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Human Reasoning and Cognitive Science COGNITIVE SCIENCE HUMAN REASONING AND AN COGNITIVE SCIENCE D COGNITIVE HUMAN REASONING HUMAN REASONING Keith Stenning and Michiel van Lambalgen In Human Reasoning and Cognitive Science, Keith HUMAN Stenning and Michiel van Lambalgen—a cognitive scientist and a logician—argue for the indispensability Keith Stenning is Professor of Human “Once in a while there is a body of work that reconceptualizes a topic of research. of modern mathematical logic to the study of human Communication in the School of Informatics at This book reports and reviews such a body of work. The result is a framing and REASONING reasoning. Logic and cognition were once closely the University of Edinburgh. He is author of Seeing hypotheses about reasoning that, in my judgment, fundamentally reconstructs the SC connected, they write, but were “divorced” in the past psychology of inferential reasoning.... This book will be regarded as the major AND century; the psychology of deduction went from being Reason and coauthor of Introduction to Cognition IEN turning point in the field’s development.” central to the cognitive revolution to being the subject of and Communication (MIT Press, 2006). C COGNITIVE widespread skepticism about whether human reasoning James Greeno, LRDC, University of Pittsburgh E really happens outside the academy. Stenning and van Lambalgen argue that logic and reasoning have V Michiel van Lambalgen is Professor of Logic and S been separated because of a series of unwarranted AN ScIENCE TENNING “This deep and stimulating book, by a leading psychologist and a leading logician, assumptions about logic. Cognitive Science at the University of Amsterdam L is about the choice of logical formalisms for representing actual reasoning. There AMBALGEN and coauthor of The Proper Treatment of Events. are two interlocking questions: what are the right formalisms to represent how people Stenning and van Lambalgen contend that psychology cannot ignore processes of interpretation in which people, reason, and what forms do the reasoners themselves bring to the world in order to AN wittingly or unwittingly, frame problems for subsequent reason about it? The authors’ answer to the first question, using closed-world D reasoning. The authors employ a neurally implementable reasoning, allows them to analyze the wide range of strategies that people use for defeasible logic for modeling part of this framing process, shaping their thinking. For example, the book uncovers important links between and show how it can be used to guide the design of autism and nonmonotonic reasoning. This may be the first book in cognitive experiments and interpret results. They draw examples science that logicians can learn some new logic from.” from deductive reasoning, from the child’s development of understandings of mind, from analysis of a psychiatric Wilfrid Hodges, Queen Mary, University of London disorder (autism), and from the search for the evolutionary origins of human higher mental processes. The picture proposed is one of fast, cheap, automatic A BRADFORD BOOK THE MIT PRESS but logical processes bringing to bear general knowledge 978-0-262-19583-6 AND Massachusetts Institute of Technology KEITH STENNING on the interpretation of task, language, and context, thus Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142 enabling human reasoners to go beyond the information http://mitpress.mit.edu MICHIEL VAN LAMBALGEN given. This proposal puts reasoning back at center stage. Human Reasoning and Cognitive Science Human Reasoning and Cognitive Science Keith Stenning and Michiel van Lambalgen A Bradford Book The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England c 2008 Massachusetts Institute of Technology All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or infor- mation storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. MIT Press books may be purchased at special quantity discounts for business or sales promotional use. For information, please email special [email protected] .edu or write to Special Sales Department, The MIT Press, 55 Hayward Street, Cambridge, MA 02142. This book was set in latex by the authors. Printed and bound in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stenning, Keith. Human reasoning and cognitive science / Keith Stenning and Michiel van Lambalgen. p. cm. – (A Bradford book) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-262-19583-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Cognitive science. 2. Reasoning. 3. Logic. I. Lambalgen, Michiel van, 1954- II. Title. BF311.S67773 2008 153.4–dc22 2007046686 10987654321 To Nye (KS) To Stijn (MvL) Contents I Groundwork 1 1 Introduction: Logic and Psychology 3 1.1 Forms of Rationality 4 1.2 How Logic and Cognition Got Divorced 8 1.3 Two Philosophers on the Certainty of Logic: Frege and Husserl 9 1.3.1 Frege’s Idealism in Logic 10 1.3.2 Husserl as a Forerunner of Semantics 12 1.4 What the Reader May Expect 15 2 The Anatomy of Logic 19 2.1 How Not to Think about Logical Reasoning 20 2.2 Reasoning to an Interpretation as Parameter Setting 20 2.2.1 Classical Propositional Logic 25 2.2.2 Truth–Functionality without Bivalence 27 2.2.3 A Domain in which Bivalence is Truly Ridiculous 28 2.3 The Many Faces of Closed–World Reasoning 33 2.3.1 Closed–World Reasoning, More Formally 33 2.3.2 Unknown Preconditions 34 2.3.3 Causal and Counterfactual Reasoning 38 2.3.4 Attribution of Beliefs and Intentions 39 3 A Little Logic Goes a Long Way 43 3.1 The Mother of All Reasoning Tasks 44 3.2 A Preliminary Logical Distinction 46 3.3 Logical Forms in Reasoning 49 3.4 Logical Forms in the Selection Task 52 3.4.1 The Big Divide: Descriptive and Deontic Conditionals 53 3.5 Giving Subjects a Voice 59 viii Contents 3.5.1 The Design of the Tutorial Experiment: High-Energy Phenomenology 61 3.5.2 Subjects’ Understanding of Truth and Falsity 63 3.5.3 Dependencies between Card Choices 70 3.5.4 The Pragmatics of the Descriptive Selection Task. 74 3.5.5 Interaction between Interpretation and Reasoning 75 3.5.6 Subjects’ Understanding of Propositional Connectives 80 3.6 Matching Bias: the “No-Processing” Explanation 86 3.7 The Subject’s Predicament 87 3.8 Conclusion 90 4 From Logic via Exploration to Controlled Experiment 93 4.1 Designing Experiments Following Observations 95 4.1.1 Conditions: Classical “Abstract” Task 95 4.1.2 Conditions: Two–Rule Task 95 4.1.3 Conditions: Contingency Instructions 96 4.1.4 Conditions: Judging Truthfulness of an Independent Source 97 4.1.5 Conditions: Exploring Other Kinds of Rules than Conditionals 99 4.1.6 Subjects 99 4.1.7 Method 99 4.1.8 Results 100 4.2 Discussion of Results 101 4.2.1 The Two–Rule Task 102 4.2.2 Contingency Instructions 105 4.2.3 Truthfulness Instructions 107 4.2.4 The Conjunctive Rule 107 4.2.5 Putting It All Together? 110 4.3 What Does This Say about Reasoning More Generally? 112 5 From the Laboratory to the Wild and Back Again 117 5.1 The Laboratory 117 5.1.1 Mental Logic 118 5.1.2 Mental Models 119 5.1.3 Darwinian Algorithms 120 5.1.4 Cold Water 120 5.2 A View with No Room 121 5.3 The Literate Wild 124 5.3.1 The Literate Wild: System 1 Processes 125 5.3.2 The Literate Wild: System 2 Processes 128 5.3.3 The Relation between System 1 and System 2 130 Contents ix 5.4 The Illiterate Wild 130 5.4.1 Excursion: Electroconvulsive Therapy and Syllogistic Reasoning 134 6 The Origin of Human Reasoning Capacities 139 6.1 Crude Chronology 140 6.2 Evolutionary Thinking: From Biology to Evolutionary Psychology 142 6.2.1 Analogy and Disanalogy with Language 143 6.2.2 Innateness 143 6.2.3 Adaptationism and its Discontents 145 6.2.4 Massive Modularity 148 6.3 What Evolutionary Psychology Has to Say about Reasoning 152 6.3.1 Reassessing Cheater Detection 153 6.3.2 Why Cheater Detection Is Claimed to Override Logical Form 155 6.3.3 Altruism 156 6.3.4 The Moral, Part 1: The Problem of Phenotypic Description 157 6.3.5 The Moral, Part 2: What’s so Special about Logical Reasoning 159 6.4 Modularity with a Human Face 160 6.4.1 Planning: Continuities with Our Ancestors 161 6.4.2 Discontinuities 163 6.5 Out of the Mouths of Babes and Sucklings 164 6.5.1 Altriciality and Social Behavior 165 6.5.2 Altriciality and Neurogenesis 167 6.5.3 Altriciality in the Evolution of Homo 169 6.6 Conclusion: Back to the Laboratory (and the Drawing Board) 170 II Modeling 173 7 Planning and Reasoning: The Suppression Task 177 7.1 The Suppression Task and Byrne’s Interpretation 180 7.2 Logical Forms in the Suppression Task 183 7.2.1 Logic Programming and Planning: Informal Introduction 185 7.2.2 Logic Programming and Planning Formally 186 7.2.3 Strengthening the Closed–World Assumption: Integrity Constraints 189 x Contents 7.2.4 Constructing Models 192 7.3 How Closed–World Reasoning Explains Suppression 195 7.3.1 The Forward Inferences: MP and DA 196 7.3.2 The Backward Inferences: MT and AC 200 7.3.3 Summary 202 7.4 Data from Tutorial Dialogues 203 7.4.1 Suppression of MP Exists 204 7.4.2 Evidence for the Involvement of Closed–World Reasoning in Suppression 205 7.4.3 Is there a Role for Classical Logic? 207 7.4.4 Nonsuppression Comes in Different Flavors 208 7.4.5 Different Roles of the Second Conditional 209 7.4.6 Suppression is Relative to Task Setup 211 7.4.7 The Consistent Subject: a Mythical Beast? 212 7.5 Probabilities Don’t Help as Much as Some Would Like 213 8 Implementing Reasoning in Neural Networks 217 8.1 Closed–World Reasoning and Neural Nets 218 8.2 From Logic Programs to Recurrent Neural
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