Chapter 6 Zoomorph Identification ©
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1 Chapter 6 Zoomorph Identification © There are 21 different zoomorphs in various folios of the Voynich Codex: three are found as incidental sketches in the Herbal and Pharma sections (folio 25v, 49r, and 101v), eight are found as animal signs in the zodiac (70r & v, 71r & v, 72r & v, 73r & v), seven are found in the Balneological section of which five are on one page associated with a pool (79v, Fig. 1), and two are in the margins of other pages (78r & 80v). In addition, there are two birds, one nesting and one in flight (86r) and one sheep (86r), scribbled on the back page (116v). Most of the drawings appear hastily drawn, yet in many cases there are sufficient details to permit identification to the species level. The animals are discussed in sequence as invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Some folios, e.g., fol. 101v, are a trifold, so the section of the folio number is indicated in parentheses, e.g., fol. 101v(3) is the third section. Fig. 1. Folio 79v from the Voynich Codex depicts a scene from a pool of water and includes five different animals (left to right) resembling an alligator gar (Atractoseus spatula) swallowing a woman, a lizard, an iguana (Ctenosaura similis), a paca (Agouti paca), and a coatimundi (Nasua sp.). Identification There are 21 different zoomorphs in various folios of the Voynich Codex: three are found as incidental sketches in the Herbal and Pharma sections (folio 25v, 49r, and 101v), eight are found as animal signs in the zodiac (70r & v, 71r & v, 72r & v, 73r & v), seven are found in the Balneological section of which five are on one page associated with a pool (79v, Fig. 1), and two are in the margins of other pages (78r & 80v). In addition, there are two birds, one nesting and one in flight (86r) and one sheep (86r), scribbled on the back page (116v). Most of the drawings appear hastily drawn, yet in many cases there are sufficient details to permit identification to the species level. The animals are discussed in sequence as invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Some folios, e.g., fol. 101v, are a trifold, so the section of the folio number is indicated in parentheses, e.g., fol. 101v(3) is the third section. 2 Invertebrates Crayfish (Phylum: Anthropoda; Subphylum: Crustacea; Class: Malacostraca; Order Decapoda) An illustration associated with the Zodiac, fol. 71v(4), depicts two crayfish (Fig. 2A) identified by four pairs of walking legs located along the cephalothorax as well as the large chelipeds that end in the grasping or pinching claw (Fig. 2B). Crayfish also possess smaller feeding appendages between the chelipeds and long antenna that extend from the head (Fig. 2B), and both of these structures appear in the Voynich drawing (Fig. 2A). This image was tentatively identified as the Mexican crayfish, Cambarellus montezumae Saussare, 1857, by Tucker and Talbert (2013), primarily based on its popularity as food and wide distribution. Mexico is the most crayfish diverse country in the world with >50 described species (Gutiérrez-Yurrita 2004), and crayfish have been consumed by many indigenous people. Sahagún (1963, p. 64, fig. 219a) included a drawing of crayfish, acocili, in the Florentine Codex (Fig. 2C), and described it as a source of food: “It is like the shrimp. Its head is like a grasshopper’s. It is small, dark; it has legs. But when cooked, it is red, ruddy, hard, firm. It is edible; it can be toasted, it can be cooked.”). A crustacean figure also appears in Mayan art (Wyllie 2010), again supporting the observation that this was a popular well-known animal in early Mexican cultures. Fig. 2. (A) Two crayfish, one red and one white, appear in the Voynich Codex associated with the Zodiac, fol. 71v(4). Letters in a Carolingian script under the red crayfish were added later and are thought to spell iollio, which is similar to the Catalan month of Juliol or July (Palmer 2011). (B) A modern crayfish Camberellus spp. with the morphological features included in the Voynich image such as the long antennae, four walking legs, large front pinchers, and tail structure. Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. (C) Crayfish also appeared in the Florentine Codex, another 16th century Mesoamerican manuscript. Jellyfish (Phylum: Cnidaria; Class: Scyphozoa) The image on the bottom of fol. 78r (Fig. 3A) clearly shows the bell and tentacles of a jellyfish (Fig. 3B and 3C). This tiny zoomorph is crudely rendered and impossible to identify to species, but one possibility might be Chrysaora fuscescens Brandt, 1835, commonly known as the Pacific sea nettle or the West Coast sea nettle (Fig. 3B), or the moon jelly (Aurelia aurita Linneaus, 1758; Fig. 3C), which is the most common jellyfish in the Gulf of Mexico. These cnidarians 3 pulsate their bell for locomotion, and their tentacles contain stinging nematocysts used to capture prey. Jellyfish have a worldwide distribution and regularly wash ashore in most coastal environments, suggesting that observations by indigenous people would have been common. Fig. 3. (A) A jellyfish image appears on the bottom of fol. 78r in the Voynich Codex. (B) Pacific nettles (Chrysaora fuscescens; photo by Ed Bierman) and (C) moon jellies (Aurelia aurita; photo by Andreas Augstein) are two common jellyfish found on the coasts of Mexico. Note that the tentacles in the Voynich image more closely resemble the longer tentacles of the Pacific nettle while the bell-shaped dome resembles both species. Fish Alligator gar (Phylum: Chordata; Class: Actinopterygii; Order: Lepisosteriformes) The image on fol. 70r (Fig. 4A) depicts two alligator gar (Atractosteus spatula Lacépède, 1803). These large-bodied, torpedo-shaped freshwater fish have long, alligator-like jaws that contain many sharp teeth used to capture prey. The artist that drew the detailed zoomorph on fol. 70r included several key characteristics of this species: the upper jaw extends past the lower and is upturned; the bulb or bulge on the upper jaw contains olfactory organs (Echelle and Grande 2014) used to locate prey; the soft-rayed fins that lack spines and appear lobed when out of water; and the heavy diamond-shaped, interlocking scales (ganoid scales) that serve as body armor (Echelle and Grande 2014, p. 253). These sizeable fish (Fig. 4C and 4D) can grow up to 3 m in length (Echelle and Grande 2014), with females generally larger than males (García de León et al. 2001). The largest reported alligator gar measured 3.05 m in length and weighed 137 kg (McClane 1978 p. 179). Their distribution extends from the Mississippi River Basin, with St. Louis, Missouri as the northern extent of the range, and south into northeastern Mexico. While they are sport fish and were used as food by Native Americans (Scarnecchia 1992), alligator gar are feared by some as a potential threat to humans because of the large size and role as a top predator in aquatic ecosystems. There is one report of an attack on a 9-year-old girl in Lake Pontchartrain while she dangled her feet in the water (Scarnecchia 1992). This concern appears to have been shared by the artist because the image on fol.79v shows a woman in the jaws of an alligator gar (Fig. 4B). The zoomorph on fol. 70r was also identified by Tucker and Talbert (2013) as the alligator gar. Dr. Michael Coe (private commun. 2013), a prominent Mayan epigrapher from Yale University, noted that he has caught, cooked, and eaten this fish at Olmec sites in Mexico. 4 Fig. 4. (A) Three alligator gars (Atractoseus spatula) appear in the Voynich Codex, two are associated with the Zodiac and one appears (B) in the fol. 79v image of the pool. The Carolingian word “mars” is written between the two gars in the Zodiac, again added later, and refers to the Catalan Març or March. The Voynich drawings include several key characteristics of the species, including (C) soft-rayed fins that appear lobed when the fish is out of the water and ganoid scales, both of which are also clearly represented in this zoological drawing by Duane Raver, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, as well as the size and the elongated body (D) photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons, which is especially clear in fol. 79v. The word otolal above the gar can be decoded as ātlācâocâ based on Tucker and Talbert (2013). Based on similarities to Nahuatl, we suggest ātlācâocâ means “still fished” (ātlācâ= fished, fisherman/spear throwers + oc(a) = still). Amphibians Frog or Toad (Phylum: Chordata; Class: Amphibia; Order: Anura) The image on fol. 101v(3) (Fig. 5A) depicts either a frog or toad associated with what appears to be the vine of silky morning glory, Ipomoea pubescens Lamarck, 1791. The hind legs in the drawing closely resemble the muscular, long hind legs used by these animals for jumping locomotion. Mexico has approximately 231 species of anurans (Flores-Villela and Canseco- Márquez 2004) and were likely observed frequently by humans. Indeed, eight different images of tadpoles, frogs, or toads appeared in the Florentine Codex (Sahagún 1963, fig. 213–217, 242– 244). The size and crudeness of the zoomorph in the Voynich Codex prevent an accurate identification to species, but the Mexican tree frog, Smilisca baudinii Duméril & Bibron, 1841 (Fig. 5B), is within the range of possibilities and often appears on vines in Mesoamerica. 5 Fig. 5. (A) A crude drawing of an anuran, either a frog or toad, appears in fol. 101v(3). The artist included the strong jumping hind legs and shorter front legs of these animals, (B) which are visible in the photo of a Mexican tree frog, Smilisca baudinii; photo by A.H.