Latin American Weed Biological Control Science at the Crossroads

Keynote Presenter Latin American weed biological control science at the crossroads

R.W. Barreto1

Summary Latin America is the centre of origin of many of the invasive alien weeds threatening natural and agricultural ecosystems throughout the world. As a result, it has been an important destination for expeditions in search of natural enemies for their control. Unfortunately, the role of local scientists has been mainly that of contracted explorers, cooperating on projects aimed at exploration for classical biological control agents. This is changing as the need to confront the growing threat from alien weeds in Latin America gathers pace. Nevertheless, with limited funding and a continuing ignorance by both the general public and the decision makers about the scale of the invasive weed problem in Latin America, target selection will be critical since this will determine the long-term viability of biological control in the region. In the proactive, new role to develop biological control in Latin America, should ‘easy’ targets be selected, for which there has been success on other continents, or instead, should targets be more challenging, potentially confrontational, such as African grasses which threaten not only the stability of unique ecosystems but which could also have global conse- quences? These issues will be discussed based on experiences gained from past and present collaborative projects.

Keywords: target selection; agent selection; classical biological control; bioherbicides.

Latin American weed biological weed; Chromolaena odorata (L.) King and Robinson; lantana; Lantana camara L.; mile-a-minute Mika- control: historical background nia micrantha H.B.K.; sensitive plant, Mimosa spp.; Latin America, including the Caribbean in this paper, is prickly pear, Opuntia spp.; strawberry guava, Psidium the centre of origin of many of the invasive alien weed cattleianum Sabine; and Brazilian pepper tree, Schinus threatening systems throughout the world. For instance, terebinthifolius Raddi. 59 of the 209 worst weeds on a worldwide scale are na- Latin America has played a major role in weed bio- tive to Latin America (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). They logical control since its inception at the beginning of include aquatic weeds such as water hyacinth, Eich- the 20th century. Two early pioneering projects were hornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms; alligator weed, Altern- involved in transcontinental transfers of natural ene- anthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.; capybara grass, mies aimed at L. camara and Opuntia vulgaris Miller. Hymenachne aplexicaulis (Rudge) Nees; water lettuce, Pistia stratiotes L.; arrowhead, Sagittaria moteviden- Lantana camara sis Cham. and Schlecht.; and salvinia, Salvinia molesta The first explorations for natural enemies of a weed D.S. Mitchell; and terrestrial weeds such as mistflower, for biological control were conducted in Mexico by the Ageratina riparia (Regel) King and Robinson; Siam Hawaii Department of Agriculture against L. camara. Insects were introduced into Hawaii in 1902 (Perkins and Swezey, 1924). Eight of 33 insect species that were 1 Departamento de Fitopatologia, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa/ MG, 36570-000, Brazil . released in Hawaii from 1902 to 1970 were established © CAB International 2008 (Waterhouse and Norris, 1987). Although the accounts

109 XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds of the impact of these insects are somewhat vague, they took two pioneering introductions of fungal pathogens are generally regarded as having contributed to partially against weeds in Latin America. The rust fungus Phrag- controlling the weed (Goeden, 1978). L. camara is midium violaceum (Schultz) Winter was introduced of worldwide importance, and interest in its biologi- from Europe into Chile against blackberry, Rubus spp., cal control has been maintained to this date. In 1992, in 1973 (Oehrens, 1977; Oehrens and Gonzales, 1974), the fungus Septoria was introduced to combat lantana and Uromyces galegae (Opiz) Sacc. was introduced, (Davis et al., 1992) with excellent results (Trujillo, also from Europe, against goat’s rue, Galega officinalis 2005). The case of L. camara is remarkable as it was L. (Oehrens and Gonzales, 1974). Phragmidium viola- the first target for biological control, and there have ceum provided effective control of Rubus constrictus been around 30 projects worldwide (Broughton, 2000). Lefèvre and P.J. Müll., but no control resulted for Rubus The most recent introduction was a rust fungus Pros- ulmifolius Schott. (Oehrens and Gonzales, 1977; Medal, podium tuberculatum (Speg.) Arthur into Australia in 2003). Uromyces galegae established but did not have 2001 (Ellison et al., 2006). Unfortunately, no agent or any impact on goat’s rue (Medal, 2003). It is interest- combination of agents has proved sufficient to control ing that these introductions were taking place almost at this important weed species, and it is likely that new the same time as the rust fungus Puccinina chondrillina agents will be required. Fortunately, a highly diverse Bubak and Sydenham was being used for the first time list of parasites and arthropods attack it, and new po- in Australia for the biological control of skeleton weed, tential agents are still being found (Barreto et al., 1995; Chondrilla juncea L. (Cullen, 1974). Bertossi was Pereira and Barreto, 2000). ahead of his time for Latin America biological control science. He conjectured the use of rust fungi in weed Opuntia stricta biological control as early as 1963 (Oehrens, 1963), before Wilson’s (1969) seminal publication, making it one The control of prickly pear, Opuntia stricta (Haw.) of the earliest records of this kind of consideration from Haw., in Australia, was also based on collections made a plant pathologist. It is very unfortunate that Chilean in Latin America. In 1925, the moth Cactoblastis cac- pathologists have never followed Bertossi’s example. torum (Bergroth) was introduced from Argentina. In The only other account of the deliberate introduction 1933, complete control was achieved over 24 million of a pathogen as a classical biological control agent in hectares of valuable land (McFadyen and Willson, Latin America is that of a failed attempt in Argentina to 1997). This was the first example of a ‘silver-bullet’ use of P. chondrillina as a classical biological control effect in weed biological control, but the contribution agent for C. juncea (Julien and Griffiths, 1998). of other arthropods and even pathogens may also have The inundative strategy involving the use of endemic been relevant. Twelve other species of Opuntia spp. fungal pathogens against invasive weeds in Latin Amer- have been targeted by classical biological control proj- ica was explored by several research groups after being ects using Latin American arthropods, mostly from Ar- pioneered by José Tadashi Yorinori, a leading Brazilian gentina and Mexico (Julien and Griffiths, 1998). soybean plant pathologist of Empresa Brasileira de Pes- quisa Agropecuária (EMBRAPA-Soja). With collabo- The first weed biological control project rators, he evaluated the fungus Bipolaris euphorbiae targeting a weed in Latin America (Hansford) Muchovej as a mycoherbicide against wild poinsettia, Euphorbia heterophylla L. (Yorinori, 1985, The first deliberate introduction against a weed in 1987; Yorinori and Gazziero, 1989). This work was in- Latin America took place in Chile in 1952 using the terrupted in the 1990s due to changed research priorities beetles Chrysolina hyperici (Forster) and Chrysolina in EMBRAPA-Soja and to the discovery of common quadrigemina (Suffrian) (Chrysomelidae) against St. biotypes of the weed that appeared to be resistant to John’s wort, Hypericum perforatum L. This success- B. euphorbiae. Research on this fungus as a potential ful project (Norambuena and Ormeño, 1991) piggy- mycoherbicide continues in Brazil (Marchiori et al., backed on the successful project carried out in 1947 in 2001; Nechet et al., 2006; Barreto and Evans, 1998). the USA. Unfortunately, these introductions remained the sole examples of classical introductions into Latin America for the next 20 years. Continuation of searches for biological control agents by foreign scientists Pioneering work of Latin American plant Most work in Latin America continued to be limited pathologists in classical and inundative to surveying for arthropods as potential agents for use in other continents. In the late 1950s, US Department weed biological control of Agriculture (USDA)-Agricultural Research Service Edgardo Oehrens Bertossi, Professor of plant pa- (ARS) scientists surveyed South America for natural thology of the Universidad Austral de Chile and often enemies of A. philoxeroides and E. crassipes. Instead of regarded as ‘father of plant pathology in Chile’, under- short expeditions that had previously been used, USDA-

110 Latin American weed biological control science at the crossroads

ARS chose to establish a base from which longer and projects piggy-backed on previous studies, such as more frequent surveys could be made and supported. those against, L. camara, E. crassipes and P. stratiotes; The USDA-ARS South American Biological Control others were initiated by South Africans. Among the re- Lab (SABCL) was inaugurated in 1962 and contin- cent success stories are: red water fern, Azolla filiculoi- ues its activities with excellent results until this date des Lamarck, using the weevil Stenopelmus rufinasus (Table 1). Similarly, Australian scientists from Com- Gyllenhal collected from the US, Argentina and Para- monwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Orga- guay (Hill, 1999; Hill and Cilliers, 1999). nisation (CSIRO) set up base in Curitiba, Brazil, later Intensive searches have also been made in Latin (1984) moved to Acapulco Mexico and then in 1987 America by scientists from CAB International for bio- to the current station in Vera Cruz, Mexico. These sta- logical control of pantropical weeds such as C. odorata, tions often hosted researchers from other institutions L. camara, M. micrantha, Mimosa pigra L. Parthenium (Segura and Heard, 2004). Such strategy adopted by hysterophorus L., and others. A recent example of work US and Australian scientists yielded agents that result- by CABI is the introduction of Puccinia spegazzini de ed in some of the most spectacular cases of success in Toni from Latin America to India against M. micrantha weed biological control such as those that followed the (Sankaran et al.,2008). introduction into Australia of the weevil Cyrtobagous salviniae Calder and Sands against S. molesta (Room et al., 1981); the introduction of Agasicles hygrophila Latin American weed biological Seleman and Vogt against A. philoxeroides into the control: the present US (Spencer and Coulson, 1976), the weevil Neohy- dronomus affinis Hustach introduced against P. stra- Targeting weeds in Latin America tiotes in Australia (Harley et al., 1984) and the moth restarted Niphograpta albiguttalis (Warren) and the weevil Neo- Biological control activity restarted in Latin Amer- chetina eichhornia Warner in the US and Neochetina ica in Chile (INIA-Centro Regional de Investigación bruchi Hustache in Australia against E. crassipes. Such Carillanca), with a programme in the 1980s against successes were later replicated many times in different gorse, Ulex europaeus L., using the seed feeder Exa- parts of the world with the same agents (e.g. Center, pion ulicis Forster, an agent already introduced with 1982; Julien and Griffiths, 1998). some success from Europe into New Zealand (Noram- In the last part of the 20th century, Hawaii-based buena et al., 1986; Norambuena and Piper, 2000). The entomologists such as C.J. Davis and R. Burkhart and gorse spider mite, Tetranychus lintearius Dufour, was the plant pathologist E. Trujillo introduced insects from also introduced later from Hawaii and Portugal (No- Latin America (mainly the Caribbean) against Kosters rambuena et al., 2007). curse, Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don, as well as one fungus [Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penzig) Penzig and Sacc. (Julien and Griffiths, 1998)]. Although the Interactions between foreign weed fungus and a thrips Liothrips urichi Karny were estab- biological control scientists and lished and Trujillo (2005) claims control levels to be adequate after repeated spraying with suspension of the Latin American scientists fungus conidia, the weed is still a cause for concern in Very positive actions for weed biological control forest habitats (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). science in Latin America have been the efforts by Aus- Other weeds from Latin America that were targeted tralia-, New Zealand-, South Africa-, European- and in Hawaiian projects were: mistflower, Ageratina ri- US-based scientists to encourage active involvement paria (Regel) R. King and H. Robinson, from Mexico of Latin American entomologists and plant patholo- which was spectacularly controlled with a white smut gists in weed biological control programmes (see Table fungus Entyloma ageratinae Barreto and Evans (Tru- 1). Some of these involve interactions by scientists and jillo, 2005); banana–poka, Passiflora tarminiana Coo- research groups from more than two Latin American pens, Barney, Jørgensen and MacDugal (=Passiflora countries such as the projects on Brazilian pepper tree, mollissima, Passiflora tripartita), against which insects S. terebinthifolius, and tropical soda apple, Solanum and a fungus were released. The fungus Septoria passi- viarum Dunal (Gandolfo et al., 2007; Medal et al., florae Sydenham caused significant decline of banana– 2002). poka biomass in forest areas (Trujillo, 2005). Many scientists from Latin America were trained Scientists from South Africa (Plant Protection Re- in weed biological control in Europe, and US. Further, search Institute) have also surveyed Latin America for after J. Medal and D Gandolfo took part of an inten- natural enemies of native plants that became serious sive biological control of weeds training course in Aus- weeds in South Africa. Of 31 weed species listed, 15 tralia, they also organized a series of three courses in are from Latin America or have Latin America as part 2002, 2004 and 2006 in Nicaragua with attendees from of their native range (Olckers and Hill, 1999). Some numerous Latin American countries.

111 XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds

1 - - spp.

2 -

3 4 5 Nassella 6 7

8 Observations one lost oppor So far, tunity for a project with great potential for Latin America with Work challenged by difficul ties with rust life-cycle (Anonym, 2006) Until now 16 agents evaluated in this lab and released against Australia four weeds in Projects mainly con centrated on endemic aquatic weeds 9 10 . (1992).

11 . et al

12 Grace et al

13 (1993)

and . (2007), Ávila

14 . (2008) et al

15 et al. 16 et al

17 Selected publications Elango Reeder and Ellison (1999), Sánchez-Garita (1999) Sosa Ostermeyer (2007), Lonsdale (1995), Forno Pitelli and Pitelli (2005), Borges Neto and Pitelli (2004)

19 20 21 22 23 Status of project— selected results Concluded Concluded Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing 24 Concluded Concluded Interrupted due political and administrative problems Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing 25 a 26 27 in in 28 Approach ce ci ci ce ce ce ce ce in 29 30

(L.) Irwin

32 (Kunth) L.

33 Planch. cochinchinensis Burman f. 34 spp. 35 spp. 36 Principal or recent weeds target Eichhornia crassipes Senna obtusifolia and Barney 37 odorata Chromolaena Opuntia Rottboellia Clayton W.D. (Lour.) Cabomba caroliniana A. Gray Nassella Phyla canescens Greene Mimosa pigra Sida acuta Egeria densa 38 -

39 40 41 42 Location: 43 city/country Jaboticabal/Brazil 44 Curepe/Trinidad Tobago Turrialba/Costa Rica Bahia Blanca/Ar gentina Veracruz/Mexico 45 46 47 Status of activities Ongoing 48 Interrupted Interrupted since 1999 Ongoing Ongoing 49

50 -

51 -

52 53

54 America, their projects and status of activities. Research groups involved with weed biological control in Latin 55 56 57 Organization/research leader Organization/research Departamento de Biologia Agropecuária Aplicada à (DBAA)-Universidade Estadual Paulista Júlio de Mesquita (UNESP- Jaboticabal)—R.A. Pitelli Centre for Agriculture and Centre for Biosciences International, American Caribbean Latin Station Tropical Agronómico Centro de Investigación y En señanza Centro de Recursos Natu rales Renovables de la Zona Semiárida (CERZOS) and Departamento de Agronomia/Universidad Nacional del Sur— Anderson, R. Delhey, F. Traversa G. M. Kiehr, CSIRO Entomology Mexico Heard, Field Station—T. R. Segura

58 1. Table

112 Latin American weed biological control science at the crossroads - - Projects encompassing a range of native and introduced weeds in Brazil and concentrated on the study of fungal pathogens as biological control agents and also some studies on plant pathogenic nematodes. Scientists in the team still interested in return ing to the field Also problems with weed resistance to the fungus Additional projects in cooperation with USDA and Plant Protection Re search Institute (South Africa) - et

b . (2005), Ávila . (2005), Hight et al et al (2000). Wikler and Wikler (2000).

. (2000), Borges Neto . (2000), Borges . (2000) . . (2003), Vitorino Vitorino . (2003), See site indicated below for a complete list of publi cations, most representing surveys of the mycobiota of weeds in Brazil. Ávila et al et al (1985, 1987), Yorinori and Gazziero Yorinori (1989) Cuda al et al (2007) Vitorino - - Interrupted Ongoing Ongoing One agent being tested in quarantine in Florida Ongoing Priorities within EMBRAPA changed to other areas Priorities within EMBRAPA changed to other areas Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing Interrupted Ongoing One agent intro duced and estab lished in Hawaii Tahiti and Ongoing Finished in ce ce in in in in in ce ci ce ce ce ce ce ce ce in in ce ce L.

J. DC Miller L. Jacq. (L.) Juss. Commelina benghalensis Saggitaria montevidensis Cham. and Schlecht. Schinus terebinthifolius fluminensis Tradescantia Vell. Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia heterophylla stans Tecoma ex Kunth. Cyperus rotundus Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia heterophylla Eichhornia crassipes Hedychium coronarium Koenig Ipomoea carnea Lantana camara Macfadyena unguis-cati (L.) Gentry Miconia calvescens aculeata Pereskia Pistia stratiotes Psidium cattleianum Senna obtusifolia Psidium cattleianum Schinus terebinthifolius Viçosa/Brazil Brasília/Brazil Londrina/Brazil Blumenau/Brazil Ongoing Suspended Interrupted Ongoing -

Departamento de Fitopato logia (DFP)-Universidade Viçosa— Federal de Barreto R.W. Nacional EMBRAPA-Centro de Pesquisa Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia (CENARGEN)—Sueli Mello EMBRAPA-Soja— Yorinori J.T. Fundação Universidade Regional de Blumenau— Vitorino M.D.

113 XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds - - -

Observations Almost a single-man operation— continuation at risk. Continuation of activi ties unlikely after end of project. No disciples left behind after a brilliant start. Activity in this lab led to the formation of new groups (UNICENTRO and FURB) This has been by far the and most produc largest tive team of biological control scientists in America but deal Latin ing almost exclusively with arthropods

. -

. et al

. (2007), (2005) et al

et al et al . (2003), Wikler Wikler . (2003), et al . (1996) . (1999) Selected publications Norambuena Norambuena and Piper (2000), Norambuena (1986) Jimenez and Lopez (2001), Jimenez and Charudattan (1998) Hight et al Burckhardt Oehrens (1977), and Gonzales (1974, 1975, 1977) Pedrosa-Macedo (2007a, 2007b), Pedrosa- Macedo (2000), Medal et al Numerous publications by a series of leading scien tists such as H. Cordo, Willie D. Gandolfo, Walsh, Cabrera Cristina Fernandez, Fernando McKay, Alejandro Sosa.

- - Status of project— selected results Ongoing Fungi and insects actually being used in the field Agents under evaluation in quar antine in Hawaii and Florida Agents under evaluation in quar antine in Hawaii Partial success No control Agents under evaluation in Brazil and in quarantine in Hawaii and Florida Several successful introductions in the US and elsewhere. Several ongoing projects. a Approach ce ce—all projects ci in ce ce ce ce ce ci ci ce ce

, - - - - Al and (DC) ,

Cam Prosopis Prosopis Pereskia Pereskia , Sw., Sw., Cardiospermum Cardiospermum Schinus tereben , spp. Cabomba caroliniana (Less.) DC, Principal or recent weeds target Ulex europaeus Eichhornia crassipes other aquatic weeds Cabomba caroliniana Psidium cattleianum Schinus terebinthifolius herbacea Tibouchina Cogn. Miconia calvescens Rubus Galega officinalis Psidium cattleianum Schinus terebinthifolius fluminensis Tradescantia Eichhornia crassipes ternanthera philoxeroides Solanum viarum spp., A. Gray, thifolius grandiflorum puloclinium macrocepha lum aculeata

Location: city/country Curitiba/Brazil Hurlingham/ Argentina Temuco/Chile Jiutepec/Mexico Iratí/Brazil San José/Costa Rica Valdivia/Chile Status of activities Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing Ongoing Final stages Ended

(Continued) Research groups involved with weed biological control in Latin America, their projects and status of activities. (Continued) Research groups involved with weed biological control in Latin ce, Classical biological exploration of local agents for introduction outside Latin America; ci, classical biological introduction of agents against alien weeds in Latin America; in, inundative/bioherbicide. America; ci, classical biological introduction of agents against alien weeds in Latin ce, Classical biological exploration of local agents for introduction outside Latin For a complete list of publications, see: http://lattes.cnpq.br/4191011304306773. Organization/research leader Organization/research Universidade Federal do Paraná—H. Pedrosa-Macedo South USDA-ARS SABCL American Biological Control Laboratory—J. Briano, F. Walsh, Cabrera W. C. Hernandez, McKay, A. Sosa Instituto de Investigaciones, Agropecuaria (INIA)-Centro Regional de Investigación (CRI) Carillanca— H. Norambuena Instituto Mexicano de Agua— del Tecnologia M.M. Jiménez Universidade Estadual do Centro-Oeste do Paraná Wikler (UNICENTRO)—C. Universidad de Costa Hanson Rica—P. Austral de Universidad Chile—E.B. Oehrens

Table 1. Table a b

114 Latin American weed biological control science at the crossroads

Present status of research groups and others are in preparation. These provide contributions research activities in weed biological to the field of mycology and about potential biological control in Latin America control agents for use in Brazil or abroad. Two of these fungi have been used: Colletotrichum gloeosporioides An assessment of the status of research activities (Penz.) Sacc. f. sp. Miconiae, a pathogen of M. calves- in Latin America was undertaken through a search of cens in Hawaii (Barreto et al., 2001) and P. tuberculatum the literature and personal contacts (Table 1). Sixteen in Australia for the control of L. camara (Ellison et al., researchers or groups have involvement with weed bio- 2006). A new species of Septoria is being evaluated for logical control in Latin America. Only six of 23 coun- S. terebinthifolius in quarantine in Florida. Preliminary tries have scientists working in weed biological control: results of ongoing work at DFP/UFV on other weeds Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Mexico and Trini- are presented in these proceedings (Faria et al., 2008; dad Tobago. Six have been involved solely dealing with Macedo et al., 2008; Nechet et al., 2008; Pereira et al., exploration for natural enemies to be used elsewhere. 2008; Soares and Barreto, 2008; Vieira et al., 2008). Three labs deal mostly with the inundative/bioherbicide Other scientists of this department are becoming in- approach utilizing endemic pathogens. Three labs have volved. Two nematodes were found attacking M. cal- been involved solely with classical introductions of vescens: Ditylenchus drepanocercus Goodey, causing agents into Latin America. Unfortunately, only one of angular leaf spots and a new species of Ditylenchus sp., these remains active (INIA-CRI Carillanca). Addition- which is being presently described and causes severe ally, four labs had activities in more than one approach. galling on foliage. The former nematode was studied Six dealt solely with pathogens, five with arthropods in detail (Seixas et al., 2004a, 2004b), but priority is and four with both. This is surprising, considering the being given to the latter nematode as it is easier to ma- much longer history of the use of insects in weed bio- nipulate and causes a more severe disease. Its evalu- logical control and the great number of entomologists ation has provided promising results, and it is being involved in weed biological control. tested in quarantine in Hawaii. Bacteriologists were also involved after a bacterial disease was found attacking Tradescantia fluminensis. The etiological agent Work at DFP/UFV (Brazil) was identified asBurkholderia andropogonis; pathoge- The Departamento de Fitopatologia, DFP/Univer- nicity was demonstrated but host-range tests appear sidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV) is one of the largest to discourage further evaluations of its potential for a Plant Pathology departments of any university in Latin classical introduction. America. Weed biological control activity began there after 1994, funded by Brazilian agencies, such as Con- selho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecno- Latin American weed biological lógico (CNPq) and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do control science at the crossroads Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG), and foreign orga- nizations, such as the University of Hawaii and Land- The challenges of re-inaugurating care Research, New Zealand. Twelve MSc and PhD classical weed biological control in students have studied weed biological control classical (inoculative) and mycoherbicide (inundative) strate- Latin American countries gies. Four serious agricultural weeds in Brazil have Latin America still holds a plethora of natural en- been selected for mycoherbicide development; wander- emies of important native and exotic weeds that may ing jew, Commelina benghalensis L., purple nutsedge, be used in classical or inundative weed biological con- Cyperus rotundus L., wild poinsettia, E. heterophylla trol worldwide. Sadly, the potential of the discipline and arrowhead, Saggitaria montevidensis Cham. and for tackling weed infestations in agricultural lands and Schlecht. Work is advanced on the use of the fungus for mitigating biological invasions in Latin America Lewia chlamidosporiformans B.S. Vieira and Barreto remains virtually untapped. To change this, there are (Vieira and Barreto, 2005). Demonstrations of its com- significant challenges to be overcome to raise the disci- mercial viability are presently under way. pline’s status and to maintain the structures developed Surveys to discover fungal pathogens attacking se- by past and present researchers. Some of these issues lected weeds in Brazil have been conducted. Recently, will be discussed below. surveyed were: Hedychium coronarium J. Koenig, In a recent assessment of weed biological control, Ipomoea carnea Jacq., L. camara, Macfadyena unguis- for classical biological control only about 5% of nearly cati (L.) Gentry, Miconia calvescens D.C. (Seixas et 1000 programmes worldwide were implemented in al., 2007), Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC (Pereira and Latin America (Ellison and Barreto, 2004). The ma- Barreto, 2005), Pereskia aculeata Miller (Pereira et al., jority of the programmes were in the USA, Australia, 2007), P. cattleianum (Pereira and Barreto, 2007) and South Africa, Canada and New Zealand. The paucity of S. montevidensis Cham. and Schlecht. Publications de- programmes in Latin America was attributed to a series scribe the Brazilian mycobiota of 13 plant species, and of factors, among which are:

115 XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds

1. The lack of long-term funding and tendency to with- discipline of weed biological control, allowing funding draw funding as soon as one promising agent fails to of research and the establishment of new labs. perform well regardless of other promising agents. To consolidate the discipline in Latin America, 2. A lack of recognition from the public, government highly successful classical weed biological control officials and local scientists of the importance of ex- programmes should be implemented as quickly as pos- otic invasive weeds. Among weed scientists in Latin sible. Such successful programmes must receive wide America, there is a persistent myth that tropical Lat- publicity. Piggy-backing on other successful projects in America is immune to invasions by exotic plants. is the only way to ensure such success. Pre- and post- Ellison and Barreto (2004) refute this assumption release ecological and economical evaluations would with examples of important exotic invasions into allow for a clear demonstration of the benefits of such natural, semi-natural ecosystems and in agricultural projects and provide for the support of future propos- systems. Only since the early 2000s has the threat als. Publicity is needed to educate the public, other sci- to agriculture, forestry, cattle ranching and the natu- entists and the authorities, to encourage further funding ral environment by introduced species (including and promote new scientific vocations that will - guar weeds) started to be recognized in Latin America. antee a future for the activity. Even within scientific forums, there is little effort by Latin American weed There is a virtual absence of examples of practical biological control scientists to publicize their activities use of the inundative approach in weed biological con- and their outstanding past record. Few Latin American trol in Latin America. This mirrors a lack of commer- weed scientists are aware of the successful history of cial success for bioherbicides on a world scale as dis- weed biological control, the highly advantageous cost/ cussed by Evans et al. (2001), including reasons such benefit ratios demonstrated for some important- pro as: poor target selection, poor strain selection, strain grammes, or even of the fact that the majority of weed instability, mass production difficulties, low shelf-life, species in any country are aliens that could be targeted problems with time of application and poor formula- by classical weed biological control. A more active role tions. Nevertheless, this has not discouraged Latin should be played by the Latin American weed biologi- American scientists from attempting to develop such cal control scientists within the various discipline soci- products (Table 1). eties and at relevant meetings.

The risk of depending on ‘local heroes’ New rules for collecting in Latin America: and the need for a strategy for expanding field scientists´ bureaucracy and perpetuating the discipline In the past, insects or fungi attacking weeds were Of the 17 research groups listed in Table 1, five generally regarded as irrelevant to everyone but the of the labs have either suspended or terminated their weed biological control scientists. Field entomologists work in this field as a result of changed political and and plant pathologists could explore distant places and administrative priorities or retirement or death of the collect natural enemies. This was admissible as there lead scientist. Further, in most of cases (except USDA- were no laws governing such procedures, and this re- ARS SABCL and CSIRO labs), activity relies on the mains the case for many countries. In the last two or enthusiasm of one leading scientist. Several of these three decades, the public and government authorities scientists are either about to retire or already retired but worldwide became aware of the value and the need to continuing their activities at a slowing pace. The sole preserve the biodiversity of ecosystems: international example of an ongoing programme of classical weed agreements, such as the Convention on Biodiversity, biological control in Latin America, aimed at the weed were developed and supported by national legislations. U. europaeus, relies almost completely on H. Noram- An unfortunate consequence is that exploration for clas- buena’s work in INIA-CRI Carillanca, Chile. This dis- sical biological control agents is sometimes not treated cipline’s continuity cannot rely on isolate individuals. separately from profit-oriented bioprospection for new For some labs, all the activity depends on a single or drugs or other compounds. Some countries have novel few projects, and once funding becomes scarce or the anti-biopiracy legislation with highly conservative project ends, activity is likely to cease. Unfortunately, safeguards that make it difficult to conduct exploration. in a limited period, a drastic reduction in the number To collect in Latin American, indeed anywhere in the of weed biological control labs in Latin America may world, it is necessary to obtain updated information take place. Latin America needs urgently to have more about the legislation concerning collecting activities examples such as that of J.H. Pedrosa-Macedo, a for- for the countries to be visited. In Brazil, for example, est entomologist and weed biological control scientist it is mandatory to work with local collaborators and that prepared a second generation of scientists that are to leave duplicates of specimens in a Brazilian collec- active in the field. This depends very much on the gov- tion. Such cooperative links invariably prove beneficial ernments and institutional recognition at international, to the programme by allowing for systematic surveys national and regional levels of the importance of the by in-country scientists and may contribute to raising a

116 Latin American weed biological control science at the crossroads more permanent interest for the discipline. Legal issues cal control, choosing the right weed can be more dif- involved in collecting in Latin America are evolving ficult. An obviously target for the weed scientists may quickly. For instance, recently in Brazil, after lobbying not be a priority for government or environmentalists. by the scientific community, legislation was revised, In Brazil, where there has been no previous history of releasing all scientific collection that does not involve a classical introduction against any weed, the choice of genes, organic molecules or extracts from native spe- the target is a delicate issue. cies in Brazil for commercial use from the previous There are a number of very important weeds that bureaucratic burdens established in 2001. Fortunately, are also cultivated providing conflict of interest around this has placed collecting biological control agents in control. Examples are Pinus species and fodder grasses. Brazil back at the situation it was in the 1990s. Clearly these are not target weeds suitable for Latin America regarding the challenge of trying to raise In search of collaboration awareness and gain acceptance for biological control. for mutual benefit The focus should be on one or few selected exotic weed species that will raise no conflicts and that cause sig- Weed biological control science in Latin America nificant environmental or agricultural problems so that owes considerably to the weed biological control scien- control brings uncontroversial benefit that could be tists of developed countries who have been actively en- used for advertising the success of the discipline. Sev- gaged in training scientists from those countries in this eral weed species fit into this frame. Some were already field and providing encouragement, partnership and mentioned, such as E. plana and H. coronarium, but funding opportunities that allowed for several among others might be contemplated, such as Tecoma stans the existing labs to start and maintain their activities. (L.) Juss. ex Kunth (Bredow et al., 2004). Another op- To maintain and develop these relationships so that tion is to piggy-back on a successful programme de- Latin America weed biocontrol science can prosper, it veloped elsewhere in the world, for example, Crypto- is important to share resources and information and to stegia, which invades extensive areas of the Brazilian develop training for new biological control scientists. It northeast (Herrera and Major, 2006). A highly success- is important to establish cooperation on a target weed ful programme against this weed involving the intro- by target weed basis, as it is not fair to undertake col- duction of two natural enemies from Madagascar was lections of biological control agents for a wide range carried out in Australia (Tomley and Evans, 2004). for weeds under a single agreement. Re-opening the incomplete project against itch grass, To increase cooperation and collaboration, there is R. cochinchinensis (Lour.) W.D. Clayton, may also be the possibility for mutual exchange of classical biologi- helpful. This project was interrupted in 1990 before the cal control agents. For instance, some of the worst weeds host-specific head smut fungus, Sporisorium ophiuri in the Indian subcontinent are from Latin America (E. (P. Henn.) Vanky could be released (Ellison and Evans, crassipes, C. odorata, I. carnea, L. camara, M. mi- 1995; Reeder et al., 1996; Reeder and Ellison, 1999; crantha, P. hysterophorus, among others); meanwhile, Sánchez-Garita, 1999). A renewed effort from CAB among the worst weeds in Latin America are plants that International and Centro Agronómico Tropical de In- are natives of India, Pakistan and neighboring countries vestigación y Enseñanza’s (CATIE) might resolve the (C. benghalensis, C. rotundus, Dichrostachys cinerea pending issues allow for a pioneering introduction of a (L.) Wight and Arn., H. coronarium, Rottboellia cochi- weed biological control agent in Central America with nchinensis, Saccharum spontaneum L.). Brazil and Ar- potential benefits for the whole of Latin America. gentina are the centre of origin for some noxious weeds The situation in Latin America is currently favor- in South Africa (Campuloclinium macrocephalum, M. able for actions that may consolidate weed biological unguis-cati and P. aculeata), while the African grass, control and help it gain the respect as a valuable disci- Eragrostis plana Nees, is problematic in Brazil caus- pline that offers unique solutions to major weed prob- ing severe losses to cattle ranchers (Kissmann, 1997). lems. The moment requires firm action from the weed We should work towards developing collaborative ap- biological control scientists in Latin America and their proaches that would provide mutual benefit rather than cooperators. the current mainly one-way movement of agents from Latin America. Acknowledgements

Target selection: a critical issue for the The author wishes to acknowledge the following col- leagues for providing relevant information and ideas discipline in Latin America that were critical for the preparation of this manuscript: The target weeds which were chosen for bioherbi- C. Ellison, C. Wikler, H. Evans, J. Briano, J. Medal, cide development in Latin America (Table 1) are all J.H. Pedrosa-Macedo, M. Vitorino, R. Pitelli, S. Mello highly damaging in many important crops and are often and T. Heard. The author also thanks the Conselho Na- intractable by chemical means thus justifying a market cional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico for a one-weed-product. In the case of classical biologi- (CNPq) for financial support.

117 XII International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds

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