Dictionary of Scientific Principles

DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES

Stephen Marvin West Chester University

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Dictionary of scientific principles / by Stephen Marvin. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-470-14680-4 (cloth) 1. Science-Dictionaries. I. Marvin, Stephen. Q123.D537 2010 503-dc22 2010003426

Printed in Singapore

10 98765432 1 To E. E. Barnes, with long overdue thanks for sharing ideas, concepts, and challenges in the way we seek and organize information

CONTENTS

Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Notes to the Reader xiii

Principles—Definitions 1 Principles—Applications 481

PREFACE

The Dictionary of Scientific Principles is an sources or available content definitions from attempt to compile the language of art used patent files. for various known rules or laws applied to The Dictionary of Scientific Principles was a broad category of topics, including mathe- prepared to provide information about ba- matics, medicine, sciences, psychology, man- sic fundamental properties, systems, activi- agement, and even philosophy and art. This ties, or phenomena that have become terms project has taken over 6 years to develop in common use, including eponyms, among to this point. I have consulted with scientists various fields of study. It provides a brief and colleagues on the development of this dic- description of the individual principle, a vari- tionary and had some help in organizing the ety of definitions applied to the principle, and files from an MS Excel spreadsheet. There are alternate names used to describe the princi- approximately 2000 + principles that form ple in "see also" attachments to the name, the language of art. Some are rewording of with definitions of over 2000 terms, both cur- the same principle; For instance, the princi- rent and historical. About 85% of these terms ple of maximum entropy is also listed as the cannot be found in any other source such as maximum entropy principle. I exerted a great dictionaries, encyclopedias, or other collected deal of effort to have this work prepared in printed (hardcopy) or electronic works. The time for the new millennium and to call it footnoted references are included to help the Millennial Principles. However, the myriad reader find further in-depth information as new discoveries in scientific and other disci- needed. The Dictionary of Scientific Princi- plines necessitated the continual addition of ples neither attempts nor intends to exhaust new entries and cross-references to similar- the entire spectrum of meaning and potential context or related entries already listed in intention with historical connections for each this volume. In creating this dictionary, I principle. consulted many encyclopedias, dictionaries, The principles included may be fac- books, indexes, and journal articles. There tual, historical, fictitious, or comical. Ab- is no single source containing the breadth of breviations are included [e.g., TNSTAAFL coverage of all principles listed in this work. principle]. Some surname-based eponyms The references listed in footnotes are some of containing the term law, (e.g., Newton's law), the many resources that I consulted. I hope are also described as Newton's principle and that this will be an ongoing project, in order thus are included. that new principles may be added in future Principles have been included regardless editions or enhancements can be made in the of their frequency of use or the manner in applications listed. Many of the entries in this which they were created. The polyuronid dictionary are excerpts from journal articles, principle, for example, was found in only summaries from other literature sources, or one single reference. Occasionally, names information obtained from unique Internet are in formative or transitional stages of PREFACE development, which legitimately justifies the whom something is named) and a generic compiler's reasons for assigning different term. The eponym need not contain the per- names to the same or very similar principles. son's real name (e.g., the Dilbert principle); a The inclusion of a name as part of a term in pseudonym can become an eponym, such as no way depends on how well the person is or the Tinkerbell principle. Names may appear was known at the time, nor does it mean that in multiple forms and they are included with this person will become well known in the fu- cross-reference's to alternate forms including ture because of the principle with which she spelling variations. Associating names with or he may be affiliated or associated. Many of specific individuals is often difficult since the the principles include names of famous per- names are coined not by the persons who sons, while a very large number include the first described the concept but by someone names of people who were modest practition- else, often many years later. ers of their trades and who lived and died in The entries in this Dictionary of Scientific anonymity. Such people could not be included Principles are arranged in alphabetic order in professional and membership directories, with cross-references to alternate terms ap- biographical listings, or national newspaper plied. The listing depends on the manner in obituaries. Biographical information, as ex- which the principle was described. For a hy- plained earlier, for many of the principles, pothetical example, the term principle ofXYZ is incomplete. Selection was made to include and its variation, XYZ principle, are both and focus on the principle, not the individual listed. Only usage dictates whether the name for whom it was named. Literary, histori- includes a possessive "s" (e.g., Einstein's cal, and mythological names are included. theory of relativity). Principles containing Many of the biographical resources on these more than one personal (e.g., Borwein-Price names can be found in commonly available principle) name are followed by brief bio- biographical sources. graphic notes regarding the people in the A surname-based eponym contains both a order to in which their names appear in the proper noun (the name of the person after term. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to thank my wife for being so support- and was a delightful tenacious supporter. She ive in encouraging me to continue. I want leaves to mourn, apart from her library fam- to thank my children for their interest and ily, her husband Oliver and four children, her of apparent understanding my need to sac- mother and two sisters. A qualified engineer, rifice some of our time together while this University of Hong Kong and holder of B.Sc work was being completed. I wish to also Math/Physics from the University of the West thank Samantha Richardson for many pa- Indies, and Fulbright—LASPAU scholar, she tient days of editing and correcting spelling served as the subject specialist for the Engi- errors. Tracie Meloy helped with with orga- neering and Physicial Sciences Division. She nizing many text records into a single stan- received her M.L.S. from the University at dard format. I must thank many members Buffalo, State University of New York and of the Philadelphia Chapter of the Special continued to serve the UWI and the Library Library Association for their encouragement. with distinction. Her memorial service was I have to thank Barbara and Bruce, who held at the St. Stephen's Anglican Church, thought I was crazy but persistent. I must High Street Princes with burial at the St. thank the various companies who provided Nicholas Churchyard Cemetery. additional support, including the Dialog Cor- I envy Gregory D. Mahlon, Science and poration, NewsNet, MNIS and Telebase. I Technology librarian, Penn State Mont Alto, would like to express special appreciation for Mont Alto, PA 17237-9799 and his steady, support and encouragement from friends at consistent, and well organized deliberations, Penn State University Great Valley campus comments, and humor regarding this project. and West Chester University. There were many others who sent additions A very special note of thanks to those who to be included and provided editing or con- contributed their subject expertise as collabo- tent advise. Finally, I would like to personally rators to this work. With deep thanks for her thank the contributions from Eleanor Brown, dedication and effort despite her terminal ill- Ph.D., Clinical Psychology, Assistant Profes- ness, Jennifer Papin-Ramcharan, Librarian sor, West Chester University of Pennsylvania III, Engineering & Physical Sciences Divi- and her student research assistant, Andrea sion, The University of the West Indies, St. Knorr. Ellie collaborated with colleagues and Augustine Campus, St. Augustine. Trinidad contributed several new entries from the field and Tobago, West Indies provided a very of psychology and medical related practice. comprehensive review of mathematics and Very special thanks to E. E. Barnes for developed mathematical formulas to be in- offering definitions and suggestions to the cluded. She passed away September 9, 2009 list.

NOTES TO THE READER

The Dictionary of Scientific Principles is an to other principles are listed with the def- exercise in acquiring all known rules or laws inition. In addition to principle definitions, commonly called principles and describing [denoted (D)], you will find applications [de- the language of art corresponding to usage. notd (A)], which cover an equally broad field These principles cover all subjects ranging of multiple subject disciplines aiding in a from science, to business, literature, philoso- search for principles as they relate to a cer- phy, medicine, and society. Cross-references tain subject.

xiii

PRINCIPLES-DEFINITIONS

AARON ANTONOVSKVS COMFORT-THROUGH- S(z)9 while the disk \z — b\ < R is known as DISCOMFORT PRINCIPLE [psychology] (AAron the disk of convergence of the series. (4) If Antonovsky, 1923-1994, Israeli American the three series with nth term an,bn, and Sociologist) Comfort, or well-being, arises cn = αφη + a\bn-i -\ \-anbo, respectively, through a process of making meaning out of converge, then the third series equals the discomfort, or distress, thereby arriving at a product of the first two series. (5) If a power sense of coherence. When one's sense of co- series in z converges to f{z) for \z\ < 1 and to a herence is strong, the stimuli that impinge on for z = 1, then the limit of f(z) as z approaches one are perceived as comprehensible, as be- 1 equals a. Abel's continuity theorem: If the ing manageable, and as being meaningful, or power series converges at point ZQ on the challenges worth engaging in.* See also PRIN- boundary of the disk of convergence, then it CIPLE OF SOMATOMENTAL BALANCE; PRINCIPLE is a continuous function in any closed trian- OF THE SALUTOGENETIC TRIAD; SALUTOGENESIS gle T with vertices ΖΟ,ΖΙ,ΖΪ, where z\ and PRINCIPLE. Z2 are located inside the disk of convergence. In particular, lim2^2o S(z) = S(zo),z e T. This ABEL'S PRINCIPLE [mathematics] (Neils Hen- limit always exists along the radius: The se- rik Abel, 1802-1829, Norwegian mathemati- ries converges uniformly along any radius of cian) (1) Also known as Abel's theorems, the disk of convergence joining points b and stating: (1) if Σ^ο0«*" converges for |JC| -< JR zo. (6) Abel's theorem on Dirichlet series: If and for x = R, then the series converges uni- the Dirichlet series 0(s) = Σίϋιαη6~ληδ>δ = formly on 0 < x < R. (2) Abel's theorem of σ +it,Xn > 0 converges at point so = σο + ito, algebraic equations: For n > 5, the general then it converges in the half-plane σ >- σο equation of nth order cannot be solved by and converges uniformly inside any angle radicals.f (3) Abel's theorem for power series: |arg(s - so)| < θ < (π/2). It is a generaliza- If a power series in z converges for z = a, tion of Abel's theorem on power series (take s it converges absolutely for \z\ < \a\. If the λη = n and put e~ = z)} power series, S(z) = Σ&1οα^ζ — b)k, where cik,b,z are complex numbers, converges at ABSORPTION PRINCIPLE [physics, energy] z = zo, then it converges absolutely and uni- (1) Light decreases exponentially with formly within any disk \z — b\ < p of radius distance; fractional loss is the same for p < \zo - b\ and with center at b. It fol- equal distances of penetration. Energy lows from the theorem that there exists a loss from the light appears as energy number Re [0, oo] such that if \z — b\ < R, added to the medium.§ (2) Penetration the series is convergent, while if \z — b\ >- R, of a substance into the body of another. ^ the series is divergent. The number R is (3) Eigenfunction expansions for the self- called the radius of convergence of the series adjoin operator governing the propagation of elastic waves in an unperturbed

*Chu, W. C. and Hsu, L. C. (1989), Some new *Suedfeld, P. (2005), Invulnerability, coping, salu- applications of Gould-Hsu inversions, J. Combin. togenesis, integration: Four phases of space psy- Inform. Syst. Sei. 14, 1-4. chology, Av. Space Environ. Med. 76(6 suppl.), §Tsypkin, Ya. Z. (1997), Mowing approximation B61-B66. and absorption principle, Dokl. Akad. Nauk 357(6), +Bhatnagar, G. (1995), Inverse Relations, Gener- 750-751. alized Bibasic Series, and Their U(n) Extensions, 1 Schmitt, K. (1980), Gas heat pumps using the PhD thesis, Ohio State Univ., p. 105. absorption principle, VDI-Berichte 353, 79-86.

Dictionary of Scientific Principles, by Stephen Marvin Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3 4 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLE stratified media radiation.* See also LIMITING ACKNOWLEDGMENT CHAINING PRINCIPLE ABSORPTION PRINCIPLE; LIMITING AMPLITUDE [engineering] The principle of acknowledg- PRINCIPLE. ment chaining works by processes sending messages to the group of processes. Allows ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLE [mathematics] A each message to be directly acknowledged collection of rules and procedures and con- only a few times, and through chains of ventions that define accepted accounting acknowledgements, to be indirectly acknowl- practice; includes broad guidelines as well edged by other processes. This leads to an as detailed procedures. Governs current ac- efficient utilization of resources.^ counting practice and that is used as a refer- ACROPHONIC PRINCIPLE [linguistics] (from ence to determine the appropriate treatment 1 Greek aKpo-"tip" +φωνι&, "voice," "the ini- of complex transactions. See also GENERALLY tial sound"; Dr. Richard Venezky, linguistics, ACCEPTED ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLE (GAAP). USA) Illuminating the nature of English writing by relating current spellings to the ACETYLENE CYCLOADDITION AROMATIC HET- sounds, morphemic structure, and history EROCYCLE INERTIA PRINCIPLE [chemistry] of our language. As in telephone directory See INERTIA PRINCIPLE. spelling, "A for apple," "B for ...," and so on."

ACKERMAN PRINCIPLE [engineering] (Rudolp ACTION PRINCIPLE [mathematics, physics] Ackermann, 1764-1834, anglo-german in- (1) An action principle is a method for re- ventor) For any given corner, the outside formulating differential equations of motion wheel should have less turn angle than the for a physical system as an equivalent in- inside one, because it is following a larger tegral equation. Although several variants radius than the inside wheel. In order to have been defined, the most commonly used minimize lateral skid while turning, the ex- action principle is Hamilton's principle. An tensions of the center lines of the wheel axles earlier, less informative action principle is must intersect at the center of the arc on Maupertuis' principle, which is sometimes which the vehicle turns.* (2) When a vehicle called by its (less correct) historical name, the is steered, it follows a path that is part of principle of least action. (Newton's second law the circumference of its turning circle, which is sometimes called an action principle.) Any will have a centerpoint somewhere along a force F acting on a body of mass m induces an line extending from the axis of the fixed axle. acceleration a of that body, which is propor- The steered wheels must be angled so that tional to the force and in the same direction they are both at a 90° angle to a line drawn F = ma.** (2) Originally used to derive the from the circle center through the center of equation of motion for a particle in classical the wheel. Since the wheel on the outside of mechanics, the action was defined by Hamil- the turn will trace a larger circle than will ton to be the difference L = T — U, where T is the wheel on the inside, the wheels need to the kinetic energy and U the potential energy be set at different angles.§ of a mechanical system. Hamilton's principle (or the action principle) states that the *Zhu, L., Dong, X., Zhang, J., and Zhu, C. (2004), The principle of gas absorption and slag removal ^Malki, D. and Reiter, M. (1996), A high- about liquid metal having through sprue and its throughput secure reliable multicast protocol, application, Zhuzao, 53(11), 901-904. Proc, 9th IEEE Computer Security Foundations tAnon. (2000), American Heritage Dictionary of the Workshop, AT&T Bell Labs., Murray Hill, NJ, June English Language, 4th ed., Houghton Mifflin, New 10-12, 1996, pp. 13,14. York. HVenezky, R. L. (1975) The American Way of TAnon. (n.d.), Total Vehicle Alignment, Spelling: The Structure and Origins of American section 6, p. 47; see http://www.goodyear.com/ English Orthography, Guilford Press, p. 1. truck/pdf/radialretserv/Retread_S6_V.pdf. **Palacios, A. F. (2006), The Hamilton-Type Prin- §Anon. (2009), Knowledge-Ackermann's Princi- ciple in Fluid Dynamics: Fundamentals and Appli- ple, Northern Districts Rodders Club, Inc. cations in Magnetohydrodynamics, Thermodynam- (http://ndrc.org.au), vol. 22, p. 42. ics, and Astrophysics, Springer, Vienna, p. 47. ADAPTIVE PRINCIPLE 5 motion of a mechanical system is such that usually an alkaloid or glycoside, on which the action integral S[X(t)] = //j/2 L(X,X)dt is the characteristic therapeutic action of the stationary with respect to variations in path substance largely depends.* X(t). The Euler-Lagrange equations for this system are known as Lagrange's equations (d/dt)(dL/dX) = (dL/dX), which are equiva- ACYCLIC DEPENDENCES PRINCIPLE (ADP) lent to Newton's equations of motion. In other [computers] (Robert Cecil Martin) A pack- words, a classical dynamical system evolves age is a binary deliverable like a jar file, from t\ to t2 along a path X(t) for which its or a dll as opposed to a namespace like a action S(X(t)) is an extremum. The extremum is often a minimum. In such a case, nature Java package or a C++ namespace. Package is efficient; it spends the least amount of ac- metrics evaluate the structure of a system. The dependence graph of packages must tion. In these cases we speak of "the principle § of least action." Most commonly, the term is have no cycles. used for a functional S that takes a function of time and (for fields) space, as input, and returns a scalar. Specifically, in classical me- ADAPTION-LEVEL PRINCIPLE [social psychol- chanics, the input function is the evolution ogy] Our expectations of success and fail- q(t) of the system between two timepoints t\ ure, satisfaction and dissatisfaction, even and t2, where q represents the generalized justice and injustice, are relative to our prior coordinates. The action S[q(t)] is defined as experience and to what we observe people the integral of the Lagrangian L (in classi- like ourselves receiving. If our achievements cal mechanics, the Lagrangian is defined as rise above those expectations, we experience the kinetic energy T of the system minus success and satisfaction; if they fall below, we its potential energy V) for an input evolu- feel dissatisfied and frustrated.'11 tion between the two timepoints S[q(t)] = 2 ft L[q(t), q(t), t]dt, where the endpoints of the evolution are fixed and defined as q\ = q{t\) and (72 = gfe)· According to Hamilton's prin- ADAPTIVE DIFFERENTIAL PULSE-CODE MOD- ULATION (ADPCM) PRINCIPLE [computer sci- ciple, the true evolution qtrue{t) is an evolution for which the action S[q(t)] is stationary (a ence] (Developed by Alec H. Reeves, 1926) minimum, a maximum, or a saddle point). See PRINCIPLE OF PULSE-CODE MODULATION. This principle results in the equations of motion in what is known as Lagrangian mechanics.* See also HAMILTON PRINCIPLE; ADAPTIVE PRINCIPLE [mathematics] (1) LEAST-ACTION PRINCIPLE; MAUPERTUIS' PRINCI- Means for overall design of a precision mea- PLE; PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION. surement system by the correlation of the disturbance effect." (2) Analyzing a system ACTIVE PRINCIPLE [pharmaceuticals] (1) and determining the compensation factors as An ingredient giving a complex drug its chief therapeutic value. The portion of a pharmaceutical preparation producing Encyclopedia.com: (http://www.encyclopedia.com/ doc/1062-activeprinciple.html). the therapeutic action. By analogy, any +Anon. (2004), Active Principle. The American substance providing the more significant Heritage Medical Dictionary, Houghton Mifflin. value and thus producing the primary action. § Martin, R. C. (n.d.), Dependency Inver- The substance in a preparation exerting an sion Group. Ten Commandments of 00 Pro- effect; as distinct from the substances, is ramming (http://www.butunclebob.com/ArticleS. also included.+ (2) A constituent of a drug, UncleBob.PrinciplesOfOod). I Myers, D. and Ludwig, T. (1978), Let's cut the *Chen, Q., Zhang, J., and Zhu, L. (2005), Princi- poortalk: Adaption level principle, Saturday Rev. ples and performances of new-type air-floatation 5,24. equipment, Kuangye Gongcheng 25(1), 20-22. II Yina, C. and Guob, J. (2005), Novel comprehension fAnon. (2008), Active Principle. A Dictio- of "common path" principle, Optics Lasers Eng. nary of Nursing, Oxford Univ. Press; see 43(10), 1081-1095. 6 ADDITION PRINCIPLE well as giving the possibility of correction.* should sum to unity." See also ADDITION Also referred to as common-path principle. PRINCIPLE.

ADIABATIC PRINCIPLE [physics, computer sci- ADDITION PRINCIPLE [mathematics] (1) If ence] Correlates the capacity of a system to two actions are mutually exclusive, and the interact with the frequency of attempted in- first can be done in N\ ways and the sec- teraction by another.** Also referred to as ond in N2 ways, then one action or the other 1 ehrenfest adiabatic principle. can be done in N\ + N2 ways. " (2) If set A is a union of two mutually exclusive sets B ADJACENCY PRINCIPLE [geometry] Size and C, then n(A) = n(B) + n(C), where n(A) cues between adjacent objects is more is the number of elements (objects) in set effective than the size cue between displaced A,B and C are said to be mutually exclu- objects in determining the perceived relative sive if B and C have no elements in common, depth portion of objects.t+ i.e., B DC = 0. In other words, if a set can be partitioned into disjoint subsets, then the ADLER PINCIPLE [psychology] (Alfred Adler, number of objects in the set = the sum of 1870-1937, Austrian physicist) Theory the number of objects in each of its parts. placing emphasis on the individual's need The addition principle can be generalized to to belong and to contribute, based on counting a set that is a union of several mu- social equality and mutual respect. These tually exclusive sets.? (3) Adding the same sociopsychological concepts are integrated in number to both sides of an equation does Adlerian writings with concepts that bear not change its solution set. (4) In probability, on an individual's dynamics, such as the if Ει,Εϊ,... ,ES are all mutually exclusive individual's goals and private logic.** events, then the probability some Ei occurs is the sum of the probabilities the indi- ADLERIAN PRINCIPLES [psychology] (Alfred vidual Ei occur, i.e., Ρ(Εχ UE2U---UES) = Adler, 1870-1937, Austrian physician)

P(Ei) + P(E2) + · · · + P(Es)fi See also MUL- Emphasis on making the children aware TIPLICATION PRINCIPLE; FUNDAMENTAL PRINCI- of their goals in speech deficiency and PLE OF COUNTING. misbehavior; leaving to them the decision to improve; encouraging their learning through mutual help within the group; ADDITIVITY PRINCIPLE [mathematics] (1) and providing logical consequences for The value of a magnitude or property their behavior.§§ (2) Applies four principles corresponding to a whole is equal to the sum of conflict resolution: practicing mutual of the values of the magnitudes or properties respect, pinpointing the real issue, changing corresponding to its parts for any division the conflict agreement, and involving all of the whole into its parts.^ (2) The judged concerned in decisionmaking.^ probabilities for complementary events "Borno, B. W. (1982), On the Joseph-Small addi- *Zhang, Z. and Deshu, C. (1991), An adaptive tivity principle for Goldie Ranks, Compos. Math. approach in digital distance protection, IEEE 47(1), 3-29. Trans. Power Deliv. 6(1), 135-142. **Born, M. and Fock, V. (1928), Proof of the +Schay, G. (2007), Introduction to Probability with adiabatic priniciple, Z. Phys. 51, 165-180. Statistical Applications, Springer, p. 16. ++Gogel, W. C. (1978), The adjacency principle B ^Breakbill, L. R. (2005), Addition and Mul- tiplication Principles, Guided Lecture Notes (https://www.math.gatech.edu/academic/courses/ core/mathl711/html/1711-3.3.html). §Brennan, J. W. (n.d.), Understanding Algebra (http://www.jamesbrennan.org). ^Persoons, T., Hoefnagels, A., and Van den Bulck, E. (2006), Experimental validation of the addition principle for pulsating flow in close-coupled cata- lyst manifolds, J. Fluids Eng. 128(4), 656-670. ALPHA PRINCIPLE 7

ADVANTAGE OF RARITY PRINCIPLE See plug of fibers. This resistance can be directly CHAOTIC PRINCIPLE. related to fiber fineness.11

ALARA PRINCIPLE [mathematics] Also re- AFFINITY PRINCIPLE [chemistry] (Julius ferred to as ALARP or as low as reasonably Thomson and Marcellin Berthelot) Every achievable. simple or complex action of a purely chemical nature is accompanied by an evolution of ALARP PRINCIPLE [mathematics] See AS heat. Energy difference between ionization of LOW AS REASONABLY PRACTICAL PRINCIPLE. elements, combination of power, attraction, Also referred to as ALARA (as low as or magnetisim impacts the lowest state reasonably achievable). of the corresponding reaction.* See also THOMSON-BERHELOT PRINCIPLE. ALEXANDER PRINCIPLE [psychology] (Freder- ick Matthias Alexander, 1869-1955, Aus- AGGREGATION PRINCIPLE [biology] A tralian Actor) Biofeedback and relaxation grouping or clustering of individuals within with methods employed in sport, physical a population.f (2) The sum of a set of education, and acting. The work of the multiple measurements is a more stable and athlete and the performances of the actor representative estimator than any single and the dancer are magnifications of skills measurements demonstrated with all people at some level. Although the next-door neighbor may not dance, the upstairs resident may not act, the AIR DISTRIBUTION PRINCIPLE [engineering] person across the road may never get out of Arrangement by which gases may be pat- the armchair, it is suggested that all ordinary terned, ordered, confined, or dispersed in people may benefit from the biofeedback prin- order to control the allotment, mixture, parti- ciple and the Alexander principle as part of tioning, circulation, or saturation for possible an education toward their full consummation § reaction. of being.**

AIR FLOAT PRINCIPLE [engineering] Drying ALLEE'S PRINCIPLE [ecology] (Warder Clyde by means of directing streams of a drying gas Allee, 1885-1955, American Zoologist) The while at the same time floating or flowing tendency of individuals in some populations to flourish best at intermediate optimal air and carrying the surface according to the ft Coandä effect.^ population density.

ALPHA PRINCIPLE [management] (James AIRFLOW PRINCIPLE [engineering] Measu- Morgan, Allied Materials CEO) Once a rement of the resistance to airflow through a company gains critical mass, it can accel- erate like an alpha particle emitted from *Cropper, W. H. (2004), Great Physicists: The Life a radioactive atom and the company can and Times of Leading Physicists from Galileo to experience exponential growth.** Hawking, Oxford Univ. Press, p. 128. fDiMaggio, P. (1987), Classification in art, Am. HSchorn, P., Voigt, H., and Noe, W. (2000), Sam- Sociol. Rev. 52(4), 440-455. pling system for use in the analysis of biological *Rushton, J. P., Brainerd, C. J., and Pressley, processes, p.6. US Patent 6,085,602. M. (1983), Behavioral development and construct **Hazelton, J. (1985), The purpose and relevance of validity: The principle of aggregation, Psychol. nonclinical biofeedback relaxation and the Alexan- Bull. 94(1), 18-38. der principle, Clin. Biofeed. Health Int. J. 8(1), §Ramakrishnan, V. and Sai, P. S. T. (1999), 52-67. Optimizatoin of air distribution in direct reductin ++Kennett, D. J. and Winterhaider, B. (2006), Be- process in rotary kilns, Can. J. Chem. Eng. 77(4), havioral Ecology and the Transition to Agriculture, 775-783. Univ. California Press, p. 206. '"Chen, Q., Zhang, J., and Zhu, L. (2005), Princi- w Morris, K. (1995), The alpha principle: No guts, ples and performances of new type air flotation no glory. That's how Allied Materials plays the equipment, Kungye Gongcheng 25(1), 20-22. game. Take notes, Finan. World. 164(24), 30. 8 ALPHABETIC PRINCIPLE

ALPHABETIC PRINCIPLE [language] Two signal in receiving and amplifying circuits." components of phonemic awareness involves See INVARIANCE PRINCIPLE. recognition of phoneme identity across words and recognition of phonemic segmenta- AMINE CAPTURE PRINCIPLE [chemistry] tion within words. Word identity can be Amino acid esters react with 4-methoxy- equally easily taught using word-initial and 3-acyloxy-2-hydroxybenzaldehydes to form word-final phonemes.* imines, which on reduction undergo intramolecular acyl transfer to form N-4- methoxy-2,3-dihydroxybenzyalmides, useful ALTMAN PRINCIPLE [biology] (Sidney Alt- in peptide synthesis. The feasibility of man, 1939-, Yale Univ., Nobel prize, Cana- peptide bond formation through a new prin- dian molecular biologist) (1) Molecular biol- ciple of intramolecular acylation which is ogy studies made in the area of RNA process- preceded by amine capture. Imine formation ing. Ribonucleoprotein is a key enzyme in from salicylaldehydes occurs with unusually the biosynthesis of tRNA. RNase precursor large rate and equilibrium constants.** is involved in processing all species of tRNA and is present in all cells and organelles that ANALYTICAL PRINCIPLE [chemistry] Ele- f carry out tRNA syn thesis. (2) Used to prove ments used to make a determination toward a vector-valued equilibrium variant.* a result such as the use of calorimetric analyzer limiting interference from chloride, temperature, or hydrogen ions.t+ AMBARTSUMYAN'S INVARIANCE PRINCIPLE [physics, mathematics, chemistry] (Viktor ANATOMOCLINICAL PRINCIPLES [medicine] Hambardzumyan, 1908-1996, [Viktor Correlated with lesions of specific anatomic Ambartsumian-russified] Armenian physi- foci. Based on identified relations between cist) (1) Density limit theorems for delays structural brain lesions and behavioral from limit theorems for queue lengths when disturbances.** studying queue-dependent arrival and or § molecular orbits service completion rates. ANCILLARITY PRINCIPLE [mathematics] A (2) Applied in demonstrating the existence statistical experiment or a model M is de- of adaptive stabilizers and servomechanisms fined as a triplet (χ, Ω, P), where χ = {x} is an for a variety of nonlinear system classes. ^ abstract sample space, Ω = [Θ] is an abstract (3) Prevention of nonlinear suppression of parameter space, and P = {Ρθ : Θ e Ω] is a class of distributions on χ indexed by the * Byrne, B. and Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1990) Acquir- parameter Θ. It is assumed that χ and Ω are ing the alphabetic principle: A case for teaching finite. The inference one can make on the recognition of phoneme identity. Journal of Educa- basis of an observation x (in χ) given the tional Psychology. 82(4), 805-812. experiment M can be denoted by inF(|x,M). fPedersona, T. and Politza, J. C. (2000), The nucle- olus and the four ribonucleoproteins of translation, "Zakhar-Itkin, M. Kh. (1982), Application of the J. CellBiol. 148(6), 1091-1096. Ambartsumyan invariance principle to study of ^Altmana, E., Boulognea, T., El-Azouzia, R., lengthy light guides with random inhomogeneities, Jimenezb, T., and Wynterc, L. (2006), A survey Radiophys. Quantum Electron. 25(11). on networking games in telecommunications, Corn- **Kemp, D. S., Grattan, J. A., and Reczek, J. put Oper. Res. 33(2), 286-311. (1975), Letter: Peptide bond formation by the §Remizovich, V. S. and Tishin, I. V. (1998), Use amine capture principle, J. Org. Chem. 40(23), of the Ambartsumyan invariance principle in the 3465-3466. problem of reflection of light ions, Izvest. Akad. t+Ohls, K. (1980), ICP emission spectrometry—a Nauk Ser. Fiz. 62(4), 770-777. complete analytical principle. 13th Spektrome- ^Ryanc, E. P. (1998), An integral invariance prin- tertagung, 239-256. ciple for differential inclusions with applications wFinitzo, T., Pool, K. D., and Chapman, S. B. in adaptive control, SIAM J. Control Optim. (1991), Quantitative electroencephalography and (ftp://ftp.maths.bath.ac.uk/pub/preprints/maths anatomoclinical principles of aphasia. A validation 9806.ps.Z). study, Ann. NYAcad. Sei. 620, 57-72. ANTHROPOMURPHIC PRINCIPLE 9

The ancillarity principle states, that if Po ANTENNA PRINCIPLE [physics] Focused re- is the same for all Θ e Ω, then inF(|x,M) is flected electromagnetic energy used to iden- the same for all x in χ. In other words, no tify size, speed, and location of an object." inference about Θ is possible on the basis of an observation x, under the experiment M.* ANTHROPIC COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE [phy- ANEMOMETER PRINCIPLE [engineering] sics] (John Barrow and Frank Tipler) We Measure of low speeds in studies of air ought not be surprised at measuring a circulation. Rate of cooling being determined universe so finely tuned for life, for if it by the speed of the airflow.f were different, we would not observe it.** See COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE. ANISOTROPIC PRINCIPLE [physics] Showing different properties as to velocity light trans- mission, conductivity of heat or elasticity, ANTHROPIC PRINCIPLE [astronomy, genetics] compressibility, and so on in different direc- (Brandon Carter, b. 1942; Australian the- ? tions. oretical physicist, British mathematician) ANNA KARENINA PRINCIPLE [psychology] (1) The nature of the universe is con- (Anna Karenina, Fictitious character, Leo strained because of our presence as ob- tf Tolstoy) Derived from Leo Tolstoy's book server s. (2) Life, even if abundant on Anna Karenina, which begins: "Happy many worlds, is only an infinitesimal por- families are all alike; every unhappy family tion of the cosmos. The presence of intel- is unhappy in its own way." An endeavor in ligent life on Earth places limits on the which a deficiency in any one of a number many ways the universe could have devel- of factors dooms it to failure. Consequently, oped and could have caused the prevailing a successful endeavor is one in which every conditions.** See also BLACK HOLE PRINCIPLE; last one of the possible deficiencies has been COPERNICAN PRINCIPLE; PRINCIPLE OF BLACK avoided.§ HOLE COMPLEMENTARITY; STELLAR PRINCIPLE; ANTHROPIC COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE; COSMO- ANOKHIN-PARETO INTERACTION PRINCIPLE LOGICAL PRINCIPLE; FINAL ANTHROPIC PRINCI- [mathematics] (Pyotr Kuzmich Anokhin, PLE; STRONG ANTHROPIC PRINCIPLE; WEAK AN- 1898-1974, Russian biologist) (Vilfredo THROPIC PRINCIPLE. Pareto, 1848-1923, Italian Sociologist) The control energy that is lost because the control actions.''1 ANTHROPOMURPHIC PRINCIPLE [mathemat- *Chapman, S. B., Pool, K. D., Finitizo, T. and Hong, ics] Any universe built along conventional C.-T. (1989), Comparison of language profiles and lines that contains intelligent polymorphs electrocortical dysfunction in aphasia, Proc. 18th will conform to Murphy's law.§§ Annual Conf. Clinical Aphasiology, College Hill Press, p. 42. fLaughlin, D. E. and Mahoney, R. P. (1972), New "Zuber, H. (1987), Structural principles of the an- phonocardiographic transducers utilizing the hot- tenna system of photosynthetic organisms, Prog. wire anemometer principle, Med. Biol. Eng. 10(1), Photosynth. Res., Proc. 7th Int. Congr. Photosyn- 43-55. thesis, 1986, pp. 1-8. ^Fock, K. (2001), Static and dynamic modeling ** Williams, P. S. (2006), The Big Bad Wolf, Theism of magnetoelastic dynamometers, Measurement and the Foundations of Intelligent Design. A Review 30(1), 75-84. of Richard Dawkins, the God Delusion, Bantam. §Schneiderman, L., J., Gilmer, T., Teetzel, H. D., ftWalker, P. M. B. (1999), Chambers Dictionary Dugan, D. O., Goodman-Crews, P., and Cohn, F. of Science and Technology, Chambers, New York, (2006), Dissatisfaction with the ethics consulta- p. 50. tions: The Anna Karenina principle, Cambridge ^Guillen, M. M. (1984), The center of attention Quart. Healthcare Ethics CQ Int. J. Healthcare (anthropic principle, scientific explanation based Ethics Committees 15(1), 101-106. on human existence), Psychol. Today 1, 74. 1 Kiforencko, B. N. and Kiforencko, S. I. (1993), The §§Stewart, L. (1995), The anthropomurphic princi- Anokhin-Pareto interaction principle in contol sys- ple (mathematical explanations for the dynamics tem theory, J. Comput. Syst. Sei. 31(5), 165-170. of falling), Sei. Am. 273, 106. 10 ANTIAGING PRINCIPLE

ANTIAGING PRINCIPLE [nutrition] A 60% re- committed on persons or their property). duction in the typical normal daily caloric Aristotle subscribed to two principles allotment will have an antiaging effect.* relating justice and nature: a positive principle linking the just and the natural.** ANTIARRHYTHMIC PRINCIPLE [chemistry] Also termed zero-aggression principle; see (1) Channel modification is the response to NONAGGRESSION PRINCIPLE. the interaction with organic or inorganic molecules and causes repetitive activity by ANTIDEPRESSANT PRINCIPLE [medicine] + removal of inactivation. (2) Sodium channel Increasing control over depression sympa- blocks controlling cardiac arrhythmias thetic activity by increasing use of exercise by the selective or isolated prolongation as an effective antidepressant or decreasing of repolarisation.* (3) Pharmacologically stress relieving the susceptibility toward induced removal of inactivator is kinetically depression. Exercise and stress have many indistinguishable from spontaneous failure opposing effects in the brain and are on inactivation.§ consistent with this hypothesis.tf

ANTIBIOTIC PRINCIPLE [medicine] (1) Char- acteristics show traits of heat resistance, time ANTIDIURETIC PRINCIPLE [psychology] A resistance, and a relationship between the peptide hormone limiting the amount of pH of the medium generally with greater pro- water excreted by the kidneys. Deficiencies duction around 7-8 days on media containing of this hormone result in central diabetes starch or carbohydrates.''1 (2) Function, mode, insipidus. Excesses cause water retention and effect on the physiological ecology of ani- and hyponatremia.** mal habitats can be investigated to determine natural occurrences of antibiotic means to ANTIHISTAMINIC PRINCIPLE [pharmacy] adjust to certain diet or plant growth inter- Tending to neutralize or antagonize the actions." action of histamine or inhibit its production in the body.§§ ANTICOERCION PRINCIPLE [psychology] (Aristotle) Everything (within the sphere ANTIINFLAMMATION PRINCIPLE [medicine] of social conduct) forced is unjust (e.g., Medical procedure or pharmaceuticals aggression is defined as the initiation of designed to prevent or inhibit coagulation, physical force, the threat of such, or fraud activation, thrombosis, tissue factor complex, heart disease, or biosynthesis.M See also *Cousens, G. (2003), Rainbow Green Live-Food ANTIPHLOGISTIC PRINCIPLE; ANTITHROMBOTIC Cuisine Tree of Life Cafe, North Atlantic Books, p. 107. PRINCIPLE. fKohlhardt, M. (1989), Elementary properties and the interaction of single myocardial Na+ channels **Kraut, R. (2005), Aristotle's Politics: Critical with antiarrhythmic drugs, Arzneimittelforschung Essays, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 39(1A), 126-129. ++Subarnas, A., Oshima, Y., and Ohizumi, Y. *Advani, S. V. and Singh, B. N. (1995), Pharma- (1992), An antidepressant principle of Lobelia codynamic, pharmacokinetic and antiarrhythmic inflata L. (Campanulaceae), J. Pharm. Sei. 81(7), properties of d-sotalol, the dextro-isomer of sotalol, 620-621. Drugs 49(5), 664-679. wBansi, H. W. and Olsen, J. M. (1959), Antidiuretic §Pu, H.-L., Huang, X., Zhao, J.-H., and Hong, A. principle and osmotic conditions in the serum in (2002), Bergenin is the antiarrhythmic principle of obesity, Ada Endocrinol. 31, 426-432. Fluggea virosa, Planta Med. 68(4), 372-374. §§Antihistaminic (2007), American Heritage ^Brotzu, G. (1948), Research on New Medical Dictionary, Hough ton Mifflin, Boston, Antibiotic, Cagliari Institute of Hygiene (http ://ww w. credoreference. com/en try/hmmedical- (http://pacs.unica.it/brotzu/brotzuen.pdf). dict/antihistaminic). "Sieburth, J. M. (1960), Acrylic acid, an antibiotic ^Valente, A. (1952) Modern concepts on the anti- principle in phaeocystis blooms in antarctic waters, inflammation effect of salicylates in ophthalmol- Science 132, 676. ogy, Rev. Med. Aeronaut. 4(1), 7-22. ARC-EXTINGUISHING PRINCIPLE 11

ANTIMAXIMUM PRINCIPLE [mathematics] A ANTISYMMETRY PRINCIPLE [electronics, fundamental result in the theory of partial anatomy] In regard to electrode place- differential equations is the following maxi- ment there is a fundamental neurological mum principle. According to it a function u difference between antisymmetric and on an interval [a, b] that satisfies —u" ^ 0 symmetric excitation, in which the skin on [a, b] achieves its maximum at a or b. If, polarization is respectively antisymmetric additionally, u{a) = u{b) = 0, then u ^ 0 on and symmetric with respect to the sagittal [a, 6], and either w = 0 on [a, 6] or w >- 0 on plane. In antisymmetric excitation, the [a,b] with a'(a) >- 0 and u'(b) < 0. In 1979 P. weak frequency-modulated signals from the Clement and L. Peletier studied the classi- modulated afferents act antisymmetrically cal Dirichlet problem —Au = ku +f(x) in Ω, on the brain.*11 See INVARIANCE PRINCIPLE; u = 0 on 3Ω, when the real parameter λ satis- LINDELÖF PRINCIPLE; SCHWARZ REFLECTION fies λ >■ λι with suitable λχ > 0. They derived, PRINCIPLE; SYMMETRY PRINCIPLE. for a certain value of λ, a conclusion that is opposite to the preceding one; namely, if ANTITHROMBOTIC PRINCIPLE [pharmacol- f ^ 0 but not identically zero, then it implies ogy] Medical procedure or pharmaceuticals u ^0.* designed to prevent or inhibit coagulation, activation, thrombosis, tissue factor complex, heart disease, or biosynthesis." See also AN- ANTIPERNICIOUS ANEMIA PRINCIPLE TIINFLAMMATION PRINCIPLE; ANTIPHLOGISTIC [medicine] (1) Theapeutic effect of liver in PRINCIPLE. controlling the disease of pernicious anemia.f (2) Regeneration of red cells by the liver ANTIVIRAL ACTIVE PRINCIPLE [pharmaceuti- requiring the combination of an intrinsic cals] Method for quantization of the an- factor, present in normal human gastric tiviral effect comprising the following steps: juice, with an extrinsic factor of vitamin (1) transducing cells with a viral vector, Bi2. Intrinsic factor is a specific B12 binding containing all the genetic data required for protein secreted by the stomach to enhance infecting a cell with a type of target virus; absorption of the vitamin.* (2) introducing a prospective antiviral into the cells; and (3) quantitatively analyzing the activity.** See also ACTIVE PRINCIPLE. ANTIPHLOGISTIC PRINCIPLE [pharmaceuticals] Medical procedure or pharmaceuticals APPROXIMATION INDUCTION PRINCIPLE designed to prevent or inhibit coagulation, [mathematics, physics] See INDUCTION activation, thrombosis, tissue factor complex, PRINCIPLE. heart disease, or biosynthesis.§ See also ΑΝ- TIINFLAMMATION PRINCIPLE; ANTITHROMBOTIC ARC-EXTINGUISHING PRINCIPLE [engineer- PRINCIPLE. ing] The high-temperature fluid near the arc striking part attributed to the thermal *Godoy, T., Gossez, J. P., and Paczka, S. (2002), On energy emission of the arc is caused by the antimaximum principle for the p-Laplacian flowback into the gas storage chamber with indefinite weight, Nonlinear Anal. 51(3), 449-467. halting, P. (1995), On weak and strong conjugacy +Jacobs, H. R. (1937), The nature of the antiper- in the antisymmetry principle, Int. J. Quantum nicious anemia principle. II. Identification of the Chem. 54(1), 19-26. 5,6-quinone of dihydroindole-2-carboxylic acid in "Lindahl, A. K. (1997), Tissue factor pathway liver extract, J. Lab. Clin. Med. 22, 890-892. inhibitor: From unknown coagulation inhibitor to ^Schlesinger, A. (1933), Demonstration of the major antithrombotic principle, Cardiovasc. Res. antipernicious-anemia principle in the gastric juice 33(2), 286-291. of a patient with the blood picture of pernicious **Heinkelein, M., Jarmy, G., Jassoy, C, Reth- anemia and stenosis of the small intestines, Klin. wilm, A., and Weissbrich, B. (2001), Method for Wochen. 12, 298-300. Quantization of the Antiviral Effect of Antiviral §Wagner, H. and Flachsbarth, H. (1981), A new Active Principles, Patent WO/2001/007646 antiphlogistic principle from Sabal serrulata, I, (http://www.wipo.int/pctdb/en/wo.jsp?wo= Planta Med. 41(3), 244-251. 2001007646). 12 ARCHIMEDEAN PRINCIPLE and mixed with the low-temperature fluid vertically through the center of gravity of the contained therein. The fluid pressure in displaced fluid.* the gas storage chamber is raised, whereby the fluid, at a temperature low enough to extinguish the arc, is blown against the arc to ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE [mathematics, effect self-extinction in the process in which physics] (Archimedes, c. 287-212 BC, Greek current decreases toward its zero point, while mathematician) (1) Predicting a ship's the low-temperature arc extinguishing fluid buoyancy by the distribution of weight for § from the puffer chamber is forcibly blown balance of heel and trim. (2) Correlation against the arc to effect forcible extinction in between surface and volume of a sphere 1 the process in which the current decreases and its circumscribing cylinder. " (3) A body toward its zero point.* See also EXTINCTION immersed wholly or partially in a fluid is PRINCIPLE; EXTINGUISHING PRINCIPLE. buoyed up by a force equal in magnitude to the weight of the volume of fluid it displaces." (4) Object immersed in a fluid has an upward force equal to the weight of the ARCHIMEDEAN PRINCIPLE [mathematics, fluid displaced by the object. The Archimedes physics] (Archimedes, c. 287-212 BC, thrust S = rgV (S = force, r = density,g = Greek mathematician) (1) Also known as weight, V = volume) is generated by the Archimedean axiom, originally formulated resultant of all the forces that the fluid for segments, it states that if the smaller produces on the surface of the body by one of two given segments is marked off a means of the hydrostatic or aerostatic sufficient number of times, it will always pressure.** (5) The hydrostatic pressure a produce a segment larger than the larger liquid produces because of the gravity force, one of the original two segments. This axiom depends on both the density and the height tt can be applied in a similar manner for of the liquid inside a container. (6) A hot-air surfaces, volumes, positive numbers, etc. balloon is subjected to an ascensional force In general, the Archimedean axiom applies Fa, which is given by the difference between to a given quantity if for any two values C the aerostatic thrust S and the weight P: and D of this quantity such that C < D, it is Fa = S - P = rcVg — r^Vg, where rc and r^ always possible to find an integer n such that are, respectively, the density of the external Cn > D. The axiom forms the basis of the cool air and the one of the hot air inside the process of successive division in arithmetic 7 and in geometry. (2) If a body is wholly or *Drenteln, N. S. (1904), Determination of the den- partially submerged in a fluid (liquid or gas), sity of carbon dioxide according to the Archimedean it experiences an upward force (upthrust) principle, Z. Phys. Chem. Unterr 17, 350-351. equal to the weight of fluid that it displaces. §Yamamoto, S. (2002), Do not forget Archimedes' A body floating in a fluid displaces a weight principle, Kagaku to Kyoiku 50(10), 720-721. of fluid equal to its own weight. Also known ^Dettwiler, W., Ribordy, M., Donath, A., and Scherrer, J. R. (1978), Measurement of human as the principle of buoyancy. A body wholly body fat by means of gravimetry. Application or partly immersed in a fluid will experience of Archimedes' principle, Schweizerische Med. an upward thrust (upthrust) equal to the Wochen. 108(48), 1914-1916. weight of fluid it displaces; the upthrust acts "Schultz, R. C, Dolezal, R. F., and Nolan, J. (1986), Further applications of Archimedes' principle in the correction of asymmetrical breasts, Ann. Plast. *Ueyama, T., Ohnawa, T., Yamazaki, K., Tanaka, Surg. 16(2), 98-101. M., Ushio, M., and Nakata, K. (2005), High-speed **Huerta, D. A., Sosa, V., Vargas, M. C, and welding of steel sheets by the tandem pulsed gas Ruiz-Suarez, J. C. (2005), Archimedes' principle metal arc welding system, Trans. JWRI 34(1), in fluidized granular systems, Phys. Rev. E Stat. 11-18. Nonlin. Soft Mat. Phys. 72(3, Pt. 1), 031307. TWalker, P. M. B. (1999), Chambers Dictionary t+Derjaguin, B. V. (1993), Amendment of of Science and Technology, Chambers, New York, Archimedes' principle, Colloids Surf. A Physic- p. 60. ochem. Eng. Aspects 81(1-3), 289-290. ARYABHATA'S RELATIVITY PRINCIPLE 13 balloon.* See also HYDROSTATIC PRINCIPLE, philosopher) Earliest text on logic formu- PRINCIPLE OF BUOYANCY. lating the historical distinction of being called the first principle from the Meta ta AREA PRINCIPLE [mathematics] (1) (T. H. physica, 1005b. "For the same (characteris- Gronwall, 1914) (theory of univalent func- tic) simultaneously to belong and not belong tions) The area of the complement to the to the same (object) in the same (way) is image of a domain under a mapping by a func- impossible." First expression of consistency tion regular in it is nonnegative. Let ßbea in Western thought. Any defining and domain of finite connectivity containing point reasoning in any language on any topic oo, and let F(z) + bo + bi/z,... be univalent assumes it a priori. It cannot be doubted, as in B. If BF is the complementary set of F(B) all doubting is based on inconsistency, which and Q(w) is regular in an open set containing assumes consistency a priori." Bp, then the area principle simply states that the area of the set Q{Bp) is nonnegative. If we ARISTOTLE'S THEORY OF PRINCIPLES [psy- takeß = [z : \z\ > 1} and Q(w) = w, we obtain chology] (Aristotle, 384 BC-322 BC, Greek 2 T the classical area theorem: Σ^=1η^η\ < l. philosopher) Philosophy-based concepts on (2) The sides of a triangle are equal to the science related to induction/deduction, con- ratio of the lengths depending on whether tradictions, or other sets of fundamental these segments have the same or oppo- principles allowing for the development of site directions.? (3) Exchange takes place deduction toward a coherent theory of knowl- across surfaces, and an increase of the ra- edge.** tio of surface area to volume leads to an increase in efficiency.§ Also termed area ratio ARTIFICIAL IMMUNE PRINCIPLE [computer principle. science] Simulated immune learning algo- rithm is used for determining the number ARIOKHIN-PARETO INTERACTION PRINCIPLE and location of hidden layers by regarding [mathematics] Control energy lost due to the input data of network as antigens, mismatch in control actions with the sys- and the centers of the hidden layer as tf tem.111 Also known as PLUS/MINUS INTERACTION antibodies. PRINCIPLE; INTERACTION EQUIVALENCE PRINCI- ARYABHATA'S RELATIVITY PRINCIPLE [as- PLE; GROUND SUPPORT INTERACTION PRINCIPLE; tronomy] (Aryabhata, c. 476-550, Indian PRINCIPLE OF KUAN HSI; INTERACTION PRINCI- mathematician and astronomer) Ascribes PLE. the motion of the moon to Earth's rotation ARISTOTELIAN FIRST PRINCIPLES [psychol- and developed an elliptical model of the ogy] (Aristotle, 384 BC-322 BC, Greek heliocentric planetary system. Follows Gallilean relativity supporting Earth ro- *Beeget, A. (1909), The Conquest of Aero- tation, with possible underlying theory in nautis Aviation History, Heinemann, Lon- which Earth (and the other solar system don/Putnam, New York (http://www.archive.org/ planets) orbits the sun, rather than the sun stream/conquestairaeroOOberggoog/conquestairaer orbiting Earth.** oOOberggoog_djvu.txt). f Gronwall, T. H. (1914), Some remarks on confor- "Cruz-Coke, R. (1994), Ethical principles in hu- mal representation, Ann. Math. Ser. 2 16, 72-76. man scientific research, Rev. Med. Chile 122(7), *Grunbaum, B. and Shepard, G. C. (1995), Ceva, 819-824. Menelaus, and the area principle, Math. Mag. 68, **van Deventer, Ch. M. (1927), The trace of an 254-268. ancient theory in a modern principle, Z. Phys. §Crawford, J. D., Terry, M. E., and Rourke, G. M. Chem. 130, 33-38. (1950), Simplification of drug dosage calculation ftBobo, Y., Shouwen, F., and Mingquan, S. (2007), by application of the surface area principle, Pedi- Research on fault-tolerant controller for mobile atrics, 5(5), 783-790. robot based on artificial immune principle, Proc. ^Kiforencko, B. N. and Kiforencko, S. I. (1993), 3rd Int. Conf. Natural Computation, ICNC, vol. 3, Anokhin-Pareto interaction principle in control pp. 682-687. system theory, J. Comput. Syst. Sei. 31(5), ^Thurston, H. (1994), Early Astronomy, Springer- 165-170. Verlag, New York. 14 AS LOW AS REASONABLY PRACTICAL (ALARP) PRINCIPLE

AS LOW AS REASONABLY PRACTICAL (ALARP) systems to work freely and have access to PRINCIPLE [psychology, mathematics] (1) the site j See also STRONG-AXIS PRINCIPLE; Applied in many areas to regulate the SEVENTH JOINT PRINCIPLE; INTERFACE PRINCI- tolerable level of risk. Usually the principle PLE; STACKABILITY PRINCIPLE; PATH PRINCIPLE; is operationalized by assigning a value per DRILLED-CELL PRINCIPLE. fatality. A cost/benefit analysis is used to trade the expected value of lives saved with ASYMMETRIC INDUCTION PRINCIPLE [mea- the costs of technical measures required to surement, physics] Provides a simple reduce risks. In sectors in which risks have and economical method of obtaining enan- been reduced over a period of years, it is tiomerically enriched products. Involves difficult to pinpoint those areas in which the reaction of organocopper reagents with further risk reduction might be sought. In enantiomerically enriched unsaturated this article we show that many different esters. These esters, derived from scalemic risk reduction mechanisms can be consid- alcohols and unsaturated carboxylic acids, ered simultaneously in a decision analysis react to give diastereomeric products that framework. Using influence diagrams it is on hydrolysis yield enantiomers.^ See straightforward to build mini-decision anal- INDUCTION PRINCIPLE. ysis models in which competing alternatives addressing the same risk can be compared. ASYMPTOTIC MATCHING PRINCIPLE [en- The minimodel decision alternatives are as- gineering] (M. Van Dyke) The usual sembled into decision strategies representing asymptotic expansion is called the inner the best possible combination of alternatives expansion. The asymptotic expansion within at different cost/benefit ratios. Disynergies certain powers is called the outer expansion. between the different alternatives are To obtain the inner expansion, a stretching highlighted through the model. The overall transformation is introduced. The inner and aim is to build a high-level model to explore outer expansions have a common region the sensitivity of risk reduction measures of validity and one can express the inner to the value per fatality parameter. This expansion of the outer expansion and the enables decisionmakers to gain a better outer expansion of the inner expansion. The understanding of the cost of measures ra-term inner expansion (of the n-term outer required to obtain a global reduction in risk.* expansion) = the n-term outer expansion (of (2) Specifies the boundary of tolerable risk the m-term inner expansion, where m and at a level as low as reasonably practical, n are any two integers.*'1 See also MATCHING defined as falling between two limits. The top PRINCIPLE. limit defines where operations should be for hidden and the bottom limit, the level below AUFBAU PRINCIPLE [chemistry] (1) Governs which risk is insignificant. If the process has the order in which the atomic orbitale are the potential for inflicting an unacceptable filled in elements of successive proton num- level of risk, then steps must be taken to ber." (2) A description of the buildup of bring the risk level into the ALARP region.+ elements in which the structure of each in se- Also known as ALARA; ALARP; as low as quence is obtained by simultaneously adding reasonably achievable. one positive charge (proton) to the nucleus of the atom and one negative charge (electron) ASSEMBLY SEQUENCE PRINCIPLE [engineer- *Nigg, E. A. (1992), Assembly and cell cycle ing] Construction sequences should be dynamics of the nuclear lamina, Semin. Cell Biol. planned in such a way as to allow the 3(4), 245-253. §Rossiter, B. E. and Swingle, N. M. (1992), * Bedford, T. and Quigley, J. (2004), Risk reduc- Asymmetric conjugate addition, Chem. Rev. 92(5), tion prioritization using decision analysis, Risk 771-806. Decision Policy 9(3), 223-236. f Irvine, T. F. and Hartnett, J. P. (1989), Advances 1 Jackson, D. and Ramsey, M. (2003), SRP scientific in Heat Transfer, Academic Press, p. 7. meeting: ALARP: Principles and practices, J. "Daintith, J. (1999), The Facts on File Dictionary of Radiol. Protect. 23(2), 235-238. Chemistry, 3rd ed., Facts on File, New York, p. 23.