The Mediterranean Biodiversity: a Hotspot Under Threat

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THE MEDITERRANEAN: A BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT UNDER THREAT

Annabelle Cuttelod, Nieves García, Dania Abdul Malak, Helen Temple and Vineet Katariya

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ Acknowledgements: This publication is part of The 2008 Review of The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The IUCN Red List is compiled and produced by the IUCN Species Programme based on contributions from a network of thousands of scientiﬁ c experts around the world. These include members of the IUCN Species Survival Commission Specialist Groups, Red List Partners (currently Conservation International, BirdLife International, NatureServe and the Zoological Society of London), and many others including experts from universities, museums, research institutes and non-governmental organizations. The long list of people, partners and donors who made this review possible can be found at the following address: www.iucn.org/redlist/

Citation: Cuttelod, A., García, N., Abdul Malak, D., Temple, H. and Katariya, V. 2008. The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat. In: J.-C. Vié, C. Hilton-Taylor and S.N. Stuart (eds). The 2008 Review of The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN Gland, Switzerland.

Credits:

Published by IUCN, Gland, Switzerland

Chief Editor: Jean-Christophe Vié

Editors: Craig Hilton-Taylor and Simon N. Stuart

ISBN (The 2008 Review of The IUCN Red List of Threatened): 978-2-8317-1063-1

Layout: Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain

Cover photo: Dalmatian coast (Croatia). © Pedro Regato The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat

Annabelle Cuttelod, Nieves García, Dania Abdul Malak, Helen Temple and Vineet Katariya

The diverse Mediterranean noted for the diversity of its plants – and 3% of the birds. The Mediterranean The Mediterranean Basin is one of the about 25,000 species are native to the is also hosting 253 species of endemic world’s richest places in terms of animal region, and more than half of these are freshwater fi sh. Although the Mediterranean and plant diversity. This diverse region, endemic – in other words, they are found Sea makes up less than 1% of the global with its lofty mountains, ancient rivers, nowhere else on earth. This has led to the ocean surface, up to 18% of the world’s deserts, forests, and many thousands of Mediterranean being recognized as one macroscopic marine species are found islands, is a mosaic of natural and cultural of the fi rst 25 Global Biodiversity Hotspots there, of which 25 to 30% are endemic landscapes, where human civilization and (Myers et al. 2000). – an incredibly rich biodiversity for such a wild nature have coexisted for centuries small area (Bianchi and Morri 2000). The (Figure 1). The unique conjunction of Besides this great richness of plants, a Mediterranean’s importance for wildlife is geography, history, and climate has led high proportion of Mediterranean animals not limited to the richness or uniqueness to a remarkable evolutionary radiation are unique to the region: 2 out of 3 of its resident fauna and fl ora: millions that continues to the present day, as amphibian species are endemic, as well of migratory birds from the far reaches animals and plants have adapted to the as half of the crabs and crayfi sh, 48% of of Europe and Africa use Mediterranean myriad opportunities for life that the region the reptiles, a quarter of mammals, 14% wetlands and other habitats as stopover or presents. The Mediterranean is particularly of dragonfl ies, 6% of sharks and rays breeding sites.

Figure 1. Map of the Mediterranean Sea and surrounding countries

1 Box 1: Why is species conservation important?

Species provide us with essential services: not only food, fuel, clothes and spiritual values. Consequently the loss of species diminishes the and medicine, but also purifi cation of water and air, prevention of soil quality of our lives and our basic economic security. From an ethical erosion, regulation of climate, pollination of crops by insects, and many point of view, species are part of our natural heritage and we owe it to more. In the Mediterranean, they provide a vital resource for the tourism future generations to preserve and protect them. and fi shing industries, as well as having signifi cant cultural, aesthetic

The Human Factor beauty, but heavy pressure from visitors provides sound scientifi c data to decision- In addition to its thousands of species of and residents alike is causing severe makers for policy development and fauna and fl ora, the Mediterranean region environmental degradation. Urbanization, management of natural resources. These is home to some 455 million human coastal development, pollution, and assessments will help Mediterranean inhabitants, from a wide variety of countries unsustainable exploitation of natural countries to determine whether or not they and cultures. Considerable economic resources such as marine fi sh are just have met their obligations, commitments disparities exist within the region, with the some of the many human activities that are and targets under international GNI per capita of the Mediterranean EU leading to an ever-increasing number of agreements, such as the target to reduce countries (USD 20,800) being ten times Mediterranean species to be facing a high the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010 under that of the North African ones (USD 2,100) risk of extinction. the Convention on Biological Diversity (World Bank 2006). Poor people depend (CBD 2002). Hence IUCN is coordinating heavily on natural resources and the loss of “An outstanding centre of a process to evaluate the conservation biodiversity is undermining the potential for biodiversity but also one of status of all vertebrates and selected economic growth, affecting the security of the most threatened, mainly invertebrate and plant groups in the populations (food, health, etc.) and limiting by human activity” Mediterranean region, including terrestrial, their options. On the other hand, economic freshwater and marine species. In total, development increases the pressures on 1,912 species have been assessed to the environment and hence conservation Assessing Mediterranean date (Table 1). Some taxonomic groups challenges and options in the region are Species have been assessed at the global level driven by these economic inequities. Assessing the conservation status of (amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles), species at the Mediterranean regional level while others have been evaluated regionally The region also receives a large number is particularly relevant to regional policy (cartilaginous fi shes, cetaceans, crabs of visitors: in 2005, 246 million people – instruments such as the Convention for the and crayfi sh, endemic freshwater fi shes 31% of all international tourists – visited Protection of the Marine Environment and and Odonata (dragonfl ies and damselfl ies, the Mediterranean, particularly its coastal the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean later referred to collectively as dragonfl ies)). areas (Blue Plan 2008). Many visitors or Barcelona Convention. It gives a timely Although the global and regional to the region are drawn by its natural overview of the status of biodiversity, and assessments are not directly comparable

Table 1. Numbers of species from Mediterranean countries assigned to each IUCN Red List category, by taxonomic group. Assessments carried out between 2004 and 2008 by IUCN and its partners. Data Deﬁ cient means that there is not enough information to assign the species to one of the other Categories, and it does not imply that the species is not threatened.

Endemic IUCN Red List Cartilaginous Crabs and Amphibians1 Birds1 Cetaceans2,3 Freshwater Mammals1 Dragonfl ies2,4 Reptiles1 TOTAL Categories fi shes2 Crayfi sh 2,3 fi shes1,4 Extinct5 110 0 0 8 2 4 016 Critically 4 6 13 1 0 45 5 5 14 93 Endangered Endangered 13 9 8 2 3 46 15 13 22 131 Vulnerable 16 13 9 2 2 51 27 13 11 144 Near Threatened 17 29 13 0 4 10 20 27 36 156 Least Concern 63 543 10 0 5 52 231 96 253 1253 Data Defi cient 1 0 18 4 0 41 30 6 19 119 TOTAL 115 601 71 9 14 253 330 164 355 1912 Endemic 71 (62%) 16 (3%) 4 (6%) 0 (0%) 7 (50%) 253 (100%) 87 (26%) 23 (14%) 170 (48%) 631 (33%)

1 Species assessed at the global level. 2 Species assessed at the regional level. 3 Preliminary data; still to be conﬁ rmed by the IUCN Red List Authority. 4 Only the species occurring in river basins ﬂ owing into the Mediterranean Sea and adjacent Atlantic waters were included in the assessment (Smith and Darwall 2006). 5 “Extinct” includes the categories Extinct, Extinct in the Wild and Regionally Extinct.

2 Birds2 Reptiles2

Mammals2

1 Odonata EX 2 CR/EN/VU Amphibians LC/NT Crabs and crayfish1 DD

Cartilaginous fishes1

Cetaceans1

Endemic freshwater fishes2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % of species

1 Species assessed at the regional level 2 Species assessed at the global level

Figure 2. Percentages of Extinct, threatened, non-threatened and Data Deﬁ cient species in each major taxonomic group assessed.

with each other, they do give an indication and crayfi sh, 29% of amphibians, 19% is about one fi fth (19%) and about 1% of the different levels of threat faced by of dragonfl ies and damselfl ies, 14% of of the species is already extinct in the each taxonomic group. mammals, 13% of reptiles and 5% of birds region. These percentages will be higher are threatened with extinction. Overall, the if some of the currently Data Defi cient A closer look at the different groups shows proportion of threatened species in the species prove to be threatened. Sixteen that at least 56% of endemic freshwater Mediterranean (those classifi ed as Critically species are already extinct in the region, fi shes, 56% of dolphins and whales, Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable), including some endemics such as the Hula 42% of sharks and rays, 36% of crabs either at the global or at the regional level, Painted Frog Discoglossus nigriventer, the

Figure 3a. Species richness of amphibians in the Mediterranean basin. Figure 3b. Species richness of globally threatened amphibians in the Mediterranean basin.

Figure 4. Species richness of globally threatened birds in the Mediterranean basin. (Map of bird species richness is not available).

3 Figure 5a. Species richness of crabs in the Mediterranean basin. Figure 5b. Species richness of regionally threatened crabs in the Mediterranean basin.

Figure 6a. Species richness of endemic freshwater ﬁ sh in the Mediterranean basin. Figure 6b. Species richness of threatened endemic freshwater ﬁ sh in the Mediterranean basin.

Figure 7a. Species richness of mammals (including cetaceans) in the Mediterranean basin. Figure 7b. Species richness of globally threatened mammals (including cetaceans) in the Mediterranean basin.

Canary Islands Oystercatcher Haematopus The geographic distribution of species Freshwater habitats meadewaldoi and seven endemic richness and threatened species In addition to invaluable “ecosystem freshwater fi shes: Tristramella intermedia, richness, highlighting regions with greater services” such as food, water purifi cation, Tristramella magdelainae, Alburnus akili, concentrations of species at risk that fl ood and pollution control, and fertile Chondrostoma scodrense, Mirogrex should be given particular attention, is sediment for agriculture, rivers and hulensis, Telestes ukliva and Salmo pallaryi. presented for each taxonomic group in wetlands also provide irreplaceable These extinctions signify the defi nitive Figures 3 to 9. habitats for thousands of species. But loss of an important part of the world’s freshwater habitats are facing major biological heritage. threats: Mediterranean rivers contain more

4 Figure 8a. Species richness of dragonﬂ ies in the Mediterranean basin. Figure 8b. Species richness of regionally threatened dragonﬂ ies in the Mediterranean basin.

Figure 9a. Species richness of reptiles in the Mediterranean basin. Figure 9b. Species richness of globally threatened reptiles in the Mediterranean basin.

than 3,500 dams, sediment discharge is “Freshwater species their life cycle. The fact that 38% of them drastically reduced and water is diverted contribute signifi cantly to the are threatened gives an indication of the for energy production, irrigation or water economy, environment and worrying status of Mediterranean wetlands supply, reducing therefore the original livelihoods of Mediterranean and rivers. Freshwater species have been basin drainage area by about 78% (Poulos societies” mapped based on river basins fl owing and Collins 2002). In most Mediterranean into the Mediterranean Sea and adjacent countries, water-use is approaching Of the species assessed, 547 amphibians, Atlantic Ocean river basins. Figure 10a the limit of available resources (Blue crabs, freshwater fi shes, dragonfl ies, provides an indication of patterns of high Plan 2005) and several rivers are now reptiles and mammals are dependant of freshwater species richness, based on the seasonally dry. freshwater habitat for at least some part of species assessed to date, while Figure

Figure 10a. Species richness of freshwater amphibians, crabs, endemic fi shes, mammals, dragonfl ies and reptiles in the Mediterranean basin. Figure 10b. Species richness of freshwater threatened amphibians, crabs, endemic fi shes, mammals, dragonfl ies and reptiles in the Mediterranean basin.

5 Mediterranean freshwater-dependent species: Green Gomphid Ophiogomphus cecilia – Least Concern © Jean-Pierre Boudot. Pond Water-crowfoot Ranunculus peltatus – Not Evaluated © Serge Müller. Economidichthys pygmaeus – Least Concern © Ioannis Rousopoulos. Pyrenean Frog Rana pyrenaica – Endangered © Lars Bergendorf.

10b indicates concentrations of species at to be good indicators of the health of species of amphibians, 158 species of risk, in particular in the Iberian Peninsula, freshwater systems. Monitoring the status dragonfl ies, about half of the species in the Balkans, the western part of Greece of these freshwater species is therefore a the groups being endemic. There is also and the area from Turkey down to Israel. key tool in the conservation of important a high diversity of birds, invertebrates and More information about the conservation Mediterranean wetlands. plants. The initial results show that about status of amphibians and endemic 16% of the assessed terrestrial species are freshwater fi sh are detailed in Cox et al. Terrestrial habitats threatened with extinction. (2006) and Smith and Darwall (2006). The Mediterranean region is made up of a mosaic of different terrestrial habitats, Based on these results, terrestrial species Some species, such as various containing a diverse range of species, richness is shown in Figure 11a. It’s amphibians and dragonfl ies, are particularly including 355 species of reptiles (Cox et interesting to note the Hoggar mountain sensitive to water quality and considered al. 2006), 330 species of mammals, 106 region, in the south of Algeria, which is an

Figure 11a. Species richness of terrestrial amphibians, mammals, dragonﬂ ies and reptiles in the Mediterranean basin. Figure 11b. Species richness of threatened terrestrial amphibians, mammals, dragonﬂ ies and reptiles in the Mediterranean basin.

6 Box 2: Mediterranean island plants

With almost 5,000 islands and islets, the Mediterranean comprises vulnerable to habitat destruction, overgrazing, and urban expansion. one of the largest groups of islands in the world. Mediterranean islands The Top 50 Mediterranean Island Plants highlights some of the most display extraordinary features, with high rates of endemism, and act as threatened plant species of the Mediterranean islands, stressing a natural laboratory for evolutionary studies. Their particularities give rise particular situations and conservation needs (Montmollin and Strahm to speciﬁ c conservation challenges. Thus many of the endemic island 2005). plant species are conﬁ ned to single small locations, they are extremely

Box 3: Medicinal plants: Biodiversity that saves lives

North African people have ancient and rich traditions associated with the Mediterranean are known to be of potential value in ﬁ elds such the use of medicinal plants. Plant-derived products are used in the as medicine, biotechnology and crop improvements (UNEP 2006). production of traditional medicines, cosmetics and perfumes. They are Increased demand, coupled with unsustainable collection from the wild particularly important for people of the region, as they are sometimes has led a number of important plant species to become scarce in areas the only source of medicine readily available. Mediterranean plants have where they were previously abundant. The regulation of their collection been used in the development of modern pharmaceutical products is therefore essential, to ensure that these valuable species continue to and crop varieties, and about 70% of the North African wild plants in be available in future.

important refuge for numerous species. Marine habitats encountered in the Mediterranean Sea: However, this map is only indicative, as The Mediterranean Sea contains an the Mediterranean Monk Seal Monachus plants and invertebrates, which account immense diversity of life despite its small monachus – the world’s most endangered for most of the terrestrial species, area. Of the world’s 85 cetacean species, pinniped. Cartilaginous ﬁ shes (sharks, have not yet been assessed. Figure 23 are known to occur in the Mediterranean rays and chimaeras) are also present, 11b indicates some areas of particular and the Black Seas. Some are just visitors, with 71 species living and breeding in the concern, due to the high numbers of but nine species are known to be year- Mediterranean Sea (Cavanagh and Gibson threatened species, in particular Morocco, round residents in the Mediterranean 2007). the eastern rim of the Mediterranean basin (Reeves and Notarbartolo 2006). An and Turkey. additional marine mammal species is Despite the general impression of homogeneity, under-sea ecosystems are very diverse, with submarine mountains, canyons and other speciﬁ c hydrological features. As a consequence, marine species are not evenly distributed (Figures 12a and 12b) and some areas are of critical importance for the conservation of these species as they provide unique nursery and feeding sites.

Sharks are the top predators of the Mediterranean Sea food chain: they regulate species abundance, distribution and diversity, and they help maintain the marine ecosystem’s health and limit disease dispersal by taking sick or weak prey. Nonetheless, they are facing a particularly high risk of extinction. Accidental killing, intensive ﬁ shing activities and pollution are severe threats for these species, and the situation in the Mediterranean Sea is much bleaker than it is worldwide: 42% of the shark species are threatened in the region

Mediterranean terrestrial species: Kythrean Sage Salvia veneris – Critically Endangered © Yiannis Christoﬁ des. Desert Horned Viper Cerastes cerastes – Least Concern © Wolfgang Böhme. Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus – Endangered © IUCN Spanish Committee. Spanish Ibex Capra pyrenaica – Least Concern © Pedro Regato.

7 Mediterranean marine species: Short-Beaked Common Dolphin Delphinus delphis – Endangered © Giovanni Bearzi/Tethys. Long-snouted Seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus – Data Deﬁ cient © TUDAV. Goose Foot Star Peltaster placenta – Not Evaluated © TUDAV. Giant Devilray Mobula mobular – Endangered © Maurizio Würtz.

Figure 12a. Species richness of marine mammals in the Mediterranean Sea. Figure 12b. Species richness of threatened marine mammals in the Mediterranean Sea.

in comparison with 17% globally, which has placed in. Research at sea is logistically Box 4: The most important led to the Mediterranean being described more diffi cult and more expensive than on causes of threat for as the most dangerous sea in the world for dry land, even in a sea as much used as Mediterranean species cartilaginous fi shes (Cavanagh and Gibson the Mediterranean. This means that the real (by order of importance): 2007). number of threatened species could well be much higher and that species could be • Habitat loss and degradation The analysis of marine mammals and shark declining or perhaps even disappearing • Pollution species, as well as the fi rst results for other from our waters without us even noticing. • Overexploitation (unsustainable marine fi sh species, displays a particularly harvesting, hunting and fi shing) striking feature of the marine ecosystem: The main causes of threat: why • Natural disasters about one third of species are assessed are so many species in peril? • Invasive alien species • Human disturbance as Data Defi cient; in other words, there is Habitat Loss and Degradation • Bycatch insuffi cient information to determine which As Figure 13 clearly shows, the loss, Red List Category a species should be fragmentation and degradation of

8 Habitat loss/degradation

Pollution Mammals (incl. marine) Birds Overexploitation Odonata Crabs and crayfish Cartilaginous fishes Natural disasters Amphibians Reptiles Alien invasive species FW endemic fishes

Human disturbance

Bycatch

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % of species

Figure 13. Breakdown of the major threats to amphibians, birds, cartilaginous fi shes, crabs and crayfi sh, dragonfl ies, endemic freshwater fi shes, mammals (including marine mammals) and reptiles in the Mediterranean.

habitats as a direct or indirect result of human activities is the main threat to Mediterranean species. This applies to all taxonomic groups and to all parts of the Mediterranean region. Changes in land-use patterns, such as intensiﬁ cation or abandonment of agricultural practices, urbanization, industrialization or tourism development are some of the main causes of this degradation.

Infrastructure development is strongly affecting some of the most fragile habitats. For example, 32% of freshwater ﬁ shes are threatened by dam construction (Smith and Darwall 2006), which drastically alters hydrological processes, reduces the amount of water available downstream, blocks migratory routes and can impair reproduction (McAllister et al. 2001).

Pollution For the groups of species assessed so far, the second most important cause of threat is pollution. For example, chemical pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are well known to affect the immune system, increasing sensitivity to illness, and causing increased mortality and impaired reproductive success. Mediterranean populations of

9 Striped Dolphins Stenella coeruleoalba region will experience decreasing rainfall biological diversity (IUCN 2000). Their have suffered population declines due to and increasing sea temperatures (Bates introduction can be deliberate, to satisfy morbillivirus infection, and it is believed et al. 2008), which will have an impact on human needs (food, pest control) or that PCBs played an important role by the distribution and survival of species. accidental (often as a result of increased compromising the immune system of the Information collected during the Red globalization of transport). These invasive affected animals. List assessment process shows that species can cause enormous damage populations of North African freshwater to ecosystems, livelihoods and human Another type of pollution is noise pollution: species such as molluscs and dragonfl ies health, and they are one of the most in the Mediterranean Sea, the increasing are already shifting their ranges northwards important causes of biodiversity loss, levels of noise due to marine traffi c are in response to rising temperatures and especially on Mediterranean islands. Due harming cetaceans by impairing their ability decreasing availability of water – and to a lack of information and awareness, to communicate and to locate their prey. there is a limit as to how far north they the issue of invasive species and their can move, given that the Mediterranean effects is often underestimated and Solid waste is also a serious problem: Sea presents a major barrier to dispersal. adequate prevention and mitigation discarded plastic bags have caused the Through a combination of climate change, measures are lacking. death of many marine animals such as increased water abstraction, and the turtles, birds or dolphins that mistake the construction of dams, some rivers in North Human Disturbance bags for jellyfi sh and die from ingesting Africa are now completely dry for parts of The Mediterranean is a densely populated them. Runoff of agricultural fertilizers the year when previously they fl owed year- region that receives large numbers of causes eutrophication of coastal waters round, and some springs have completely visitors each year, and direct disturbance and can result in the formation of “dead dried out. A number of range-restricted by humans is an important threat to some zones”, where no oxygen is available and molluscs are already feared to have gone animals and plants, including iconic fi sh and crustaceans cannot survive (Diaz extinct. Mediterranean species such as the and Rosenberg 2008). Northern Bald Ibis Geronticus eremita and Invasive Alien Species the Mediterranean Monk Seal Monachus Overexploitation (Unsustainable Invasive alien species are alien species monachus, both listed as Critically Harvesting, Hunting and Fishing) which become established in natural or Endangered. Disturbance at breeding sites Overexploitation is a serious problem semi-natural ecosystems or habitat, are can be particularly problematic, as species for Mediterranean species, affecting an agent of change, and threaten native may abandon their young. many threatened plants, reptiles, fi shes, and other species. Overexploitation is driven by several causes: for example, Box 5: The Water Hyacinth Box 6: The Mediterranean Monk Seal demand for traditional medicines is threatening some plants, seahorses and The Mediterranean Monk Seal Monachus The Water Hyacinth Eichornia crassipes, monachus is classifi ed as Critically mammals species. Illegal trade is also of originally from the Amazon basin in South Endangered and is the most threatened major concern in the Mediterranean: the America and introduced for ornamental use pinniped species in the world. Only 350- Critically Endangered Egyptian Tortoise in garden ponds, is now widely distributed 450 animals survive, with the largest Testudo kleinmanni is, for example, in the Mediterranean basin. Doubling remaining population sited in the eastern its population every two weeks, it cover heavily affected by the illegal national and Mediterranean, in Greece, western Turkey quickly rivers and water bodies, impeding and some islands in the Ionian and international pet trade. Increased fi shing boat traffi c, competing with endemic Aegean Seas. Remnant populations are activities and more effi cient fi shing boats aquatic plants and, by reducing the light fragmented and declining. The main threats and gear have resulted in the overfi shing available under the water, threatening are linked to human activities and include and consequent decline of some fi sh the whole ecosystem (Lowe et al. 2000). exploitation, bycatch and persecution. Its control costs millions of Euros each species. Overexploitation is likely to be of More recently, tourism has grown to year just in the European Mediterranean become one of the most signifi cant hazards major importance for some Mediterranean countries. faced by monk seals, particularly in the species groups (e.g., marine fi shes and eastern Mediterranean: as well as causing medicinal plants) for which comprehensive © Geoffrey Howard. signifi cant disturbance to individuals assessments have not yet been and breeding colonies, tourist activities completed. increase the risk of vessel accidents, spills, transmission of disease, and the discharge of pollutants and waste near the seals Natural Disasters (IUCN 2007). Many Mediterranean species are threatened by natural disasters or extreme climatic events, notably forest fi res and droughts. The frequency of such events Bycatch is expected to increase as a result of Most of the Mediterranean marine species global climate change. Climate change assessed so far are affected by accidental models indicate that the Mediterranean capture in fi shing gear, also called

of action plans has signiﬁ cantly improved the status of some Mediterranean species, such as the Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus crispus (Nagy and Crockford 2004). The Barcelona Convention (1976) deﬁ ned action plans for key Mediterranean threatened species (such as the Monk Seal, the sharks or the marine vegetation). Mediterranean assessments can support this process by providing crucial information on threatened species.

The primary goal of species conservation is the preservation of viable populations of “bycatch”. This is considered to be a major action to be taken at both regional and wild species in their original native range. threat for sharks, rays, dolphins and marine national levels. Many threatened species However, in certain circumstances, in turtles. All shark species are considered currently have no legal protection: for particular for the most threatened species, to be threatened by bycatch, but the large example, little more than a quarter (27%) of intensive management such as captive coastal species, which are more exposed threatened sharks benefi t from any form of breeding may be necessary to ensure to intensive fi shing pressure, are thought to protective legislation. the survival of species that are close to be the most seriously affected (Cavanagh extinction. and Gibson 2007). Species Action Plans can be an effective means of determining specifi c conservation Site protection Conservation actions to actions that are needed and for promoting Site protection, for example through the prevent extinction coordinated activities. The implementation designation of protected areas, is one Numerous national, regional and of the most effective means of reducing international actions have been put in global biodiversity loss. However, the goal place to enhance species survival in the Box 8: The Mallorcan Midwife Toad of protecting at least 10% of each of the Mediterranean. Through the Mediterranean world’s ecological regions by 2010 is still Species Assessment process participating The Mallorcan Midwife Toad Alytes far out of reach, especially the commitment muletensis is a very rare species endemic scientists propose recommendations to create and sustain a coherent network to the island of Mallorca (Spain). It is for targeted conservation actions that threatened by predation by the introduced of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) by are needed to reduce species extinction Viperine Snake Natrix maura, and 2012 (Word Sustainable Development risk and which can help Mediterranean competition for space with Perez´s Frog Summit, Johannesburg 2002). In order states to monitor whether or not they are Pelophylax perezi, as well as by habitat to effectively safeguard all threatened loss owing to the development of tourism meeting their obligations under the regional species, especially threatened endemics, and human settlements. A conservation and global conventions and multi-lateral and recovery plan is being undertaken by protected areas need to be designed as agreements. the Species Conservation Service of the representative networks and to integrate Conselleria de Medi Ambient in Mallorca, a gap analysis assessing the adequacy with captive breeding and reintroductions of species coverage. In this respect, taking place. Thanks to these measures, Mediterranean marine protected areas are Box 7: Main conservation actions the species, initially assessed as Critically for Mediterranean species: Endangered, has now been downlisted to notably under-developed and the southern Vulnerable. and eastern parts of the area, despite their • Species protection importance for the marine biodiversity, are • Site protection Male Mallorcan Midwife Toad carrying eggs. insuffi ciently protected. • Conservation of the wider environment © Richard Griffi ths. • Communication and education “Integrating species data • Monitoring and research and spatial distributions into the planning and designation of protected areas allows Species protection the establishment of more Improvement and enforcement of legal protection for threatened species and their effi cient and representative habitats is the most urgent conservation networks.”

11 Conservation of the wider environment Although protected areas are a key tool for protecting species, many plants and animals live outside these areas, often in semi-natural or man-made environments where coexistence with humans is the only option for survival, and where wildlife conservation is just one of many competing land-uses. For species to prosper in the wider environment, it is essential that biodiversity conservation is integrated into public policy in other sectors that impact on species and their habitats, notably agriculture, ﬁ sheries, forestry, urban planning, transport, water management, and so on.

Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) takes an ecosystem approach to the management of rivers, associated wetlands and groundwater systems. Tajo National Park (Guadalajara, Spain). © Pedro Regato. River basins are dynamic systems, and any single management intervention has implications for the system as a whole. IRBM is the process of coordination, the main threats and the actions that Key fi ndings through stakeholder participation, of could be taken to mitigate them is an • The regional assessments confi rm biodiversity conservation, management essential part of sustainable development. the high diversity and endemism of and water resource allocation decisions The species assessments provide timely Mediterranean plants and animals, but across the river basin as a whole to ensure and reliable information on which such also underline the severe threats that that freshwater ecosystems are maintained communication can be based. They these species face. Nine species groups whilst ensuring that human development promote synergies and collaboration have been comprehensively assessed needs are equitably met. between regional actors to enhance to date (amphibians, birds, cartilaginous conservation efforts to halt biodiversity fi shes, cetaceans, crabs and crayfi sh, loss, as exemplifi ed by the establishment endemic freshwater fi shes, mammals, Box 9: The Gizani of the fi rst Intercontinental Biosphere dragonfl ies and reptiles), and almost a Reserve between Spain and Morocco. fi fth of these species are threatened with The Gizani Ladigesocypris ghigii is a fi sh extinction, with 5% Critically Endangered, species endemic to Rhodes, Greece, which is threatened by water abstraction and is Monitoring and research 7% Endangered and 7% Vulnerable. classifi ed as Vulnerable. It has been the A solid evidence base is necessary to subject of a LIFE-Nature project involving the determine conservation priorities and take • Freshwater ecosystems are under study of its geographic range, life history, appropriate action. The Mediterranean particularly severe pressure - over 56% reproduction, nutrition, habitat preferences, assessments provide a baseline against of endemic freshwater fi sh species are genetics and threats. Conservation actions designed include an Action Plan focusing on which future progress can be assessed, threatened with extinction. the sustainable management of the island’s and provide a wealth of information on water resources. This project has helped species status, population size and trends, • The marine ecosystem is poorly to ensure the future survival of this species, distribution, habitat requirements, threats, known, with around one third of marine showing that good conservation practices conservation actions in place and needed, species assessed to date listed as Data can reduce a species’ risk of extinction (Stoumboudi 2000). and other factors that will be of use to Defi cient. policymakers, conservation practitioners, natural resource managers and others. • Assessment of additional groups of However, scientifi c information, especially species in this biodiversity hotspot Communication and Education in the marine ecosystem, is still lacking is ongoing, and results will soon be Effective conservation cannot be and research programmes are crucial to available for marine fi shes, freshwater achieved without the support of those further develop the understanding and molluscs, butterfl ies and endemic plants. people dependent on natural resources. knowledge needed to underpin sound Communicating about the status of their natural resource management. • Mediterranean species are threatened environment, its importance for humans, with extinction as a result of human

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