edersheim, Alfred Christian Movement: A Reader (4th future Kingdom will have no temple 1971 The Life and Times of Jesus the edn.; Pasadena: William Carey and no need for religions as such, Messiah (3rd edn.; Grand Rapids: Library), 176–182. “for its temple is the Lord God the Eerdmans). Waterman, L. D. Almighty and the Lamb” (Rev 21:22). Erdman, Charles 2011 ‘What Is Church? From Surveying 1966 The Gospel of Mark: An exposition Scripture to Applying in Culture’, God himself will dwell among his (Philadelphia: Westminster). Evangelical Missions Quarterly, 47/ people (Rev 21:3; cf. Lev 26:12; Zech Hiebert, Paul G. October. 2:10; 2 Cor 6:16), and they will delight 1994 Anthropological Reflections on Missio- Winter, Ralph in his presence. They will have perfect logical Issues. Grand Rapids: Baker. 2009 ‘The Kingdom Strikes Back: Ten “righteousness, peace and joy” in their Hunt, Boyd Epochs of Redemptive History’, in Ralph Winter and Steven C. relationship with God and with one 1993 Redeemed! Eschatological Redemption and the Kingdom of God (Nashville: Hawthorne (eds.), Perspectives on another, to the eternal glory of his Broadman and Holman). the World Christian Movement: A name. God’s mission will have been Irenaeus Reader (4th edn.; Pasadena: Wil- accomplished. 1907 [180] ‘Against Heresies’, in Alex- liam Carey Library), 209–227. 2009 ‘Three Mission Eras and the Loss Behold, the dwelling place of God is with ander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe (eds.), The and Recovery of Kingdom Mis- man. He will dwell with them, and they Ante-Nicene Fathers (1; New York: sion, 1800–2000’, in Ralph Winter will be his people, and God himself will Christian Literature Publishing and Steven C. Hawthorne (eds.), be with them as their God. He will wipe Co), 309–567. Perspectives on the World Christian Jones, E. Stanley Movement: A Reader (4th edn.; away every tear from their eyes, and Pasadena: William Carey Library), 1972 The Unshakable Kingdom and the death shall be no more, neither shall there 263–278. Unchanging Person (Nashville: be mourning, nor crying, nor pain any- Abingdon). Wright, N. T. more, for the former things have passed Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti 1996 Jesus and the Victory of God: Christian IJFM Concepts and the Question of God away. (Rev 21:3–4) 2002 ‘Identity and Plurality: A Pente- costal-Charismatic Perspective’, (Minneapolis: Fortress Press). References International Review of Missions, 2009 ‘Building for the Kingdom: Our Work is Not in Vain’, in Ralph 1997 Evangelization, Proselytism and 91/363, 500–503. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne Common Witness: The Report from Ladd, George Eldon (eds.), Perspectives on the World the Fourth Phase of the International 1984 ‘Kingdom of Christ, God, Christian Movement: A Reader (4th Dialogue 1990 – 1997 Between the Heaven’, in Walter Elwell (ed.), edn.; Pasadena: William Carey Roman Catholic Church and some Evangelical Dictionary of Theology Library), 96–97. Classical Pentecostal Churches and (Grand Rapids: Baker), 607–611. Leaders
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Movement: A Reader (4th edn.; Pasadena: 8 W. F. Arndt, ‘The New Testament 19 Mark Driscoll, Doctrine: What Chris- William Carey Library, 2009), p. 210. Teaching on the Kingdom of God’, Concor- tians Should Believe (Wheaton: Crossway 2 Mark Driscoll, Doctrine: What Chris- dia Theological Monthly, 21/1 (1950), p. 20. Books, 2010), p. 312. tians Should Believe (Wheaton: Crossway 9 Charles Erdman, The Gospel of Mark: 20 Evangelization, Proselytism and Common Books, 2010), p. 411. An exposition (Philadelphia: Westminster, Witness: The Report from the Fourth Phase of the 3 Herman Ridderbos, ‘Kingdom of 1966), p. 35. International Dialogue 1990 – 1997 Between the God, Kingdom of Heaven’, in J. D. Doug- 10 “Jesus was announcing that the long- Roman Catholic Church and some Classical Pente- las (ed.), New Bible Dictionary (2nd edn.; awaited kingdom of Israel’s god was indeed costal Churches and Leaders (1997)
28:2 Summer 2011 Kingdom and Church Integral Mission and the New Mission Applicant: Absorbing the Positive without Neglecting the Essential by Bradford Greer
estern mission organizations are encountering applicants who eagerly desire to engage in transformational intervention and W development in order to facilitate the development of just and equitable communities. The gospel is their impetus to work with the poor, the disenfranchised, and with at-risk groups. Passages such as Luke 4:18–19 and Matthew 25:31–46 constructively shape their passion to ensure that social dimen- sions of the gospel are actualized in their areas of service. Yet, these applicants are increasingly inclined to overlook a vital component of the gospel: Christ’s work in liberating individuals and communities from the debilitating aspects of our human fallenness through his giving of the promised Holy Spirit. Thus, an unhealthy dualism continues to pervade people’s understanding of the Church’s mission. Though applicants are zealous to represent Jesus, the Christ, they are less inclined to have people encounter Jesus as the Christ. This trend is only going to increase over the next ten years.
This current trend is a natural outgrowth of a fifty-year shift in cultural as- sumptions and values. Due to this shift in values more and more people view traditional articulations of the biblical message as dehumanizing and over- spiritualized. A number of Protestant churches have been very slow to adapt to this cultural shift and changing perception. Part of the reason for their slowness is that these churches would have to acknowledge that their articulation of core doctrines are no longer adequate and need revision. It appears that the churches’ commitment to their dogmatic theologies has outweighed their commitment to Scripture and to being culturally relevant.1 Thus, it is an irony of history that c Protestant churches have aligned themselves with their traditional readings of Scripture and thereby created a need for another reformation. This reformation is already in process and the aforementioned trend among new applicants is Bradford Greer (Ph.D., Fuller simply one outcome of this process. Theological Seminary) has been working in Islamic contexts for over Rather than bemoan the cultural shifts within our western societies and peo- twenty years. ple’s consequent negative reaction to traditional dogma and creeds, I suggest International Journal of Frontier Missiology 28:2 Summer 2011•61 62 Integral Mission and the New Mission Applicant integrating the positive developments Christians though they do not yet the behavior of these missionaries and that have arisen from these cultural call themselves so.4 at the motivation behind this adoption shifts and through a courageous return Applicants are much more cognizant movement. Adoption should be a to Scripture construct contextual theolo- of the diversity within the human race means of expressing unconditional love gies that make sense to those seeking to and refuse to neatly divide the world and seek the well being of the entire serve Christ in this generation. between the “good” Christians and person, not just her/his soul. However, this adoption movement was simply Out of these theologies must come an the “bad” non-Christians. They see the natural outcome of a dualism that integrated, holistic paradigm of mis- many people doing good and acting placed undue emphasis on people’s sion. This paradigm of mission must nobly in a variety of circumstances. spiritual condition. intentionally value the tangible, social They also read the Scripture and see impacts of the gospel as well as the examples of goodness that do not fit This dualistic view of humanity has absolute necessity of the involvement into our classical paradigm. Cornelius created a somewhat irreconcilable of Jesus, the Spirit, and the Word in exemplifies one who was considered a dichotomy in mission. Mission workers creating transformed communities. good man and God heard his prayers either focus on proclamation and Thus, this mission paradigm will view because of his goodness. And this church planting or on working to these dimensions of the gospel as happened prior to Cornelius hearing improve the conditions of people’s lives integral to the Church’s engagement about Jesus (Acts 10:1–4). This only through intervention or development. with the world. reinforces their perception that the In addition, missionaries tend to classic theological position is irrelevant, disparage the work of those on the In this paper I will describe this harsh, and judgmental. other end of the spectrum. cultural-theological shift that is taking place and then suggest ways Rejection of the classical position is Due to the present cultural shift, an that a mission organization can not a new development. Theologians increasing number of applicants are constructively respond to this shift have disagreed over the impact of the aligning themselves on the intervention among their applicants. The intention fall since Augustine. Erasmus and and development side of the spectrum. would be to develop their applicants’ Luther debated the issue. Arminius The outcome of this is that they place capacity to understand and value disagreed with the Calvinist position. diminishing significance on verbally integral mission as the Church’s Brunner argued about it with explaining the gospel. One young man’s appropriate response to its world in Barth.5 However, many churches reply to a question about sharing his the first quarter of the 21st century. have been intolerant of alternatives faith exemplifies this: “I would rather to the classical position and reified give a cup of cold water to the one who Dehumanizing Dogma and pejoratively labeled alternatives is thirsty.” Calvin’s understanding of original as Pelagian or Semi-Pelagian. This This seeming irreconcilable dichotomy 2 sin and the consequent statement historic intolerance has crippled the between proclamation and social in the Westminster Confession that church’s ability to adapt to the present action and the rejection of traditional, “all are made opposite to all good cultural shift. fundamental doctrines has created 3 and wholly inclined to evil” have a quandary for mission work. First, enjoyed predominance as the classical Overspiritualized Focus the confidence of many of the new “Christian” position. This doctrine is More and more applicants also react applicants in traditional theological used to neatly divide the world into two negatively to the dualistic view of formulations has eroded. Second, since camps: Christian and non-Christian, humans as bodies and souls and the Scripture provides the basis for these good and bad. consequent overemphasis on focusing traditional theological doctrines, its However, many applicants no longer on people’s souls while neglecting authority and relevance is questioned. 6 see the world this way. C. S. Lewis the circumstances of their lives. An Third, the corrective move against rejected this perception of the world extreme example of the negative seeing human beings as souls and back in the 1940s when he wrote: outworking of this dualistic view neglecting of the social dimensions of occurred in the aftermath of the the gospel has influenced new workers The world does not consist of 100 earthquake in Haiti. Some earnest percent Christians and 100 percent to place diminishing significance non-Christians. There are people (a Christians went to Haiti and tried to on gospel proclamation. Finally, great many of them) who are slowly take 30 children back to the United this change is reinforced by the way ceasing to be Christians but who still States. These Christians were part of applicants view humanity. People are call themselves by that name: some a small movement that encouraged not as evil as the Church’s doctrines of them clergymen. There are other adoption so children could come to have portrayed them. Thus, it is people who are slowly becoming faith. Many Christians were aghast at increasingly felt that there is less of a
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Bradford Greer 63 compelling need in mission for people ow is the admission that ‘all have sinned’ to encounter Jesus as the Messiah than there is to help people experience significant? How is it meant to shape the fruits of the gospel: liberation from way the Church engages in mission? oppression and corruption, equal H access to education, equal rights, and engages in mission? Is it enough that the Torah. However, the disturbing equal opportunity. Christian workers seek to represent narrative of the history of Israel is The objective of a mission organization Christ and engage in interaction that even with the presence of God might be to co-labour with Christian and development so that people are among them the Israelites consistently development programs that address empowered in new ways to create just failed to follow the Torah. Over time strategic needs and match action with and equitable communities? the constructive purpose of the Torah was lost and eventually replaced by clear gospel presentation. This objective There are those who would assert that its effect.9 Rather than being the is increasingly going to be difficult a Christian presence is unnecessary and guidance on how to build authentic to achieve in the present context. Is may even hinder people’s attempts in communities, the Torah became the there a way forward in this changing creating meaningful community. The standard that showed people how environment? I suggest that one way Swedish film,As it is in Heaven, asserts “sinful” they were (Romans 3:19–20). forward is to absorb the positive within this very proposition. (By the end of The narrative teaches us that even this cultural shift without neglecting 2008, this movie possibly became the with proper instruction and even with the essential. longest running film in Australian the presence of God, constructing just history.) The local Lutheran priest in Identifying Our Problem: and equitable communities is virtually the film is unable to produce authentic impossible for human beings. Fallenness in Narrative community, and he even hinders its Perspective development. In contrast, those who The repeated failure of the people of First, what must we as Christians increasingly detach themselves from Israel in building just communities believe? Is it essential that we believe the priest and the church are the ones should indicate to each and every the doctrine of original sin as it has who are able to create a meaningful Christian worker just how serious been historically articulated? community through the sharing of a a problem our human fallenness is. The doctrine of original sin arose out common purpose, extended interaction, Though it may be demeaning to view of the desire to answer the question: growing transparency, and gradual our fellow human beings as “totally Why is everyone remarkably prone to acceptance of one another. depraved,” the Scripture appeals to 7 us to humbly acknowledge that we doing what is wrong? In one sense, The film constructively criticizes as humans have a serious problem embedded within the question was that which certainly needs criticism: and that we ostensively obstruct the an admirable admission. Theologians a religious Christianity that fails to tide of human, social, and economic humbly and honestly agreed that Paul produce authentic Christian ethics development and the creation of just described themselves when he said: in people’s lives. The film, however, and equitable communities.10 “For all have sinned and fall short of intimates that creating an authentic, the glory of God” (Rom. 2:23 ESV). just community is possible apart Valuing God’s Solution: The These were not people who were from Christ. Is this truly possible? New Covenant pointing the finger at others. They Rather than looking for answers in Second, just as we must humbly overtly acknowledged that they also did propositional statements, let us turn to acknowledge the debilitating impact wrong like everyone else. the narrative of Scripture. of our human fallenness on achieving It would have been nice if the Bible God had extended his loving grace transformational development and the had definitively answered this question. to the people of Israel by freeing creation of just communities, we must If it had, then there would have been them from their slavery in Egypt. He also intentionally value God’s solution no room for disagreement over the brought them out of Egypt and took to our human predicament. answer. However, the Scripture does them to Mount Sinai. At Sinai God God saw how his people had clearly affirm the human predicament: gave Israel the Torah so that they repeatedly failed to develop authentic, wrongdoing (sinning) is the universal would know how to build fulfilling, God-honoring communities and he human experience. meaningful communities in the land he 8 responded by giving a new covenant. How is this admission that ‘all was to give them. In this covenant he provided a way have sinned’ significant? How is it The Israelites entered the land with for humans to be transformed and meant to shape the way the Church the promised presence of God and empowered to create authentic
28:2 Summer 2011 64 Integral Mission and the New Mission Applicant communities. Ezekiel lucidly be just and meaningful. Proclamation 2. to enable the development of articulates this new covenant: acknowledges that we humans do not goods and services on a con- I will sprinkle clean water upon you, have the power to overcome our self- tinuing basis, and and you shall be clean from all your destructive inclinations. Proclamation 3. to live in ways that respect and uncleannesses, and from all your idols affirms that God has created the preserve their environment.
I will cleanse you. A new heart I will means for our release from the These objectives align well with give you, and a new spirit I will put debilitating effects of our fallenness. the church’s mission. However, as within you; and I will remove from Christians we do not expect these your body the heart of stone and give Affirming God’s Purpose: objectives to be obtainable apart you a heart of flesh. I will put my Spirit Salvation to the Ends of from the direct involvement of within you, and cause you follow my the Earth Jesus, the Word, and the Spirit. statutes and be careful to observe my Finally, God’s solution enables rules (Ezek. 36:25–27 ESV). Although we do not disparage the communities to be transformed efforts of development work over It was Ezekiel’s articulation of this from the inside out and actualize the the past fifty years or so, we are covenant to which Jesus referred when ethical standards enshrined in the compelled to acknowledge that the he told Nicodemus: “No one can enter Torah/Scripture. The actualization of results have been disappointing, and the kingdom of God without being born these ethical standards is included in understandably so.14 of water and Spirit” ( John 3:5 NRSV).11 the word salvation. Since salvation embraces the totality God’s solution to the human predicament of individuals and communities, the was to provide a means by which we Church’s mission cannot be broken could be transformed. The solution down and dichotomized into two included the perfect sacrifice of Jesus, We are compelled to opposing categories: proclamation his resurrection, and his ascension into vs. intervention and development. heaven so that Jesus could pour out on us acknowledge that Integral to the Church’s mission is the the Spirit. The Spirit would empower us proclamation and the demonstration of to live according to the ethical standards the results have been the gospel. The Church’s mission is to that were enshrined in the Torah.12 disappointing . . . engage in integral mission: By means of this covenant and the Integral mission . . . is the proclamation work of Christ we enter and actualize and demonstration of the gospel. It is the kingdom of God in our midst. not simply that evangelism and social Without the empowering Spirit human involvement are to be done alongside each other. Rather, in integral mission beings are simply unable to create just The Scripture indicates that our proclamation has social conse- and meaningful communities. salvation is not to be solely thought quences as we call people to love and The tragedy of Christian history is that of in spiritual terms (forgiveness, repentance in all areas of life. And our we have deemphasized the Spirit’s role justification, etc.) or individual terms social involvement has evangelistic in actualizing in us the ethical standards (personal salvation). The scope of consequences as we bear witness to to which the Word calls us. Instead, salvation embraces individuals ( John the transforming grace of Jesus Christ. If we ignore the world we betray the we have overemphasized the role of 3:16), communities (Acts 8:5–8), the environment (Lev. 25; Rom. word of God which sends us out to cognition, belief and justification. Our serve the world. If we ignore the word desire to be free from guilt has caused us 8:19–20), and ultimately the cosmos (Eph. 1:9).13 In addition, God’s of God we have nothing to bring to to neglect the ethical standards to which the world. Justice and justification by purpose is that this salvation, this the Scriptures call us. Our apparent faith, worship and political action, the neglect of biblical ethics and our lack message of hope, of empowerment, spiritual and the material, personal of dependence on the Spirit in creating of ethical standards, and of its change and structural change belong transformed, authentic Christ-like lives transformational impact, be taken to together. As in the life of Jesus, being, is what has fueled the contemporary the ends of the earth (Acts 13:47). doing and saying are at the heart of antipathy to Christianity, an antipathy Contemporary objectives of sustainable our integral task (The Micah Declara- tion on Integral Mission) exemplified byAs it is in Heaven. development (Harris 2000) reflect the biblical, ethical standards in significant This clarifies the reason why Conclusion ways. These objectives are: proclamation is essential to the A cultural shift has taken place over church’s mission. It is an integral part 1. to develop a just and equitable the past fifty years that has positive of how God enables communities to society within a cultural milieu, benefits. While it may have caused
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Bradford Greer 65 people to reject traditional theological Lewis, C. S. 5 For more contemporary digressions explanations of the world, it has 1952 Mere Christianity. New York, NY: from the classical position, see Donald enabled people to embrace diversity Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc. Guthrie, New Testament Theology (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. 1981). See and change, to think reflectively, as well Ovaska, Tomi 2003 “The Failure of Development also Ben Witherington, III, and Darlene as expect authenticity in faith. These Aid”. Cato Journal 23(2):175-188. Hyatt, Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Socio- positive impacts of this cultural shift The Micah Declaration on Integral Mission Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: should be lauded. However, this shift Accessed 21 February 2010. http:// William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, has undermined people’s confidence in www.micahnetwork.org/en/ 2004), p.144-153. 6 traditional church structures and in the integral-mission/micah-declaration N. T. Wright, The New Testament and Scriptures, and caused them to question Twelftree, Graham H. the People of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress the value of gospel proclamation. 2009 People of the Spirit: Exploring Luke’s View of the Church. Grand Press, 1992), p. 252-253. I suggest that mission organizations Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. 7 See Alan Jacobs, Original Sin: A Cul- recognize this shift in the thought White, R. E. O. tural History (New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, 2008), xv. world of its applicants and adapt to it. 1984 “Salvation”. In Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, edited by 8 Bradford Greer, “The Sharia of God: If possible, I suggest they contextualize Walter. A. Elwell. Grand Rapids, A Contextual Bridge for Islamic Contexts”, their theology so that it can highlight MI: Baker Book House. The Evangelical Missions Quarterly, 44/3 the essentials of the faith in ways that Witherington III, Ben (2008). Also, Christopher J.H. Wright, are not perceived as demeaning and 1998 Grace in Galatia: A Commentary on Old Testament Ethics for the People of God that fully value all that God has done Paul’s Letter to the Galatians. Edin- (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, burgh, UK: T. and T. Clark Ltd. 2004), p. 25. through Christ for his creation. In Witherington III, Ben 9 Ben Witherington, III, Grace in this way these organizations may help and Darlene Hyatt Galatia: A Commentary on Paul’s Letter to the their applicants align themselves more 2004 Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Galatians. Edinburgh, UK: T. and T. Clark completely with God’s purpose and Socio-Rhetorical Commentary. Ltd, 1998), p. 256. engage in integral mission, helping Grand Rapids, MI: William B. 10 Christopher Wright, “’According individuals and communities actualize Eerdmans Publishing Company. to the Scriptures’: The Whole Gospel in the salvation that God offers. IJFM Wright, Christopher J. H. Biblical Revelation”, Evangelical Review of 2004 Old Testament Ethics for the People Theology, 33/1 (2009), p. 13. of God. Downers Grove, IL: Inter- 11 Andreas Köstenberger, ‘Encoun- References Varsity Press. tering John: The Gospel in Historical, Calvin, John 2009 “‘According to the Scriptures’: Literary, and Theological Perspective’, in W. 1936 Institutes of the Christian Religion. The Whole Gospel in Biblical A. Elwell (ed.), Encountering Biblical Stud- Translated by J. Allen. 2 vols. Vol. Revelation”. Evangelical Review of ies (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1. Philadelphia, PA: Presbyterian Theology 33(1):4-18. 1999), p. 84. Board of Christian Education. Wright, Nicholas Thomas 12 See Greer, 2008. Greer, Bradford 2009 Justification: God’s Plan and Paul’s 13 See also R.E.O. White, “Salvation”, 2008 “The Sharia of God: A Contex- Vision. Downers Grove, IL: in W.A.Elwell (ed.), Evangelical Dictionary tual Bridge for Islamic Contexts”. InterVarsity Press. of Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book The Evangelical Missions Quarterly 1992 The New Testament and the People House, 1984). 44(3). of God: Christian Origins and the 14 See Tomi Ovaska, “The Failure of Guthrie, Donald Question of God. Minneapolis, Development Aid”, Cato Journal, 23/2 MN: Fortress Press. 1981 New Testament Theology. Downers (2003), p.175-188. Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Harris, Jonathan M. Endnotes 1 2000 Basic Principles of Sustainable De- See N.T. Wright, Justification: God’s velopment. Medford, MA: Global Plan and Paul’s Vision (Downers Grove, Development and Environment IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009), p. 39-53; Institute, Tufts University. also Graham H. Twelftree, People of the Jacobs, Alan Spirit: Exploring Luke’s View of the Church 2008 Original Sin: A Cultural History. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, New York, NY: HarperCollins 2009), p.2. Publishers. 2 See John Calvin, Institutes of the Chris- Köstenberger, Andreas J. tian Religion, trans. J. Allen. (Philadelphia, 1999 Encountering John: The Gospel in PA: Presbyterian Board of Christian Educa- Historical, Literary, and Theologi- tion, 1936), Vol. 1. II.i.8. cal Perspective. Edited by W. A. 3 See Calvin, Institutes, 6.4. Elwell, Encountering Biblical 4 See C.S.Lewis, Mere Christianity Studies. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker (New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co. Academic. Inc., 1952), p. 176.
28:2 Summer 2011 Kingdom and Church Mission as Word and Deed: Transcending the Language of Priority by Alan Johnson
n a recent trip to Chennai, India, I stole some time in a little food stall to order my thoughts. I found myself between two friends on Oopposite sides of the evangelism/social action debate. I had always been able to dodge this bullet. Now I couldn’t evade a commitment to either proclamation or Christian social action. In my own ministry I had just evan- gelized like crazy and tried to help the poor in practical ways. If people had a problem with my social activities I would say, “Hey, I’m not a role model, I’m just trying to do what God told me to do.” I even recall some years back, in my inaugural address for the Hogan Chair of World Missions at the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary, stating I was glad that all the debate over evan- gelism and social responsibility was well past us. My friends tease me about that now. Debate continues and I find it’s time for me to clarify my position.
Let me back up a minute and explain myself. I’m uncomfortable, like many of us, that the church has developed bifurcating language around ministry in “word” and “deed.” But I have always felt dissatisfied with attempts to do away with the tension by using catchword phrases like “no distinction between word and deed.” It seems to separate things just as much as prioritizing one side or the other. If there is no distinction, if they are equal, then I can just do one or Alan Johnson has served for 25 years the other without having to make any connections between them. The prob- in Thailand with Assemblies of God lem is that we can’t assume the world will understand our “good deeds” have World Missions (USA). He still lives in Bangkok where he develops any relation to the gospel. What we do is constantly filtered by people through training for reaching those influenced their worldview, and our unexplained deeds could take on a meaning that is by Buddhist worldviews. He is totally unconnected to the good news of what God has done in Christ. Secretary of the World Assemblies of God Fellowship Missions Commission So I would say really clever stuff like, “Do everything, at the same time, all the c which focuses on majority world mission sending, and assists their Asia time!” “We need the whole package!” But then I got knocked off the fence in Pacific leadership team in their focus an email discussion between these two friends and colleagues who had locked on unreached people groups. He is horns in this debate. The core of their discussion focused on the nature of the author of the recent book, Apostolic Function in the 21st Century Gospel and whether that term was to be understood in the narrow sense of what (reviewed in IJFM 26:4, p.203). God has done in Christ being proclaimed verbally to the world, or in the broad International Journal of Frontier Missiology 28:2 Summer 2011•67 68 Mission as Word and Deed: Transcending the Language of Priority sense of embracing all expressions that biblical data about the gospel and God’s gin with three theological premises we are consonant with God’s reign. concern for human welfare on the earth, all can generally agree on, but I want but rather in the real-time practice zone So, there I was parked in a food stall in to link them to two new inter pretive of actual concrete ministry situations. So Chennai, India, trying to sketch out a constructs that might help bring clar- it is not so much a theoretical matter of solution for these two friends. I had two ity to various ministry scenarios. what takes priority, as it is a contextual goals in mind. The first was to provide 1. The term euangelion (good matter of what we are doing or should some concepts to help build bridges news, gospel) was used in be doing in any particular place or between those who find themselves secular Greek to describe an circumstance. Underlying all this debate more on one side of the continuum than event that changed the world, are actual experiences (often negative) the other. The second is to bring some thus it was good news. The which color the contemporary discus- analytical perspectives that can poten- gospel writers appropriated sion on best practices. It seems to me tially help to clarify issues as people work this term to describe what that if folks who lean to one side or the things out in real-time on the ground in God has done in Jesus Christ; other saw more people living out the ministry. As I pressed forward to answer this covers the entire redemp- middle ground (“do everything all the my two friends, I had to review multiple tive event from his birth mission theologians and church histori- through his ascension and the ans, some which I mention herein. But I pouring out of the Spirit. profited most from the recent writing of 2. This good news is then an- Christopher Wright, who perceptively nounced, the verb kerysso mean- led me beyond the language of priority The polar positions ing ‘to proclaim as a herald’. For to a new terminology that integrates are not helpful those who experience this good evangelism and social action. But before news personally, they then her- hearing Wright I think we need to un- starting points for ald the good news of salvation pack some of our conceptual tendencies. discussion and the coming of the new age. Moving Away from Ideal 3. Good news calls for an indi- Type Polarities vidual response, but results What I have found is that most often in a corporate entity, the new our discussion about the evangelism/so- community of faith. These local cial action nexus is carried out in abstract expressions of Christ’s body time”), they would feel less compelled to scattered throughout the world terms. Almost like the Weberian ideal emphasize one side of the other. They 1 bear witness to the good news types, we tend to profile the positions would be quite happy pragmatists who and announce it to the world as polar opposites. On one end you have preach and serve (and many journals in word and deed as they live people who only preach the Gospel and would go out of business because under God’s rule. do nothing to help people along in this nobody would be writing long essays world, and on the other you have people about the subject!). But there is enough I now want to run these basic New Tes- who do helpful things for others and problematic reality between both ends of tament ideas through two interpretive never say a word about Christ. Reality is the continuum to keep the ink flowing. grids. The first comes from Paul Johnson of course more complicated because the My suggestion here is that the polar in his History of Christianity, where he preachers usually get involved in people’s positions are not helpful starting points introduces the notion of “matrices” lives, and visa-versa, the helpers often for discussion and that it will be more (sing., matrix) that are inherent to the talk of their faith. Very few at the end of productive to find tools that are helpful Christian faith. The term matrix is the day would be willing to affirmonly in discerning how things are played out used in a number of different fields, proclaiming the Gospel or only doing in concrete ministry situations. but its original meaning had to do social action without reference to the with the source or origin from which good news of Jesus. A Theological Perspective: something takes form or develops. I see two important points here. First, Matrices and Explosion The idea of matrices emerges from for the sake of developing argument we If we are going to resist the temptation Johnson’s interpretive sweep of tend to utilize abstract scenarios, but to argue from opposite poles, how are Christian history in which he notes in real-time everyday life we are much we to proceed? What I am proposing how the faith simultaneously un- more integrated. Second, many of the here is a possible way toward construc- leashes both vital spontaneous forces pressing issues are not located in that tive dialogue that helps build a more as well as institutionalizing tenden- theological zone where we interpret the integrative strategy and practice. I be- cies. The tension between spontaneity
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Alan Johnson 69 and the existing institutional order is he mission of the Church in the pages of the endemic to Christianity, but he roots this tension not just in the innovations New Testament is more like the fallout from a themselves, but in the very ‘matrices’ vast explosion. (Lesslie Newbigin) of our faith as the gospel encounters T each new context (1976:234, 252). What happens if we interpret these led early Christians to rescue these Johnson uses his astute historical New Testament premises through the babies in defiance of social norms. perspective to help us see why our ideas of “matrices” and “explosion”? faith has the potential for manifold Different Groups Do 1. One matrix that is always interpretation and action. He describes Different Things produced when the Gospel is the teaching of Jesus as “more a series The more I have thought about the accepted and a community of of glimpses, or matrices, a collec- relationship between evangelism and faith comes into being is an tion of insights, rather than a code of social responsibility, the more I’m explosion of joy to shout the doctrine. It invites comment, inter- convinced that much of tension can be message. Just as any explosion pretation, elaboration and constructive resolved when two sets of conditions, radiates from the center out to argument, and is the starting point two “starting points”, are kept in view. the margins, so we see in the for rival, though compatible, lines of The first is an appreciation for differ- New Testament that centrifu- inquiry. It is not a summa theologica, ent kinds of groups. The second is the gal movement where the good or indeed ethica, but the basis from presence and vitality of the church in a news extends from Jerusalem to which an endless series of summae given social setting. I will discuss them the uttermost parts of the earth can be assembled” (1976:28). He in this order. among every tribe and tongue. notes how “the theological wisdom of First, let me affirm that at the level of 2. A second matrix is an explo- Christ, in providing a whole series of the individual Christian in his web of sion of caring. As God’s people, matrices for future experiment, was personal relationships, sharing good living under his rule, it brings demonstrated again and again as new news and caring in Jesus name are us into a collision course with varieties of Christian action came into done holistically, often simultaneously, all that is not right in the world. existence, flourished and declined” and not sequentially. Word and deed Note in Genesis 18:19 that (1976:234). What’s important for our are wrapped together and hard to un- God’s choosing of Abraham subject at hand is to see in Johnson’s pack in such close relations. Winter’s to bless all the nations also insight just how the ‘matrices’ of our point that in family you never choose includes “keeping the way of gospel can lead to “rival, though com- between evangelism and caring for the Lord by doing what is right patible, lines of inquiry”, to “varieties needs is well taken (1990:99). In an and just.” This matrix of caring of Christian action,” and to ongoing relationship over time deeds will always challenge the status “future experiment.” are interpreted by words, and testi- quo of the world system and mony to the Gospel is confirmed by The second perspective comes from its acceptance of the abuse of our deeds. the work of Lesslie Newbigin in power, corruption and violence. his chapter entitled “The Logic of However, when you move outside the Mission” in The Gospel in a Pluralist Because these matrices are not un- boundaries of individuals and kin- Society. Newbigin challenges the idea changing codes fixed by one single ship relations the dynamics begin to of the mission of the church as purely context, but rather provide the energy change. We can expect the balance obedience to a command. He suggests for unending creativity to generate between word and deed to change that the New Testament evidence new responses in new situations, we when we consider local churches argues for a mission that begins “with are not limited to only New Testament (modalities), mission teams (apostolic a kind of explosion of joy. The news scenarios. Thus the matrix of shouting bands that function as sodalities), that the rejected and crucified Jesus is the good news meant that when dis- parachurch organizations, or faith- alive is something that cannot possibly tinct ethnolinguistic peoples without based NGOs. We run into problems be suppressed. It must be told. Who a gospel witness were encountered, when we try to treat all of these enti- could be silent about such a fact? The a new burst of energy and transla- ties in the same way and hold them to mission of the Church in the pages of tion was generated to address this. the same balance of word and deed. the New Testament is more like the Although we have no record of Jesus The relationship between evangelism fallout from a vast explosion, a radio- rescuing babies who had been chained and social action is clarified if we active fallout which is not lethal but to die in the wilderness, the matrix of allow that different kinds of orga- life-giving” (1989:116). caring extended into new contexts and nizational forms handle these two
28:2 Summer 2011 70 Mission as Word and Deed: Transcending the Language of Priority matrices in different ways. They will primary purpose of the apostolic band What happens if you are standing in the do some things better than others. is to make disciples and form local middle of 80 million people who don’t It’s understandable that for groups congregations. Mission teams may do know Christ, or who may have a minis- or organizations to be successful they many things that allow them to stay cule number of Christians, and no viable need to do some things to the exclu- on the ground in a given location, but church movements? In this scenario our sion of others. That organizations will the focus is narrow. theological statement takes on a more focus only on evangelism, or only on sequential feel because you have to an- Christian social action, is not at all Different Starting Points Need nounce the good news in order to build strange, nor does it mean they deny Different Kinds of Action the community of faith that will in turn the importance of the part that is not Even if we own that these different live out the message. That proclama- their focus; it’s simply a matter of kinds of groups (in this case local tion may indeed be wrapped in loving staying on course with their reason church modalities and mission team Christian social action, but in such a for being. sodalities) have different kinds of circumstance, explanation of the gospel is needed in order to make sense of that It is a bit more complex when we make priorities and do different things action, and the overall priority will be a distinction between local churches well, we also must face a second on evangelism and making disciples into and mission teams. While some people faith communities. feel uncomfortable with this, I think it is more analytically powerful and stra- Let’s change the scenario again. What tegically sound to see the mission team if you are in a place with many forms sodality as functioning with a much of Christianity, much of it nominal, narrower agenda than local church I’m convinced that with large viable church movements modalities. Local churches have “fam- amidst crying physical needs and all ily” type characteristics, work primarily much of the tension kinds? And these churches have nicely within their own sociocultural sphere, dressed folk sitting in little buildings have a multiplicity of giftings, and their can be resolved on Sunday and going to heaven while members are embedded in relationships they ignore the marginalized outside within the community. To evange- their doors? Here we have the criti- lize and care in Jesus name should be cal function of waking up these local the DNA of all local churches, and church modalities to the fullness of it’s critical they develop structures or what the good news means. strategic factor: the presence or mechanisms to both evangelize and absence of Christians, churches, and I need to make a few qualifying state- care as widely as possible. If for instance church movements. ments so I’m not misunderstood. First, one of those mechanisms focuses only to say that the work of the mission on social action, it still flows out of the Let me synthesize a sentence from sodality has the goal of planting the life of the local church and its witness the theological perspective above and church does not mean that the social remains holistic in nature. In this sense, then vary the scenario so that we can concern it may be involved in is a what individuals do in terms of witness see how it plays out in terms of the “carrot on the stick” activity designed and caring in their relationships is relationship between evangelism and primarily to warm people up to hear expressed on a wider canvas of a local social action. about Jesus. It has to be genuine love church and its community. God desires to see humans redeemed in Jesus’ name and because Jesus loves and reconciled to him and to live out people, with no strings attached. When we consider the mission team sodality, I understand its function in a the values of heaven under his rule in Neither can this social concern be dis- a community of faith that is salt and narrower sense, defined classically by connected from who we are, because light to the world. the Pauline notion of taking Christ the “who we are” in Christ is what is where he is not known. The priority Note that you cannot separate the driving our actions and that needs to is the evangelistic matrix and the goal different aspects of this statement be made clear. is making disciples that form local since it’s a cycle, where those who ex- Second, when local churches express church modalities and then bear wit- perience reconciliation are announc- God’s compassion for the hurting in ness and live out the values of God’s ing the good news, then birthing new their local setting, it does not mean rule. Whereas local churches do both people into the community of faith, that they abandon evangelizing those things through the life and witness and who in turn are salt and light. who are non-Christians around them of their individual members and the But how do the different aspects play as well. Christian social concern in a ministry expressions of the church, the out in different contexts? place with visible and vibrant forms of
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Alan Johnson 71
Christian faith can enhance under- standing of the gospel. he objection is usually couched in terms of the Thirdly, we have to be careful not to observation that . . . Paul did not campaign for export local church modality practices the end of slavery automatically into the sodality set- T ting. It’s an uncritical and naïve use gestion that is the best biblical and theo- hermeneutic: to concentrate on the of method. It has been my observa- logical basis I have ever seen for avoiding spiritual significance and marginalize tion that many times local churches bifurcating terminology. The material the political, economic, and social in the West that are not very socially that follows is drawn from Wright’s dimensions; or to concentrate on the active at all in their own setting, want The Mission of God chapters eight and latter so that the spiritual dimension is to “do mission” by some kind of social nine on the Exodus and Jubilee. lost (2006:276). action in a cross-cultural setting. This Wright argues that God’s model of Wright begins the chapter on jubilee becomes problematic at several levels. redemption is the exodus event. The by noting that the exodus was a single If they are going to a place that has Hebrew verb ga’al at Ex. 6:6 and 15:13 historical event. God was concerned churches and Christians, their efforts are the first occasions (with the excep- that its basic principles be worked out are often completely outside of existing tion of Gen. 48:16) of the language in Israel’s everyday life. “There needed church structures. They can damage of redemption. When a person is the to be an ongoing commitment to eco- the effort and morale of these existing subject of the verb the term is go’el nomic and social justice, freedom from churches, or in other cases, they set a (redeemer) (2006:266). The English oppression, and due acknowledgement disempowering example of what social word redeem from its Latin roots sug- of God through covenant loyalty and ministry is by implying it can only be gest a financial transaction where you worship” (2006:289). Wright says done with funding from the West. If ‘buy something back.” But in ancient that if the exodus was God’s idea of they are going to a place with few or Israel the go’el had wider social dimen- redemption, then the jubilee found no Christians, their assumption that sions associated with the demands in Leviticus 25 was God’s idea of people will “see Jesus” in their actions of kinship. The ‘kinsman protector’ restoration (2006:290). After working is unfounded. It’s an assumption based or ‘family champion’ was involved through the details of the institution on their experience in their home in avenging shed blood, redeeming he then looks at its evangelistic, ethi- setting where there is more visible land or slaves, and providing an heir cal, and eschatological implications, Christian faith and a common culture (2006:266–67). ‘The go’el then, was a concluding that “the wholeness of the and worldview. It can have disastrous near kinsman who acted as protector, jubilee model embraces the wholeness consequences (like the accusation of defender, avenger or rescuer for other of the church’s evangelistic mission, “buying” people to become Christians) members of the family, especially in its personal and social ethics and its rather than helping people understand situations of threat, loss, poverty or future hope” (2006:300). more about the gospel. injustice” (2006:267). The next twenty pages in this chapter Back to Theology: Chris Wright’s Wright asks the question, “When in Wright are critical, but I cannot Notion of Ultimacy God decided to act in the world and produce the argument in detail here. in human history in a way that could Having dodged the bullet for so many What Wright does masterfully is to be pictured as a go’el in action, what years, and having remained highly respond to the objection that New did he do?” (2006: 268). He points involved both in evangelism and Testament mission is only evangelistic out that the exodus shows political, social ministries, I personally have had and not holistic. He not only responds economic, social, and spiritual no problem with using prioritizing to this objection, he also sets out a dimensions. “In the exodus God language (i.e., first evangelism, then perspective that embraces both evan- responded to all the dimensions of social concern). Years ago during gelism and holism. Israel’s need .[the exodus] effected real a discussion about the relationship change in the people’s real historical The objection is usually couched in between word and deed a friend said situation and at the same time called terms of the observation that Jesus that logically, at the very least, there them into a real new relationship did not get involved in politics, and has to be a priority on evangelism since with the living God” (2006:271). Paul did not campaign for the end of you can’t have Christian social action He concludes that Exodus-shaped slavery, so therefore is not New Testa- without there being Christians.2 redemption demands Exodus-shaped ment mission to focus on evangelism? There are some, however, who find mission (2006:275). He warns that (2006:303). Wright answers these prioritizing language very problematic.3 there are two interpretive options that objections on hermeneutical, historical Chris Wright offers an alternative sug- fall short of this holistic missional and theological grounds. I want to draw
28:2 Summer 2011 72 Mission as Word and Deed: Transcending the Language of Priority on just two of his points. First, he says response the wholeness of finance “social ministry” so they can do that it is a false hermeneutic “to argue God’s missional response to mission. What you often find is that that whatever the New Testament tells the human predicament—and they are not motivated theologically, us about the mission of the followers of that of course includes the good but rather by an issue, a technique or a Christ cancels out what we already know news of Christ, the cross and trend that is currently popular and can about the mission of God’s people from resurrection, the forgiveness of raise interest and funds. There’s a loss the Old Testament” (304).4 Second, he sin, the gift of eternal life that of intentionality and commitment to looks at the centrality of the cross, then is offered to men and women the longevity of perspective required unpacks all of God’s purpose through through our witness to the to announce why they are doing what the cross, and then shows how the cross gospel and the hope of God’s they are doing. This kind of work must be the center of our mission: “The new creation” (319). retains the “form” but loses all the fact is that sin and evil constitute bad heart and ends up becoming “mission news in every area of life on this planet. When I first worked through this as stuff that makes us feel good.” It The redemptive work of God through material it just jumped off the page to voids the outworking of God’s mission the cross of Christ is good news for me. It was the first time I had found a priorities in a given place. way of expressing things that did not every area of life on earth that has been Many cross-cultural workers in touched by sin, which means every unreached people groups are seeing more area of life. Bluntly, we need a holistic and more visitors (and even new recruits gospel because the world is in a holistic to the mission) who are enamored by a mess” (2006:315). The notion of particular social, economic or political He then turns to examine the issue of issue rather than a vision of Jesus and primacy/priority between evangelism “ultimacy” does better his glory among the nations. In the part and holistic mission. Based on his at leading us of the world where I live we now have theological work with the exodus, people contacting our team who want to jubilee, and the cross, he suggests that towards more come and free sex slaves in a one week the notion of “ultimacy” does better mission trip. When you are standing in at leading us towards more integrated integrated practice. the middle of millions of lost people your practice. Here is a brief summary heart cries out to such well-intentioned of what this ‘ultimacy’ looks like folks “Please, preach the unsearchable (2006:317–319): riches of Christ!” Jesus is the pearl of • Think of mission as a whole let anyone off the hook. To focus on great price and only as people come to circle of all the needs and only one side or the other is to have know him can lasting change come to opportunities that God sends us a defective and truncated mission. their social systems. We dare not demean to address in the world. Because ultimacy keeps us focused on the mission of God by doing stuff that • If you analyze a particular local the Cross and how it addresses the full makes us feel good. We can’t have our context, it will reveal a complex range of human brokenness, the need little forays out into the real world and web of interconnected factors for priority language disappears. then escape to our air-conditioned constituting the whole range of technology filled bedrooms, throw brokenness, sin, and evil across The Contemporary candy at people in Jesus’ name, or video the entire human dimension. Trajectory: Problems in document naïve interventions that have • The key question then is, Trends and Applications failed before the plane lifts off to return home. In some cases, full-time cross- “What constitutes the good As I noted above, much of the news of the biblical gospel in debate on the relationship between cultural workers can become experts in this whole circle of interlocking evangelism and social action relates playing the home base heart strings in presenting needs and not to theological issues but to how order to keep a steady stream of teams underlying causes?” (318). that relationship is played out in and funds flowing. The missionary role devolves into managing visitors who • Virtually any starting point can practice. From the fieldworker side, be appropriate, depending on when you are in a place with few want to “do missions” in the space of what is most pressing, so you Christians and trying to preach the a ten day trip. That is mission on our enter the circle anywhere. gospel and plant the church, it is terms, not God’s costly mission. • But “ultimately” we must not rest frustrating and even frightening to Of course, one can also reverse this content until we have included see people from local churches in scenario and see how field personnel within our own missional the West who want to come and/or deeply involved in caring for physical
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Alan Johnson 73 needs would feel when people come God’s mission and their participation 2006 The Mission of God: Unlocking the and just want to “get them saved” in it. The language of ultimacy keeps Bible’s Grand Narrative. Downers and ready for heaven. What can be everything in view, helping our words Grover, Illinois: IVP Academic. theologically clear from one side or make better sense, helping us to move Endnotes the other gets very tangled as it is towards better practice in our mission 1Ideal types are generalized abstract played out on the ground. It’s why I contexts, and giving this generation a more integral understanding of mission concepts that describe not an individual often quip to my missionary colleagues course of action, but an idealized or ‘typified” as word and deed. IJFM that missions education is lifetime one (1947:12-13). Weber said that seldom if employment. There is so much ever can real phenomena be found that cor- confusion about notions of mission. References responds to an ideally constructed pure type Even after you explain something in a Johnson, Paul (1947:110); it is used for purposes of analysis. crystal clear fashion people will go and 1976 A History of Christianity. New 2Later on I discovered Chris Wright York: Simon and Schuster. do the opposite because that is what makes the same point (2006:316). Newbigin, Lesslie 3 mission is to them, regardless of what Wright enumerates some of the 1989 The Gospel in a Pluralist Society. problems in using primacy/priority language. the Bible says. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans. It implies all else is secondary; it suggests So what do we do in the real world something has to be your starting point when Weber, Max where people lean instinctively towards 1947 The Theory of Social and Economic in reality a serial approach is not always pos- either side of this evangelism/social Organization. Translated by A. M. sible or desirable and does not fit the practice concern issue? I believe we must Henderson and Talcott Parsons. of Jesus; and to insist that social change will promote a more integrated picture of Edited with an Introduction by come as believers influence society reflects Talcott Parsons ed. New York: a flawed logic—people will copy what they mission. We need to talk in terms of Free Press. ultimacy, not just priority. It allows us know and if all they see is evangelism that is Winter, Ralph all they will produce (2006:319). to deal with people on the basis of what 1990 “Mission in the 1990’s: I. Ralph 4Wright argues that “the paradigmatic has fired their heart first. Whether it D. Winter.” International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 98–102. force of the socioeconomic legislation that gov- is evangelism or caring for the poor, erned Israel’s life in the land still has ethical and in whatever relational interface we Wright, Christopher J. H. 2004 Old Testament Ethics for the People missional relevance for Christians” (2006:304). find ourselves with them, we can start of God. Downers Grove, Illinois: This point is developed in detail in his book to build a more integrated picture of InterVarsity Press, 2004. Old Testament Ethic for the People of God.
28:2 Summer 2011 Kingdom and Church How Do Cultures Really Change? A Challenge to the Conventional Culture Wisdom: Part 2 by William Bjoraker
he first part of my article on the missiological merits of James Davison Hunter’s recent book, To Change the World, appeared in the T previous issue of IJFM (28:1, January–March 2011). As we launch into this second part, let’s recall the overall logic of the two parts. Reassessing Culture and Culture Change Hunter offers a bold reassessment of the “common view” of how Christianity changes culture. He claims that the conventional wisdom fails to explain how cultures really change. We looked at five historical examples that confound the conventional wisdom on culture change. Then we began to exegete Hunter’s own explanation of “the real problem” by examining his seven propositions on the nature of culture. I list these propositions again since they provide a neces- sary preamble to Hunter’s thesis of culture-change. 1. Culture is a system of truth claims and moral obligations. 2. Culture is a product of history. 3. Culture is intrinsically dialectical. 4. Culture is a resource, and as such a form of power. 5. Cultural production and symbolic capital are stratified in a fairly rigid structure of William (Bill) Bjoraker is a “center” and “periphery”. theologian of mission specializing in 6. Culture is generated within networks. Jewish Studies and Contemporary Western Culture. He and his wife 7. Culture is neither autonomous nor fully coherent. served in pastoral and teaching roles We begin this second part by turning to his four propositions on culture-change, as missionaries in Israel for eight years. His PhD dissertation, “Faith, beginning with proposition #8. I have also added a further proposition of my Freedom and Radical Individualism own, which accounts for an aspect of culture change ignored in Hunter’s thesis. in Late Modern America,” assessed individualistic social dynamics 8. Cultures change from the top down, rarely if ever from the bottom up. in late modern American culture. 9. Change is typically initiated by elites who are outside the centermost Bjoraker serves on the faculty of positions of prestige. William Carey International 10. World-changing is most concentrated when the networks of elites and the University, and as a missionary to institutions they lead overlap. the Jewish people under the General Council of the Assemblies of God. 11. Cultures change, but rarely if ever without a fight.
International Journal of Frontier Missiology 28:2 Summer 2011•75 76 How Do Cultures Really Change? A Challenge to the Conventional Culture Wisdom: Part 2 12. Social crises, catastrophes and the Bjoraker’s Comments: to bring lasting culture change. It had consequent trauma provide optimal Here is where I would differ some- to be embraced by the top for lasting conditions for maximal culture change. what from Hunter. I think it clear change to occur. But, again, it is not (Bjoraker) that broad and lasting change will accurate to simply say that the signifi- I will provide historical evidence and require reaching elites, but populist cant culture-change wrought by the revisit previous examples from Part movements from the bottom-up Civil Rights movement was “from the 1 to substantiate Hunter’s view of should not be underestimated. When top-down,” though its final success culture change. We’ll explore some the bottom puts pressure on the top, required the top. So regarding this missiological implications and finally if it is sufficiently strong and sus- movement, Hunter is partly correct. suggest one example in mission praxis tained, the top often responds and It may have been more accurate for that seeks to apply Hunter’s perspec- begins to change in the direction Hunter to apply his Proposition #3 tive. I also will try and provide some agitated for from the bottom. Change (“culture is intrinsically dialectical”) to suggestions along the way on how we can begin in a number of locations in this perspective on the locus and direc- might use Hunter’s perspective in cul- the society. The key is whether or not tion of change. I’m suggesting a dia- tures where we serve across the world. change reaches and is embraced by lectic between the top and bottom… All page references, (p.__ ) or (pp.__), those with symbolic and cultural cap- and the middle, and perhaps points are to Hunter’s book. ital, those elites, networks, resources, in between. Though the systemic ele- ments of culture are symbiotic, they’re Four Propositions on How not symmetrical, not always rationally Cultures Really Change predictable or coherent. Culture is 8. Cultures change from the top down, complex, often chaotic, filled with ironies and unintended consequences. rarely if ever from the bottom up Hunter boldly claims Hunter states, “… the deepest and that virtually all popular Fascinating examples of culture change most enduring forms of cultural are transpiring in the Middle East change nearly always occur from the Christian leaders are and the Arab world in the so-called top down.” In other words, the work of “Arab Spring.” As I write, Tunisia, world-making and world-changing are, wrong about how Egypt, Libya, Syria, Yemen and more by and large, the work of elites: gate- culture changes . . . are experiencing political revolutions. keepers.” (p. 41). It is true that there Clearly these are populist revolutions are many economic, social and politi- and began mostly from the bottom- cal movements which appear to occur up catalyzed by Facebook and social from the “bottom up”, but their ends networking technology (though those institutions and power structures that are often limited and short-lived, unless with access to this technology were carry enough influence to be agents “the top” embraces and implements not on the bottom of the bottom). of systemic and structural change. the change. Political revolutions that In these revolutions, the top did not Change can begin at the bottom, but succeed nearly always involve leader- embrace the changes; the “top” was it must finally become a wave that ship from the ranks of marginal and ousted. In the first two revolutions at crests at the top, or it will just crash disaffected elites who build new orga- least, the top leaders were faced with back to sea; here Hunter appears nizations. Though the impetus may rejection by their own institutional to be correct. But it is not entirely come from populist agitation, it does power bases and were forced to resign. accurate for Hunter to claim “cultures not gain traction until it is embraced So the change movement was de facto change from the top down.” and propagated by elites. This is embraced by elites near the top, if not because capacity (cultural production and An example is the American Civil the very top. To what degree whoever symbolic capital)1 is not evenly distrib- Rights movement of 1955–1968, led is now at “the top” implements the uted in a society, but is concentrated in by Martin Luther King, Jr. In this changes—“freedom and democracy” certain institutions and among certain case change did begin from a bottom- as advocated by the liberal forces the leadership groups who have lopsided up populist movement.3 True, it bottom—is still too early to tell as I access to the means of cultural pro- would not have succeeded in changing write (August, 2011). But change is duction. In the fairly rigid structure American society without President not happening from the top-down of center and periphery explained in Lyndon Johnson embracing the cause in these revolutions, as I understand Hunter’s Proposition #5, Hunter claims and successfully getting a bill through Hunter to hold to be generally the that culture-change happens largely via Congress and signed into law as the case. And let us note that most revolu- the elite “gatekeepers” at the center of Civil Rights Act of 1964. Grassroots tions end badly—the French (1789), cultural production.2 mobilization alone was not enough the Russian (1917), the Chinese (1949)
International Journal of Frontier Missiology William Bjoraker 77 producing worse tyranny and violence e contends that this model not only does not than the regimes they overthrow. But change culture they certainly did. The work, but it cannot work. On this basis, chaos in the current Libyan revolu- Christians cannot “change the world.” tion is massive. H The Case of Egypt Islamists (esp. Muslim Brotherhood) 9. Change is typically initiated by on the other. Sharia law and democ- elites who are outside the centermost The current revolution in Egypt racy are incompatible. The Army may positions of prestige will be an interesting case study for yield the to the obligation they feel Change is often initiated outside the this proposition. Readers may assess centermost positions. When change the predictive accuracy of Hunter’s to the strong populism that ousted Mubarak, and facilitate free elections. is initiated in the center, it typically proposition and my analysis here comes from outside of the center’s If so, the top will have embraced the one year, three, or five years out nucleus. Innovation moves from elites 4 change coming from the bottom, and from this writing (August, 2011). and their institutions to the general it could be lasting and society-wide. If The euphoric and intoxicating population, but from elites who do not not, it will be an instance in which a rush toward a hoped-for demo- necessarily occupy the highest ech- wave of change began at the bottom, cratic representative government elons of prestige, who are not the top but the changes advocated from the by populist protesters without first gatekeepers. Hunter agrees with Italian carefully building the necessary bottom did not crest at the top, so social theorist Vilfredo Pareto, who democratic institutions—(a free the wave crashes back to the sea. The argues that elites are either “foxes” or press, free elections, a legislature Islamic organizations have a vast net- “lions” (p. 43). Lions are the leading with a healthy opposition that really work of resources (Propositions #4, 6), gatekeepers who defend the stability stands a chance of coming to power, and may vote themselves into power, of the status quo. Foxes are those who a judicial system not dictated by and then make sure it is the first and innovate, who experiment and take religious or ideological prejudices, last free election (just as Mubarak risks for change. Foxes are usually effective rule of law enforcement) never held free elections). This is what second tier elites, who challenge the (Proposition #3)—makes it extremely Hamas did in Gaza in 2006, and what authority of the lions. But it is difficult likely that authoritarian power will Hezbollah did in Lebanon in its de for foxes to maintain a stable social win the day, trumping the ideas of facto takeover in 2010. order, so the lions eventually win out. freedom and democracy even if the More interestingly, when the foxes win majority aspire to them. Democracy If the populist movement fails, and autocracy again wins the day in Egypt, out, they become the new lions. There is widely hailed but little understood is a “circulation of elites” (Pareto’s by the people. Underlying the ability Hunter’s Proposition #8 will be confirmed (at least in this instance), term), and foxes are both the primary to create successful institutions and change agents and the ones who arise that lasting and society-wide culture the kinds of institutions they create to replace the new lions. are the cultural values and practices change must come from the top-down. that characterize a people. As Daniel It will be simply a different kind of Bjoraker’s Comments: Etounga-Manguelle said, “Culture is autocracy emerging—a shift from This proposition is an elaboration of the mother; institutions are the chil- Mubarak’s secular autocracy to an Proposition #8, asserting that while dren.” Egypt has no cultural history Islamist theocracy. Cultural differences cultures change from the top-down, of democracy or representative gov- do make a difference—the American it’s the second-tier elites who play the ernment (Proposition #2). They have Civil Rights movement changed critical role. One of the authors Hunter only known pharaohs, kings, and society due to the presence of repre- critiques is Andy Crouch, currently autocrats. So, Egypt is now under the sentative democratic institutions that an editor–at-large for Christianity authoritarian rule of the Army. emerged from a cultural history that Today Magazine (pp. 27–31). Crouch values the rule of law and established responded to Hunter in an online Will modern Egypt emerge from this Christianity Today article (Sept. 12, military dictatorship? What comes next? institutions championing freedoms and rights. Egypt lacks both. 2010). Following is a quote from If a power struggle between Islamists Crouch’s article: Can you observe and the Army is the major contest, Reflection Question: Hunter and I do have very different whichever of these two entities win, any other top-down or bottom-up culture instincts on the role of cultural elites. the result will be an autocracy. There change in the society you are studying? Of course, by definition, elites have are multiple parties, but largely two What has catalyzed this? Explain the disproportionate influence on cul- main camps—a broad constellation dynamics as best you can. How can change ture. That is how we know they are of liberals on the one hand, and the agents be most effective? elites. Yet history is full of surprises,
28:2 Summer 2011 78 How Do Cultures Really Change? A Challenge to the Conventional Culture Wisdom: Part 2 not least the cultural reverberations cultural enclave or sub-system can insignificant consequences. But an from an apparently failed Messiah bring good, but is subject to the idea whose time has come (read: ideas who spent most of his short career larger nation-state’s hegemony. that have converged with overlapping on the fringes of a colonial outpost resources, money, knowledge; that are If you are study- where washed-up elites like Pontius Reflection Question: located within fields of cultural, social ing a peasant or small-scale oral society, Pilate were put out to pasture. And and political capital; that are operating as I argue in the book [“Culture contextualize this observation by doing near or in the institutions that are at Making: Recovering Our Creative some research to determine whether this the center of cultural production; all of Calling” (2008)], there are significant may describe how change has taken place forms of culture making that can which are moving toward a common in that particular culture. For a larger, purpose) will have consequences. only happen at local scales, and they multicultural society like the United are out of reach of “cultural elites” States or Brazil, your observations will Thus, ideas do have consequences precisely because of their local scale. face greater complexity. in history, but not because they are The president of the Swarthmore- inherently truthful, but rather because Rutledge Home & School Association of the way they are embedded in pow- shapes the culture of our children’s erful institutions, networks, interests elementary school in a way that Arne and symbols. These factors—overlap- Duncan, Secretary of Education, cannot. Indeed, a major function ping networks of leaders and overlap- that elites like Duncan play in our It is more that the ping resources, all operating near, or society is to search the margins culture shapes hearts in, the central institutions of cultural for creative models that they can production and in common purpose— implement more widely. During and minds, than that are the conditions under which ideas the health-care debate, a model finally have consequences. of excellence invoked by all sides hearts and minds in Washington was the Cleveland Analogies of Change Clinic. No disrespect intended, but: shape culture. This is one of Hunter’s strongest Cleveland! Does this not suggest propositions, so allow me to illustrate. that the language of “center” and A rough analogy of culture change “periphery” is too neat to be useful, according to this proposition would be at least in a complex society like the 10. World-changing is most concentrated the phenomenon of a flock of common United States? (Crouch 2010) when the networks of elites and the institutions they lead overlap starlings. Starling flocks of tens of thou- sands can hover in the sky, and then at Crouch makes a valid point. In com- The impetus for culture change, “for a certain point in time, the whole flock plex, multicultural societies, there world-making and world-changing,” is can shift into various shapes. The anal- are just too many nodes or centers greatest where various forms of cultural, ogy is imperfect since starlings do not of tension, conflict, and overlapping social, economic and often political have institutions and elites. But when disparate networks to be able to pre- resources overlap. “… when networks of the energy (resources) of the individual dict change as happening neatly—as elites in overlapping fields of culture and birds in the flock and the timing and either “top-down” or “bottom up.” In overlapping spheres of social life come peasant, or small-scale oral societ- direction of the starling flock’s intended together with their varied resources and shift converge (overlaps), the whole ies, this Proposition #9 has more act with common purpose, then cultures applicability. But in spite of these flock changes configuration quickly. So do change, and change profoundly” also, a whole culture can quite quickly caveats, Hunter provides a necessary (p. 43). Persistence over time is essential; corrective to the popular view that shift if and when these cultural forces little of significance happens in three to overlap and align in common purpose. “grassroots” movements are the key five years. But when cultural and sym- to culture change. The metaphor of bolic capital overlaps with social capital Another analogy is the notion of a “grassroots” (“populism” in Hunter) and economic capital, and in time with ‘tipping point’ found in Malcolm implies connection to the top of the Gladwell’s book.5 political capital, and when these various Imagine for a grass plants that grow from those resources are directed toward shared moment someone making a stack of roots, so faithfulness to the metaphor quarters (American 25 cent pieces) ends, working in synergy, then, indeed, requires, by definition, that change with each successive quarter slightly the world changes. reach the top. Local and peripheral off center in the same direction. This movements may be one key to culture Bjoraker’s Comments: will soon resemble the Leaning Tower change, insufficient of themselves to The maxim, “An idea whose time has of Pisa. The placing of which quarter change a society, except on a small come,” captures this notion. An idea will cause the tipping point? One scale. Such small-scale change in a whose time has not come will have more? Two more? Gladwell offers
International Journal of Frontier Missiology William Bjoraker 79 examples of cultural products that ndividualism has severely weakened the influence of passed a certain point in popular- ity in the market and then “tip.” He the Christian worldview, no matter how many may offers the example of “Hush Puppie” profess Christian faith. shoes, whose sales spread from a few I downtown Manhattan hipster shops they are embodied) are contested. Reflection Question: What are the to every mall in America in the space Institutions and groups defend their best ways to fight the battle for culture of two years (2000:5). He also draws understanding of the world against change within the people group or analogies to disease epidemics that alternatives. The view and structure culture to which you are called? There “go viral.” And at certain times, under most desired and plausible to those are many options, so you need to choose certain conditions, “ideas, products, who have the resources and power your battle(s) wisely. Who are the messages and behaviors spread like is the one that prevails and creates a effective leaders functioning? Why are viruses do” (2000:7). Under certain hegemony (dominance). This is the they effective? How can you help your conditions there is rampant con- phenomenon and process of social and organization to network with those tagiousness, when one little causal political legitimation and delegitima- fighting necessary spiritual-cultural factor can have dramatic effects. tion. Hunter states that legitimation battles, and join forces as allies in a The recent Tunisian Revolution of never goes uncontested, that the strug- common campaign? December 2010, which ended with gle is never even, nor is it fair. For a Bjoraker’s Added Proposition on the ouster of longtime president Zine dramatic example, think of the chaotic Culture Change: El Abidine Ben Ali in January 2011, struggle that will play out in Libya for is an example of forces in a society who will be the legitimate successors 12. Social crises, catastrophes and the reaching a “tipping point.” Cultural to Col. Muammar el-Qaddafi. Who, consequent trauma provide optimal conditions for maximal culture change forces were poised or in a dynamic among the cluster of tribes, will be able I think it vital to include a proposi- state of tension such that it was to establish legitimacy with the people tion that Hunter did not address— ready to tip. Escalating protests and of the nation-state Libya? the important role of liminality in street demonstrations were sparked Bjoraker’s Comments: culture change (from the Latin word by the self-immolation of Mohamed Typically it is through different mani- limen, meaning “a threshold”). It’s Bouazizi, a 26-year-old street vendor, festations of conflict and contest that defined as “a psychological, neuro- whose outrage and despair over the change in culture is forged. Challenges logical, or metaphysical subjective confiscation of his produce cart drove to the status quo must “‘articulate’ with state, conscious or unconscious, of him to this extreme act. Facebook and the social setting” (p.44), which means being on the threshold of or between Twitter quickly connected and united two different existential planes” these forces in networking power. An alternative vision of society… (Oxford English Dictionary). The The forces unleashed by this “tipping must resonate closely enough with the social environment that it then term has been used in anthropol- point” then spread to Egypt, oust- becomes plausible to the people. If it ogy to describe the state that exists ing Mubarak and on to Libya, finally does not, the challenge will be seen as during a rite of passage, the limbo felling Gaddafi; and the consequences esoteric, eccentric, parochial, unrealis- condition when the old phase no are still in process as I write. tic, or irrelevant. longer exists and the new phase has Reflection Question: Do a study of other Leaders implement all intentional not yet begun. During such extraor- societies in which a tipping point has been change. If the leaders lead too far out dinary times, humans are in a more reached, when several overlapping dimen- in front, they will not gain or retain a pliable, malleable state than during sions of the culture converged to make this loyal following. If they are too close to their ordinary lives. So these are happen. How might one facilitate various the people, they are not leaders. There times when individuals and societies networks and institutions to join forces to must be sociological connecting tissue, a can may readily change. facilitate Kingdom of God “tipping point” level of bonding between leading elites Crises in the form of social and natu- culture change? and the masses, or elites will fail to be ral catastrophes—such as war, dis- 11. Cultures change, but rarely if ever instrumental in bringing change to the ease epidemics, natural disasters and without a fight broader society. This process always economic collapse—create a liminal Conflict is one of the permanent fea- involves tension and conflict. Political state which motivates people to seek tures of cultural change. Culture is ter- elections are one means of the contest. new answers, new ideas, and new rain in which the boundaries between But, describing how it works, Karl von resources that give meaning to cope ideals, interests and power (and the Clausewitz said, “war is the continua- with and prevail in the crisis and its structures and institutions in which tion of politics by other means.” traumatic effects. This is especially
28:2 Summer 2011 80 How Do Cultures Really Change? A Challenge to the Conventional Culture Wisdom: Part 2 true when the prevailing religion(s) changes for African Ameri- and/or worldview fail to provide cans. However these changes satisfactory explanation for the crisis, came out of a cauldron and do not provide meaning and of crisis and trauma—the comfort for the suffering. When they This is a kairos lynching and sufferings of fail to provide the resources against the blacks in the South, the destructive forces, new religions moment for change marches, the resistance to and worldview(s) may emerge or be agents to step in. them, the political assassina- adopted, or new social networks and tions of the 1960s culminat- institutions initiated. This is a kairos ing in the martyrdom of Dr. moment for change agents to step in, King himself. All this was in to facilitate change in Kingdom of the broader context of the God directions. trauma of the Vietnam War and the anti-war movement pagans, due to their caring Crisis and Change in History at home, the “generation communities. People were Below I discuss a few historical exam- gap,” the hip, drug, back- ples of rapid culture change in response impressed and drawn to the to-nature, rock music and to crisis, catastrophe and trauma: new religion and its practices. counterculture movements. This resulted in remarkable 1. The Growth of Christian- The “seismic sixties” brought growth of Christianity during ity across the Roman Empire culture change to America. these times and changed during major disease epidem- 4. The Terrorist Attacks of 9/11. the culture of Europe (Stark ics of the Second and Third The catastrophic terrorists 1996:73–90). Centuries A.D. As a result of attacks of September 11, 2. The Window of Receptivity the first major epidemic, “the 2001 effected social, politi- to the Gospel in Japan after Plague of Galen” (165–69 cal and cultural change in World War II. As a result of AD), a quarter to a third of ways too numerous to list or the disastrous calamity that the population died. During describe here, but for a sam- befell the Japanese people the second (251 AD), five pling—the launching of two in 1945, they gave up their thousand people per day wars dramatically changed faith in the emperor as a were reported to have died the lives of several nations, god. The emperor himself in the city of Rome alone. the creation of new institu- renounced his divinity, for These diseases were appar- tions (e.g., The Department it had failed to save them ently small pox or measles of Homeland Security), from the unspeakable (undiagnosed at that time). change in airport and domes- horror of Hiroshima and Most importantly, during tic security systems, the soul- Nagasaki. Their worldview these epidemics the pagan searching within the Islamic collapsed and introduced a gods were shown to be impo- world as it seeks to come to period of liminality (roughly tent in aiding the popula- terms with modernity, new 1945–1950), a period in tion; and the philosophers polarizations of many kinds, which there was a higher had no answers. In contrast, and many films and songs rate of Japanese turning to Christianity provided superior emerging in popular culture. Christianity than ever before explanations (The Fall, sin These comprise some of the and Satan), or since. Though the turn superior mean- changes in culture resulting ing (suffering provides moral to Christianity did not con- from this national trauma. testing, sifting, and moral tinue, the Japanese did turn character formation), and en masse from militarism and Reflection Question: How can you superior comfort (eternal life in emperor worship to modern and your agency be ready to wisely heaven awaits the departed). secularism; the culture had step in with resources and use to full Christians demonstrated radically changed. advantage any catastrophe or crisis superior sacrificial love, service 3. The American Civil Rights among the people you are called to and solidarity in the face of movement of 1955–1968. The serve, such that you facilitate cul- suffering. Christians had a Civil Rights movement cul- ture change toward Kingdom of God higher rate of survival from minating in the Civil Rights values? Anticipate crises, and prepare the epidemics than the Act of 1964 brought radical to use them for culture change.
International Journal of Frontier Missiology William Bjoraker 81 Evidence of Culture Change he key actor or force in history is not individual in History that Verifies the genius but rather the networks and the new Twelve Propositions Hunter offers a brisk overview of institutions that are created out of those networks. key moments in Christian his- T with them—intellectual, institu- creation of mere artifacts.” (brack- tory and of the rise of the European tional, administrative, financial, eted word mine).7 Enlightenment and its various political—all in common cause. manifestations to provide empirical (#s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12) Revisiting the Five Examples evidence for the propositions about (from Part 1) that Belie culture and culture change (pp. 5. Successor Movements: Awakenings, Conventional Culture Wisdom 48–78). I summarize them here. Anti-Slavery Reform and Revivals We return now to the examples cited The “First Great Awakening” gained The numbers after the descriptions of by Hunter at the beginning of this momentum through transatlantic the cultural change movements indi- article (in Part 1),8 that belie “the networking, by leaders with elite cate which of the twelve the proposi- common view of culture change,” educations, and through the synergy tions that operated in the culture and namely, that the beliefs in the minds of overlapping resources. The anti- culture change. of the majority of ordinary individuals slavery movement in Great Britain in a society change the culture of the emerged through elite networks (the 1. The Rise of Christianity as the society in line with those beliefs. Why Dominant Religious and Cultural Force “Clapham Sect” that included British in the Roman Empire in Just 300 Years do minorities have disproportionate MP William Wilberforce) that had influence on culture? I will state the This astounding transformation of access to powerful institutions like the example and then offer my commen- culture moved from periphery to British government. (#s 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, tary based on Hunter’s alternative view center, through networks, institutional 8, 9, 10) of culture and culture change: network of the synagogues, utilizing resources like education, symbolic 6. Beyond Christianity 1. Christian Faith capital, and institutions in urban cen- The European Enlightenment Given the strong Christian heritage ters.6 (#s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10) (eighteenth century) involved intel- in the USA, and that most Americans lectual resources, networking, and admit faith in God, why are Christian 2. The Conversion of Barbarian Europe the symbolic capital of elites and new ideas not more influential in the society? Through monastic networks and lit- institutions. European Socialism eracy, through propagating new truth (1864–1914) involved networks of The Christian worldview is too often claims and the Christian worldview, disaffected elites, drawing heavily on reduced to an intellectual belief through top-down conversion move- the institutions and resources of the system (idealism) that does not ments as kings and tribal chieftains society they hoped to overthrow (e.g. penetrate deeply enough to shape the led their tribes, networks, and entire newspapers that Marx utilized). World moral character of the broader culture and its institutions. The Christian peoples to Faith, most often through War I brought catastrophe, out of Faith does not have enough lever- the resources of overlapping elites. which Marxist-Leninist communism age in the most influential centers (#s 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11) came to dominate Russia. (#s 1, 2, 3, of cultural production and does not 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12) 3. The Carolingian Renaissance carry enough symbolic capital to Through overlapping networks Hunter, making a strong case from influence elite academic institutions, of cultural resources, finance and history, concludes, “The alternative law schools, public policy think tanks, education, and new application of the view of cultural change that assigns magazines and journals, the arts, Christian Faith to learning, as hap- roles not only to ideas but also to popular music, television and film. pened through Charlemagne’s court elites, networks, technology, and An element of pietism and indi- and schools. (#s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10) new institutions, provides a much vidualism contribute to this lack of better account of the growth in influence. The level of elite cultural 4. The Protestant Reformation plausibility and popularity of these capital, networking power, institu- Through networks of urban elites important cultural developments. tional control at the centers of influ- (like university professors), with This is the evidence of history that ence, and media leverage that was their intellectual and cultural capi- change in culture does not occur operational and culturally hegemonic tal, forming new institutions, and when there is [merely] change in the during the Protestant Reformation overlapping networks, drawing from beliefs and values in the hearts and and early America does not exist for the wealth of resources they brought minds of ordinary people or in the American evangelicalism today.
28:2 Summer 2011 82 How Do Cultures Really Change? A Challenge to the Conventional Culture Wisdom: Part 2 2. The American Jewish Community in using the arts and entertainment book companies. Here is an example Why has this small minority group and media to gain acceptance for their of where powerful elites and institu- had influence quite disproportionate agenda. Think of the different televi- tions trump good and truthful ideas. to its size? sion series—“Ellen,” “Will & Grace,” This is less a battle of ideas and more The American Jewish community “Queer Eye for the Straight Guy,” a battle of interests. the “L-Word.” There is now little does have leverage in many influential 5. Abortion on Demand public space to raise moral concerns centers of cultural production, carry Pew Forum surveys said only 15% about this movement; those who do enough cultural capital to influ- of the population hold that abortion are labeled “homophobic.” They have ence elite academic institutions, law should be always legal, and 50% said swayed public opinion, such that the schools, public policy think tanks, only in some circumstances should it Biblical view of sexuality and mar- magazines and journals, the arts, be legal. Why don’t laws and policies riage has lost its cultural hegemony. popular music, television and film. reflect majority opinion on this matter? One thinks of Steven Spielberg in The Gay rights agenda has won film, the many Jewish lawyers and broad support and sympathy to their There are real similarities between writers, entertainment industry lead- values and ideas because they have the abortion rights movement and ers and of financiers like the last two embedded them in powerful institu- the Gay rights movement. Abortion Federal Reserve Board chairmen, tions among elites with resources and rights activists draw upon the major Allan Greenspan and Ben Bernanke. worldview themes of the American Suffice it to say that this Jewish com- national character—utilitarian munity holds the highest percentage individualism and expressive indi- of Nobel prize winners of any ethnic vidualism. Through effective use group, though they comprise only of media—using euphemisms like .01% of the human race Jewish com- To a greater or lesser “reproductive freedom, “the right to munities are strong in culture produc- degree, all cultures are choose,” and “a woman’s right to her ing centers, like New York and Los own body,” that resonate with free- Angeles (whereas evangelical centers illogical, incoherent and dom themes—they have succeeded are in places like Colorado Springs lack integration. to equate their cause with that of and Orlando). freedom and rights. They have influ- enced the views of the “gatekeepers” 3. The Gay Community and the Gay of social opinion; liberal academic Rights Movement institutions and powerful elites How does such a small minority have champion their cause of “freedom of such great influence? social power. Their skills in changing choice.” The ruling of the Supreme The Gay community and homosexual culture have been formidable. Court in Roe vs. Wade in 1973, rights movement draw on major 4. Darwinism is Still the Official Creed which made abortion on demand the worldview themes in the American in US Public Schools law of the land, demonstrates that national character—freedom, utili- Given a near even demographic good and true ideas of the majority tarian individualism and expressive split between those who believe may not win out. Institutions, elites, individualism—for their cause. They Darwinism (macro-evolution) is and resources trump the ideas of the have succeeded in equating their supported by the evidence and those majority of individuals. cause with the American values of who did not, why doesn’t the public freedom and equal rights, which then Missiological Implications schools’ curriculum reflect both views: and Applications draws liberal academic institutions to Creation and Evolution? champion their cause. Their cultural So, we return to that basic question at networks have succeeded in leverag- Naturalism pervades the establish- the top of this two-part article—How ing influential centers of cultural ment view as to what constitutes do cultures really change? What can we production, especially in the media, pure and true “science” and this view learn from a great sociologist about education and the entertainment holds powerful influence over the missiology? Hunter has provided a industry, which then provide accumu- educational institutions. Teachers provocative theory of how cultures lated economic, social and symbolic unions like the National Education really change. How might his insights capital, access to the “gatekeepers” Association (NEA) have institutional assist a Kingdom minded missiol- and the reality-defining institutions leverage. There are vested interests in ogy today? How might we facilitate of society They have been arguably promoting Darwinian views, not only culture change toward Kingdom of God more effective than any other group in individuals’ jobs, but in biology text values and shalom? I will suggest
International Journal of Frontier Missiology William Bjoraker 83 several directions in light of the twelve practice communally, while remaining the people of God engage the world propositions of this study (numbered engaged in the society. It requires a always involves how they relate after each point): proper understanding of “calling,” a to power. Culture change always response to the call of God to work involves power. Cultivate Humility in Our Rhetoric, in all the spheres of culture. Cultural Expectations and Efforts to Engineer This is where Hunter is surely “tipping points” do come. But many the Transformation of Culture correct to challenge a major thrust cultural changes come unintended by The word “transformation” is used of the “neo-Anabaptist” thinking the church and often blindside her. copiously today and many books that holds “that the mark of true Intentional culture change takes a have been written on the theme. discipleship is to ‘accept powerless- visionary, proactive, persistent, coun- Are we overusing and cheapen- ness’”9 (p. 181). Hunter emphasizes, tercultural push that is widely net- ing the word? Certainly not in our “Only by narrowing an understand- worked and resourced and produces vision, aspirations and prayers to ing of power to political or economic a movement. It may take centuries. change the world. But in the results power can one imagine giving up The growth of Christianity in the we claim, I believe many of us are power and becoming ‘powerless’” (ital- Roman Empire took three centuries hollowing out the word. Are we as ics his) (p. 181). Anthropologically, for it to change the culture. Why do individuals and churches assuming we know that only by being com- we think we can change a society in and claiming to be more effective as pletely isolated from the world and a few years? And if the restraining agents in engineering culture change its resources could humans escape than is warranted? Doesn’t the dia- forces resisting change in the broader culture are stronger than the forces being implicated “in the exercise, lectical nature of culture, the various driving change, tipping points do not exchange and contest of power” and unequal loci of power in a come, and the efforts may not bring (p. 181). Since power is expressed culture, its relative incoherence, the lasting culture change. Then also through individuals, through social relative strength and weakness of revitalization and renewal of positive groups of every size and within ideas vs. economic forces, the often changes is needed every generation. every institution it is impossible to unintended consequences of cultural (Propositions #7, 10, 11) avoid or transcend power relations activity and change efforts— doesn’t (p. 179). Everyone and every group this argue for us having a lot less Develop a More Sophisticated has some power, even though they ability to change a whole culture Understanding of the Forms and may be passive aggressive or practice (society) than we might think? Uses of Power in Culture non-violent resistance. Hunter’s proposition #10 asserts that All humans are implicated in power “Powerlessness” is thus a fiction. We change “is most concentrated when relations and the power structures may claim that the church is only an networks of elites and the institu- of the world (except perhaps her- organic fellowship, or a spiritual com- tion they lead overlap.” If this is the mits, but even they are implicated by munity. But it is also an institution, and case, we must ask—how much can trying to escape it). Power is inescap- its members are part of overlapping we arrange the overlapping? It is able, ubiquitous and a universal social communities and institutions in the an extremely difficult challenge to reality across all cultures. We are not real world of a body politic. Christians engineer a “tipping point.” Research only homo sapiens, we are homo potens, have served in the police and armed would suggest that only a counter endowed with a measure of freedom, forces of their countries, in institutions hegemonic movement that is culturally responsibility and power. As Hunter involved with coercion and the use embedded can challenge the power of a states, “human relations are inher- of force. This legitimate use of force reigning cultural hegemony in a society ently power relations” (p. 178). As is necessary in this fallen world order (Howell & Paris 2011:132–137). A a result of the Fall of Man, human (See Romans 13:1–7). So the question measure of humility and a period need to shape nature and to manage is not between power and powerless- of taking stock may be in order, the dangers and insecurities inherent ness, but rather—“how will the church perhaps especially for Americans (I in the world require expenditure of and its people use the power they have?” speak as one), who write most of the energy. That energy expended is an (p. 184). Thus, every evangelical mis- books on transformation. essential expression of power (pp. 177). Yet, because of differ- sion effort that thinks it can evade or Persevere as a Church in Broad and ing capacities of humans to acquire avoid the realities of power is living in Effective Change over Generations resources and to influence the denial, and there will be unintended Holistic change in a culture requires environment, power is inherently consequences of such effort—power developing and sustaining a counter- asymmetrical. Because power and will act upon those who think they culture alternative that socializes power relations are inherent in our are being “powerless.” Changing children in the Biblical worldview and human existence in the world, how culture, therefore, certainly involves an
28:2 Summer 2011 84 How Do Cultures Really Change? A Challenge to the Conventional Culture Wisdom: Part 2 inherent dynamic of power.10 And this tive change. We are homo reciprocans. ized, those with symbolic capital and power can be further specified as to Reciprocity is an inherent motivation cultural resources—the gatekeepers of its forms and uses. 11 But any effort to in the social nature of humans. The a society—must be a strategic focus. facilitate culture change must discern discussion above under “Evidence (Propositions #4, 5, 8, 9) the dynamics of power in the keenest of Culture Change in History…” possible degree.12 Evangelicals should Train Emerging Leaders to Aspire to demonstrates that culture is generated Attain Gatekeeper Roles in Society focus on developing a morally counter- and transmitted through networks, We need disciples of Jesus who excel cultural hegemony, but one that is not that the agency in culture change in their professions, who hold high coercive (unless one serves in a police is not primarily the autonomous offices, who produce culture, who win or legitimate armed force serving state). 14 individual, as in “Great Man” theory. respect and honor in their fields, who The church should not rely heav- The propensity in the West to think thus earn the right to be heard among ily on politics to change culture, but individualistically is deeply imprinted their peers in those fields, who create rather on culture to change politics. into our Western identities and educa- wealth and wisely invest it in the (Propositions #3, 4, 5, 10) tion, at least since Descartes’ “I think Kingdom of God. We need to win therefore I am.” We write myriads of Intensify Our Focus on Understanding university students, and challenge our and Developing Institutions books about personal and individual young people to acquire the best edu- Hunter’s propositions encourage us to transformation and self-help. We cations they can. If the church really develop, maintain and transmit institu- interpret the Bible individualistically, wants to influence culture, we must tions, and in the case of those which using singular pronouns in English equip those believers in the workplace are distorted and unjust, to penetrate translation when the original Hebrew and the professions and encourage and change them. Institutions can be and Greek have plural pronouns that young people to seek careers in areas abusive, but institutions per se are a embody a richer corporate solidarity, of cultural influence. A major ways to good, integral and necessary part of affirming human life-in-community. do this is to engage in the society and any culture. We are homo institutionalis. Overlapping networks produce a to produce culture—higher education, The basic social structures of human synergy in which the whole is greater the arts, science, journalism, the legal interaction are institutions, embody- than the sum of the parts. We need and medical professions, good busi- ing inherited structures, values and to continually cultivate communal ness practices and running for and 15 practices. Some are God-ordained: and network thinking and doing. holding public offices. Believers who marriage and family (Genesis 2:18–24), (Propositions #3, 6) enter these professions must under- stand they do so in response to a call- civil authority or the state (Romans Strategize to Reach the Elites 13:1–7), the church and its leadership/ in a Society ing, and not as “just a job,” a lower or ministry gifts (Ephesians). Though We cannot simply follow the pietistic lesser calling than “fulltime Christian their shapes differ in various cul- tradition and focus exclusively on ministry” in the traditional and pietis- tic sense. We must continue to amend tures, their moral forms are universal. evangelism and church concerns. If this secular/sacred, lower/higher They constitute the socially ordered we hope to change culture, we need dualism. We should teach these call- grounding for human life, they infuse to bring Biblical influence incarna- ings are to be for the common good of and transmit values, and they social- tionally (via human embodiment) the society and love of neighbor, not ize children in the humanizing and into those segments of a culture that just instrumentally for ourselves in the identity-forming traditions of their bear most influence on the society. church, or simply as an evangelistic people. Segments of late modern Often the church has held the notion strategy.16 (Propositions #4, 5, 9) Western culture despise organized that belief that the more Christians religion and distrust the constraints of we have in culture, the more soci- Recover and Use the Power of Story all institutions. We must amend this ety would become good and moral. Although Hunter does not discuss attitude and rightly respect the role Consequently, evangelism has been the use of story and the orality arts, of institutions, and figure them into the focus of the church for many I suggest it as an implication of his our studies and efforts in international decades. But this premise is flawed. first two propositions. All humans development and culture change.13 The more Christians there are in a are hard-wired for story. We are (Propositions #2, 3) society does not necessarily equate homo narratologicus. The postmodern Develop and Maximize Networks to a better culture. A case in point is shift in the West invites the recovery of All Kinds Nigeria, where the majority profess to of the story all the more. Hunter’s Hunter’s propositions assert that facil- be Christians, but the nation suf- propositions have highlighted that itating overlapping networks’ efforts fers serious corruption. While not culture is much more than a cogni- in common cause will bring effec- forgetting the poor and marginal- tive worldview. Two sayings carry the
International Journal of Frontier Missiology William Bjoraker 85 import of this point—“Let me write ditions. After the dropping of the of the public with the political.” He the songs of a nation, and I care not atomic bomb on the two cities of laments their “discourse of negation” who makes their laws” (Plato). And, Japan in 1945, the worldview of the and their ideological move to the right “A picture is worth a thousand words; Japanese collapsed. General Douglas or left of the deeper “culture wars” a story is worth a thousand pictures” MacArthur called for Christian (pp. 129–131). (Anonymous). Stories reach us at all missionaries to come to Japan. Many But I contend that Hunter inappropri- three levels of worldview (the cogni- heeded the call. There was a window ately levels this same charge against tive, affective, and evaluative) in a way of time (of several years) when the the “Reclaiming the 7 Mountains of that abstract, propositional, analytical Japanese people were more recep- Culture” movement (www. forms of knowledge delivery cannot. tive to the Gospel than they had ever reclaim7mountains.com/). This mis- Therefore, any efforts that hope to been or have been since. When the sion movement illustrates the very bring worldview and culture change catastrophes of war, earthquakes, and elements Hunter claims in his propo- must utilize story. epidemics shake a people or nation, sition #10 are required for real and The evangelical missions movement that is when they may turn receptive lasting culture change. This vision has used chronological Bible story- to the Gospel, and are malleable for began with Loren Cunningham, ing for years in reaching non-literate worldview change. The devastating founder of “Youth With a Mission” peoples and oral learners in the non- 9.0 earthquake that hit the east coast in 1975, and then converged with and Western world. Often it was assumed of Japan in March 2011 was just such was confirmed by Bill Bright, founder that storying was only for primary a catastrophe. How can redemp- of “Campus Crusade for Christ,” oral cultures, but the postmodern tive culture change be facilitated in and Francis Schaeffer, Christian turn in Western Culture is driving a its wake? We need to bring more philosopher and founder of “L’Abri.” storytelling revival. The video and than humanitarian aid; we need to Cunningham’s testimony is worth digital age media have conditioned be agencies that creatively plan for quoting here. us, and brought changes in learning action that accelerates culture-change It was August, 1975. My family and I style preferences. Generationally, the toward the Kingdom coming on earth were up in a little cabin in Colorado. Millennials, the Baby Busters/Gen as it is in Heaven. (Proposition #12) And the Lord had given me that day Xers, and even many Baby Boomers Hunter’s work challenges us to think a list of things I had never thought about before. He said “This is the now prefer to learn through spoken deeply about human culture and how and visual means rather than through way to reach America and nations we can facilitate its change toward for God.” And [He said], “You have to the printed word. We have been con- Kingdom of God values. Through see them like classrooms or like places ditioned into a post-literate “second the use of his analysis, we can work that were already there, and go into orality” by our iphones, ipods, ipads, smarter, not necessarily harder (many them with those who are already YouTube, and the social networking work very hard already). We can see working in those areas.” And I call media like Facebook.17 Increasingly, culture changed as an anticipatory them ‘mind-molders’ or “spheres”. Western literate people are hungering sign of the coming consummation of I got the word “spheres” from II for the relational face-to-face commu- that Kingdom, when all things shall Corinthians 10 where Paul speaks in nication of oral cultures that use sto- be transformed anew. the New American Standard about ries, proverbs, songs, chants, drama, the ‘spheres’ he had been called into. poetry, and other forms of communal An Illustration of And with these spheres, there were and interactive events. There is a seven of them, and I’ll get to those Contemporary Mission for in a moment. growing orality/story movement in Holistic Culture Change But it was a little later that day, the the evangelical mission world, seeking Hunter is correct in his Proposition to address this situation.18 Although ranger came up, and he said, ‘There #10, that no matter how pietistic a is a phone call for you back at the unrecognized by Hunter, intentional church movement may be within a efforts to change culture will be ranger’s station.’ So I went back society, no matter how much evan- down, about seven miles, and took facilitated greatly by the use of story. gelism it displays, it will not auto- the call. It was a mutual friend who (Propositions #1, 2) matically lead to significant culture said, ‘Bill Bright and Vonnette are in Implement Proactive and change. But in explicating this propo- Colorado at the same time as you Compassionate Response Following sition in his “Essay II: Rethinking are. Would you and Darlene come Catastrophes and Crises Power”, he criticizes all political over and meet with them? They Facilitating change towards Kingdom expressions of American Christianity, would love to meet with you.’ of God values is very opportune in with their prevalent “politicization of So we flew over to Boulder on a pri- societies experiencing liminal con- nearly everything” and “the conflation vate plane of a friend of ours. And
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as we came in and greeted each of God. And now a generation this quote by Os Hillman, one of other, [we were friends for quite a stands in desperate need. It’s time “Marketplace Leaders”: while], and I was reaching for my to fight for them and take back the For the last several decades the yellow paper that I had written mountains of influence. … (Video, Church has operated from a on the day before, he said, ‘Loren, “Reclaiming the Seven Mountains of belief that the more Christians I want to show you what God has Culture” http://www.youtube.com/ we have in culture, the more soci- shown me!’ And it was virtually watch?v=wQtB-AF41p8 ) [note: the ety would become Christianized. the same list that God had given seven “mountains of influence” to Consequently, evangelism has been me the day before. Three weeks which he refers are family, religion, the focus of the Church for many later, my wife Darlene had seen education, government, business, decades. However, this premise is Dr. Francis Schaeffer on TV and he media, arts and entertainment]. flawed. Research has proven that had the same list! And so I realized Hunter argues that the same failed more Christians in a society do not that this was for the body of Christ. logic of American Christian politi- necessarily equate to a better cul- (Cunningham 2007) cal involvement is at work in this ture. Case in point is Nigeria. Some As a result of this vision, YWAM movement, to wit—that America say that there more than 60% of founded the “University of the has been taken over by secularists, the population is born-again, but Nations,” with extension schools and that it is time to “take back the this nation has serious corruption… around the world, and has been culture”. This movement just wants If the church really wants to influ- training missionaries to the “seven to acquire political power and impose ence culture, we must equip those mountains of culture” (cultural sub- their version of America on the rest. believers who operate on these systems or “spheres”). It’s impor- He says “the same language of loss, mountains and encourage young people to seek careers in these tant to note that what Hunter calls disappointment, anger, antipathy, areas. (Hillman 2011) “institutions” in his technical socio- resentment and desire for conquest” logical language, Cunningham and motivates them (p. 131). He objects In sum, I affirm Hunter’s Proposition those following the “Reclaiming 7 to the use of terms like “enemy,” #10, but I fault him for not endorsing Mountains” movement call “spheres” “attack,” “reclaim their nations for a movement that resonates with his or, metaphorically, “mountains.” Christ,” “take back,” “occupying and view of culture change. It’s regret- The seven “spheres” or mountains, influencing spheres of power in our table, for Hunter has given us a model in alphabetical order, are Arts and nations,” and “advancing the king- for continuing to think deeply about Entertainment, Business, Education, dom of God.”19 human culture and how we can Family, Government, Media and Since Hunter’s Proposition #11 facilitate its change toward Kingdom Religion. The mountain metaphor states that culture does not change of God values. His analysis helps also resonates with Hunter’s view without a fight, I wonder why he us envision how culture changes, that influence and power in a culture decries this language. And his use and how culture changes toward are embedded in networks of elites of this last phrase, “advancing the Kingdom values as an anticipatory with resources in these command- Kingdom of God”, fails to fully sign of the coming consummation of ing heights of culture and that for appreciate what Messiah’s Gospel of that Kingdom, when all things shall culture change to be lasting it must the Kingdom is about. The primary be transformed anew. ultimately come from the top-down. message of not only John the Baptist For Further Reflection and This is clear in a video track that but of Jesus Himself was that that Application: Do a historical study explains this movement’s vision “Kingdom of God is at hand.” Jesus’ of other societies in which a cultural and rationale: parables of the Kingdom are all tipping point had been reached, when In every city of the world, an unseen about how the Kingdom of God several overlapping dimensions of the battle rages for dominion over God’s is advancing through His minis- culture converged to create a tipping creation and the souls of people. This try and continues by His followers point and made lasting change happen. battle is fought on seven strategic throughout this Age, and until His Strategize and plan to facilitate various fronts, looming like mountains over Second Coming when the Kingdom networks and institutions to join forces the culture to shape and influence is consummated. for Kingdom of God culture change in its destiny. Over the years the church IJFM slowly retreated from its place of I must respectfully disagree with our time. influence on these mountains leav- Hunter’s dismissal of this move- References ing a void now filled with darkness. ment. I see that their efforts to When we lose our influence, we lose reclaim the culture share the very Barrett, Stanley R. the culture and when we lose the cul- logic of Hunter’s propositions on 1996 Anthropology: A Student’s Guide to Theory and Method (Toronto, ture we fail to advance the Kingdom culture change. You can hear it in University of Toronto Press).
International Journal of Frontier Missiology William Bjoraker 87 sition #8 at the black community level), but Bellah, Robert N. May, Rollo because they were black they were not at 1996 Habits of the Heart: Individualism 1991 The Cry for Myth (New York, and Commitment in American Dell). the “top” in terms of holding the power of Life (Berkeley, CA, University of Milgram, Stanley symbolic and cultural capital in the whole of California Press). 2011 http://www.stanleymilgram. American national society and body politic. Bosch, David J. com/quotes.php Virtually the whole African-American com- 1991 Transforming Mission: Paradigm Muller, Roland munity was then on the bottom. Shifts in the Theology of Mission 2009 Honor and Shame: Unlocking the 4 Fareed Zakaria is guardedly opti- (Maryknoll, Orbis Books). Door (Xlibris Corporation, www. mistic of real culture change in Egypt. Carlyle, Thomas Xlibris.com). He reasons that the youth bulge (60% of http://carlyle.classicauthors. Patizi, Paulo the region’s population is under 30), and net/HEROWORSHIP/ 2010 European Starlings http:// the information technology connecting HEROWORSHIP1.html webcache.googleuser them, will create progress toward liberty Colson, Charles and Nancy Pearcey content.com/search?q=cache: and freedom, and an end to corrup- 1999 How Now Shall We Live? nWnzIBbUHT8J:designbeer. tion and poverty. But will this idealistic (Wheaton, Tyndale House). com/photography/european- youthful majority be enough? It has not Crouch, Andy starlings/+designbeer.com+Paulo 2008 Culture Making: Recovering +Patizi&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk& been successful in Iran (Green Movement Our Creative Calling (Downers gl=us&source=www.google.com of 2009–2010) or China (Tiananmen Grove, IL, IVP Books). Pink, Daniel H. Square, 1989). Zakaria’s assessment seems 2010 http://www.christianitytoday. 2006 A Whole New Mind: Why Right- to ignore Hunter’s argument that good com/ ct/2010/mayweb-only/29- Brainers Will Rule the Future and moral ideas of the majority do not 51.0.html (New York, Riverhead Books). necessarily win out when other forces and Gladwell, Malcolm Smith, James K.A. configurations of cultural power may be 2000 The Tipping Point: How Little 2009 Desiring the Kingdom: Worship, too strong. (“The Generation Changing Things Can Make A Big Difference Worldview and Cultural the World”, TIME Magazine, February (New York, Little, Brown, Formation (Grand Rapids, Baker 2011 (pp. 28–31) and Company). Academic). 5 “The Tipping Point: How Little Heslam, Peter S. Stark, Rodney Things can Make A Big Difference” 1998 Creating a Christian Worldview: 1996 The Rise of Christianity (San (2000). This book draws from social Abraham Kuyper’s Lectures on Francisco, HarperCollins). science studies, and offers a wealth of Calvinism (Grand Rapids, Wilson, Timothy D. examples from popular culture, more or Eerdmans Publishing). 2002 Strangers to Ourselves: Hiebert, Paul G. Discovering the Adaptive less subject to other interpretive analyses, 2008 Transforming Worldviews: An Unconscious (Cambridge, MA, but a recommended resource for the study Anthropological Understanding Harvard University Press). of culture change. of How People Change (Grand Winter, Ralph D. 6 Stark’s research establishes that the Rapids, Baker Academic). 2007 “The Future of Evangelicals in early Christian movement was based in Howell, Brian M. and Jenell Williams Paris Mission”, in Mission Frontiers, the middle and upper classes. “The early 2011 Introducing Cultural Anthropology: Vol. 29, No. 5, September– church was anything but a refuge for slaves A Christian Perspective (Grand October. and the impoverished masses”(1996:28). Rapids, Baker Academic). Wolff, Hans Walter The apostle Paul knew Greek language and Hunter, James Davison 1973 Anthropology of the Old Testament culture (the language of the center) gave 1991 Culture Wars: The Struggle to (Philadelphia, Fortress Press). him inroads to higher classes. Paul was Control the Family, Art, Education, Zakaria, Fareed intent on reaching Rome, the center of the Law, and Politics in America (New 2011 “The Generation Changing the Empire. Earlier Marxist-tinged deprivation York, NY: Basic Books). World”, in TIME Magazine, theories that holding that the dispossessed 2010 To Change the World: The February 28, 2011, pp. 28–31. Irony, Tragedy, and Possibility masses constituted the Christian move- Endnotes ment appear to be well refuted. Christianity of Christianity in the Late 1 Modern World (Oxford, Oxford See Proposition # 5 in Part One, was not a proletarian movement. There University Press). “How Do Cultures Really Change? – A were Christians among the aristocracy, the 2010 http://www.faithfulpresence.com/ Challenge to the Conventional Culture senatorial class, and even in the imperial 2010 http://www.faithfulpresence. Wisdom” by William Bjoraker, IJFM, household who carried considerable prestige com/index. php?option=com_ 28:1, January–March, 2011, (p. 19). and social status. Most Christians were content&view 2 Ibid., p. 19. drawn from the literate classes; there were =category&layout=blog&id=14& 3 One can argue that this move- overlapping networks from “urban circles of Itemid=19) ment was indeed top-down by elites with well-situated artisans, merchants, and mem- 2010 Interview, Mars Hill Audio networked resources because Dr. Martin bers of liberal professions” (1996:31–35). Journal, Vol.101 http://www. Luther King, Jr. was part of an elite. He The church fathers were virtually all highly marshillaudio.org/ held a PhD and his associates in the South- educated men, born into families of high Lingenfelter, Sherwood ern Christian Leadership Conference were social standing. 1998 Transforming Culture: A educated ministers. They were elites within 7 From FaithfulPresence.com; the Challenge for Christian Mission (Grand Rapids, Baker Books). the black community (affirming this Propo- web site associated with Hunter’s book,
28:2 Summer 2011 88 How Do Cultures Really Change? A Challenge to the Conventional Culture Wisdom: Part 2 under “Book Abstract,” entry under Essay sexuality? What is worth living for and 17 Pink has argued that our moment 1, Chapter 5: http://www.faithfulpresence. dying for? This power predisposes societies in history is a time of “right brain rising.” com/index.php?option=com_content&view and individuals within them to action. Such To put very simply the argument of his =category&layout=blog&id=14&Itemid=19 power is ultimately greater than hard power book: “Left brain direction” (rational, math- 8 See “How Do Cultures Really (coercion, force). As the old saying goes, ematical, scientific, analysis, text-oriented, Change? A Challenge to the Conventional “The pen is mightier than the sword.” logical, linear, sequential, detail-oriented) Culture Wisdom” by William Bjoraker, 13 Recommended book on the values was dominant during modernity. Left IJFM, 28:1, January–March, 2011, pp. 15. and purposes of socio-cultural institu- brain relates largely to the cognitive 9 This phrase comes John Howard tions: On Thinking Institutionally, by dimension of worldview. “Right brain Yoder, a major theologian and leader of the Hugh Heclo, Boulder, CO: Paradigm direction” (artistic, aesthetic, emotional and Neo-Anabaptist movement, in his work The Publishers, 2008. relational expression, literary, synthesis, Politics of Jesus, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 14 See “How Do Cultures Really non-linear, context-oriented, big-picture, 1972:244. Change? A Challenge to the Conventional holistic, metaphor and story-oriented) 10 Generally three major categories of Culture Wisdom” by William Bjoraker, is rising in postmodernity out of human power are present in the human relations IJFM, 28:1, January–March, 2011, under hunger for its lack during modernity. Right dimension of a culture: coercive power, Proposition # 6, pp. 19. brain relates largely to the affective and persuasive power, and hegemonic power 15 On individualism and collectivism evaluative dimensions of worldview. Left (Howell and Paris 2011: 132–136). Coercive and the American social DNA, see: Habits brain direction remains necessary, but it is power is the use of force, legitimate or of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in no longer sufficient. We need a “whole new illegitimate. Persuasive power is use of words, American Life, by Robert N. Bellah, Berkely, mind,” a holistic mind (2006). relationships and actions to influence others. CA: University of California Press, 1996. 18 See the whole issue devoted to Hegemonic power is the diffuse power of And for an advanced social science study, “Orality” of the journal Missiology, Vol. dominant ideas, values and practices embed- see: Individualism and Collectivism, by XXXVIII, Number 2, April 2010. Also ded in networks, institutions, and interests Harry Triandis, Boulder, Oxford: Westview a fine practical treatment of the West in a society such that a particular complex of Press, 1995. and non-West by Avery T. Willis, Jr. and ideas and values holds the most influential 16 On the Christian view of call- Mark Snowden, Truth That Sticks: How to sway in the culture. Only a counter hege- ing: The Call, by Os Guinness, Nashville, Communicate Velcro Truth in A Teflon World, monic movement that is culturally embedded London, Vancouver, Melbourne: Word Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2010. can challenge a reigning hegemony. Publishing, 1998. Guinness deftly addresses 19 We can assume Hunter is speaking 11 See Power: Its Forms, Bases and Uses, “the Catholic distortion” of calling at the sociological level, in which case he is by Dennis H. Wrong, Chicago, University (a two-tiered secular/sacred; higher/lower correct to criticize any language of hostility of Chicago Press, 1988. dualism), and the Protestant distortion and warfare when aimed by individuals or 12 Political scientists distinguish (severing the secular vocations from the groups at others. Surely we need greater between “soft power” and “hard power.” spiritual, so that a “vocation” (literally “call- civility in the public square, in our public Soft power is exercised symbolically and ing”) has become just a job. He discourse with “flesh and blood.” But we are culturally (symbolic capital, influence, distinguishes between the “primary call” in a protracted spiritual war between good persuasion). Hard power is exercised (“by God, to God, for God”) from the and evil. Biblically, “we wrestle not against through the technologies of force. Soft secondary call (“Everyone, everywhere, in flesh and blood, but against principalities power is the power to define reality in a everything”) with its varied calls to work and powers…” (Ephesians 6:12). Spiri- culture, the power to name things and in all of life and culture. Every believer has tual warfare talk among co-workers and describe their purpose, to define morality both the primary calling and a secondary in prayer concerts is appropriate, because and ethics, what is acceptable and unaccept- calling, the secondary being a response to Scripture uses the language of warfare for able. What is a family? What is legitimate the primary. our engagement in these battles.
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Kingdom and Church Sustaining Kingdom Advance: Discovering the Role of Church Movements by T. S. John
t was the end of my senior year and like so many other seniors I needed to figure out what I was going to do after college. Two years earlier I had I dedicated my life to Christ and changed my major from Business Admin- istration to Bible — not a degree that offers much hope for finding a job among the Want Ads. But I didn’t want just any job. I wanted to do something to change the world!
Since coming to Christ I grew to appreciate pillars of the Church like St. Francis and Mother Theresa who had given themselves to help the poor as an expression of their faith. I interpreted the Bible through their stories. Verses like 1 John 3:16-18 inspired me regardless of my poor hermeneutics (like ap- plying “Brothers in need” to the general population of people in need rather than the appropriate context of the church). And when it came to the Great Commission, I preferred to understand it in accordance with the version St. Francis is said to have coined: “Preach the Gospel throughout the world. If necessary, use words.”
I did not see myself applying my Bible degree towards the pursuit of a career as a pastor or church planter. Frankly, nothing turned me off more than the idea of being a church pastor, for no other reason than I thought such a role lacked the profundity and significance I was seeking in life. With that ethos guiding my final two years in college, I got involved as a student volunteer with Habitat for Humanity, first through the college chapter of Evangelicals for Social Action T.S. John has worked in South Asia and then as co-founder of the campus chapter of Habitat. I loved it and believed for 14 years, originally with Habitat involvement with them was that significant career to which I could give my life. for Humanity, then in founding an c outreach to thousands affected by Habitat for Humanity in India disability, leprosy and HIV/AIDS. So as I considered what I should do after college, I applied for Habitat’s volun- He is currently focused on establishing Church Planting Movements among teer program that helps build houses for the poor overseas. I was accepted and the unreached people groups in saw this as God’s direction to join. The following Fall I flew down to Habitat’s South Asia. He holds an MBA and is currently pursuing intercultural headquarters in Americus, GA, for training and was introduced to a commu- studies at Wheaton Graduate School. nity of a couple hundred staff and volunteers who, like me, wanted to witness International Journal of Frontier Missiology 28:2 Summer 2011•89 90 Sustaining Kingdom Advance: Discovering the Role of Church Movements
to Christ by helping the poor. Habitat’s tions with no form of rehabilitative ser- now become a vision of mine and my founder, Millard Fuller was the orga- vices to help them. After a few visits to new wife. Our first step was to follow nization’s inspirational leader and head their homes in the villages I felt I could Habitat’s model of developing a local cheerleader who could energize a crowd not ignore their horrible plight. I began board of directors to act as the local to support his cause better than anyone visiting them on a weekly basis along platform on which the ministry would I had ever seen. with other local volunteers in order to be built. But we were careful to recruit born again Christians with respected Under Millard’s enthusiastic leadership provide some meager assistance and reputations in the community. Staff Habitat won national acclaim in 15 plan for more significant interventions members were also required to be born short years and was on a trajectory for in the future. again Christians and the Board held tremendous growth fueled by millions But, after 18 months in Nagar, Habitat them accountable to high, biblical in contributions and the high status in- transferred me to their project in standards of accountability and ethics. volvement of a multitude of celebrities. Barrangar. There I had the opportunity This allowed us to avoid many of the One of Habitat’s most famous volun- to live in a slum for over a year, worked internal organizational pitfalls that teers was former US President, Jimmy side by side with nine poor families Habitat had fallen victim to in South Carter. I met President Carter and fre- to radically improve their housing Asia. Additionally, I had become more quently heard him teach Sunday school conditions and helped establish evangelical in my outlook, believing at Maranatha Baptist Church in nearby the local office of Habitat. After all that changed hearts and minds were as important as changed physical had become more evangelical in my outlook, circumstances. Hence, we integrated a more proactive evangelistic outreach to believing that changed hearts and minds were as our ministry. important as changed physical circumstances. Over the next ten years the ministry I grew to over 30 staff serving 2,000 people annually who were affected Plains, GA. To be in the middle of all the disappointments in Nagar, my by disabilities, eventually including this growing enthusiasm and recogni- experience in Barrangar gave me hope people affected by leprosy and tion for Habitat was a very heady expe- that the Habitat model of para-church HIV/AIDS. In 2004 we made na- rience and created for me a paradigm ministry could work if it was more tional waves by hosting the largest of ministry to which I readily acceded. carefully implemented. conference on “Disability and the After all, how could anyone question Church” that South Asia had ever the strategy of generating enthusiastic Expanding Disability Ministry witnessed. The keynote speaker was support for a grass-roots, ministry that While I was away in Barranagar I our close friend Joni Earikson Tada resulted in millions of dollars being sent remained in touch with that fledgling and over 600 Christian leaders from all over the world in the name of Jesus ministry among the disabled children across the nation attended. Finally, to help the poor help themselves? back in Nagar, and I would return in 2007, we dedicated a half million occasionally to guide and assist in dollar, fully equipped rehabilitation Following three months of training at better establishing that outreach. center that culminated a vision born the Habitat headquarters my co-worker As my three-year commitment to 15 years earlier. and I arrived by train in Nagar, South Habitat wound down I sensed a Asia, to start our three-year assignment. call to return to Nagar someday to A Growing Dissonance It was a very disappointing first 18 help shore up the disability ministry At this point, one would think I would months at Nagar in terms of ministry and grow it so that it could make be content with the direction of the with Habitat. We spent most of our a significant impact. As I departed ministry I helped found. After all, our time uncovering corruption among vision of a rehabilitation center had South Asia I dreamed of someday the local Habitat committee, which I come to fruition, thousands of needy returning to establish a rehabilitation discovered was a pervasive problem af- people were being helped, seeds of the center that would provide much fecting many foreign-funded charitable Gospel had been successfully planted needed services to all those neglected, and ministry initiatives in South Asia. among them and dozens of disciples dirt-poor disabled children. However, I found an outlet for my frus- were being made in a region of South tration by volunteering for a fledgling After three years in the US an Asia that was traditionally known ministry to disabled children in the opportunity miraculously presented as the grave yard of missions. I had rural areas surrounding Nagar. These itself to return to South Asia to always compared our growth with that children were in such desperate situa- establish a disability ministry that had of Habitat’s growth in the US, and
International Journal of Frontier Missiology T. S. John 91
I believed we were on track to grow meetings, but all the questionable things cipleship fairly early in their encounter significantly in the future and make a those symbols entailed in the business- with Christ-followers. Those who ac- similar name for ourselves. like paradigm of parachurch ministry: cepted Christ were welcomed into the community of believers, those who But I wasn’t content. There were using slick marketing campaigns to at- rejected Christ remained outside the certain aspects of the ministry I began tract donors as we compete with other community of faith and missed out on to question. Dissonance slowly grew to ministries for scarce resources; blowing blessings that accrued to the members disillusionment. Initially I attributed our own horn through attractive com- of the community. I wasn’t finding this disillusionment to burnout, mainly munication pieces; the transactional any precedent in the New Testament because I ate, drank and slept disability nature of our services both to the poor to extend the continued provision of ministry 24/7 for 10 years. This actually and the donor; the business-like manner benefits from the community of faith paved the way for me to readily accept in which we handled our staff. It all was to those who refused to join them. In the idea that I needed to hand over beginning to turn me off, regardless of other words, the early church seemed the reins of leadership to our national the amount of good it was doing. to recognize that participating fully in leadership team, which is a good thing. And the amount of good it was doing the community of faith was essential to Any foreign missionary worth his/her was questionable. To be sure, thousands the holistic transformation of people. salt recognizes that leadership must And that’s what the early church transition into the hands of national seemed interested in: holistic transfor- leadership as soon as possible. But as I mation . . . not just improving people’s reflect on it now, this rationale probably economic or social condition. had as much to do with my inability to reconcile conflicts and inconsistencies Dissonance slowly Then there was the questionable na- in our ministry paradigm as it did with ture of being dependent on foreign feeling burnout or following good grew to funding. All my training on sustain- missions practice. ability and community empowerment disillusionment. said that resources and leadership must For example, if we were going to do eventually come from the local com- more to help the millions in poverty munity. Yet we were an evangelical we had to become bigger. This meant Christian organization in a country we had to increase our capacity to raise of less than 3% Christians. In almost funds and manage the outreach. In all the villages we worked there were order to do this I believed we needed to of children and youth with disabilities no Christians. Militant expressions of establish multiple donor development had been equipped “for a life of local religions were on the rise. If we offices in donor countries around the independence and advancement” (our expected these villages to take owner- world and establish outreach offices slogan) But to what end? Except for ship of our initiatives we would most in different parts of the country. the 100 or so who had been baptized, certainly have to eliminate Christ’s After all, isn’t this what all significant, the rest had not experienced spiritual Great Commission mandate from our international ministries to the poor transformation in Christ. Consequently, work. Not only was that counter to our were doing? not only was their eternal fate left in calling, but I believed it was a form of But the thought of pursuing growth to question but their life on this earth capitulation to the unjust and oppres- make our ministry more “significant” would continue to perpetuate the sive forces within these communities. made my head swim. I had started ideologies of selfishness that prop up And we knew of several Christian this journey 15 years earlier living in the “web of lies” that keep the poor organizations that had capitulated and the slums and working alongside the embedded in poverty. no longer carried a significant Chris- poor. Now it appeared that if I was to Certainly we could define what we tian witness in their work. lead this work towards regional or even were doing as “pre-evangelism” and Furthermore, to expect a village national significance, I would need to escape any sort of accountability for community to eventually own return to a life of business suits and our rehabilitation program’s effective- our initiatives was based on the board meetings—the empty, corporate ness in making disciples. But where assumption that their leadership vision of myself that I had given up in was this sort of extended, never-ending adhered to values and beliefs college—just to prop up all the good we “pre-evangelism” in the New Testa- conducive to the welfare of the wanted to achieve. ment? It would appear that people in initiative. In our experience, nothing Actually, what made that vision empty the New Testament made a choice to was further from the case. We found was not the business suits and board either become a disciple or reject dis- corruption rampant in the villages,
28:2 Summer 2011 92 Sustaining Kingdom Advance: Discovering the Role of Church Movements so to expect unregenerate people to initial interviews between Kent, the from within. It taught members within selflessly lead our initiatives seemed Board and key constituents, I realized the movement to take the financial hopelessly naive. CPM may offer some answers to my and moral responsibility for fulfilling questions and concerns about the para- the commands of Christ rather than The Scalability of Church church charitable ministry paradigm. depend on foreign resources to do Planting Movements the job. It meant this model had the Eventually I agreed to accept the posi- Finally, there was the inescapable fact potential for financial scalability. tion and, fortunately for me, Kent did that our foreign-funded model lacked as well. Over time I learned more about Similar laws and circumstances that that scalability necessary to reach CPM and realized it answered my prevented overt foreign participa- the teaming millions who remained questions and concern better than other tion in the movements also prevented untouched by any sort of rehabilitative paradigms of ministry I had encoun- overt Christian initiatives and pres- services. To be frank, our work among tered. For one thing, CPM was not the ence. Consequently propagating the poor was a drop in the bucket, a formulation of certain mission strate- Christ’s transforming power could not sobering reality which confronted even gists in the sterile offices of a Western occur through highly public initiatives the largest foreign-funded relief and mission agency looking to herald the such as we find in the West (e.g. evan- development ministries working in next best approach to missions. Rather, gelistic crusades, highly publicized the country. To be sure, hundreds of service events, Christian broadcasting thousands, maybe even a few million and media, etc) but had to be done were being helped by the combined in a low-key, “off the radar” rela- efforts of this multitude of para- tional manner generally through one’s church ministries. But the need was “oikos”, or circle of influence. Like- in the hundreds of millions and there Local laws wise, gatherings of disciples could not was no way all the combined efforts occur in large numbers in stand-alone of Christian relief and development and circumstances church buildings. Instead, disciples agencies could ever achieve the scale were forced to gather in small groups required to assist all those in need. prevented overt often times in their own homes. These Our only option was to ignore our foreign participation seemingly negative circumstances had model’s weaknesses, turn our backs the positive effect of ensuring that the on the hundreds of millions who transformation of individuals occurred remained in poverty as a result not in a setting of isolation (which of those weaknesses, and console often characterizes the spiritual expe- ourselves with the thought that at these movements sprung up from the rience of Western Christians in their least we were impacting the lives of grass roots of the unreached world, “going to church”) but in the context a few thousand people every year. in hard-to-reach regions throughout of a small community of Christ fol- But that rationalizing didn’t quell my Asia. “Church Planting Movements” lowers who provide the support, ac- feelings of dissonance. I didn’t know was simply the name given to the ob- countability and discipleship holistic how to resolve this dissonance with servations missionaries were gradually transformation requires. the paradigm of parachurch ministry accumulating as they witnessed huge Additional positive offshoots of the under which I had been trained. movements to Christ among unreached above factors were also observed. people groups. As providence would have it, the Laypeople were discipled to become stateside organization entered the Some key observations of these layleaders in an “on the job” training picture at this time and asked me to movements immediately caught process much like the Apostle Paul consider returning to the US to take on my attention. The first was that the training Timothy to train others the role of US Director. Simultaneously “resources are in the harvest.” Local (cf. 2 Timothy 2:2). These layleaders they were seeking a new International laws and circumstances prevented were largely responsible for leading Director and had their eyes on overt foreign participation in the the movements rather than seminary Kent Parks, a global leader in the religious initiatives taking place in trained, professional clergy. This field of reaching unreached peoples. the regions where these movements allowed for a scalable leadership pool Kent’s passion was “church planting were springing up. This had the that could expand as the movement movements” (CPM), a paradigm positive effect of preventing unhealthy grew without experiencing the I was not only unfamiliar with but dependence on outside resources and bottlenecks that often occur if seminary found it unappealing based on the title instead forced the movements to credentialing and full-time salaries are alone. But after sitting through some sustain themselves through resources imposed as clerical necessities.
International Journal of Frontier Missiology T. S. John 93
With unpaid lay leadership and little if any spending on infrastructure, he social conscientiousness of Western Christians administration and church buildings, can be wooed into a questionable hermeneutic resources are available instead for more strategic transformational, Great when considering Christ’s teachings about the poor. Commission initiatives such as helping T those in legitimate need, helping sister them.” (Acts 4:33-34). If that’s questionable hermeneutic when communities of Christ who are in need, what CPM was about, I wanted in! considering Christ’s teachings funding small scale training events In CPM (or whatever one might about the poor. This is especially and sending missionaries to unreached call indigenous, rapidly spreading, the case when the pressure to regions to spread the transforming layperson-led, house church abandon a biblical approach for a power of the Gospel. movements, focused on discipling more secular humanist approach people to disciple others) I found is pervasive among popular media, Contextualized Community the solution to the problems of the social scientists, philanthropists and Transformation poor and destitute. My dissonance government aid agencies. We must be Furthermore, with greater emphasis on disappeared. I could picture a loving vigilant and proceed with a faith that local dependence, these movements in- congregation of people within a God’s way of transformation is what terpret and apply Scripture in contextu- community willing to embrace others builds His kingdom. alized, community-oriented ways rather in their poverty, helping them help But more importantly it has taught than import concepts of spirituality and themselves in the most dignified and me that Jesus knew exactly what development that have greater affinity holistically transformational way. he was doing when he released his with Western modernity, secular devel- With the blessings of God upon disciples into the world to carry out opment practices. One major impact of them and a fervor to see this form of the Great Commission. For within this local hermeneutic is its openness transformation grow, it could spread that commissioning is the DNA towards signs, wonders and miracles. to other peoples and communities that is the good news for the world’s Hence, “holistic transformation” is not that have not yet experienced the poor. It is a form of transformation simply about Christ-followers expe- power of Christ. Catalyzing that type couched in the context of a local riencing sustainable spiritual, physical of community, that type of church, community of Christ-followers and economic well being in community. that type of movement, was what the that offers the embrace of Christ to They are also experiencing God’s mi- poor and oppressed of Nagar needed those in need and multiplies itself raculous intervention where man’s in- from me. exponentially to reach the ends of terventions have failed, thus deepening the earth. In our short time back their faith in Christ and giving them Changing Paradigms in South Asia we are realizing the boldness to live out His commands And now, following the call of God, that catalyzing such a movement in spite of local hostilities. my family and I have returned to is not easy but has the capacity to Nagar with this new paradigm of When I began understanding the profoundly change the world. IJFM ministry. We are excited to be back, implications of these observations, but must admit that 14 years of I realized CPM could lay the following one paradigm and then groundwork for broader community changing to another leaves us feeling transformation. Because it was a inadequate for the task ahead. But “grass roots” initiative and people we believe it’s truer to Christ’s were being transformed by Christ Great Commission call, with a with minimal outside resources, it scalability that holds greater potential could provide the impetus for poverty for individual and community alleviation initiatives that are locally transformation in our region. sustainable and rapidly multiplying among communities. I envisioned I must admit that my life probably growing numbers of people from would have followed a different one community to the next coming course had I understood the to Christ in ways that mirror the profundity of church planting description of the Church in Acts movements back in college. It’s 2 and 4 where “God’s grace was so taught me how easily the social powerfully at work in them all that conscientiousness of Western there were no needy persons among Christians can be wooed into a
28:2 Summer 2011 94 Book Reviews
populations, these questions at first thought seem to be rel- evant and crucial. Yet based on Jenkins’ own presentation of the stories of how Christianities perished in those lands, we Reviews cannot say that the Muslim conquests in the 7th Century were also responsible for the extinction of Christianities in the 14th Century. If Christianities in Asia and Africa The Lost History of Christianity, by Philip Jenkins had died out within a few decades of the initial conquests, (Harper One, 2008) then it might be possible to conclude that Islam as such —reviewed by Fred Lewis was the culprit. But that isn’t what happened. Whether Christianity ought to be considered a forerunner of Islam or here is a lot of talk in mission- an equally valid path to God (and I certainly don’t hold to Tary circles about how to establish either of those positions) is beside the point. It is plain that new churches. There’s some talk about we cannot merely blame the presence or activities of any the persecution of Christians. And Islamic religion in Asia and Africa for the disappearance post 9/11 there’s a little talk about the of any Christianity from Japan to Tunisia in any century. A disappearance of Christianity in Asia more refined theology of extinction is required. So, while I and Africa after the Muslim conquests recommend Jenkins’ well-researched account on the matter in the 600s. But until I read the fol- of lost Christianities, what is missing from it—and Jenkins lowing quote from The Lost History of implicitly acknowledges this fact—is a theological and bibli- Christianity by Philip Jenkins (Harper One, 2008), I had cal explanation for this tragic phenomenon. never once thought about a theology of the extinction of If Christianities in Africa and Asia died, not as a result of a form of Christianity: “Besides the missionary theology losing out in a struggle with another religion, but as a result cultivated by many churches, we also need a theology of of some other cause, what was it? Jenkins lays the blame extinction” (Jenkins, 249). for the extinction of Christianities at the doorstep of orga- Many well-deserved, positive reviews of Jenkins’ book nized, sustained, state violence. “Based on the experiences of were written soon after it was published. Jenkins indeed Christianity through history, we must stress the primary role does a good job of re-telling the story of the initial expan- of the state in the elimination of churches and communities” sion and near extinction of distinct forms of Christianity (Jenkins, 209). “The deeply rooted Christianity of Africa (i.e., ‘Christianities’) in Africa and Asia up to about 1400, and Asia did not simply fade away through lack of zeal, or C.E. It’s an interesting and sobering story, containing many theological confusion: it was crushed, in a welter of warfare implications for missions in general. and persecution” (Jenkins, 100). “While religions might sicken and fade, they do not die of their own accord: they Given that IJFM is published in order to facilitate frontier must be killed” (Jenkins, 30). In Africa and the Middle East, missiology, I started to reflect on the causes of the deaths of “ . . . the largest single factor for Christian decline was orga- different Christianities as a way of drawing insights or lessons nized violence, whether in the form of massacre, expulsion, or for practitioners of frontier missions. Although learning about forced migration” (Jenkins, 141). Governments or rulers, not what may lead to the death of a Christianity is not quite the religions, exterminated Christianities from various lands. same as focusing on what promotes a healthy one, becoming aware of what leads to the extinction of a Christian move- Let me pause here and restate the topic. We’re not just ment ought also to be helpful to pioneer missionaries. considering what may cause a religion to weaken, sicken or fade, but what actually kills it. A footnote in Jenkins’ book Close to the end of Jenkins’ book he briefly mentions and discards the idea that extinction may be accounted for by led me to an article by James Bissett Pratt, which asserts this God punishing disobedient nations, as He did when the important distinction. Babylonians captured and destroyed Jerusalem, taking many There is an oft-quoted saying that men do not usually die of of its people into captivity. It seems that Jenkins found that which kills them. The real cause of death is frequently an distasteful (or antiquated?) the idea that God might still undermining disease which leaves the constitution so weak punish peoples today. that it succumbs to the attack of some germ which under normal conditions it could easily have resisted. So it was with Of seemingly more interest to Jenkins is a discussion about the religion of Egypt. It was long moribund before it died, the role of Islam in God’s purposes. Is Islam a global but it held on in a dead-and-alive condition until attacked by adversary in a spiritual cold war with Christianity? Is Islam the combined forces of Greek naturalistic philosophy, Asiatic a Christian heresy? Is Islam an equally valid path to God cults, and Christianity. These gave it the final coup de grace. (Jenkins, 259)? Given the reality that Islam now dominates The real cause of its death was its age-long irrational conser- regions of the world where once lived significant Christian vatism (p. 101).1
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Book Reviews 95 esides the missionary theology cultivated by many churches, we also need a B theology of extinction (Jenkins, 249). I suspect that many missiologists could generate a list of factors That burst of persecution did not snuff out the Way; neither that tend over time to weaken Christianity. Other missiologists did it last very long, especially when viewed from a longer, could write up a list of factors that tend to inhibit or block historical perspective. Nevertheless, the persecution recorded its establishment, growth and spread. These are important in Acts illustrates the truth that organized violence against discussions, and I am not trying to delve into any of them in Christianity is sometimes normal, something to be expected, this article. But Pratt makes a point of distinguishing between at least occasionally, but for relatively short periods of time. those factors that kill a religion and those that weaken it. In For those looking for any magic bullet in contextualization, the quotation above, he is interested in identifying the chronic note that the presence of followers of Jesus in Jerusalem and diseases that may afflict religions. In this short review, on the Judea disturbed the religious and social status quo, in spite of other hand, I’m seeking to identify the killer. I’m trying to pick the fact that the church in Jerusalem was entirely Jewish in up the implicit challenge Jenkins issued when he said that we membership, practice and theology. also need a theology of extinction above and beyond the mis- Jenkins devotes space to this contextualization factor. It sionary theology we usually cultivate. exposes what for many of us is a deeply held assumption: Reading that governments or rulers from time to time The establishment, growth and flourishing of Christianity literally snuff out Christianity in a land recalls the extinc- depends to a large extent on its degree of contextualization, tion of historic churches in China and Japan, nations where on the degree to which it is considered native or natural in a Islam was not the culprit in any way. Scanning back through given setting. Jenkins notes that a lack of contextualization Moffett’s two-volume work, A History of Christianity in and/or the presence of serious divisions within a Christian Asia, one can see that it was indeed Chinese authorities who movement can make it sick, weaken it and lead to its stamped out Nestorian Christianity in China in the 10th decline. The weakening of a Christianity as a result of Century. Moffett discusses the possible motivations of those internal divisions or by virtue of its association with foreign authorities and comes to no definite conclusion since the elements may make it more susceptible to destruction, but available data is too slim. Based on the evidence, Nestorian I’m suggesting that those factors do not kill it. Christianity and other religions the Chinese govern- What, then, from a “spiritual” point of view, might kill off a ment persecuted were definitely considered non-Chinese. Christianity in a given locale? I speculate that it is Satan who However, it is worthwhile to note that previous regimes either possesses or influences key government leaders so as to tolerated those same religions in China. inflict as much harm as possible on a local Christianity. Using The story in broad outline is similar in Japan, where it was these people, Satan from time to time is “lucky” enough to Japanese authorities who decided to exterminate Christianity succeed in wiping out a limb of the worldwide body of Christ. there. Those authorities had the perception that Christianity It is significant, I think, that for Jenkins evil spiritual forces, was not “Japanese,” not consistent with Japanese traditions personal or impersonal, play no role in his own theologizing and, therefore, left the people open to the displeasure of about, or explanation of, the extermination of a Christianity the gods. What changed from one year to the next was not anywhere in the world. The index of his book contains not a the character of Christianity in Japan but the government of single reference to demons, Satan, or evil spirits. Japan. What was previously tolerated became taboo. Nevertheless, in theologizing on the extinction of One imperfect Muslim example suffices to make the same Christianities, we might ask on what basis God might allow point from Egyptian history. Jenkins writes that between Satan to succeed in utterly destroying a part of the body of 1293 and 1354 the Mamluks launched 4 separate campaigns Christ? Granted that Satan is powerful and hostile to God, to force Christians and Jews to convert to Islam (p. 125). should we expect to suffer casualties in his war against us? Again, for some reasons a formerly somewhat friendly or Why would God allow a local Christianity to become extinct? accommodating government turned hostile to Christians. In Biblical material could help us integrate the relationship all three instances, there seems to be a rather abrupt shift to between the weakening and death of a Christianity. I propose a strongly antagonistic stance towards Christianity from one that it is God’s withdrawal of His special presence that allows that was relatively more benign. Satan to wipe out a brand of the faith in a locale. In Ezekiel In trying to make sense of this phenomenon, our thoughts 8-11 we read of the step-by-step movement of God’s glory out may wander to the Book of Acts, where the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem, out of the city and the land (cf. of the Way in Jerusalem is soon followed by persecution. Ezek. 8:6; 9:3; 10:18-20; 11:22-23). In the rationale for the
28:2 Summer 2011 96 Book Reviews departure of God’s glory from the temple in Jerusalem, human The Church under the Cross: Mission in Asia in Times sinfulness definitely played a role. But human sinfulness in of Turmoil (vol. 1), by Wendell Paul Karsen itself did not destroy it, for that was left to the Babylonians who (Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, MI, 2010) could do so only after God departed from His dwelling place. —reviewed by Yalin Xin In New Testament theology, God’s people are now His dwelling place. It would seem, then, that at some point r. Karsen was an ordained pastor in time things can get so bad in a local expression of at Lakeland Reformed Church Christianity that God is forced to withdraw His special pres- D before being assigned as a mission- ence from them. His withdrawal would not necessarily imply ary to Taiwan in the earlier 1970s, that every single person had turned away completely, for there involving himself in the democratic were faithful Israelites who survived the destruction of the and human rights movement of the temple. Jenkins describes something similar occurring in Asia Taiwanese people, for which he was as conditions changed over the centuries (cf. chapter 4, “The recognized in an award from Taiwan Great Tribulation” and chapter 7, “How Faiths Die”). While Foundation for Democracy. He sub- some believers did die as a result of governmental persecution, sequently served in Hong Kong for almost two decades, others fled their home areas to resettle elsewhere. In this way continuing his ministry amidst a people experiencing local bodies of believers were destroyed while still preserving regional changes. Karsen has also taught at Western some faithful individuals through forced migration. Perhaps Theological Seminary in Holland, Michigan, upon we should understand the human events Jenkins describes so return from his overseas deployment. well as a gradual emptying of God’s indwelling presence from those areas? What Satan finally killed off through his govern- Karsen’s memoir of his missionary experience provides ment agents were empty shells of what used to contain God. readers with an extraordinary peek into how Christians Eventually, as God withdrew Himself from their midst one were acting or reacting to the civil and religious changes expression of Christianity after another was killed by Satan taking place at the time in Taiwan and Hong Kong. through the apparently normal working of human history. Published in the historical series of the Reformed Church in America, this volume is devoted to two periods of I can think of three applications of these ideas for frontier Karsen’s missionary experience in Asia: mission in Taiwan missions. First, building on the recognition that Satan uses from 1969-1973, and mission in Hong Kong from 1974- governments to execute weak Christianities, we need to pray 1984, and again from 1990-1998. His involvements in the for government officials so that societies might be relatively socio-political and economic scenes of the two regions peaceful, safe for new communities of Christ followers opens a window to readers on perspectives in Christian (1 Tim. 2:1-4). Second, we in our discussions about God and ministry that were often neglected: 1) that Christian sin ought to emphasize more the hindering effect of our sin on ministry is meaningful only when it addresses the felt God’s actions among and for believers, rather than focusing need of the people in the context; 2) that missionaries are so much on the effects of sin on people. Third, and more fun- not to shy away from the social and political struggles of damentally, instead of thinking about spreading the Gospel, the people they serve; 3) that missionaries should actively might we think instead of expanding the special presence of participate with the people in discovering and addressing God among the nations, of making Him more accessible and the root of societal problems. available to people who do not know who He truly is? Jenkins to some extent describes a process whereby Christian com- The first part of the book sets the scene for the socio-polit- munities turned inward as a means of self-preservation, tales ical situation in Taiwan, a time when the Nationalist gov- that are obviously a warning for us today (cf. chapter 8, “The ernment was still a fresh new regime and ruled the people Mystery of Survival”). Following in the footsteps of those in Taiwan with an iron fist. The people were at the receiv- communities is a way of ensuring at least the contraction of ing end of harsh rule, being oppressed and exploited, and God’s special presence in our world, when just the opposite the church was caught right in the middle, being under is needed. Although the dwelling of God among us must of constant suspicion and surveillance from the government. course be protected, the burden of frontier missions is to work This was a reality, as Karsen astoundingly found out, that to expand and increase His special presence among all peoples, was contradictory to the promise that China Lobbyists (for so that people and God may dwell together while He pours the Nationalist cause in Taiwan) made in the US. And it out His life among us in ever greater measures. was not very long before Karsen needed to make a choice: to identify himself with the oppressed by participating in Endnote the cause of justice and human rights, or to distance him- 1 “Why Religions Die,” James Bissett Pratt, University of Cali- self from this responsibility. Would he join in “exposing fornia Publications in Philosophy, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 95-124, 1940. the evils that were going around us, opposing those evils
International Journal of Frontier Missiology Book Reviews 97 e identifies how “privileged position,” “security,” and “fundamentalist” belief prevented churches in Hong Kong from addressing the root of an Hunjust system in the region. in any way we would, and deposing the perpetrators of the toward the end of 1980. At a consultation on the mis- evils when and where possible” (p. 74)? sion of the church in Hong Kong, church leaders across denominations joined hands to advocate that the church Karsen chose to play an active role in standing with the “stand up and challenge the Hong Kong government in Presbyterian Church in Taiwan (PCT), advocating the the areas of government policy, justice, and the plight of need for the Church to be critical of social injustice in the poor” (p. 290). Taiwan and addressing the root of problems. PCT, with its 167,000 membership, stood strong through a turbu- This is a fascinating account of a very personal missionary lent time in the earlier 1970s, voicing the plight of the journey as well as testimony to the work of God among Taiwanese people under a Nationalist regime that disre- Christians in Taiwan and Hong Kong in the last three garded human rights. Through campus ministry and pub- decades of the 20th century. The author is obviously very lication, Karsen engaged seminary and university students familiar with issues at stake, with personal experience and in facing the socio-political issues of the time and address- involvement on the one hand, and serious documentation ing them from a Christian perspective. He also worked and research on the other. It is insightful and informa- closely with national leaders such as Andrew Hsieh and tional. In telling his own story, Karsen gives due acknowl- Peng Ming-min in solidarity with the Taiwanese people’s edgement to Christians he served within both regions, struggle for democracy and human rights. On account of their struggle, bravery and faith. From a Christian of this, he and his family were eventually denied visas to Reformed perspective, Karsen makes his points loud and return to Taiwan while on furlough in the U.S. clear: Christians should actively support or criticize the sociopolitical systems for the sake of justice, peace and For the next two decades, following his exit from good for all. He was insightful in appealing to Christians Taiwan in 1973, Karsen continued his overseas mission- to directly address the root problems of the political and ary involvement in Hong Kong, a dramatically different economic system rather than just “applying Band-Aids to context from Taiwan. Before he critically examines the social sores” (p. 231). stand taken by Hong Kong churches, Karsen provides brief background information on colonial Hong Kong, Karsen moved beyond a singular concern for the injus- as he did in the previous section on Taiwan. He helps tice and oppressive political systems to include Christian orient readers to the complexity and the ‘fundamental involvement in other spheres—education, economy and inequities’ of the region. He identifies how “privileged social work—which he deems important in the efforts to position,” “security,” and “fundamentalist” belief pre- address root problems of Taiwan and Hong Kong. These vented churches in Hong Kong from addressing the root glimpses of his efforts are helpful in providing a more of an unjust system in the region. As a result, “Christians holistic picture of the life and ministry of Christians in by and large had been natural partners for the British in these unique contexts. But more might need to be uncov- developing a society within the colony that was built on ered than these Christian initiatives if we are to under- stand the overall process and results. The task of a future the pillars of power and profit” (p. 231). book might reveal how Christians identify, integrate Since the 70s, however, in the midst of political and and address the multi-faceted human problems in these social change in the colony, a new generation of Christian regions, rooted as they are within socio-cultural, eco- leaders emerged on the scene, “engaging in fresh theo- nomic, political, and spiritual spheres. IJFM logical thinking” and challenging the status quo (p. 234). Churches were awakened to their inescapable responsibility of being a prophetic witness in the soci- ety, and started to be actively involved in labor reforms, educational reforms, and social reforms and politi- cal reforms. As the director of Hong Kong Christian Council’s Communications Centre, Karsen and the staff were instrumental in providing an “outlet for Christian reform advocates and church leaders to express them- selves on public issues during the crucial decades leading up to 1997” (p. 286). Karsen identifies a “seminal event”
28:2 Summer 2011 98 In Others’ Words
the early 70’s. She is at her best in the combination of In Others’ Words interpretive synthesis and historical detail. Towards the end of second part she highlights the role of Editor’s Note: In this department, you’ll find resources 1980 World Consultation on Frontier Missions in Edin- outside of the IJFM that we hope you’ll find helpful: other burgh, Scotland, and how this meeting ‘shifted the amor- journals, print resources, DVDs, web sites, blogs, YouTube phous concept of mission frontiers’. She notes ‘the inverted videos, etc. We welcome suggestions, but cannot promise that word order’ that became frontier missions, and correctly we will publish each one we receive. Standard disclaimers suggests that this “served to limit frontier discourse specifi- on content apply. cally to planting evangelistic churches among unreached people groups, in order to complete the task of world The Negotiable Frontier evangelization.” Then she forecasts a questionable future: ana Robert’s recent contribution to Missiology, “Mis- “It remains to be seen whether the definition that (Ralph) Dsion Frontiers from 1910 to 2010”, has given a fresh Winter crafted will continue to have the same influence historical perspective on how we negotiate the “frontier” in among twenty-first century ‘transformational’ evangelicals Christian mission.1 Rather than a quantitative analysis of that it had in the late twentieth century.” Robert is sug- the frontier mission movement, Robert provides an inter- gesting that another shift in frontier discourse is presently pretive essay on the concept of ‘frontier” and how we use it in motion, and that this shifting is quite normal in the to prioritize mission. The abstract indicates the following: history of mission discourse.
The idea of mission frontiers is an enduring theme in mission Robert’s analysis has the shortcoming of narrowing down theory and practice. This article charts the changing defi- on the discourse of mission within the more ecumeni- nitions of frontiers in twentieth century Anglo-American cal wing of mission and the World Council of Churches. Protestant mission discourse. Part I traces the concept Maybe the more evangelical, neo-evangelical and funda- from 1910 to the end of European colonialism, through the mental mission movement didn’t use the term “frontier”, concepts of “unoccupied regions” to multiple boundary but they would have defined their frontier nonetheless. crossings. Part II begins with the mid-century postcolonial idea of frontier as boundary between belief and unbelief, What Robert sees as a shift to a frontier between ‘belief th documents disputes over the definition of frontiers, and and unbelief ” in the second half of the 20 century was argues that the concept of unreached peoples represented simply a frontier evangelicals consistently called ‘the lost’. both a shift and a narrowing of discourse about mission By focusing down on missionary discourse Robert might frontiers. The article concludes by raising questions about have failed to give a comprehensive treatment of mission the nature of frontier discourse in the twenty-first century. frontiers, but she has demonstrated how we negotiate the priority of mission through the language of ‘frontier’. Her claim is that behind the term “frontier”, or “mission frontier”, has been “a locus of heated debate over the She has probed mission history with what social scientists meaning and validity of mission.” She begins with the call “an essentially negotiable concept.”2 Words like ‘fron- ‘pioneer spirit’ of the American frontier and its influence tier’, or more theological terms like ‘kingdom’ and ‘church’, on the student volunteerism in the late nineteenth cen- can be contested terms with no uniform accepted use. tury. “Go West, young man” simply became “Go East” While there may be a general sharing of their meaning, and the mandate to occupy the world. She weaves the these terms are complex and more open for debate. They lives of mission statesmen like John R. Mott, Sherwood usually designate some exemplar or paragon of achieve- Eddy and J.H. Oldham into the radical shift that took ment, and they’re used to define a situation, to characterize place in the 1920’s after wwi “shattered the myth of an issue, to construct a priority, or to capture the terms of Western superiority.” It was in this context that “mis- discourse. Robert’s tracing of our bargaining over mission sionary frontiers moved from the territorial expansion of frontiers exposes how history and context can often shape Christianity to include Christian witness amid secular- our priorities in mission, and indeed, how one single term ism and colonial racism.” The “generational shift in can symbolize mission-shift. IJFM mission philosophy” became evident with a revolt among young mission leaders at the 1924 SVMFM conven- tion, where “students engaged in passionate discussion of Endnotes 1 Dana Robert, “Mission Frontiers from 1910 to 2010”, Western racism, war, and labor relations, but expressed in Missiology: An International Review, Part I (Vol XXXIX little interest in foreign missions.” But she also details no.2, April, 2011) Part II (Vol. XXXIX, no.3, July, 2011) the pendulum swing from the 60’s mood of morato- (Electronic Issue). rium in mission, to that ‘strange optimism’ of Donald 2 Lawrence Rosen, Bargaining for Reality (Univ. of Chicago McGavran, and the identification of ‘frontier peoples’ in Press, 1984) pp. 185f. International Journal of FrontierZ Missiology