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Are Eco Labels Profitably Employed in Sustainable Tourism? a Case Study on Audubon Certified Golf Resorts

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Are Eco Labels Profitably Employed in Sustainable Tourism? a Case Study on Audubon Certified Golf Resorts Are eco labels profitably employed in sustainable tourism? A case study on Audubon Certified Golf Resorts Dino M. Minoli, Mark H.H. Goode, Mark T. Smith Cardiff School of Management, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, Wales, UK Faculty of Engineering and Computing, Covenl.l) I University, Priory Street, Convenl.l) I CV/ 5FB, UK Abstract The paper explores the critical role and significance of eco labels in green marketing for sustainable tourism regarding Audubon Certified Golf Resorts (ACGRs). Golf is witnessing rising strategic 'green' pressures to improve its environmental performance and participate in eco labels. The Audubon Co-Operative Sanctuary Programme (ACSP) is an international wildlife habitat management programme. Focus group interviews at an ACGR and sur• vey on the Internet websites of thirty-four worldwide 'ACGRs revealed that golf tourists have very limited aware• ness and understanding on the ACSP since it is under marketed. Eco labels may affect the decision making of golfers subject to effective green marketing. The paper makes important contributions on how eco labels can be profitably employed in theory and practice. The paper has critical importance in increasing the perceived value for golf tourism in green marketing and eco labels for sustainable tourism. Keywords: Eco labels, Pro-environmental behaviour, Green marketing, Golf tourism, Sustainability 1. Introduction Rising global population and unsustainable consumption present profound problems to human health and wellbeing and the natural environment (e.g. The Royal Society, 2012, p.3 ). Technical efficiency gains also tend to be overtaken by consumption growth (Midden, Kaiser and McCalley, 2007) the so-called 'rebound effect' (European Commission, 2011). Inducing more responsible environmental behaviours is there• fore one of the most critical challenges for sustainability (Brewer and Stern, 2005). Thus, cost-effective mechanisms need to be identified to communicate and stimulate more pro-environmental behaviours. Eco labels are one possible instrument. They are broadly defined as any non-statutory environmental initiative that encourages businesses to voluntarily reduce their environmental impacts beyond the requirements established by the environmental regulatory system (Carmin, Darnall and Mil- Homens, 2003). Consequently, the aim of this paper is to explore the role and significance of eco labels in stimulating pro-environmental behaviour within green marketing for enduring sustainability. This is done through a de• tailed case study on golf for the following reasons. Golfs history, traditions and characteristics (Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St. Andrews [R&A], 2014a ), namely, its honesty, integrity, courtesy, etiquette and 'care of the course' in the Rules of Golf, within the spirit, in which the game of golf is played, is something which lifts golf, one could argue, above other sports. Whether it is through, for ex• ample, divot and pitch- mark repair, the spirit of the game dictates that players make sure they give others on the course, often opponents, a fair chance to play the best shot they can. The game of golf is also self-regulating. There is seldom a referee present so golfers are reliant upon their own honest adherence to the Rules in order to enjoy the game. These inherent qualities of golf, trustworthiness, consideration, fairness and proper behaviour underpin all sustainable development for sustainability. Also, golf has a close affinity to a clean, healthy, natural environment and so it should be keen to promote, support and partake in eco labels. It can thus be argued that golf is one of the best-placed sport, tourism, and leisure activities to exemplify and champion pro• environmental behaviour for sustainability. Indeed, golf resorts and golf clubs are experiencing growing strategic 'green' pressures (political, economic, social, technological, environ• mental and legislative) to improve their environmental performance (Minoli and Smith, 2011; Wheeler and Nauright, 2006 ). As a result, golf resorts and golf clubs are increasingly participating in eco labels (GEO, 2015a). The leading eco labels in golf based on numbers are the Audubon Co• operative Sanctuary (ACSP), Golf Environment Organisation (GEO) OnCourse™ and Environmental par (E-pa!®). These environmental initiatives are next outlined. In the mid-1980s, Audubon International, a prominent US non-for-profit organisation and the United States Golf Association (USGA) developed the ACSP. Audubon lnternational's aims are to advance environmental sustainability, action conservation goals, build strong communities, inspire environmental stewardship and attain public recognition (Audubon International, 2014a). Audubon International has a range of programmes, for all organisations, but with a focus on golf courses, lodgings and communities (Audubon International, 2014b). In 2015, over 830 golf facilities, across twenty-four countries, predominantly in the USA, were certified to the ACSP (Audubon International, 2015). In 2006, GEO a UK not-for-profit organisation was established. Its aims are to help, promote, support, reward, serve and inspire golf to fully embrace sustainability and promote a shared understanding of issues and solutions, working with and through industry associations and businesses (GEO, 2015b). GEO has developed three programmes for golf: OnCourse™, for the day-to-day management and operation of golf facilities ( GEO, 2014a ): the Legacy™, for golf developments and renovations ( GEO, 2014b) ; and GreenDrive™, for all types of golf tournament and events ( GEO, 2014c). In 2015, 686 international golf facilities, mainly in Europe were registered to GEO OnCourse™ (GEO, 2015a). In 2009, E-par® was developed by the Australian Environmental Protection Agency, in conjunction with the Australian Golf Course Superintendents Association. E-par® is based on the globally recognised International Organisation for Standardisation's environmental standard (ISO) 14001. In 2015, 1200 golf facilities across more than 28 countries were clients of the E-par Group ( E-Par®, 2015). In 1996, the ISO environmental standard 14001 was introduced. It is part of the ISO 14000 family of standards that addresses various aspects of environmental management. It provides practical tools for companies and organisations looking to identify and control their environmental impact and constantly improve their environmental performance (ISO, 2014). It is estimated that around 150 golf facilities across the world have been certified to ISO 14001. The bespoke golf eco labels, ACSP, GEO, and E-par®, are by far, the most common eco labels in golf. Generic eco labels, which are applicable for all organisations, regardless of size or activity, such as, ISO 14001, are not generally applied in golf as ISO standards were originally developed with heavy industry and manufacturing in mind. In total, there are around 34,011 golf facilities (R&A, 2015), of which an estimated 4,081 ( 12%) have participated in one of the above golf eco labels or an alternative voluntary environmental initiative, and this is a trend that is likely to continue for the aforesaid strategic 'green' pressures and next specific reasons. Golfs governing bodies are strongly advocating sustainability in the sport. The R&A is committed to improving the sustainability of the playing environment as the environmental credentials of golf come under ever-increasing legislative scrutiny (Dawson, 2011). The R&A is golf s governing body, outside of the USA and Mexico, which has the consent of 143 organisations from the amateur and professional game, and on behalf of over 30 million golfers in 128 countries throughout Europe, Africa, Asia-Pacific and the Americas ( R&A, 2014b). The R&A and the USGA are working to protect the enjoyment of the game and to safeguard the financial operations of golf facilities, in a manner, which preserves natural environments and enhances community engagement (R&A, 2014c). The USGA also recognises that 'sustainable management practices are critically important to the future of the game and need to be encouraged throughout the world' (USGA, 2012). The USGA is golfs governing body in the USA and Mexico. The USGA has an environmental commitment to work to make the game more sustainable through research and education, and a commitment to protect the environment (USGA, 2014). Further, surveys on golfers' attitudes on golf and its relationship to the environment revealed that golfers were often willing to promote and support environmental initiatives in golf (Sustainable Golf Project, 2012; Golf Digest, 2008). Furthermore, golfers need a basic awareness and understanding on the environmental aspects of golf resorts and golf clubs and the behaviours that cause them. In order to make informed choices on how to act and react to lower their impact in support of more responsible and sustainable golf (Kollmuss and Agyeman, 2002). Moreover, c o nf l i c t s exist between management for wildlife and the demands of golfers and the provision of information for course managers, and communication with golfers, are therefore key issues for future improvement in sustainable golf (Hammond and Hudson, 2007). Also, conflicts and disputes can occur, among the local community and course designers and developers, for example, on the environmental, social and economic impacts of golf tourism (e.g. Briassoulis, 2011, 2007; Markwick, 2000). Eco labels, such as the ACSP and GEO OnCourse™ could hel p mitigate stakeholder opposition to
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