Popular Piety Embodied Morality and Social Practice in Syria PAULO G. PINTO The religious landscape in Syria encom- Sufism plays an important role in shaping karamat (miraculous deeds) performed passes a plurality of interpretations contemporary Muslim religiosity in Syria. by the shaykh and his disciples. Re- and practices of Islam, ranging from In order to understand the impact of the formed and traditional forms of Sufism text-oriented Salafi religiosity to Sufi normative framework of Sufism in the social are often combined in the discourses mysticism, which are experienced and practices of its adherents we have to look at the and practices of Sufi shaykhs and their expressed in a context of enhanced processes of embodiment of its symbols and disciples in Syria. public display of individual and collec- values as the forms of religious subjectivity tive piety.1 Islam as a lived and/or ide- that constitute the basis of Sufi identities. The Ritual and embodiment: alized religious tradition constitutes a enactment of these embodied principles as Sufi constructions of the self major source of meaning and identity moral performances allows the emergence of In order to understand the impact of in the Syrian society, providing the in- new circuits of solidarity, moral authority, and the normative framework of Sufism in dividuals with both collective support social distinction in the Syrian public sphere. the social practices of its adherents we and moral justification for their social have to look to the processes of em- practices. Therefore, there is a constant expression and affirmation of bodiment of its symbols and values as mystical experiences and forms various Islamic symbols, practices, and values as the normative frame- of religious subjectivity, which constitute the basis of Sufi identities. work for participation in the public sphere. The Sufi communities in Syria have the rabita (personal and devotional The establishment of particular interpretations and practices of the link) between shaykh and each disciple as their main structuring prin- Islamic tradition as public norm in the Syrian society is done less by ciple. This personal relation of murshid (master) and murid (disciple) the elaboration and circulation of discourses aiming to inscribe Islam in can be lived as an intense reorganization of the disciple’s self if he/her the political institutions of Syrian society, than through the continuous enters the process of tarbiya (mystical initiation) in tariqa (Sufi path) enactment of embodied religious dispositions in the ordinary practices under the shaykh’s guidance, or in more a diffuse way through the at- of Muslims in their social interactions. The overtly political interpreta- tendance of the collective rituals of the zawiya (ritual lodge). tions of Islam that were fostered by the Muslim Brothers gained so- The disciplinary practices that constitute Sufi initiation aim to con- cial appeal as a form of opposition to the Baathist regime during the trol and reshape the nafs (self) of the disciple, so as to detach it from 1970s and 1980s. However, Islamist discourses declined as a factor of the material universe of worldly appearances and direct it towards the mobilization in the Syrian society since the military confrontation be- esoteric universe of haqiqa (divine reality/truth). The Sufi initiation var- tween the Islamic opposition and the Syrian army in the city of Hama ies greatly in content, length, and elaboration, but my ethnographic in 1982.2 On the other hand, the strength of Islam as a symbolic and observations in zawiyas linked to the Qadiriyya, the Rifa‘iyya, and the normative framework for social practice remained unaltered and actu- Shadhiliyya in Aleppo revealed an overall structure that starts with the ally increased during this same period. memorization and recitation of the Qur’an, proceeds to the study of The conspicuous public display of signs of in- fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), and continues with the study of classical [T]his man dividual and collective Muslim piety—such as and modern Sufi texts. As the disciple moves further in the initiation veiling for women, wearing a beard for men, and path the shaykh assigns him more complex and extenuating mystical mosque attendance for both sexes—became a exercises. presented both his common sight throughout Syria, constituting These exercises can range from the silent recitation of the names of both an affirmation of religious identity and a par- God with the help of a masbaha (prayer-beads) to a period of complete ticular form of participation in the public sphere. khalwa (reclusion), which takes place in some Qadiri and Shadhili za- religious piety …, While these religious identities are clearly con- wiyas in Aleppo in order to make the disciple engage his whole self in nected to various forms of idealization and imagi- the practice of meditation and the dhikr (mystical evocation of God´s nation of an “Islamic society,” they do not amount names). These mystical exercises allow the disciple to embody religious and his “modern to an integrated and coherent project with a clear values and moral dispositions as body positions, corporeal sensations, plan of action in the realm of formal politics. In and physical abilities. The passage from textual study to mystical exer- general, we can say that the efforts in affirming cise symbolizes for the Sufis the progression from the zahiri (exoteric) asceticism” …, Islam as the normative framework for the Syr- intellectual understanding of religious truths to the batini (esoteric) ex- ian society shifted from an overarching Islamist periential apprehension of the divine reality. project centred in the political control of the state The religious experiences that are lived by the Sufis as both mystical as complementary to a plurality of religious discourses and practices states and stages in the Sufi path are not purely subjective phenom- focusing on the moral reform of the individual. ena, as they must be expressed and validated within the normative Sufism has an important role in channelling and framework of the Sufi tradition. The achievement of a certain degree in parts of his moral shaping the growing demand for religious knowl- the Sufi initiation must be constantly proved through the performance edge and Islamic forms of personal piety that of ordeals and the public expression of mystical states in the collective characterizes contemporary Muslim religiosity in rituals of the Sufi communities. These rituals are usually open to anyone performance. Syria. The charismatic character of the Sufi com- who wants to participate, gathering the shaykh’s disciples, members of munities allows them to spread their influence the community, occasional participants in the ritual, and visitors. over a large social spectrum. Reformed forms of Therefore, the hadra (ritual gatherings) of the Sufi communities con- Sufism that try to limit the mystical path to Quranic principles, such as stitute arenas of production, expression, affirmation, and dispute of the one proposed by Shaykh Ahmad Kuftaru (d. 2004), who combined mystical experiences and the religious identities that they ground. The the functions of Mufti of Syria and head of the Kuftariyya Sufi Order, main Sufi collective ritual is the dhikr. It varies in content and style of have a strong influence among middle-class Muslims in Damascus.3 On performance not only between different Sufi orders, but also among the other hand most Sufi communities in Aleppo and, also, Damascus zawiyas that are linked to the same Sufi order. The dhikr enacts ideas of have their religious practices and power relations shaped by shared order, both social and mystical, and power as they are embodied in the understandings of baraka (grace/sacred power) and its expression in religious persona of the shaykh who presides it. 14 ISIM R E V I E W 1 7 / S P R I N G 2 0 0 6 Popular Piety This is well expressed in the dhikr of the two main zawiyas of the Qadiriyya in Aleppo, the zawiya al-Hilaliyya, and the zawiya al-Badinjkiyya. The dhikr of these zawiyas have almost identical symbolic content, but differ greatly in terms of their ritual performance. The dhikr of the Hilaliyya enacts an ideal of harmonious articulation of the in- dividual mystical experiences within the religious and social order framed by the Sharia and embodied by Shay- kh Hilali. The dhikr of the Badinjkiyya emphasizes emotional intensity in the Image not available online performance of mystical states. The in- dividual mystical experiences achieved in this ritual are hierarchically ordained as effects of Shaykh Badinjki’s baraka, which is constantly expressed in the performance of miraculous deeds, such as religious healing. The influence of Sufism in the Syrian society extends beyond the Sufi com- munities via services performed by the Sufi shaykhs for a wider audience, such as the dispensation of religious knowledge, religious healing, conflict © REUTERS, 1998 mediation, and charity. In addition to that, various forms of individual piety or pragmatic religiosity are also bargaining and haggling over prices in their commercial activities, as The late Shaykh channelled into the religious framework of Sufism through the use of they felt that it was contrary to the Sufi principle of sidq (correctness). Ahmad Kuftaru amulets, the cult of saints, and the reading of mystical texts. When asked these disciples whether this was not bad for their busi- (c) with students ness, one of them answered, “We have good people who buy from our at the school for Social practice as moral performance: shops because they know they can trust us. More than that, our master Islamic Studies, Sufism in the public sphere [pointing to Shaykh Nadim’s picture hanging on the wall of his shop] is Damascus, 1998 The process of mystical initiation as well as the ritual socialization in ever protecting us from temptation.” the Sufi communities aims at embodying the symbolic, practical, and The meaning of the principle of sidq was shaped by an experiential normative framework of Sufism as a set of moral dispositions that guide universe defined by a strong sense of personal and public morality the social practices of its adepts.