The Life of Amy Jade Winehouse: a Psychobiography

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How to cite this thesis

Surname, Initial(s). (2012). Title of the thesis or dissertation (Doctoral Thesis / Master’s Dissertation). Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/102000/0002 (Accessed: 22 August 2017). Running Head: THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Annindita Hoque

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

Magister Artium in Clinical Psychology

in the

Department of Psychology

of the

Faculty of Humanities

at the

University of Johannesburg

supervised by

Prof. Z.G. Knight

November 2018

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Digital photograph of Amy Jade Winehouse

Photo sourced from: https://femina.hu/vilagsztar/amy_winehouse_27_eves_halal_klub_lapozgato/

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Acknowledgements

The original research endeavour was inspired by my parents, Mrs. Mahbuba Hoque and Dr. Kazi Naimul Hoque who spoke highly of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman whilst I was growing up. My Mamoni translated the Bengali texts to English cross-night with determination and pride. My Baba provided me with his laptop to be able to write up this dissertation. In February of this year, I went to Bangladesh in search for English sources on Bangabandhu which much to my dismay was limited. It was hard to let go of the previous topic when I was confronted with the limitations of my collected data but I was committed to conduct a psycho-biographical research in line with the concept of identity formation.

It was through the continuous guidance of my supervisor, Prof. Zelda Knight that led me to follow through with my research on Amy Winehouse. At that stage, I did not know much about the musician but as this research project progressed I grew to appreciate Amy’s music and her life’s work.

I would like to thank Prof. Knight for her professionalism and consistency throughout this research process. I always knew what to expect from her and what was expected of me. In addition, I’d like to express my gratitude to Dr. Carol Saccaggi (now Du Plessis) for starting this process with me and for helping me through the proposal stage.

I have been privileged to be supported by a number of special people in my life that have helped me in different ways through this process. My Vervi, Daniel Nowack has been my supportive companion from the masters selection week right through to the final submission of this dissertation. Thank you my Vervz for your patience, compassion, love and tranquillity. You have an amazing way of keeping me grounded and contained when I am overwhelmed. Thank you for being by my side through thick and thin.

My person, Camila Machado Diaz has been by my side for 13 years. She helped me edit this document chapter-by-chapter until we both could be proud of the end result. We make a great team and I am so glad I get to do life with you, Chom. Thank you for being so genuine and loyal throughout all these years.

My brothers, Anonno and Anindo Hoque are my day ones. Thank you for always having my back especially when things get tough. Ans, your sense of humour keeps me refreshed and Weens, your resilience keeps me going as well. I love you both so much.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

My Babalino, Stephanie Nowack, thank you for writing this dissertation alongside me accompanied with copious cups of tea and endless critical discussions. It’s been such a highlight for me to have shared this intense psychology journey with you and in turn, to get to know you so much more. The PhD adventure awaits us.

I would like to make a special mention to Astrid and Jürgen Nowack for welcoming me into their home. Thank you for your shared interest in Amy Winehouse. I appreciate the support you provided me, especially during the tough times. I regard you both as my second parents and love you very much.

To the “Pusha Daai Deng” ladies, Palesa Motsa and Mildred Godji, thank you for persevering through the unmotivated times with me. I admire both of you for your hustle, faith in the process and compassion. Thank you for being there through the write-up process. I could not have finished this dissertation without you ladies by my side.

To Sumanah and the Mustafa family, thank you for the unconditional support you have provided me over the years. You all have been like family to me and made me feel like I have a home base in Johannesburg. I love you all.

To my roomie, Tahnita Monteiro, thank you for being the calm in the storm. Thank you for having my back through our internship year and for always willing to lend a helping hand. I appreciate you so much.

To my dear friend and mentor, Dr. Lanél Maré, thank you for your genuine care, kindness and faith in me, especially during the difficult parts of this process. I always feel heard and understood in your presence so thank you for that.

To my colleagues, Nevern Subermoney and Dr. Isabelle Swanepoel. Thank you for your academic guidance, trust and support. When I needed you both, you showed up for me so thank you for that. I would not have gotten through the stagnant periods of this dissertation write-up without you.

I’d like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Zuleikha Ahmed and Dr. von Brandis-Martini for their psychological support that helped me manage my anxiety surrounding this process. Last but definitely not the least, I would like to make a special mention to the National Research Foundation of South Africa (NRF) for their financial support in the beginning stages of this research project.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Abstract

Amy Jade Winehouse (1983-2011) was an English musician who produced captivating lyrics expressed through her powerful voice that took the music industry by storm. She not only received numerous accolades for her musical abilities but also used this platform on a more personal level, to self-soothe and regulate her emotions. Amy faced a lot of psychological trauma from the age of nine which led her to rely on substance use as a negative coping mechanism. This fuelled unhealthy behavioural patterns and physical health deteriorations leading up to her premature death. It is her interesting psychological profile that makes her a good candidate for a psychobiography.

The analysis of a complete life cycle, as noted in psychobiography research methods, provides an in-depth opportunity to discover personality and/or identity developments. This study made use of the psychological framework of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory. Furthermore, the narrative inquiry used in this research method were in line with principles of qualitative research and was achieved through the application of the techniques outlined by Miles, Huberman and Saldaña (2014), Alexander (1990) and Schultz (2005c). The outcome of the research highlighted the lack of boundaries, stability and consistency in Amy’s environment. This led to a sense of insecurity and the lack of trust that her environment would successfully meet her emotional needs. However, her relationship with music provided her with the psychological tools needed to develop an integrated occupational identity as evident in her success as a young musician. Therefore, the psychological exploratory lens of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages successfully facilitated a holistic understanding of the developmental challenges and strengths that made up Amy’s life narrative.

Keywords: Amy Winehouse; Psychobiography; Psychosocial developmental stages.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Table of Contents Affidavit: ...... i Digital photograph of Amy Jade Winehouse ...... ii Turnitin Reports ...... iii Acknowledgements ...... iii Abstract ...... vi List of tables and diagrams ...... xii Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1 1.1. Chapter preview ...... 1 1.2. General orientation to the research study ...... 1 1.3. Research objectives ...... 2 1.4. Research Procedure ...... 2 1.4.1. Psychobiography ...... 2 1.4.2. Amy Jade Winehouse...... 3 1.4.3. Psychosocial developmental stages ...... 4 1.5. Overview of the study ...... 5 1.6. Chapter summary ...... 6 Chapter 2: The life of Amy Jade Winehouse ...... 7 2.1. Chapter preview ...... 7 2.2. Childhood: Age 0-12 years ...... 7 2.2.1. Family life ...... 7 2.2.2. The foundational schooling years ...... 11 2.2.3. Mitchell and Janis’ divorce ...... 13 2.2.4. Amy’s battle with mental illnesses ...... 14 2.3. Adolescence: Age 13-18 years ...... 15 2.3.1. The secondary schooling years ...... 15 2.3.2. Amy and Bulimia nervosa ...... 16 2.3.3. Amy’s role models ...... 16 2.3.4. Amy, the “bad girl” ...... 17 2.3.5. Amy’s ever changing environment ...... 18 2.3.6. The last of Amy’s schooling career ...... 18 2.4. Adulthood: Age 18-28 years ...... 19 2.4.1. Amy’s rise to fame: Where it all began ...... 19 2.4.2. Amy’s first album: Frank ...... 19 2.4.3. Blake Fielder-Civil and substance use...... 20

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

2.4.4. Borderline Personality Disorder ...... 21 2.4.5. Amy’s second album: Back to Black ...... 21 2.4.6. Amy and Blake’s union...... 22 2.4.7. Rehabilitation ...... 22 2.4.8. Substance use and the law ...... 23 2.4.9. From rise to fall: the events leading up to Amy’s tragic death ...... 23 2.4.10. The end of Amy Jade Winehouse’s life ...... 24 2.5. Chapter summary ...... 25 Chapter 3: Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory ...... 26 3.1. Chapter Preview ...... 26 3.2. Introduction to Erikson ...... 26 3.2.1. Erikson’s biography ...... 26 3.2.2. Erikson’s contribution to psychology ...... 27 3.2.3. The core concepts of Erikson’s theoretical conceptualisation ...... 29 3.2.3.1. Ego Identity ...... 29 3.2.3.2. Triple bookkeeping ...... 31 3.2.3.3. The psychosocial identity crisis ...... 32 3.2.3.4. Epigenetic Principle ...... 33 3.2.3.5. Stages of development ...... 34 3.2.3.6. Crisis resolution...... 35 3.2.3.7. Ego strengths ...... 37 3.2.3.8. Maladaptive and Malignant tendencies ...... 39 3.2.3.9. Ritualization ...... 41 3.2.3.10. Modes and social modalities ...... 42 3.3. The eight stages of psychosocial development ...... 43 3.3.1. Basic Trust versus Mistrust: Hope ...... 45 3.3.2. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt: Will...... 46 3.3.3. Initiative versus Guilt: Purpose ...... 48 3.3.4. Industry versus Inferiority: Competency ...... 50 3.3.5. Identity versus Role Confusion: Fidelity...... 51 3.3.6. Intimacy versus Isolation: Love ...... 54 3.3.7. Generativity versus Stagnation: Care ...... 56 3.3.8. Ego integrity versus Despair: Wisdom ...... 58 3.4. Critiques of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory ...... 60 3.4.1. Methodological rigour ...... 60 3.4.2. Ambiguity ...... 60

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3.4.3. Optimism and Idealism ...... 61 3.4.4. Cross-cultural applicability ...... 61 3.4.5. Gender Bias ...... 62 3.6.6. Prescriptive use of theory ...... 62 3.5. Chapter summary ...... 63 Chapter 4: A review of the theoretical framework of psychobiography ...... 65 4.1. Chapter Preview ...... 65 4.2. Description of qualitative research ...... 65 4.2.1. Phenomenology and Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) ...... 67 4.2.2. Case studies in psychology ...... 69 4.3. Psychobiography ...... 72 4.3.1. The development of psycho-biographical research ...... 72 4.3.1.1. History and Timeline of psycho-biographical development ...... 72 4.3.1.2. Psychobiography in the South African context ...... 72 4.3.2. Terms and definitions ...... 74 4.3.3. Psychobiography and related concepts ...... 75 4.3.3.1. Autobiography and Biography ...... 75 4.3.3.2. Life Stories, Life Narratives and Life Histories ...... 76 4.3.3.3. Psychohistories ...... 76 4.3.3.4. Psychological case-studies ...... 77 4.4. Value of Psycho-biographical Research Design ...... 77 4.4.1. Idiographic lens ...... 77 4.4.2. Socio-cultural and historical variables ...... 78 4.4.3. Longitudinal phenomenology ...... 79 4.4.4. Subjective reality ...... 79 4.4.5. Creative research ...... 80 4.4.6. Theory testing and development ...... 80 4.4.7. Significance within academic institutions ...... 81 4.5. Chapter Summary ...... 82 Chapter 5: Methodology ...... 83 5.1. Chapter preview ...... 83 5.2. Research objectives ...... 83 5.3. Research design ...... 84 5.4. Qualitative data analysis ...... 85 5.4.1. Data Collection ...... 86 5.4.2. Data condensation ...... 89

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

5.4.3. Data display ...... 92 5.4.4. Conclusion drawing and verification ...... 94 5.5. Methodological limitations of a psychobiography and considerations applied to address these limitations ...... 95 5.5.1. Amount of biographical data is infinite ...... 95 5.5.2. Analysis of an absent subject ...... 96 5.5.3. Bias of psycho-biographical research ...... 97 5.5.4. Cross-cultural differences ...... 99 5.5.5. Easy genre ...... 100 5.5.6. Exceptions that are inflated ...... 101 5.5.7. Reductionism ...... 101 5.6. Trustworthiness considerations ...... 103 5.6.1. Credibility (Internal validity/authenticity) ...... 103 5.6.2. Transferability (External validity/Fittingness) ...... 106 5.6.3. Dependability (Reliability/Auditability)...... 108 5.6.4. Objectivity (Confirmability) ...... 110 5.6.5. Utilization (Application/Action Orientation) ...... 112 5.7. Ethical considerations ...... 113 5.8. Reflexivity ...... 113 5.9. Chapter summary ...... 114 Chapter 6: Findings and Discussion ...... 115 6.1. Chapter preview ...... 115 6.2. Amy’s psychosocial development ...... 115 6.2.1. Pre-birth ...... 115 6.2.2. Basic trust versus Mistrust ...... 118 6.2.3. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt ...... 122 6.2.4. Initiative versus Guilt ...... 126 6.2.5. Industry versus Inferiority ...... 129 6.2.6. Identity versus Role confusion ...... 140 6.2.7. Intimacy versus Isolation ...... 148 6.3. Chapter summary ...... 156 Chapter 7: Conclusion ...... 157 7.1. Chapter preview ...... 157 7.2. Research objectives revisited ...... 157 7.3. Summary of the findings ...... 158 7.4. The limitations of the study ...... 159

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

7.5. Recommendations for future research ...... 160 7.6. Personal passage and reflexivity ...... 161 7.7. Chapter summary ...... 162 Reference list ...... 163 Appendices ...... 188 Appendix A: What is it about men? ...... 188 Appendix B: Rehab ...... 189 Appendix C: Stronger than me ...... 190 Appendix D: Love is a losing game...... 191 Appendix E: Fuck me pumps ...... 192 Appendix F: In my bed ...... 193 Appendix G: I heard love is blind...... 194 Appendix H: Help yourself ...... 195

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

List of tables and diagrams

Table 1: The definitions of the ego strengths p. 38 Table 2: Maladaptive and Malignant tendencies with their associated psychosocial crises and ego strengths p. 40 Table 3: The psychosocial stages of development and their associated ritualization p. 42 Table 4: Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development p. 44 Table 5: Steps in conducting a psychobiography p. 85 Table 6: Primary and Secondary sources used p. 88 Table 7: Primary indicators of psychological saliency p. 89 Table 8: Keys to identifying “prototypical scenes” p. 90 Table 9: Matrix of psychosocial development over the historical lifespan of Amy Winehouse p. 93 Table 10: Steps taken to ensure credibility/internal validity/authenticity p. 104 Table 11: Steps taken to ensure transferability/external validity/fittingness p. 107 Table 12: Steps taken to ensure dependability/reliability/auditability p. 109 Table 13: Steps taken to ensure objectivity/confirmability p. 111 Table 14: Steps taken to ensure utilization/application/action orientation p. 112

Diagram 1: Three-fold conceptualisation of Amy Winehouse’s mental illnesses p. 137

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Running Head: THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. Chapter preview

This chapter will begin by outlining the general orientation of this research endeavour, the life of Amy Jade Winehouse: A psychobiography. Thereafter, the research objectives will be discussed. The chapter will progress to the illustration of psychobiography being the research procedure employed throughout and which governs the method of investigation applied to Amy Jade Winehouse, the selected subject of this research study. Furthermore the chapter will focus on Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages which form the theory from which the analysis will make use of. Lastly, an overview of the study will be provided along with a brief explanation of what each chapter of this minor dissertation will entail.

1.2. General orientation to the research study

This minor dissertation is a psychobiography on Amy Jade Winehouse. A psychobiography is a life-span study of an exemplary individual who has contributed significantly within a socio-cultural context using a psychological theoretical framework (Howe, 1997; McAdams, 2006a; Ponterotto, 2015). The aim of a psychobiography is to uncover the central story including personality developments of an individual’s entire life, from birth to death, while using a psychological theory to substantiate the understanding of their central story (McAdams, 2009). The further elaboration of psycho-biographical research is explained in the research procedure section of this chapter.

This particular psychobiography seeks to explore and describe the musical icon, Amy Jade Winehouse’s central story including factors that contributed to her personality development. In Amy’s short lifespan, she contributed significantly towards the music industry. Her captivating lyrics and powerful voice aided her to rise to fame at a young age. The psychological analysis applied onto Amy’s life story is that of the work by Erik H. Erikson, namely his psychosocial developmental stages. The psychosocial developmental stages is an established and accredited developmental theory that aims to highlight significant psychosocial virtues essential to healthy psychological development. The further explanation of the psychosocial developmental stages and the life of Amy Jade Winehouse is depicted in the research procedure section of this chapter.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

1.3. Research objectives

The primary aim of this research study is to write a psychobiography on the life Amy Jade Winehouse. The psychological theory that is incorporated to ground the understanding of Amy’s life, is Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development (1950/1963, 1959, 1964, 1968/1994, 1976, 1978, 1982, 1997). This psychological theory provides a lens from which to understand Amy’s personhood and how that was intertwined with her identity as a musician, which forms the secondary aim of this study. Lastly, the third aim is to investigate the applicability of Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development to Amy’s life. These aims can be achieved through the following four objectives:

1. To conduct a psychobiography on Amy Jade Winehouse so as to expand the understanding of how the events in her life contributed to her identity formation. 2. To explore Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages in the context of psychobiography and specifically with regards to the life of Amy Jade Winehouse. This exploration may confirm and/or extend on some aspects of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages. 3. To contribute to South Africa’s developing field of psychobiography research studies.

1.4. Research Procedure

This section provides an introduction to some of the key elements of this minor dissertation, namely psychobiography (the method of investigation), Amy Jade Winehouse (the subject under investigation) and Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages (the theory from which the analysis will make use of).

1.4.1. Psychobiography

Psychobiography is the use of psychological theory to systematically transform an exemplar individual’s life story into understandable constructs within the field of personality psychology (McAdams, 2009). Kőváry (2011) adds that within a psycho-biographical study the single life narrative is understood as originating from a unique life story and the discipline of psychology is then used to attempt to understand how their personality development and/or identity came to be from their life narratives. Psychobiography is categorised as a form of a

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY single-case study and life history research (Edwards, 1998; Runyan, 1983). It is within the idiographic dimensions that unique socio-historical and psychological factors that make up complexity of an individual life is highlighted (Allport, 1937). Although the aim of psychobiography is not to generalise (Yin, 2009), Allport (1937) and Darroch (1938) emphasised that the only way a general psychological principle can be understood is by analysing and understanding an individual as a whole. Runyan (1982a) describes psycho- biographical research as a holistic approach that appreciates the aspects that make an individual unique in his or her context. As such, it is the phenomenological endeavour whereby the lived experience of the exemplary individual is used to direct the narrative inquiry into what are the important psychological factors that makes this individual exceptional. The use of narrative inquiry is in line with principles of qualitative research. The techniques outlined by Miles, Huberman and Saldaña (2014), Alexander (1990) and Schultz (2005c) were applied. Refer to Chapter Five for more in-depth information on the methodology of psychobiography and to Chapter Four for the theoretical framework of psychobiography.

1.4.2. Amy Jade Winehouse

Amy Jade Winehouse was born on the fourteenth of September 1983 to Mitchell Winehouse and Janis Seaton in Chase Farm Hospital near Enfield, north London (Winehouse, 2014). Amy grew up in a musical-oriented home where the Winehouse family would often listen to music by Frank Sinatra, Ella Fitzgerald and Dinah Washington (Newkey-Burden, 2014). There were also generational links to music whereby Janis’ uncle Leon was a professional horn player and his son, Mark was a drummer for the Joe Loss Orchestra (Winehouse, 2014). Currently, Janis’ sister Debra Milne sings part-time in a jazz group called Jazz Latin Groove (Winehouse, 2014). As such, Amy was encouraged to perform by her family members and she always enjoyed the attention she received for her singing abilities (Newkey- Burden, 2014; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Amy had a powerful voice and used her ability to sing to not only remain the centre of attention wherever she went but to also self- soothe whenever she felt overwhelmed (Winehouse, 2012).

Amy’s professional growth included working with the American record producer Salaam Remi who helped her produce the album Frank in 2003 (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Winehouse, 2012). The album was nominated for the ‘Best Female Solo Artist’ at the ‘Brit Awards’ in January 2004. The song Stronger than me (see Appendix C) which featured in the album Frank won the 49th annual ‘Ivor Novello Award’ for ‘Best Contemporary Song’. Amy’s

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY second album Back to Black was written in the space of three weeks and was released three years after her album Frank. The song Rehab (see Appendix B) was number seven on the UK charts and number nine on the US charts. She won three ‘Grammys’ in 2008 which included ‘Record of the Year’, ‘Song of the Year’ and ‘Best Female Pop Vocal Performance’ (Salewicz, 2011). Additionally, in February 2007, she won the ‘Best British Female Artist’ award at the Brit Awards for the song Rehab; while in May 2007, Rehab (see Appendix B) won the ‘Ivor Novello Award’ for ‘Best Contemporary Song’ (Salewicz, 2011).

Amy’s rise to success was overshadowed by her detrimental substance use history which was triggered by her rebellious behaviour from the age of nine following her parents’ divorce (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2014). The negative effects of the divorce is noted in her psychological deterioration. Additionally, the associated effects of her negative coping mechanism, namely the substance use, led to further psychological and physical health deterioration which was used as a selling point by the media (Hearsum, 2012). It seemed that the pressure of fame, her turbulent relationship with Blake Fielder-Civil and the numerous losses (physical and psychological) contributed to her stressors which led to an increased substance abuse. Amy passed away on twenty second of July 2011 from alcohol toxicity (Gay- Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Salewicz, 2011; Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Refer to Chapter Two for a more in-depth biographical illustration of Amy’s life.

1.4.3. Psychosocial developmental stages

The work by Erik H. Erikson, namely his psychosocial developmental stages will be used as the theory applied in analysis of Amy Jade Winehouse’s life. The psychosocial developmental stages diverges from the traditional psychoanalytic theory of psychosexual development. Erikson (1950/1963) focused on the environmental influences on ego development. The ego is understood to be a predominant structural part of the personality. The ego is constantly changing to be able to adapt to the new information that is experienced in daily interactions with other individuals within their context. Erikson (1950/1963) emphasised that human development is linked to a genetically predetermined sequencing which is influenced by environmental factors. He termed this notion as the epigenetic principle (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1959, 1968/1994, 1997; Peedicayil, 2012; Stevens, 2008).

The ego is confronted with socio-cultural demands at specific phases in an individual’s life. Ego qualities facilitates the emergence of identity as the aim is to synthesis conflicts between personal, societal, historical and familial components (Gross, 1987; Nel, 2013; 4

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Wastell, 1996). Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages suggests that there are critical periods across the lifespan which present a specific developmental challenge causing a series of crises (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1997; Nel, 2013). The psychosocial crises arise from conflicting forces that are based on biological, psychological and social changes (Roets, 2015). The emergence of ego strengths or virtue is dependent on the resolution of these crises which aid healthy personality development.

There are three main reasons why Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages were chosen to explain Amy Jade Winehouse’s life. Firstly, Erik H. Erikson has proved to be a well renowned theorist in psychology through his contributions to the field. Additionally, his work has successfully been used in previous psychobiography studies (some examples include: Nel, 2013; Prenter, 2015; Roets, 2015; Ruiters, 2013; Saccaggi, 2015). Secondly, the psychosocial developmental theory acknowledges socio-cultural, historical and environmental influences on the individual’s personality development (Barresi & Juckes, 1997; Stevens, 2008; Nel, 2013). Therefore, the complexity that contributed to Amy’s personality development will be acknowledged when using the psychosocial developmental stages. Lastly, Erikson has demonstrated interest in case histories and subsequently the field of psychobiography (Barresi & Juckes, 1997; Stevens, 2008; Nel, 2013). As such, using Erikson’s theory is deemed appropriate seeing as this research endeavour uses the psychobiography methodology. Refer to Chapter Three for a more in-depth explanation of Erikson’s work, specifically on the psychosocial developmental theory.

1.5. Overview of the study

This minor dissertation is divided into seven distinct chapters. The First Chapter is the introductory chapter which describes the general outline of the research study. The aims and objectives of the study have been described along with a brief introduction to the research procedure taken. The Second Chapter will provide a general overview of the life of Amy Jade Winehouse, both as an individual and a musician. The Third Chapter provides a synopsis of Erikson’s biography, his contributions to psychology as well as the core concepts of his theoretical conceptualisation. Thereafter, the eight stages of psychosocial development along with the critiques of the theory will be discussed. The Fourth Chapter is the theoretical framework of psychobiography research which begins with a description of qualitative research methods, followed by an overview of psychobiography research methods. These include the development of psychobiography; terms and definitions associated with psychobiography; as

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY well as related concepts to psychobiography research method. Subsequently, the value of psychobiography research methods will be explored. The Fifth Chapter is the methodology chapter which will begin by re-iterating the research objectives and will progress to discuss the research design. The qualitative data analysis will be discussed next followed by the description of the methodological limitations and the considerations applied to address these limitations. The trustworthiness considerations will be discussed in-depth. The chapter will end with an outline of the ethical consideration taken as well as the reflexivity applied. The Sixth Chapter is the findings and discussion chapter which is the psychobiography of Amy Jade Winehouse based on Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages. The final and Seventh Chapter is the conclusion, limitations and recommendations chapter. It will summarise all the previous chapters, disclose limitations of this study and propose recommendations for future research endeavours.

1.6. Chapter summary

This chapter began with the explanation of the general orientation of this minor dissertation. It progressed to discuss the objectives of this research endeavour. Thereafter, the research procedure that will take place was discussed, namely the method of investigation being a psychobiography; the selected subject being Amy Jade Winehouse; as well as the theory from which the analysis will make use of being Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages. Lastly, an overview of the study was provided which included a brief explanation of what each chapter of this minor dissertation will entail.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Chapter 2: The life of Amy Jade Winehouse

2.1. Chapter preview

This chapter will focus on the life of Amy Jade Winehouse. It will begin by outlining her childhood which included her family life, her foundational schooling years, her parents’ divorce and her battle with mental illnesses. Thereafter, it will proceed to describe events that occurred during her adolescence years, such as her secondary schooling years; her battle with Bulimia nervosa; her role models and image as a “bad girl”; her ever changing environment; and the last of her schooling career. Finally, events of her adult years will be portrayed. These include Amy’s rise to fame; her albums Frank and Back to Black; her relationship with Blake Fielder-Civil; her presentation of Borderline Personality traits; her destructive substance use history; her attempts at rehabilitation; her encounters with the law; and the major events leading up to her tragic death.. The endearing and tumultuous life that characterised the iconic Amy Jade Winehouse will be highlighted in this chapter.

2.2. Childhood: Age 0-12 years 2.2.1. Family life

Amy Jade Winehouse was born on the fourteenth of September 1983 at 10:25pm in Chase Farm Hospital near Enfield, north London (Winehouse, 2014). Although she was four days overdue, she was a healthy baby who weighed seven pounds and one ounce at birth (Winehouse, 2014). Amy was Mitchell Winehouse (34) and Janis Seaton (28)’s second born child, born four years after her brother Alex. Alex initially felt he had been usurped by a female impostor who was “doing her damnedest to break the sound barrier” (Winehouse, 2014, p. 24). However, once Alex accepted that he had a younger sister, they had a good relationship growing up (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). In fact, Amy’s first proper word was “Alex” (Winehouse, 2014, p. 24). Alex would even stand guard at Amy’s cot for hours at a time (Winehouse, 2012). Later in life, Alex would tie up Amy’s dolls when he would want to torment her illustrating healthy sibling rivalry (Winehouse, 2012).

The Winehouse family are of Jewish descent originating from Minsk, Belarus (Pfeffer, 2013; Weissman, 2015). Amy was raised in a large extended, and supportive family within the Jewish community in North London (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2014). Their Jewish

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY community was surrounded by five synagogues (Jewish houses of worship) and three Jewish cemeteries (Newkey-Burden, 2014). Although later in Amy’s life she attended synagogue once a year, was enrolled at ‘heder’ (a Hebrew Sunday School) and joined the Jewish Girls Brigade for two weeks; she did not identify with her Jewish heritage (Pfeffer, 2013; Weissman, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). However, she enjoyed the familial component of the Jewish traditions because it would bring her family together (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Pfeffer, 2013; Weissman, 2015). An example includes Friday Shabbat dinners at their paternal grandmother, Cynthia’s place (Weissman, 2015; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Family traditions like this one were significant because she described herself as a family girl in the documentary Amy (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015).

When Mitchell and Janis got married they moved into a two-bedroom flat in Winchmore Hill, north London (Winehouse, 2014). Thereafter they moved into a three bedroom Victorian terrace house nearby Southgate once Amy was born (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014). Mitchell worked as a double-glazing salesman and later in his life worked as a black cab driver while Janis worked in a more financially predictable environment, as a pharmacist (Eliscu, Doyle, Herrera, Parker & Rubin, 2011; Salewicz, 2011). Both Mitchell and Janis had to work to financially support the family, illustrating the middle socioeconomic class which they belonged to. Around the time that Amy was born, Mitchell had lost his job (Winehouse, 2012). Although his unemployment potentially created an uncertain financial climate over the family, Mitchell claimed that he was not worried about it (Winehouse, 2012). He was simply focused on the fact that he was about to father his second child.

Mitchell described his first interaction with Amy as an exciting, curious and nerve wreaking experience (Winehouse, 2012). Mitchell loved his children dearly and would play ball sports with them as they grew up (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). However, once he was employed again he would work for long hours, which resulted in him being absent during important upbringing aspects of Amy’s life (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). These aspects included disciplinary measures and assistance with day-to-day schooling demands (Winehouse, 2014). Examples of disciplinary measures include setting age-appropriate boundaries and having consequences for her misbehaviour. Due to his absence in her life, Mitchell admitted that he would over-indulge Amy as a means of over-compensation (Winehouse, 2012). Seeing as Mitchell was not around during Amy’s childhood, she spent a lot of her childhood trying to get her father’s attention and often found that being naughty or being difficult was a way to get attention (Winehouse, 2014). Examples of this behaviour

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY include Amy’s impromptu singing and dancing show at Alex’s sixth birthday party when she was at the age of two going on to three years (Winehouse, 2012). Not long after the incident at Alex’s party, Amy ran away three times in a mall and in one of the instances she “mischievously” lied about where her mother had been while she was wondering off alone in the mall (Winehouse, 2012, p. 15). Mitchell found these childhood incidents as medium of self- expression and that she was playing practical jokes on the family (Winehouse, 2012). He would ignore her extreme attention-seeking behaviour with hopes that it would make her stop (Winehouse, 2012). Janis felt that although Mitchell tried to make up for his absence later in Amy’s life by investing his time and energy in supporting her through her rise to fame, her negative attention seeking behaviour contributed to her self-destructive habits later in life (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014). In fact, it was Amy’s best friend Juliette Ashby that commented in the documentary Amy saying that Mitchell was not really involved in Amy’s life until she became famous (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015).

Janis felt that her parenting experience was similar to that of a single mother because Mitchell would not offer practical assistance at home (Winehouse, 2014). Only she would ensure that the children’s day-to-day demands, such as emotional support; attendance at parent evenings; and assistance with homework, would be done (Winehouse, 2014). For these reasons, Janis was described as a present and loving mother who cared deeply for her children (Newkey- Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2012). Amy was a hand full and described as an “accident prone” child by Janis (Winehouse, 2014, p. 29). As an infant, she would try to swallow everything she laid her hands on (Winehouse, 2014). Janis recalls one particular instance where infant Amy in a pram attempted to swallow a cellophane wrapper which she got a hold of from a toy she had been playing with and started chocking on it (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2014). Luckily, Janis managed to retrieve the cellophane that was stuck in her throat (Winehouse, 2014).

Seeing as Janis studied part-time towards a general science degree at the Open University, she received a lot of assistance from Mitchell’s mother, Cynthia, known to Amy as ‘Nan’ (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; Aabech & Simpson, 2017; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Amy referred to her Nan as her second mother because she supported Janis in a caregiver’s role (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Although Janis was an authoritarian parent that discussed and reasoned Amy’s wrong doings with her, Amy’s friends claimed that Janis was way too soft on her (Gay- Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). Janis admits that there was not enough structure

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY and boundaries set for Amy and that often her naughty behaviour was overlooked (Winehouse, 2014). For this reason, she was given the Yiddish nick name of Nudge which means “always pushing boundaries” (Winehouse, 2014, p.30). An example includes her disregard for rules of the road when she would recklessly ride Alex’s bicycle (Winehouse, 2012). According to Gay- Rees and Kapadia (2015), all Amy craved for was someone to say “no” to her. It was Amy’s ‘Nan’ that was the “voice of authority” and she provided Alex and Amy with structure and rules (Winehouse, 2014, p.52). Amy respected her Nan and admitted that she gained her strength from her (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015).

In the event that she was reprimanded by either one of her parents, she would simply laugh and not take the attempts at boundary setting seriously (Winehouse, 2012). Janis explains the following, “If the children could learn by example that would be more helpful than being strict about rules” (Winehouse, 2014, p. 39). It was difficult for her parents to guide her because she was very opinionated and had a mind of her own (Newkey-Burden, 2014). She struggled to view things from any other perspective besides her own and she stood by her arguments fiercely (Newkey-Burden, 2014; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012).

Amy had a keen sense of right from wrong so knowingly she would act out through naughty behaviour so as to always remain the centre of attention (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Amy seemed to crave a lot of attention from everyone from an early age (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Amy’s paternal grandparents would often spoil her for being their youngest grandchild (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Amy was often praised by her family members especially with regards to her performance and singing abilities (Newkey-Burden, 2014; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). For this reason, Janis confirms that Amy had always wanted to become a singer (Winehouse, 2014).

There were generational links to music, specifically jazz music, in Amy’s family (Winehouse, 2014). Her ‘Nan’ was a semi-professional singer when she was younger and through this avenue was once engaged to the saxophonist, Ronnie Scott, who had founded his celebrated jazz club in London’s Soho (McCrudden, 2016). Another musical link in the family was Janis’ uncle Leon who was a professional horn player and his son, Mark, who was a drummer for the Joe Loss Orchestra (Winehouse, 2014). Mitchell had also been a semi- professional singer when he was younger and he loved the music of Frank Sinatra (Salewicz, 2011). Currently, Janis’ sister Debra Milne sings part-time in a jazz group called Jazz Latin Groove (Winehouse, 2014).

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

2.2.2. The foundational schooling years

Amy’s schooling career was consequently directed by her musical interest. She enrolled at Osidge Primary School in north London at the age of four years (Salewicz, 2011). This school prioritised music education which was one of the reason’s Janis and Mitchell enrolled her there (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014). Seeing as Amy grew up in a musically-orientated home and her musical talent had been praised from a very young age, the teachers at the school found it challenging to stop her from singing beyond the music education class (Salewicz, 2011; Aabech & Simpson, 2017; Winehouse, 2014). As a result, her family members encouraged her to join a weekly theatre class called “Stagecoach” at the age of six (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). It was her solo performances through Stagecoach that convinced her family that her passion and talent for singing may lead to a professional singing career (Winehouse, 2014). Amy continued to receive a lot of recognition and attention for her performance abilities which continued feeding her craving for constant attention (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Whenever she was not the centre of attention, she would act out so that she was noticed and usually it was through singing (Winehouse, 2014). Newkey-Burden (2014) reports that at the age of five, she would be singing into a hairbrush in front of the mirror and she would often sing Gloria Gaynor's "I will survive" in the bathtub (Salewicz, 2011, p. 6). Janis describes that Amy had a vivid imagination (Winehouse, 2014).

Amy’s imagination was accentuated when she began pre-school at Hampden Way, after she completed nursery school at Yaveneh (Winehouse, 2014). Not only was her imagination impressive but Mitchell reports that Amy could read and write before she started formal schooling because of Janis (Winehouse, 2012). Besides Janis' work as a pharmacy assistant, she also trained as a pre-school play-group leader (Winehouse, 2014). These play-groups would encourage anything from climbing to bike riding, which Amy engaged in fearlessly (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). At the same time, Amy also showed a less confident side and had a problem with Janis sharing her attention with the other children in the pre-school play-group (Winehouse, 2014). This was due to the fact that she enjoyed and craved to be the centre of attention (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012).

Amy met her best friend, Juliette Ashby, at Osidge Primary School (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2012). They were both very naughty and would often be in trouble at the principal’s reception desk where misbehaved children were 11

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY sent (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Amy disclosed that she felt smothered by the structured environment of school because she hated being told what to do (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2014). Seeing as her home environment lacked boundaries, she struggled to adhere to boundaries at school too. Janis and Mitchell were called to school on numerous occasions for her disruptive behaviour (Winehouse, 2012). An example of their misbehaviour includes an instance when they were five years old where they went through the other children’s lunch boxes during first play and would eat all their crisps (Newkey-Burden, 2014). Another example is that one of them would run out of the classroom pretending to be crying, upon where the other would follow her out in an attempt to comfort her meanwhile using this trick to skip class (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011). It seemed that everywhere Amy went, she tried to turn the situation into a performance.

In fact, it was Cynthia who suggested that Amy attend the Susi Earnshaw Theatre School three hours a week, at the age of eight going on nine (Winehouse, 2012). Either Cynthia or Janis would take her to her theatre rehearsals at Susi Earnshaw Theatre School (Winehouse, 2014). It was through this avenue that she landed her first paying job as an extra in The English National Opera's production of Don Quixote (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Thus, reinforcing her competence for performance once again. At the Susi Earnshaw Theatre School, none of the teachers gave negative feedback to Amy's parents (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). This highlights that although she felt restricted by the schooling structures, her loud and attention seeking behaviour was better suited for musical theatre and performance.

Amy’s childhood dream to perform could be observed when Juliette and her formed a musical double act at the age of ten years. They started by forming a rap group named “Sweet and Sour” when they were both ten years old (McCrudden, 2016). The reality of this childhood dream was her developing a career as a musician (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; McCrudden, 2016; Newkey-Burden, 2014; Aabech & Simpson, 2017; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). The Winehouse household would listen to music from Ella Fitzgerald, Frank Sinatra and Dinah Washington (Newkey-Burden, 2014). Amy reported that she was a fan of Kylie Minogue and Madonna up until the age of eleven. Another example of her love for performance and its connection to a childhood role model is noted in her addiction to American Wrestling shows such as "SmackDown" and "Raw" (Newkey-Burden, 2014, p. 13). She met her wrestling hero, Chris Jericho later in her life which she was more excited about than meeting any other musician (Newkey-Burden, 2014).

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

2.2.3. Mitchell and Janis’ divorce

Amy’s disruptive behaviour escalated at the age of nine, following the eradication of structure in her home environment when her parents’ announced their divorce. Janis and Mitchell’s marriage consisted of very few arguments and for that reason, the divorce announcement took their children by surprise leaving them confused (Winehouse, 2014). Janis reports that their marriage had an absence of quality time as a couple because Mitchell spent a lot of his time at work (Winehouse, 2014). Later, it came to Janis’ attention that he had started having an affair with his marketing manager from work, Jane (Winehouse, 2012). Janis reports that she “certainly went through a process of denial. Sadness, anger and confusion” with regards to Mitchell’s infidelity when she found out years later (Winehouse, 2014, p. 58). Mitchell admitted that he loved both Jane and Janis (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2012). Prior to their decision to get a divorce, Janis and Mitchell gave marriage counselling a try. Unfortunately they were unable to salvage their marriage because Janis was uncomfortable with the fact that Mitchell wanted to have both the women (Janis and Jane) seeing as he had feelings for both of them (Newkey-Burden, 2014; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012).

Mitchell had met Jane when Amy was eighteen months and started having an affair with her from then onwards (Winehouse, 2012). It can be inferred that the long hours he spent at work was because he was spending his time at work with Jane. Winehouse (2012) reports that Jane was adamant that she did not want to interfere with Mitchell’s commitment to his family (p.18). However, Mitchell decided to end his marriage to be with Jane.

The news that Mitchell and Janis were getting a divorce was conveyed by Mitchell to Alex and Amy, with both parents present (Winehouse, 2014). On the one hand Mitchell claimed that he ensured to communicate that the divorce had nothing to do with what they had or had not done (Winehouse, 2012). Janis, on the other hand, recalls that Mitchell told the children that they were lucky that they would still be able to see him unlike when he was a child and his father died at the age of sixteen (Winehouse, 2014). This may have communicated that Amy and Alex were in a fortunate position in comparison to Mitchell which invalidates any negative feelings that may have been experienced towards the announcement of the divorce and the divorce itself. Janis recalls the atmosphere during the divorce announcement being "surprisingly" casual in that Alex was half swinging on his chair and started chocking on his sandwich (Winehouse, 2014, p. 61). Amy stood quietly while her father was speaking and then 13

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY erupted in giggles (Winehouse, 2014, p. 61). Mitchell perceived that Alex took the announcement of the divorce badly while Amy seemed to have accepted it (Winehouse, 2012). Since then, the living arrangements were as follows: Amy and Alex went on to live with Janis and visited Mitchell on weekends (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012).

According to Newkey-Burden (2014), the experience of watching parents go through a divorce is almost unbearably difficult for any child. It was at this tender age of nine that Amy decided to take control of her own life and do as she pleased to compensate for the lack of control she felt over her parents’ divorce (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014). She started to rebel by wearing make-up and short skirts. This behaviour escalated and led to her starting to smoke cigarettes and bunking school (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). She became more disruptive at school and would get into trouble for this (Winehouse, 2014). It was evident that no one was around to keep Amy in check seeing as her father was preoccupied with his new relationship and her mother was working and struggling with her health (Janis suffers from multiple sclerosis, which went undiagnosed for more than 15 years) (Winehouse, 2014).

2.2.4. Amy’s battle with mental illnesses

The rebellious events stated above seemed to coincide with Amy’s mental health deterioration. She engaged in self-harming behaviour as a mechanism in order to cope with the negative emotions she felt related to the divorce (Winehouse, 2014). It seemed that she resorted to the maladaptive self-soothing mechanism of self-mutilation because the only platform which was provided for her to communicate her feelings regarding the divorce, with both parents present, had been on the day of the announcement. Newkey-Burden (2014) claims that she reportedly felt that to be heard in her family, she had to scream and that is why she was loud (through her music or her behaviour). It can be assumed that Amy’s self-mutilation could be seen as a means of communicating her internal pain through the external act of self-mutilation because she may have felt that the verbal expression of her needs in the context of the divorce, would not evoke an environmental response (Suyemoto, 1998). She also suffered from acute anxiety attacks when she felt overwhelmed (Johnstone, 2011). She would sing "fly me to the moon" by Frank Sinatra at the top of her lungs in class which reportedly calmed her down when she was overwhelmed at school (Winehouse, 2012, p.14). This illustrates her positive coping mechanism that would help her self-soothe and regulate her emotions better through the medium of performance and singing.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Janis reports that in addition to her self-harming behaviour and acute panic attacks, Amy seemed to have presented with Depression (Winehouse, 2014). According to Gay-Rees and Kapadia (2015), she responded in an interview when asked about her experience with Depression, that it had been one where she felt funny and realised that something was different. Janis further claimed that Amy tried to conceal her low moods from her family members but Janis noticed that she started sleeping excessively and that she lost a lot of weight (Winehouse, 2014). Thus, by the age of fifteen she was prescribed anti-depressants (Salewicz, 2011). It is noteworthy that Janis was diagnosed with post-partum depression after giving birth to Alex (Winehouse, 2014). This contributes to the heredity component of Amy’s mental illnesses. In addition to the above mentioned mental illnesses, Amy manifested with traits of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) and Bulimia nervosa which will be discussed later in this chapter.

2.3. Adolescence: Age 13-18 years 2.3.1. The secondary schooling years

At the start of Amy’s adolescence years, she moved to Ashmole Secondary School (Winehouse, 2014). In her first year there, she performed well academically but this was short- lived as she had difficulty coping with the structure of a general schooling environment and her academic performance deteriorated (Winehouse, 2014). Her school teachers stated that she had the potential and the intelligence to perform well academically but she struggled to concentrate long enough to accomplish a set task (Winehouse, 2014). She later received a lot of negative attention and punishment from school for her disruptive behaviour which "got to her" and led to her disinterest in academia (Newkey-Burden, 2014, p. 11).

Newkey-Burden (2014) reports that Amy identified herself as a singer and not an academic. Essentially, she was occupied with music and performance as she had a desire to work on stage. She wanted to become a jazz singer and her lifelong ambition was to pursue it professionally (Salewicz, 2011). Janis felt that she would be more manageable attending a full time theatre school because it was evident that her passion was performance (Winehouse, 2014). For this reason she was enrolled at The Sylvia Young Theatre School in London’s Edgware Road, when she was twelve years old (Salewicz, 2011). She received a scholarship from the school and attended the school for three years (Winehouse, 2012). The school had both academic and stagecraft components (Winehouse, 2012). While at this school, Amy was also disruptive and bored in class and struggled to concentrate due to lack of stimulation and boredom (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Salewicz, 2011). She was moved one year ahead of her

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY age group to provide her with more of a challenge (Salewicz, 2011). Conversely, Amy was a rebellious student that would break the rules and not acknowledge her wrong doings (Winehouse, 2012). Examples of her misconducts include chewing gum in class, and wearing a nose ring to school. When she was asked to remove her nose ring, she apologised but would put it back on after an hour (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). She would also arrived late for school on most days. She would go to school by bus, fall asleep and miss her stop by three miles (Winehouse, 2012). Mitchell described her rebellious ways as a form of self-expression (Winehouse, 2012).

2.3.2. Amy and Bulimia nervosa

It was at The Sylvia Young Theatre School when Amy presented with symptoms of Bulimia nervosa. Amy admitted to both her parents that she was on a new diet where she could eat whatever she wanted and make herself vomit thereafter (Aabech & Simpson, 2017; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Unfortunately, her parents dismissed this behaviour and believed that it was merely a phase which would eventually pass (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). It is important to emphasise that it was common for The Sylvia Young Theatre School students to have eating disorders which was ignored by the teachers because stagecraft required an image of “lighter, smaller and thinner” (Newkey-Burden, 2014, p.15).

2.3.3. Amy’s role models

In the context of image and self-expression, Amy related to and made use of the platform of music to communicate her emotions (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Amy and her friends listened to rhythm and blues as well as popular music genres which included bands such as Madonna, Michael Jackson, En Vogue and Shangri-Las (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). However, it was the jazz genre of music that Amy was most influenced by, seeing as her familial environment was filled with jazz music from the likes of Frank Sinatra (Winehouse, 2012). Amy was most inspired by Ella Fitzgerald, Sarah Vaughan and Dinah Washington’s contributions to the jazz industry (Johnstone, 2011). These women were African American jazz musicians whose music was only made accessible in Britain after the mid-1920s (Atkins, 2003; National Jazz Archive, n.d.; BBC [online], n.d.).

Amy began to produce her own music once she learned how to play the guitar. It was at the age of fourteen that she was motivated by Alex to learn how to play the guitar seeing as he had taught himself to play it too. (Aabech & Simpson, 2017; Winehouse, 2014). Alex was

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY interested in jazz music and at this age, Amy would pick up on Alex’s interests. Thus, he had encouraged Amy’s musical influences (Newkey-Burden, 2014). It is important to highlight that Amy seemed to gravitate towards American musicians, and particularly to African American all-female groups such as Salt 'n Pepa and TLC (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012).

According to Salewicz (2011), Amy was drawn to Lisa “Left Eye” Loops from TLC because she was described by tabloids as a “bad girl” (p.8). The author further added that Amy could identify with Lisa’s attitude because it was described as fierce and somewhat troubled (Salewicz, 2011). Amy also enjoyed the fact that the musical group Salt ‘n Pepa would speak their minds and be upfront about people they did not like (Newkey-Burden, 2014). Another genre that she appreciated was hip hop, specifically music from the artists Nas and Mos Def because of their socially conscious lyrics (Newkey-Burden, 2014). All these musicians mentioned above helped shape Amy’s perception of what a female musician should be.

2.3.4. Amy, the “bad girl”

Amy felt that she too had embodied the persona of a “bad girl” when she started experimenting with cannabis and alcohol at the age of fifteen (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Newkey-Burden, 2014). Janis reports contradictory information as Amy wrote in her diary at the age of twelve already, in an entry titled party reviews that she “drank loads but was not pissed. We passed around some exotic cigarettes” (Winehouse, 2014, p. 97). This was the start of her lengthy substance use history. The extended use of substances can be understood as another maladaptive self-soothing mechanism to help regulate Amy’s emotions. This was around the age when she started experimenting with her body image whereby she also got her first tattoo of Betty Boop on her back and pierced her nose herself (Eliscu, 2007; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). It seemed that her expressions through tattoos began with the sensation of cutting (self-mutilation) and led to her augmenting her breasts as a young adult (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014). Janis and Mitchell soon realised that she was doing whatever she wanted (Newkey-Burden, 2014).

Around this time Janis' cousin Joan became aware of Amy's sexual activity when she found condoms in her bag (Winehouse, 2014). Amy begged Joan not to tell her mother and she indeed kept it a secret (Winehouse, 2014). Shortly after Amy’s parents’ divorce, she admitted that she started bunking school shortly after her parents' divorce and used to bring her boyfriends home while her mother was at work (Newkey-Burden, 2014). Janis recalls coming home for her lunch break and found Amy lying in her dressing gown with her boyfriend whom 17

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY she was unaware of (Newkey-Burden, 2014). In light of this, Janis put Amy put on contraceptive pills from the age of fifteen (Salewicz, 2011).

2.3.5. Amy’s ever changing environment

It was at this point that Janis and Mitchell felt that Amy would benefit from relocating schools from The Sylvia Young Theatre School to Mount School, an independent all-girls school in Mill Hill (Winehouse, 2014). Mount School also had a strong music program and their academic environment led Amy to emerge with five General Certificates for Secondary Education (GCSE) (Winehouse, 2012).

When Amy moved to The Mount School at the age of fifteen, Amy’s home environment changed as Janis and Tony started dating (Winehouse, 2014). Tony moved into Janis’ home with his son Robert and daughter Caroline, who were both the same age as Amy and Alex (Winehouse, 2014). Janis admits that both Alex and Amy found the transition of the family structure difficult as it involved a whole new living environment (Winehouse, 2014). Amy and her family relocated to a home that did not have enough rooms so the garage was converted to a room for Amy (Winehouse, 2014). As a result, Amy reportedly felt disconnected from the rest of the family (Winehouse, 2014). Janis explains that “as the months wore on we [Janis, Amy, Alex, Tony, Robert and Caroline] naturally drifted into two distinctly separate families living under one roof” (Winehouse, 2014, p. 95). Janis reports that Amy and Tony never saw eye-to-eye because she found him to be boring and would overpower him (Winehouse, 2014, p. 95). In addition, Amy found it difficult that her mother seemed to compare her to Caroline who identified more with her Jewish faith and excelled academically (Winehouse, 2014). Caroline was reportedly more conscientious at school (Winehouse, 2014). Winehouse (2014) explains that the concept of family had become romanticised and an intangible idea to Amy. This most likely caused her distress because she admits in the documentary by Gay-Rees and Kapadia (2015) that she identified herself as a family girl. It seemed that Amy battled to not only find her place neither in the world nor in her family environment (Winehouse, 2014).

2.3.6. The last of Amy’s schooling career

The one area where Amy did find her sense of belonging was in the field of music. The final school that she attended was Croydon’s BRIT Performing Arts and Technology School, at the age of sixteen (Winehouse, 2012). She attended this school for six months. At the BRIT school, she enrolled for classes in musical theatre and realised that it hindered her from flourish

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY as an original performer (Winehouse, 2014). Despite the BRIT school allowing her to express herself as a musically-driven individual, she dropped out of school and thereafter started writing music full time (Eliscu et al., 2011; Aabech & Simpson, 2017; Winehouse, 2012). Although she found writing her own pieces to be challenging, she was described as a charismatic and confident songwriter (Aabech & Simpson, 2017).

2.4. Adulthood: Age 18-28 years 2.4.1. Amy’s rise to fame: Where it all began

Once Amy dropped out of school, she went on to work as a junior trainee showbiz reporter for two months at World Entertainment News Network (WENN) (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). WENN was a show business news agency, gathering service with bureaus around the world and it was run by Juliette’s father (Winehouse, 2012). Amy worked at WENN during the day and she would spend her evenings performing in small venues (Salewicz, 2011). A friend of hers eventually offered her free time in a studio to record, and this is where she recorded a demo with a friend from the Sylvia Young Theatre School, Tyler James (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). She later went on to audition for the National Youth Jazz Orchestra (NYJO) which is known to be Britain’s university for young jazz musicians (National Jazz Archive, n.d.). She spent her weekends doing shows as a vocalist for the NYJO (Winehouse, 2012). Through this avenue, she caught the attention of Brilliant! 19 Management and signed a four year deal with them to oversee all her activities in the entertainment industry (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2014). It was not long before she secured a publishing deal from EMI and a label deal from Universal Island Ltd (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). She earned £73,437.50 as her first pay-cheque and used that money to move out of her mother’s home (Eliscu et al., 2011; Winehouse, 2014). She moved in with Juliette in a two-bedroom flat in East Finchly (Winehouse, 2014). At a later stage, she secured her second apartment in Camden for £260,000 (Winehouse, 2012).

2.4.2. Amy’s first album: Frank

Amy’s professional growth included working with the American record producer Salaam Remi (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Salaam helped her produce the album Frank (named after Frank Sinatra) (Winehouse, 2012). The album was nominated for the ‘Best Female Solo Artist’ at the ‘Brit Awards’ in January 2004. The album Frank had a few songs inspired by her life. For example, Take the Box was a description of Amy’s break up with Chris

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Taylor after nine months of dating (Salewicz, 2011). She met Chris, who was her first serious boyfriend, while working at WENN (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). He was seven years older than her and disappointed her because his life experience did not aid him in being “stronger than me (Amy)” (Salewicz, 2011; see Appendix C). The song Stronger than me (see Appendix C) won the 49th annual ‘Ivor Novello Award’ for ‘Best Contemporary Song’. The song What is it about men (see Appendix A) on the other hand was inspired by Janis and Mitchell’s relationship (Salewicz, 2011). Amy reported in the documentary Amy Winehouse: The Legacy, that she felt responsible for her parent’s divorce although she did not disclose this overtly to her parents (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Janis reports that Amy’s anger is noticeable in some of her music which seemed to be directed at her parents (Winehouse, 2014). Moreover, Amy often yearned for Mitchell’s attention and describes herself as a “daddy’s girl” signified by the tattoo she got later in life (Salewicz, 2011, p. 24). Another significant tattoo she got was one inspired by her ‘Nan’ who passed away from lung cancer in 2006 (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). This was a difficult experience for her as her ‘Nan’ was the only source of stability she had growing up (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). After her ‘Nan’s passing, she resorted to excessive drinking and lost more weight (Winehouse, 2014). In order to cope with the negative life events, she became increasingly self-destructive.

2.4.3. Blake Fielder-Civil and substance use

Amy’s destructive behaviour was exacerbated after meeting Blake Fielder-Civil at a local Camden pub in 2005 (Salewicz, 2011). Blake was a year older than her and worked as a production assistant on music videos (Salewicz, 2011). He lacked stability in his life because his parents had gotten divorced when he was of a young age and his family relocated cities frequently (Salewicz, 2011). Both Blake and Amy’s parents’ relationship formed a template of intimate relations in their lives. When Amy and Blake met, they were both already in relationships (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). In this context, Amy was the other woman much like Jane’s role in her parents’ relationship (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012).

Blake was a catalyst to her substance use and introduced Amy to harder substances that he had been using such as crack-cocaine and heroin (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Blake eventually ended their brief affair to return to his then girlfriend which had a negative trajectory on Amy’s substance use (AthensBerlin, 2011; Lynskey, 2015). During this time, she had lost a lot of weight and became more volatile towards the people in her life (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Amy admitted that she went on to do one destructive thing after the next when she came

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY out of intimate relationships (Lee, 2015). Amy ended up sleeping with one of Blake’s friends to get back at him (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015).

2.4.4. Borderline Personality Disorder

The behaviour mentioned above aligns with traits and symptoms of BPD (IBT staff reporter, 2011). BPD is defined as the pervasive pattern of instability of personal relationships, self-image, and affect which is marked by impulsivity manifesting by early adulthood (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Hall (2011) claims that a family member confirmed her symptoms and confirmed that these align with BPD such as lack of boundaries, impulsivity, substance use, self-mutilation, emotional instability, turbulent interpersonal relations and attention seeking behaviour. However, none of the literature states that she was officially diagnosed with BPD thus it can only be said that she presented with traits and symptoms that align with the criteria of BPD.

2.4.5. Amy’s second album: Back to Black

Juliette and Nick Shymansky (a member of her management team and friend) advised her to talk to a counsellor about her increasing intake of alcohol and substances (Salewicz, 2011). She refused to go to rehabilitation centres or to speak to a counsellor. She later said that she would agree to go for rehabilitation only if her father agreed to it (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Seeing as she described herself as her “daddy’s girl”, she wanted her father to provide her with direction as to what to do (Salewicz, 2011, p. 24). Mitchell had a liberal attitude towards drugs, stating that his daughter was not drug crazed (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). He admitted that when he was a young man, he used certain substances and believed that everyone had experimented with substances, so it was normal (Salewicz, 2011). As such, he advised her not to attend rehabilitation despite the concerns of her close friends and management (Gay- Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Salewicz, 2011). This inspired the song Rehab (see Appendix B) on her Back to Black album (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Rehab (see Appendix B) was number seven on the UK charts and number nine on the US charts. She won three ‘Grammys’ in 2008 which included ‘Record of the year’, ‘Song of the year’ and ‘Best Female pop vocal performance’ (Salewicz, 2011). Additionally, in February 2007, she won the ‘Best British Female Artist’ award at the Brit Awards for the song Rehab; while in May 2007, Rehab (see Appendix B) won the ‘Ivor Novello Award’ for ‘Best contemporary Song’ (Salewicz, 2011). The album Back to Black was written in three weeks after her relationship with Blake ended

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

(Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Another song inspired by Blake was the song Love is a losing game (see Appendix D) which was specifically written about the unfaithful relationship that Blake had with Amy while he was in a relationship with his former girlfriend (Salewicz, 2011). In May 2008, the song Love is a losing game (see Appendix D) was awarded the ‘Ivor Novello Award’ for ‘Best song’ (Salewicz, 2011).

2.4.6. Amy and Blake’s union

Later in 2007, Amy and Blake got back together (Salewicz, 2011). On the eighteenth of May of the same year, Amy and Blake got married in Miami, with the court official being their only witness (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Their marriage solely revolved around their substance use (McCrudden, 2016). Amy admitted that she drank more when she felt insecure as she did not want to lose Blake (Lee, 2015). As Amy did with her father, she seemed to worship the ground which Blake walked on (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). She expressed that she was so in love with Blake that she wanted to experience and feel everything that he was feeling because she wanted to remain connected to him (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Thus, it seemed that she used substances as a communication medium (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011). However, she was battling to keep up with his lifestyle (McCrudden, 2016). Blake admitted that he felt guilty for introducing and encouraging her use of heroin, crack cocaine and self-harming behaviour (Greene, 2015).

2.4.7. Rehabilitation

On the seventh of August 2007, Amy overdosed on a combination of substances and her stomach had to be pumped at University College Hospital (Salewicz, 2011). In 2008, she developed emphysema from smoking crack and was taken to University College Hospital again as well as the London Clinic, for treatment (Salewicz, 2011). Amy and Blake attended rehabilitation by spending forty eight hours at Causeway Clinic in 2007 (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). They ended up binge drinking as soon as they left Causeway Clinic (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Amy later attended Capio Nightingale Hospital in 2008 and Priory rehabilitation centre in 2011 (Salewicz, 2011). Winehouse (2012) adds that she lasted three hours in a rehabilitation centre in Surrey. Unfortunately, all these attempts at rehabilitating from substance use were unsuccessful. In fact, her intake of substances increased (Eliscu et al, 2011). It seemed that she needed more crack-cocaine and heroin to get the type of feeling as once was received from a smaller dosage (Aabech & Simpson, 2017).

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

2.4.8. Substance use and the law

The failure to rehabilitate from substance use led to Amy and Blake’s encounters with the law. In June 2007, Blake and a friend assaulted a barman and fractured his cheekbone (Lynskey, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). The charges he was charged with were categorised under grievous bodily harm, which is an impressionable offence. He then bribed the barman and was charged with what was called attempting to pervert the course of justice (Salewicz, 2011). Following conviction of this offense, he was incarcerated for thirty six months (AthensBerlin, 2011). Amy on the other hand, had three incidents where she was confronted by law officials. Firstly, she was held overnight in a cell for public violations and assault (Salewicz, 2011). However, the charges against her was dropped. Secondly, she was once interrogated about smoking cocaine but no charges were laid (Salewicz, 2011). Lastly, she went to court for allegedly punching a photographer in March 2009 but in July 2009 she was acquitted of the charge (Salewicz, 2011).

2.4.9. From rise to fall: the events leading up to Amy’s tragic death

Towards the end of her life, Amy’s career was heading on a downward spiral because of her substance use. The head of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Antonio Maria Costa, singled out her behaviour as an example of “glamorizer of cocaine” (Salewicz, 2011, p.30). Moreover, the music industry is known to be an enabler for substance use because they give a musician what they want so that he or she keeps producing creatively (Napeir-Bell, 2017). Napier-Bell (2017) further states that Amy used substances as a means to self-soothe and alter her consciousness to be able to access her creativity without becoming overwhelmed by her emotions.

Amy managed to stop using substances for a brief period of six months when she was in the island of Saint Lucia. Seeing as she continued to drink excessively during that period on the island, she was tempted to start using substances again (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Along with this lifestyle, Amy found it difficult to remain faithful to Blake. While in Saint Lucia, Amy started an affair with a local which led to Blake filing for divorce from prison (Salewicz, 2011). Amy admitted to adultery and did not seem to give her divorce much attention as she was preoccupied with the idea of escaping the media (Aabech & Simpson, 2017).

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Amy explained that her experience with the paparazzi had been overwhelming as soon as her rise to fame began (Napier-Bell, 2017; Aabech & Simpson, 2017). The media bullied her by exploiting her mental illnesses and joking about the fact that she was “cooking crystal meth” (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). In fact, Amy admitted from the start of her career that she did not think that she would be able to handle fame (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). She admitted the following: “I think I’d go mad” (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Napier-Bell (2017) describes fame as a traumatic event because “when it comes knocking at the door, it’s overwhelming”.

Mitchell did not respect Amy’s retreat from the lime light and arrived unexpectedly on the Saint Lucia Island with a film crew (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). According to Greene (2015), Mitchell seemed to want to maximize on Amy’s success. In light of this, the exploitation of her fame led to more self-destructive behaviour. During the performance at the Saint Lucia Jazz Festival on the eighth of May 2009, she was booed off stage for being drunk and not being able to perform (Salewicz, 2011). In Serbia, on the eighteenth of June 2011, she was booed off stage once again for being drunk and high (Salewicz, 2011). Due to this continued negative response from her fans, two of her Istanbul shows and one of her Athens shows were cancelled (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). After the cancellation of her shows, she tried to abstain from alcohol and she succeeded for three consecutive weeks (Eliscu et al, 2011). Thereafter she returned to the stage as a backing vocal with Dionne Broomfield at Roundhouse in Chalk Farm on the twentieth of July 2011 (Salewicz, 2011). This was her last stage performance before her death.

2.4.10. The end of Amy Jade Winehouse’s life

At 10am on the twenty third of July 2011, Amy’s bodyguard checked up on her while she was sleeping (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). He only checked up on her again at 4pm and realized that she wasn’t breathing (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Amy died from alcohol toxicity as she had embarked on a four day lonely binge on vodka (Greene, 2015; Salewicz, 2011). She was over five times the United Kingdom’s drinking – driving limit (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Her alcohol tolerance level had decreased over the years because she had a compromised cardiac system from the many years of struggling with addiction and Bulimia (Greene, 2015). Not only did she suffer from a deterioration of her mental and physical health but this was on public display and used as a selling point by the media (Hearsum, 2012). It was evident that the media had been following Amy’s every move because it was within minutes of Amy’s death that Wikipedia’s Amy Winehouse and ’27 club’ 24

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY pages were updated to include her death (Hearsum, 2012, p.183). Following the Jewish tradition, her funeral took place within a few days of her death on the twenty sixth of July 2011 (Hearsum, 2012; Lynskey, 2015). Her family participated in the seven-day mourning period called Shiva where they did not shave and change their clothes while members of the Jewish community came to pay their respects at the Winehouse residence (Weissman, 2015).

Amy’s third album Lioness was released on the sixth of December 2011 by her record label (Salewicz, 2011). Prior to the public release, Salaam, her former producer had played the album for her family to act as a mediator during their grieving process (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). The album had been a working progress for the last three years of Amy’s life. It reflected her final thoughts, feelings and emotions expressed through music (Eliscu et al, 2011).

2.5. Chapter summary

This chapter focused on the life of Amy Jade Winehouse. Firstly, her early childhood events that influenced her development were discussed including the backdrop of her upbringing; the foundational schooling years; her parents’ divorce; and battle with mental illnesses. Secondly, the chapter included her adolescence years and the associated events such as her schooling; her battle with Bulimia nervosa; her image as a “bad girl” and influential role models; her behaviour which was linked to the ever changing environment noted during that stage of development. Lastly, Amy’s adult life including her career trajectory; her substance use history and attempts at rehabilitation; her relationship with Blake Fielder-Civil; and presentation of Borderline Personality traits were depicted to include the events that led up to her death. This chapter aimed to summarise the events that contributed to the development of the iconic Amy Jade Winehouse.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Chapter 3: Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory

3.1. Chapter Preview

The chapter will begin with an introduction to Erik. H. Erikson: firstly his biography will be discussed, then his contribution to the field of psychology will be outlined, and lastly the core concepts that make up his theoretical framework will be detailed. A detailed explanation of the eight stages of man or otherwise known as the psychosocial developmental stages, will follow. Thereafter, the critiques associated with Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages will be discussed. Through the comprehensive explanation of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages, this chapter aims to prove to be relevant and applicable in the attempt to understand the life of Amy Jade Winehouse.

3.2. Introduction to Erikson 3.2.1. Erikson’s biography

Erik H. Erikson was born of Danish parents near Frankfurt, Germany on the fifteenth of June 1902 (Boeree, 2006; Stevens, 2008). Erikson’s parents had been divorced before his birth and his father was estranged from him ever since (Boeree, 2006; Stevens, 2008; Zock, 1990). Once he learnt of the origins of his birth, he adopted the name Erikson as his surname and kept Homburger, which was his step-father’s surname, as his middle name (Friedman, 1999; Zock, 1990). Bearing in mind that Erikson was raised in the climate of the First World War, he was born of a middle-class Jewish family and was Arian in appearance which caused problems at the synagogue as he looked ‘different’ (Boeree, 2006; Stevens, 2008; Zock, 1990). This is significant because his struggle with his own identity formation inspired his interest in the study of identity (Boeree, 2006).

Erikson was trained as a psychoanalyst in Vienna and was analysed by Sigmund Freud’s (1856 – 1939) daughter, Anna Freud (Boeree, 2006; Stevens, 2008). Due to the Nazi’s threat on the development of psychoanalysis, the Erikson family immigrated to America in 1933 (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008; Zock, 1990). He proceeded to practice as an analyst in Boston working primarily with children (Boeree, 2006; Stevens, 2008; Zock, 1990). Erikson accepted an invitation from the Harvard Psychological Clinic to conduct research through them (Stevens, 2008; Zock, 1990). During the next ten years, he became determined to expand his

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY knowledge in the field of history and anthropology (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008). In addition, he extended his clinical work to wartime veterans (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008).

The array of his scope of research included the analysis of Hitler’s speeches; engagement in the psychological studies of submarine life; and analysis of behaviour of both adults and children (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008). Erikson published his first book in 1950 called Childhood and Society, which outlined themes of child development as well as the relationship between development and society (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008). In 1951, he was offered an appointment as a clinical specialist in psychoanalytic training and research at the Austen Riggs Centre in Stockbridge, Massachusetts (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008; Zock, 1990). During this time, he also served as a professor at the University of Pittsburgh (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008). This is when he engaged with studies on adolescence and youth development (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008). At this stage, his interdisciplinary interest included biology, history, theology, and psychoanalysis, which all assisted in the development of his own ideas on identity and ego involvement (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008).

In the early sixties, Erikson travelled to India which inspired him to write a psychobiography on Gandhi (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008; Zock, 1990). He was awarded honorary doctorates from Yale and Berkeley and was appointed the first Freud Memorial Chair at the University College London (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008). In 1970, the New York Times magazine described him as the “most influential of living psychoanalysts” (Stevens, 2008, p.13). These accolades serve as evidence that his work contributed significantly to the field of psychology. It was Erikson’s experiences as an immigrant in America that strongly influenced his work as an author in the field of developmental psychology; cultural studies; and psychohistory (Welchman, 2000). Erikson passed away in 1994 due to what doctors believed was Alzheimer’s disease but this has not been confirmed (Friedman, 1999; Stevens, 2008).

3.2.2. Erikson’s contribution to psychology

Erikson’s conceptualisations are inclusive of the unconscious and psychosexual development as traditional psychoanalysis emphasises (Erikson, 1950/1963; Saccaggi, 2015). By accepting the psychoanalytic stance, every human expression is understood to have an associated meaning that exceeds conscious intent (Erikson, 1976). However, Erikson expanded on Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual theory of personality development in three significant ways. Firstly, the central focus of development is emphasised by the growth of the ego and its 27

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY contribution to the development of identity (Erikson, 1950/1963; Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008). Secondly, the entire human lifespan is described, from infancy to geriatric (Erikson, 1982). Lastly, societal and cultural influences are incorporated in the description of the developmental process (Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008). This expansion introduced a new theory that conceptualises the growing personality to include the individual’s potential social interactions with people and the contexts in which the interactions occur (Erikson, 1968/1994; Stevens, 2008).

Erikson was best known for his conceptualisations of identity formation and his psychosocial developmental theory which considers an individual’s whole life cycle (Stevens, 2008). The psychosocial developmental theory is his most renounced contribution to psychological understanding of personality development. He developed his psychosocial developmental theory while he was in clinical practice with various Native American groups, shaping his understanding that the ego development is influenced by sociohistorical and cultural factors (Nel, 2013; Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008). The theory was initially introduced in Childhood and Society (1950/1963) and expanded through his successful publications, namely Insight and Responsibility (1964), Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968/1994), Toys and Reasons (1976), and The Life Cycle Completed (1982). Erikson’s work included studies of case histories and lifespan development which is now known as the field of psychobiography (Stevens, 2008). Erikson expanded on Freud’s work on the psychoanalytic study of the life of Leonardo da Vinci to include the consideration of social factors when studying ego development through the life cycle (Barresi & Juckes, 1997; Stevens, 2008). Erikson demonstrated a more in-depth understanding of psycho-biographical research in his books on Martin Luther (Erikson, 1958) and Mahatma Ghandi (Erikson, 1969). Each of Erikson’s publications build on his previous publications much like his understanding of personality development as noted in the epigenetic principle (Stevens, 2008). The epigenetic principle and other core concepts of his theory will be explained below.

It is important to highlight the recent suggested usage of Erikson’s work in the context of psychotherapy as outlined in the publications by Knight (2017) as well as Marcia and Josselson (2013). It is proposed that concepts of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development (explained in detail later in this chapter) parallels with the eight-stage model of psychodynamic psychotherapy (Knight, 2017). Knight (2017) further suggests that individuals seek therapeutic intervention when they are in search of something missing, much like the presentation of psychosocial crisis (will be explained later in the chapter). This model aims to

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY assist clinicians identify which therapeutic stage the individual progresses through and is working from (Knight, 2017). The article by Marcia and Josselson (2013) proposes that the empirical research on Erikson’s developmental theory can be used in therapy to guide therapeutic outcomes and shifts the focus to attaining virtues instead of stressing pathology. Erikson’s theory is reportedly descriptive in language as it suggests where in an individual’s life cycle he or she might have battled to develop adequate virtues to encourage healthy personality development (Marcia & Josselson, 2013). This provides the clinician with a guideline of potential ego strengths to use to help the individual work through past developmental hurdles (Marcia & Josselson, 2013). 3.2.3. The core concepts of Erikson’s theoretical conceptualisation

This section will explore the core concepts which Erikson highlighted within his theoretical work. These concepts begin with the notion of the ego and the concept of identity. Thereafter, the notion of triple bookkeeping (which forms the backdrop of his later work) is fleshed out. The psychosocial identity crisis is then explained, followed by an explanation of the epigenetic principle within the Eriksonian framework. The stages of development are explored along with the process of crisis resolution. The concept of ego strengths is considered as well as the counter notion of maladaptive and malignant tendencies. Lastly, the concept of ritualization as well as the modes and social modalities will be investigated. This section aims to educate the reader on the concepts that lead to the psychosocial developmental theory otherwise known as the eight stages of man (Erikson, 1950/1963).

3.2.3.1. Ego Identity 3.2.3.1.1. Ego

The ego is understood to be a predominant structural part of the personality. According to Sadock, Sadock and Ruiz (2015), the ego is the executive function of the psyche that controls perception, contact with reality, and delays and/or modulates the expression of innate impulses, otherwise known as the id. The ego not only has the task to control or regulate the instinctual drives but as the ego develops, it is able to judge or anticipate the consequences of actions (Sadock et al., 2015). This forms part of the function of the superego which is the individual's moral conscience, consisting of a complex system of internalised ideals and values passed on by the primary caregivers (Sadock et al., 2015). The capacity of the ego to cope with the id’s instinctual drives or impulses and the superego’s morality, depends on the strength of the ego

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

(Stevens, 2008). However, the ego is not merely a mediator between the id and the superego (Nel, 2013; Shaffer, 2002). It is the domain of the unconscious that safeguards our coherent existence by screening and synthesising, in series of moments, all the emotions, memories, and impulses which try to enter the thought process and that require action (Erikson, 1968/1994; Ruiters, 2013). Mental processes such as thinking, perceiving, reasoning, remembering, and attending to a task at hand, all work in different ways to reach a set goal (Roets, 2015).

Consequently, the ego’s function is to synthesise the conflict that arises between the biological dispositions of the individual and the social factors so that there can be a harmonious co- dependency between the two (Stevens, 2008). The development of personality as a whole considers social and environmental elements which influence the ways genetically predetermined stages of development manifest (Ruiters, 2013; Schultz & Schultz, 2009). Hook (2009) states that the ego is adaptive and develops in conjunction with the changes experienced in the external environment. Therefore, the ego is also referred to as the part of the self that is in touch with the outside world.

3.2.3.1.2. Identity

Erikson (1950/1963) uses the terms ego identity and psychosocial identity, interchangeably (Welchman, 2000). Ego identity is defined as the conscious sense of self which develops through the process of dealing with personal, societal, historical and familial forces throughout the life cycle (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994; Gross, 1987; Nel, 2013; Roets, 2015; Wastell, 1996). This conscious sense of self is constantly on the search to answer the question of “who am I?” (Bjorklund & Hernández Blasi, 2012, p. 57). This is essentially what identity denotes. Through the search for answers, the ego identity is confronted with the need for adaptation due to the ever changing nature of daily interactions with the environment (Roets, 2015). As a result, identity is not a final goal to be achieved but an ongoing process of self-discovery and the discovery of the subjective reality with which an individual engages (Stevens, 2008).

Identity develops as a result of the growing ego functions (Welchman, 2000). As mentioned above, the ego is conceptualised to function as a synthesis within an individual’s psyche. A strong ego dictates the ability to cope with the integrative function of biological needs and societal demands (Nel, 2013). The growth of the ego forms part of the developmental stages that formulate identity (Welchman, 2000). According to Stevens (2008), the development of identity consists of three processes: (a) introjections which are internal

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY representations of the injunctions and demands of parents and other key figures; (b) identification with the characteristics and attitudes of personally significant people; and (c) the expansion of self-awareness and more conscious exploration of self, specifically noted in adolescence. The crystallisation of identity is therefore a result of introjections, identification, and awareness of self (powers and weaknesses) within the individual’s socio-cultural context.

Erikson (1968/1994) expresses that “in the social jungle of human existence, there is no feeling of being alive without a sense of ego identity” (p. 130). Stevens (2008) further states that ego identity is the sense of deep personal relevance of the self. As such, the quality of the ego functioning forms part of the sense of identity, sense of competence, self-esteem and the idea of integrity (Stevens, 2008; Welchman, 2000). It is the experience of the “subjective sense of an invigorating sameness and continuity” (Erikson, 1968/1994, p.256). Essentially, personality is the continuity of the self. Stevens (2008) reports that there are four primary aspects of personality that are influenced by the ego identity, namely (1) a conscious sense of individual identity; (2) an unconscious striving for a continuity of personal character; (3) the silent doings of ego synthesis; and (4) an inner solidarity with a group’s ideals and identity. The fourth aspect of personality refers to the ego identity's awareness of the combination of all the different selves we experience or the different roles we embody in societal settings (Stevens, 2008).

What is important to remember is that the ego identity is consolidated not only by an individual's ability to integrate into their context but also their ability to integrate into the wider context (Stevens, 2008). Visser (2012a) emphasises that an individual exists within layers of social interactions and relationships. This includes relationships with caregivers, family, friendship networks, neighbourhoods, culture, society, and even an era (Visser, 2012a). It is within these interactions that certain attitudes and traditions manifest forming a powerful foundation of unconscious feelings about what is good or bad, which contributes to the construction of identity (Stevens, 2008).

3.2.3.2. Triple bookkeeping

Erikson (1950/1963) based his fundamental assumptions of personality and identity formation on the continuously inter-dependant processes of three complimentary human organisations, namely the soma (the biological, hierarchical organisation of organ systems), the psyche (the psychic organisation of individual experience through the process of ego synthesis) and the ethos (the social milieu) (Erikson, 1997; Nel, 2013; Stevens, 2008). This is 31

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY known as the notion of triple bookkeeping (Erikson, 1950/1963). It is the relation between the ego, bodily experiences and the society within which development takes place in (Erikson, 1950/1963; Saccaggi, 2015). The varied and broad social context which an individual interacts in is important when considering the interrelated aspect of triple bookkeeping because various institutions and societal practices safeguard the development of ego qualities (Capps, 2004; Erikson, 1950/1963, 1997; Nel, 2013). The integrative function of the ego is both of the internal and external institutions which govern the ego's development and identity formation (Welchman, 2000). Identity is the integration of integrations (of the soma, psyche and the ethos) and, in that sense, can be regarded as the epitome of ego functioning and growth (Stevens, 2008; Welchman, 2000). 3.2.3.3. The psychosocial identity crisis

The Eriksonian (1950/1963, 1968/1994) term psychosocial identity crisis refers to a significant social life-challenge or task presented at each psychosocial stage within the psychological and personality developmental process (Roets, 2015). According to Atalay (2007), a psychosocial identity crisis is a positive phenomenon because it is a pivotal moment in the life of an individual, when the social environment presents a necessary developmental conflict which must be confronted and addressed for the purpose of adaptation (Prenter, 2015; Ruiters, 2013; Schultz & Schultz, 2009). There is a constant negotiation to find a balance between the self and societal demands (Prenter, 2015; Swartz, De la Rey, Duncan & Townsend, 2008). There are instinctual needs of the self that require a shift in perspective to account for the societal demands placed on an individual at a certain age within the stages of development in the life cycle (Ruiters, 2013; Schultz & Schultz, 2009).

Each psychosocial identity crisis within a psychosocial developmental stage has a particular time, a decisive period, in which maturation takes place (Bukatko & Daehler, 2003; Erikson, 1968/1994; Roets, 2015). As such, psychosocial identity crises are catalysts that drive an individual towards psychosocial maturity (Prenter, 2015; Swartz et al., 2008). If these psychosocial identity crises are left unresolved, there are adverse consequences on the personality development as a whole (Burnell, 2013; Erikson, 1950/1963, 1997; Fitzpatrick, 1976; Hook, 2009; Miller, 1983; Ruiters, 2013). It is important to note that the epigenetic principle related to the psychosocial development, brings forth the idea of ongoing and cumulative development and as such, every subsequent psychosocial crisis is dependent on the

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY balanced and successful resolution of the preceding stages (Burnell, 2013; Fitzpatrick, 1976; Ruiters, 2013).

3.2.3.4. Epigenetic Principle

Erikson (1950/1963) pioneered another important concept in his identity developmental studies known as the epigenetic principle (Stevens, 2008). The epigenetic principle derives from epigenesis (sic), which is a term borrowed from embryology which describes the unfolding of development that governs human phenomena linked to organismic growth (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1959, 1968/1994, 1997; Nel, 2013; Peedicayil, 2012; Roets, 2015; Stevens, 2008). It emphasises that there is a step-by-step process of development that takes place which is in line with an organism’s genetic sequencing and influential environmental factors (Peedicayil, 2012; Prenter, 2015). This highlights Erikson’s (1950/1963) deviations from the classical psychoanalytic notion of psychosexual development, which is described in two ways. Firstly, Erikson (1950/1963) argued that the genetically determined blueprint from which an individual’s psychological development occurs is lifelong and does not end at the childhood stage of development; and secondly that development is influenced by societal factors (Roets, 2015; Saccaggi, 2015).

Erikson (1968/1994) claimed that “anything that grows has a ground plan, and that out of this ground plan parts arise, each part having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a fractioning whole” (p. 92). Thus, there is a predetermined growth schedule and certain critical periods of maturation involved in the developmental process (Burnell, 2013). Essentially, an individual’s personality characteristics emerge at certain ages, in a particular, genetically determined sequence, in such a way that an individual constantly develops as a whole, in both observable and unnoticeable ways (Erikson, 1950/1963; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2008; Roazen, 1976; Roets, 2015). It is within identity development, where the epigenetic principle postulates, that the growth of the ego identity is an extension of previous developmental stages but is qualitatively different in manifestation of behaviour (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1978; Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008). The epigenetic principle highlights that an individual adapts to the continuous changes experienced both internally and externally throughout the different stages of development (Peedicayil, 2012).

Erikson (1950/1963, 1968/1994) went on to re-label psychosexual development to psychosocial development so as to acknowledge the fact that societal demands influence an individual’s developmental process (Saccaggi, 2015). Erikson (1950/1963, 1997) 33

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY acknowledged that there is a biologically-based component of development that is influenced by psychosocial factors which emerge as challenges or crises. These challenges or crises may lead to an individual developing skills and abilities that empower their personality characteristics on a physical, cognitive, social and emotional level (Burnell, 2013; Erikson, 1950/1963, 1997; Fowler, 1984; Stevens, 2008). However, the unsuccessful resolution to these challenges in subsequent stages of development will result in more difficulty in succeeding stages of development (Peedicayil, 2012; Sadock et al., 2015). In fact, it can lead to maladjustment of the physical, cognitive, social and/or emotional level of personality development (Peedicayil, 2012; Sadock et al., 2015). Erikson (1976) also stated that psychosocial developmental theory expands across multiple generations. As such, it is a trans- generational process which suggests that events that occurred in the environment prior to an individual’s birth have an impact on their future functioning (Erikson, 1976; Saccaggi, 2015). Examples include individuals born into war-stricken environments or individuals with older siblings which facilitate a certain dynamic in the familial environment, and so forth.

Fundamentally, there are three main points in the epigenetic principle that are relevant to the psychosocial developmental process (Erikson, 1978). Firstly, a challenge or crisis will present itself when the combination of physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development allows for it. Secondly, each stage has its precursor from the previous matured or unresolved crisis. Lastly, each succeeding crisis is introduced by the previous crisis which has a particular dominant conflict (Saccaggi, 2015, p.56). The concept of crises will be explained in detail later in this chapter. 3.2.3.5. Stages of development

The psychosocial developmental stage is characterised by polar forces where one is understood as ego-syntonic and the other as ego-dystonic (Erikson, Erikson & Kivnick, 1986; Nel, 2013). Joelson (n.d.) explains that ego-syntonic refers to acceptable instincts that do not cause inner conflict to the self while ego-dystonic is behaviours that are distressing and inconsistent with an individual’s sense of self. The interplay of the two polarities highlights the importance of dialectical thinking when it comes to ego identity functioning because the goal of a healthy personality development is to find an equilibrium between the ego-syntonic and the ego-dystonic forces (Nel, 2013; Stevens, 2008). This equilibrium process is known as crisis resolution which will be discussed later in this chapter.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

The stages of development are a general progression describing the “average” person’s development through the different developmental stages (Sneed, Whitbourne & Culang, 2006, p. 149). However, there is room for differentiation as the developmental process is influenced by psychosocial factors that can alter the trajectory of adaptation (Peedicayil, 2012). The Eriksonian term for the progression of the dichotomous forces is the eight stages of man which will be discussed later in this chapter (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1997; Nel, 2013).

What is important to note is that the dichotomous forces in the eight stages of man are not exclusively linear in progression. The polar forces may present themselves at earlier or later stages of life and may be revisited again despite the stages being explained as age-specific points along the lifespan continuum (Roets, 2015; Sneed et al., 2006). Hoare (2005) states that later nurturance and support, or breakdown and rejection, could change the trajectory of the developmental progression (Roets, 2015). It is what Erikson (1950/1963) described as the “hazards of existence” (p.274). The unpredictability and complexity of living means that the ego identity develops in conjunction to the ever changing biological, psychological, and social processes. Therefore, the task of the ego is to constantly attempt to find equilibrium between the oppositional forces known as psychosocial identity crises and crisis resolution to be able to develop consolidating ego qualities known as ego strengths (Erikson, 1997; Nel, 2013). Otherwise there will be adverse effects on the ego identity manifested in maladaptive or malignant tendencies (Burnell, 2013; Erikson, 1950/1963, 1997). The concepts of psychosocial identity crises, crisis resolution, ego strengths, and maladaptive or malignant tendencies will be explained below.

3.2.3.6. Crisis resolution

According to Erikson (1950/1963), the resolution of a psychosocial identity crises is achieved through a synthesis of the polar forces of ego-syntonic and ego-dystonic aspects presented at each psychosocial stage (Erikson et al., 1986). However, this is not an easy task for the ego as there is a constant negotiation to find balance and an equilibrium between the self and the social demands of the environment. The resolution of the psychosocial identity crisis would mean that the ego identity has managed to manifest adaptively as the conscious sense of self is functioning optimally (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994; Roets, 2015).

Erikson (1968/1994) stated that some indicators of the successful resolution of psychosocial identity conflicts within the psychosocial stages of development are observable in an individual’s high level of ease with themselves; experiencing a sense of direction in their 35

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY life, and confidence that they will be validated by their significant others and their environment (Roets, 2015). As such, a virtue denoting a strength or quality of ego functioning emerges from the successful psychosocial crisis resolution (Burnell, 2013; Erikson, 1997; Stevens, 2008). The concept of ego strength and virtues will be discussed later in this chapter.

In the event that a psychosocial identity crisis is not adequately resolved, a psychosocial identity crisis in a specific stage does not necessarily result in a failure in subsequent stages. This unresolved psychosocial identity crisis increases the intensity of the challenge presented in the next psychosocial developmental stage (Prenter, 2015). However, individuals have the opportunity to revisit and rework crises in future stages (Atalay, 2007; Prenter, 2015). If an individual is unable to revisit the unresolved psychosocial identity crisis, it may lead to psychological regression to that particular unresolved stage and it will manifest in their current psychosocial stage as malignant tendencies (Bukato & Daehler, 2003; Erikson, 1950/1963, 1978/1994; Roets, 2015). The concept of maladaptive and malignant tendencies will be discussed later in the chapter.

As previously mentioned, the epigenetic principle related to the psychosocial development, states that there is an ongoing and cumulative development. This continuation of development means that there is a generational overlap within psychosocial development to consider, known as “interliving” (Erikson, 1964, p. 114). This is where individuals, in several of their life stages of development, live together within common societal structures (Saccaggi, 2015). Erikson (1968/1994) gives an example of how an infant experiencing their first psychosocial stage of Basic Trust versus Mistrust (see findings and discussion later in the chapter) is guided through this stage by a mother who is also experiencing her own development. Consequently, the way in which the mother is able to guide the infant will be partially dependent on her own resolution of psychosocial identity crises from her previous developmental stages, as well as the psychosocial developmental stage in which she finds herself in at present (Saccaggi, 2015). This concept of interliving (sic) emphasises the cyclical nature of an individual’s life span (Erikson, 1964). As one life cycle concludes itself, the next one follows as noted in the context of parenting. Consequently, in order to fulfil the mother role, a mother needs the biological blueprint towards nurturance as well as the societal experience of having been mothered to understand what motherhood means in the subjective world-image related to her specific culture (Erikson, 1964; Saccaggi, 2015). As Erikson (1950/1963) states, “every society consists of men in the process of developing from children

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY into parents…society must early on prepare for parenthood of its children; and it must take care of the unavoidable remnants of infantility (sic) in its adults” (p. 405).

3.2.3.7. Ego strengths

Following on the previously discussed core concept of crisis resolution, ego strengths or virtues develop when the ego is able to create a working balance between the polar forces or psychosocial identity crises during each developmental stage (Gross, 1987; Nel, 2013; Roazen, 1976). It is important to note that the growth of ego strengths is dependent on the ego’s capacity for finding the equilibrium between these opposing forces through the integration of the two and not alienation of the ego-dystonic forces (Nel, 2013; Roazen, 1976). For example, in the first psychosocial developmental stage, optimal development is not the elimination of mistrust and the favouring of trust (Erikson, 1997). It is rather a ratio between the two that favours the ego-syntonic pole while attaining a degree of ego-dystonic too (Nel, 2013, p.91). This is the goal of crisis resolution so as to ensure the development of ego strengths or virtues (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994).

The psychosocial ego strengths or virtues are equivalent to life skills which promote adaptation to the psychosocial developmental demands of successive stages (Roets, 2015). Ego strengths or virtues are thus a reflection of the extent to which individuals are more or less successful in accomplishing mental processes (Hamachek, 1990; Roets, 2015). Some examples include: perceiving, thinking, reasoning, remembering, and attending in different ways to reach their goals and express their self-concepts (Hamachek, 1990; Roets, 2015). Erikson (1968/1994) stated the following regarding the development of personality, “an individual’s readiness to be driven forward, to be aware of, and to interact with a widening radius of significant individuals and institutions impacts the unfolding of personality” (p. 93). The core of personality development takes the social, cultural and environmental factors into account with regards to ego strengths and virtues (Nel, 2013; Schachter, 2005). Erikson (1964) identified eight ego strengths that correspond with the eight stages of man (discussed later in this chapter), namely hope; will; purpose; competence; fidelity; love; care and wisdom (refer to Table 1 below for explanation of the eight virtues of ego strengths).

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Table 1: The definitions of the ego strengths Stage Ego Strength Definition 1 Hope According to Erikson (1964) hope is the deepest quality of confidence and trust in an infant’s environment that their life will be sustainable because their basic needs are being consistently met. In addition, it is understood as the enduring belief that their wishes and desires are attainable, in spite of the dark urges and rages which mark the beginning of existence.

2 Willpower According to Erikson (1964), a child must gain the ability to decide what innate drives are worth pursuing and which are not. It is thus the unbroken determination to exercise free choice as well as practising self-restraint, in spite of the unavoidable experience of shame and doubt in infancy.

3 Purpose Purpose is a sense of direction and perseverance towards a certain goal. It is the courage to envision and pursue valued goals uninhibited by (a) defeat of infantile fantasies, (b) guilt and/or (c) the fear of punishment (Erikson, 1964).

4 Competence Competence is the free exercise of dexterity and intelligence in the completion of tasks, unimpaired by infantile inferiority. A sense of competence eventually becomes “workmanship” (Erikson, 1964, p. 123).

5 Fidelity Fidelity is the ability to sustain loyalties freely pledged in

spite of the inevitable contradictions of value systems. Erikson (1964) expresses that fidelity is the cornerstone of identity because interpersonal relations that share ideologies are affirming for the developing ego identity.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

6 Love According to Erikson (1964, p. 129), “love is mutuality of devotion forever subduing the antagonisms inherent in divided function.” He continues to explain that love transforms from the love received throughout the preadolescence stage of life into the care given to others during adult life. It is the process of mutuality between friends and partners that form a shared identity. An adult affiliates with an individual whom they have chosen and with whom mutual concern has been cultivated.

7 Care Care is the widening concern for what has been generated by love whether acquired or accidental. It overcomes the ambivalence adhering to irreversible obligation.

8 Wisdom Wisdom is the detached concern with life itself, in the face of death itself. It is the strength in the old that takes the form of wisdom in that it is the ripened “wits” and accumulation of knowledge and matured judgement. It maintains and conveys the integrity of experience, in spite of the decline in bodily and mental functions (Erikson, 1964, p. 133).

3.2.3.8. Maladaptive and Malignant tendencies

As mentioned previously, Erikson (1950/1963) suggested that the ideal resolution is to find a working balance or ratio between the two polar forces while in favour of the ego-syntonic pole. He extended his theory to include descriptions of the possible consequences of an excess of either pole (Capps, 2004). Maladaptive tendencies are excessive expressions of the positive dimension of each stage and malignant tendencies result from an excess of the ego-dystonic pole (Capps, 2004, Erikson et al., 1986; Nel, 2013, Prenter, 2015). Erikson et al. (1986) argued that maladaptive tendencies are open to later correction, which may be achieved through spontaneous or therapeutic re-adaptation through the process of psychological regression to the psychosocial crisis that was left unresolved. Sadock et al. (2015) noted that maladaptive or maldevelopment (sic) tendencies are a neurotic disturbance (Nel, 2013). Neurotic disturbance

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY is the ability to clearly distinguish between oneself and the psychosocial factors that may have influenced the lack of crisis resolution at a particular psychosocial developmental stage (Goetzmann, Holzapfel & Toygar, 2003; Renik, 1992). In contrast, malignant tendencies are psychotic disturbances which means that there is a distorted perception of reality to one’s own fantasy (Goetzmann et al., 2003; Renik, 1992). In the case that an individual is exposed to extreme and repetitive trauma through the unresolved psychosocial crises, it can lead to psychopathology such as hallucinations (seeing and hearing things that other people do not see or hear) and delusions (fixed beliefs that will not change despite contradictory information from the environment) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The table 2 below states the different maladaptive and malignant tendencies that can manifest in the different psychosocial developmental stages (Capps, 2004).

Table 2: Maladaptive and Malignant Tendencies with their associated psychosocial crises and ego strengths

Maladaptive Ego Strength Psychosocial Crisis Malignant tendencies tendencies Sensory confusion Hope Trust versus Withdrawal Mistrust Impulsiveness Willpower Autonomy versus Compulsion Shame and Doubt Ruthlessness Purpose Initiative versus Inhibition Guilt Narrow virtuosity Competence Industry versus Inertia Inferiority Fanaticism Fidelity Ego Identity versus Repudiation Role Confusion Promiscuity Love Intimacy versus Exclusion/ Isolation Distantiation (sic) Over-extension Care Generativity versus Rejectivity (sic) Stagnation Presumption Wisdom Integrity versus Disdain Despair

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3.2.3.9. Ritualization

Individuals engage in societies through normative rituals that are contextualised to a specific situation, time and cultural group. Erikson (1976) referred to this as ritualization whereby societal engagement helps an individual resolve their psychosocial identity crises in accordance to the norms of a particular society (Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008). As such, the rituals support the formation of a set of adaptive behavioural patterns specific to the individual’s context (Capps, 2007). According to Erikson (1950/1963, 1968/1994, 1976) societies and individuals are mutually dependent on one another (Saccaggi, 2015). Therefore, each of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages (discussed more in detail later in this chapter) are characterised by a specific ritual element, a form in which these rituals are encountered, the maladaptive or disorientating experiences of these rituals, and ritual excess (see Table 3).

Meyer and Viljoen (2008) explains this table in terms of the first psychosocial stage. These authors highlight that during the first years of life an infant engages in the numinous ritualization whereby both the caregiver and the infant interact through non-verbal communications such as hugs, kisses, cooing, smiling and staring, forming part of the trusting psychosocial stage (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). Erikson (1976) highlights the “greeting ceremony” that occurs between the infant and their caregiver and is known as mutual recognition which is predominantly experienced upon the awakening in the morning (Capps, 2007, p. 372). This ceremonial morning ritual marks the beginning of the infant’s day and forms part of everyday behaviour (Capps, 2007). In contrast, an unresponsive and/or disengaged caregiver leads to the infant’s disorientating experience of separation or abandonment (Capps, 2007). The excess of this ritual is idolism whereby the caregiver is idolised which Erikson (1976) described as, “the illusory image of perfection” (p. 90). It is evident that this ritualization relates to the social institution of religion where the individual is the dependent, child-like faith seeker of the Divine, the caregiver of livelihood (Erikson, 1976, p. 89). The other ritualization processes (as noted in Table 3 below) will be discussed in the psychosocial developmental stages section of this chapter.

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Table 3: The psychosocial stages of development and their associate ritualization

Psychosocial Ritual element Form of Disorienting Ritual excess stages encounter experience Basic trust Numinous Mutual Feelings of Idolism versus Mistrust recognition separation or abandonment Autonomy Judicious Discipline or Feelings of Legalism versus trail approval or Shame and disapproval Doubt Initiative versus Dramatic Drama or story Feelings of self- Moralism Guilt condemnation Industry versus Formal or Methodical Feelings of Formalism Inferiority technical performance incompetence Identity Ideological Shared Feelings of Totalism versus convictions selflessness Role confusion Intimacy versus Affiliative Mutuality Feelings of Elitism Isolation exclusion Generativity Generational Care for others Feelings of Authoritism versus irresponsibility Stagnation Integrity versus Integral Personify Feelings of Dogmatism Despair wisdom incoherence

3.2.3.10. Modes and social modalities

A mode may be defined as a pattern of behaviour (Sadock & Sadock, 2007). The concept of modes is described as three physical modes, namely (1) the mode of incorporation; (2) the mode of expulsion; and (3) the mode of inclusion and intrusion. These modes are an approach towards the environment that largely correspond to Freud’s first three psychosexual stages (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). They are linked to behaviour patterns observed through the

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY childhood psychosexual, psychosocial and cognitive developmental process that influence later behaviour patterns as an adult (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008).

The mode of incorporation predominates during the first year of life and parallels with Freud’s oral stage. In the first years of life, the ideal is for the infant to develop a sense of trust that the environment will satisfy and meet their needs (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). This later influences the adult behaviour patterns that they can trust their environment to meet their needs.

The mode of expulsion emerges during the second year of life and corresponds with Freud’s anal stage. This modality is linked to feelings and attitudes of control. According to Erikson (1982), it is the idea of holding on or letting go of people, of protection, of wishes of others who want to dominate them, and with letting things happen passively and with unleashing destructive forces onto the world.

The mode of inclusion and intrusion becomes evident in the third year of life and is associated with Freud’s phallic stage (Meyer and Viljoen, 2008). The ability for a child to move and coordinate movement is inclusive of social rules. When this is not congruent to their development, feelings of guilt (related to the third psychosocial stage which will be elaborated later in this chapter) can arise which may be aggressively intrusive or passively inclusive. This may be linked to the idea that culturally boys are aggressive and girls direct their guilt more passively and inwards (Erikson, 1950/1963; 1982). This gendered manifestation of aggression is known as the social modality of this third mode of inclusion and intrusion. The social modalities are the personally and culturally specific expression of each physical mode which vary from context to context (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). The notion of modes and social modalities are purposely excluded from the section below discussing the eight stages of man.

3.3. The eight stages of psychosocial development

Erikson (1950/1963) defined the eight stages of man as the human life cycle that progress through eight developmental stages depicting the development of the ego and the identity. The table below provides a brief overview of the eight psychosocial stages and the relevant features of each developmental stage as proposed by Erikson (1950/1963, 1968/1994) and Erikson et al. (1986). In addition, some aspects of this table has been adapted from the doctoral works of Nel (2013) and Saccaggi (2015).

Table 4: Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development

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Stage Maldevelop- description ments (sic) Psychosocial Adaptive Ego Social Stages & Strength Ritualization (Ego-Syntonic (Maladaptive Institution Age ranges VS Ego- VS Dystonic Malignant Tendency) Tendency) Sensory Basic Trust maladjustm-ent Infancy (sic) VS Hope Religion Numinous (Birth-18 months) VS Mistrust Withdrawal Autonomy Shameless Toodlerhood wilfulness VS Will Law and Judicial (18 months – 3 VS Order years) Shame and Doubt Compulsion Initiative Ruthlessness Early Economic childhood VS Purpose VS Order/Ideal Dramatic

Prototypes (3-6 years) Guilt Inhibition Narrow Industry Middle-Late virtuosity

childhood VS Competency Technology Formal VS

(6-12 years) Inferiority Inertia Identity Fanaticism

Adolescence VS Social Fidelity VS Ideal Stratification (12-20 years) Role Repudiation confusion Promiscuity Intimacy Early VS adulthood Relationship Ritual VS Love patterns sanction Exclusivity/ (20-35 years) Isolation Distantiation (sic) Middle Generativity Overextension adulthood VS Care VS Education Generational (35-retirement age) Stagnation Rejectivity (sic) Ego integrity Presumption Late adulthood VS Wisdom VS Philosophy Integral (Retirement age-

death) Despair Distain

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3.3.1. Basic Trust versus Mistrust: Hope

The first of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages is labelled Basic trust versus Mistrust, experienced primarily within the age range from birth to eighteen months (Hamachek, 1988, 1990). This stage incorporates the infant’s earliest experiences with their environment and primary caregivers (Erikson, 1950/1963). The critical feature of this first stage is the infant’s total dependence on those who care for them (Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008). The successful resolution of this stage depends on the quality of the primary caregiver-infant relationships (Prenter, 2015; Swartz et al., 2008). Erikson (1968/1994) equates this psychosocial stage to the oral stage of psychosexual development. For example, the instinctual need of hunger leads to the infant expressing discomfort through crying and the satisfaction of this instinctual need is mediated by the erogenous zone of the mouth through the soothing behaviour of sucking (Elzer & Gerlach, 2014).

Infants develop a sense of basic trust when caregivers respond to their basic survival needs such as hunger, in a consistent and predictable way (Carr & McNulty, 2006). An infant learns that despite the unpredictable and ever changing external environment, there is a knowing or trust that the infant will consistently experience comfort when in discomfort and that his or her basic survival needs will be satisfied (Malakou, 2015; Welchman, 2000). An infant seeks this sameness and continuity of comfort from the environment in order to develop an inner sense of basic trust (Erikson, 1950/1963). Erikson (1950/1963) explains that trust extends beyond the reliance of continuity on the environment, to include the ability to trust one’s capacity to cope with these immature urges. The capacity to cope with immature urges includes the ability to self-soothe when the caregiver is not in sight and to possess an inner certainty that their caregiver will indeed return to continue to cater to their basic survival needs (Erikson, 1950/1963; Saccaggi, 2015). In contrast, an infant who is exposed to inconsistent and/or neglectful care is filled with feelings of abandonment and deprivation (Nel, 2013). This leads to the development of mistrust. The sense of mistrust manifests in the event that a caregiver is inattentive, does not provide sensory stimulation and does not fulfil the infant’s social needs (Nel, 2013).

There needs to be a balance between the antithesis of Basic trust versus Mistrust for the emergence of the ego virtue of hope which is described as “the enduring belief in the attainability of primal wishes in spite of the dark urges and rages which mark the beginning of existence” (Erikson, 1964, p. 118). The ideal is that an infant learns to trust in the environment

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY but at the same time develops a degree of mistrust to ensure the infant engages in a necessary level of caution as well (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). In contrast, the complete inability to trust others is described as a depressive state where an infant becomes excessively cautious and withdraws from social relations because these interactions are unreliable to meet their basic needs (Stevens, 2008).

The ritualization which an infant engages in during this stage is known as numinous which is described as the combined feelings of attraction and awe (Stevens, 2008). It is linked to the way in which a mother and her child mutually acknowledge one another leading to the affirmation of the self and enhancing the process of identity formation (Erikson, 1976). The numinous ritual includes the weaning-off process when there is a sense of separation and abandonment essential for the infant to develop self-soothing techniques (Erikson, 1976). However, the infant continues to admire their caregivers as their providers which lays the foundation for future development of the social institutions of organized religion, associated religious beliefs and faith (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1976; Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008). This first stage of psychosocial development creates sense of belonging and identity through these social rituals linking it to cultural and societal proscriptions, permissions and prohibitions of specific child rearing practices evident in different cultures and religious backdrop (Erikson, 1964; 1968/1994; Saccaggi, 2015). Therefore, it is in already these encounters that an individual is introduced to the principal modalities of culture (Erikson, 1968/1994). The negative form of the ritualization or ritualism is known as idolism whereby there is an extreme adulation towards a caregiver (Stevens, 2008). This illusory image of perfection leads to an excessive and unhealthy attachment to the ego manifesting in narcissistic behaviour either noted in the caregiver and/or the infant (Erikson, 1964).

3.3.2. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt: Will

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt is known to be the second psychosocial stage which is primarily experienced within the age range from eighteen months to three years (Hamachek, 1988, 1990). Erikson (1968/1994) explains this psychosocial stage as “a battle for autonomy”, because there are attempts at independent behaviour by the toddler (p. 108). This stage is characterised by the divergent urges to hold on and to let go of dependency (Erikson, 1968/1994, 1982). Toddlers are still fairly dependent on their caregivers. However, as soon as a child learns to navigate between these two divergent urges, it results in a rudimentary sense of self-confidence, as well as a sense of control over their muscles, impulses and environment

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

(Erikson, 1950/1963). As such, this psychosocial stage is situated alongside the anal stage of psychosexual development (Erikson, 1968/1994). The anal stage is marked by the bodily control over retention and elimination which leads to the development of personal autonomy and the initiation of self-control (Stevens, 2008).

In the event that: (a) the environment does not encourage autonomous action; (b) excessive humiliation is experienced for failed independent attempts; (c) the toddler is punished and/or constantly criticised for failed independent attempts, the feelings of doubt, inadequacy and shame may be internalised (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1997; Swartz et al., 2008). Caregivers that are controlling in an attempt to protect their child from perceived failures or pain, mimic the role of an overactive superego leading to loss of self-esteem (Stevens, 2008). Hamachek (1988) notes that those who have a sense of shame and doubt, have trouble believing in their own value and would rather be told what to do than make their own decisions which leads to people pleasing behaviour. Furthermore, they attempt to avoid criticisms and disapprovals of others, they are often identified as procrastinators and they doubt their own abilities to perform (Hamachek, 1988). Erikson (1976) explains that a child filled with shame will learn to look down upon themselves and believe that they are unworthy. They will internalise feelings of guilt and try to constantly adjust their views to fit the discriminating environment so as to avoid being in the wrong (Erikson, 1976; Hamachek, 1988; Stevens, 2008). Alternatively, an individual will rebel against the condemning authority which can be either the caregiver or society at large (Erikson, 1976). The associated maladaptive tendency of shameless wilfulness is otherwise known as impulsiveness which is the experience of the toddler jumping into things without properly considering their ability to handle the task at hand (Boeree, 2006). In the event that the toddler feels an excess of shame and doubt, the malignant tendency of compulsion develops whereby the child feels a loss of self-control and experiences that their entire personhood rides on everything they do (Boeree, 2006). As such, he or she is hesitant to try new things due to the fear of imperfection.

The development of the ego virtue of will requires the integration of the antithesis of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt. Will is defined as “the unbroken determination to exercise free choice as well as self-restrain” (Erikson, 1964, p. 119). Ideally, the balance of the Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt as well as the acquisition of will leads to a personal sense of agency with an appropriate degree of doubt and caution (Capps, 2004; Erikson, 1997; Prenter, 2015). Caregivers need to find a balance between being restrictive and being permissive to be able to set appropriate boundaries (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1976, 1997). The role

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY of boundaries is to provide space for a child’s curiosity without jeopardising their safety or crossing the boundaries of social mores (Graves & Larkins, 2006; Nel, 2013). The boundaries form part of the foundation which is later known as discretion, self-governance and judging right from wrong (Graves & Larkins, 2006; Stevens, 2008). Hence, the ritualization of judicial and social institution of law and order is associated with this psychosocial stage (Erikson, 1976; Stevens, 2008). Erikson (1976) describes this ritual as the balance between societal law and “the voice of conscience within” (p.92). A toddler with the ego strength of will has developed self-assertion and a limit setting capacity (Erikson, 1976; Stevens, 2008). In the event that a child does not develop the ego strength of will, it may lead to self-righteousness or judging oneself (instead of one’s actions) as unworthy and guilty (Erikson, 1976; Stevens, 2008).

3.3.3. Initiative versus Guilt: Purpose

The third of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages is labelled Initiative versus Guilt experienced primarily within the age range from three to six years (Erikson, 1997; Hamachek, 1988, 1990). Up until this psychosocial stage, the first psychosocial stage laid the foundation for basic trust in the world and basic trust towards others, while the second stage allowed the child to explore his or her own capacities to start independent actions resulting in self-confidence (Stevens, 2008). This third psychosocial stage adds onto the autonomy achieved in the previous psychosocial stage by expanding on the child’s capacity for independent actions to include their conviction in those actions (Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008). The child learns to trust their abilities in this psychosocial stage as they explore their world more vigorously utilising the freedom to initiate fantasy as well as motor play (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994; Malakou, 2015). In addition, the child utilises language to think, plan, imagine and question their environment facilitating the development of their intellectual initiative (Stevens, 2008; Welchman, 2000).

In the event that there are negative consequences from the initiated actions, the child experiences feelings of guilt (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994). The feelings of guilt are further internalised when a child is criticised for expressing their plans or punished for taking initiative (Prenter, 2015; Swartz et al., 2008). Parental and societal authority are internalised by the superego through acts of self-observation, self-regulation and self-punishment (Sadock et al., 2015). If the psychosocial crisis remains unresolved, an individual becomes over-obedient and conforms to external moral rule or overdevelops an internal moralistic superego with inhibits the expression of their own desires (Stevens, 2008). Individuals experience excessive guilt

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY which manifests as self-defeating behaviour where individuals procrastinate, struggle to accomplish personal goals as well as resist and/or avoid novel tasks (Boeree, 2006; Hamachek, 1988). This leads to the malignant tendency of inhibition.

This psychosocial developmental stage is also the first time a child becomes aware of the distinction between genders (Nel, 2013). Erikson (1950/1963) states that “in the boy, the emphasis remains on phallic-intrusive modes; in the girl it turns to modes of ‘catching’, in more aggressive forms of snatching or in the milder form of making oneself attractive and enduring” (p.247). This quotation refers to the parallel psychosexual developmental theory of the phallic stage, the terms of oedipal complex (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994). Saccaggi (2015) explains that the oedipal complex implies that a child has a primal desire to own his or her mother but is overcome with feelings of guilt and anxiety, leading to the awareness that he or she cannot fulfil this infantile desire. Erikson (1950/1963) further describes this stage as “being on the make” whereby infantile pleasure impulses interact with social modalities and the superego develops by internalising a moral compass (p. 247). As such, the child learns that within a society there are hierarchies and traditions which he or she belongs to that may be different from the ideals of their drive-based desires (Erikson, 1950/1963; Saccaggi, 2015). This description highlights that Erikson acknowledges the development of personality within the sociocultural context.

In the context of this particular psychosocial developmental stage, the successful resolution and balance of the antithesis of Initiative versus Guilt leads to the ego virtue of purpose, which is described as the development of a sense of direction and perseverance towards a set goal (Erikson, 1964, 1997). A purposeful child is able to take initiative courageously by envisioning and pursuing valued goals uninhibitedly despite the fear of punishment or the defeat of infantile fantasies (Erikson, 1964; Stevens, 2008). According to Erikson (1950/1963), achieving purpose allows childhood dreams to become adult realities. It is the sense of morality regarding what is permissible that is balanced out with envisioned and imaginative possibilities (Erikson, 1950/1963; Nel, 2013). In the event that the crisis is imbalanced by too much initiative and too little guilt, it leads to the maladaptive tendency of ruthlessness (Boeree, 2006). Such a child does not care about the impact he or she has on others and the environment when working towards their set goal (Boeree, 2006).

Erikson (1950/1963) further states that a child of this psychosocial stage has role models and superheroes to look up. Erikson identified himself as a psychoanalyst because his

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY conceptualisations are inclusive of the unconscious and psychosexual development as traditional psychoanalysis emphasises. In this example, Sigmund Freud’s (1856 – 1939) can be seen as a historical figure, role model and founder of the psychoanalytic movement which many analysts, including Erikson, may have looked up to. However, in this particular psychosocial stage, the identification with role models and superheroes is expressed through dramatized rituals. These rituals can be expressed through play with toys or through story telling (Stevens, 2008). On the one hand, play through toys exhibit a miniature adult world filled with fantasy (Stevens, 2008). On the other hand, connection between societal order and this psychosocial stage lie in the stories children are told (Stevens, 2008, p. 49). Nel (2013) highlights that imaginative play and/or role play during childhood enhances development of empathy and emotional regulation. What is important to note is that the negative counterpart or ritualism of this stage is impersonation whereby authenticity is lacking when taking on a specific role (Stevens, 2008). As an adult, the roles an individual plays and embodies are differentiated from who they truly are through the authentic ego experience (Erikson, 1964). When engaging in the impersonation ritualism, the authentic self cannot be distinguished from the role-playing (Erikson, 1964). The social institution linked to this stage is the economic order which relates to the sense of being a purposeful and productive member of the society as guided by the personally selected role models (Erikson, 1950/1963; Saccaggi, 2015). 3.3.4. Industry versus Inferiority: Competency

Erikson’s fourth psychosocial developmental stage is known as Industry versus Inferiority experienced primarily within the age range from six to twelve years (Erikson, 1997; Hamachek, 1988, 1990). This stage parallels with the psychosexual stage of latency (Boeree, 2006; Sadock et al., 2015) and it marks the last of the childhood stages. It is regarded as the decisive phase because formalised learning is introduced (Saccaggi, 2015). Erikson (1950/1963) regards the child experiences as “a sense of finality regarding the fact that there is no workable future within the womb of the family” (p. 233). Moreover, the child’s world expands from the home environment to the formal schooling environment (Erikson, 1950/1963). This stage is characterised by learning new social skills or what Erikson (1964) describes as “workmanship” that forms a prerequisite of adult life (p.123). Through the formal ritualization children learn methodologically how to conduct themselves in this new environment of the work space (Prenter, 2015). The work space requires both general literacy (for example, the rules of grammar) and learning that is context specific which includes cultural logic and truths, exercised through formal rituals (Erikson, 1964).

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

As the child progresses within this psychosocial stage, they receive recognition for producing things and applying their newly learnt skills (Erikson, 1950/1963). Stevens (2008) highlights that the child becomes aware of the fact that their performance is assessed by their teachers in comparison to their peers. A sense of industry is achieved when the child is able to accomplish a set task and conversely develop a sense of inferiority when their abilities are inadequate. In the event that the child develops a sense of inferiority, he or she is discouraged to challenge themselves and work within their full capacity (Malakou, 2015). The child begins to believe that he or she is not a good learner, and as a result the child dislikes learning new things (Hamachek, 1988). Such a child craves the recognition received from production, but he or she is too afraid of failure to be a ‘producer’. This is linked to a fragile sense of persistence (Hamachek, 1988, p.358). Iwaniec (2006) adds that low self-esteem, constant self-doubt, sense of guilt and self-blame are the common characteristics of this unresolved crisis (Roets, 2015).

Undoubtedly, the child that is encouraged and given reinforcement and confidence, will develop the ego strength of what Erikson (1950/1963) termed as “lasting competence.” The ego strength of competence is the free exercise of dexterity and ability to complete set tasks (Erikson, 1964). This virtue is linked to the ritualization of formal education whereby the ego identity is based on the formulation of “I am what I can learn to make work” (Erikson, 1968/1994, p. 127). Therefore, a successful resolution of this psychosocial crisis is achieved through the favourable ratio of industry and inferiority, whereby a child develops a sense of industry with a small degree of inferiority to ensure sensible humility (Boeree, 2006; Prenter, 2015).

In the event that there is too much industry, the maladaptive tendency of narrow virtuosity (sic) develops which is a term used to describe workaholics (Prenter, 2015). Boeree (2006) states that the excessive feelings of inferiority leads to the malignant tendency of inertia or apathy which leads to no productivity at all as the child feel that he or she is unable to accomplish a set task perfectly so why bother. However, it can not only manifest in the form of regression but also as excessive competitiveness in an attempt to meet the expectations of authority figures (Erikson et al., 1986; Saccaggi, 2015).

3.3.5. Identity versus Role Confusion: Fidelity

The fifth psychosocial stage is described as the interplay of the end of childhood and the beginning process of adulthood (Erikson, 1977). It is the stage labelled Identity versus Role Confusion which is experienced primarily in the adolescence ages ranging from twelve to

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY twenty years (Allen, 2006; Erikson, 1997; Hamachek, 1988, 1990; Prenter, 2015). This stage parallels with the genital stage of psychosexual development (Sadock et al., 2015). The Eriksonian view acknowledges the influence of the changing sexual libido on the individual’s self-concept, but varies in that the acquisition of a sexual partner is not seen as sufficient for the development of a mature self-concept (Freiberg, 1987; Nel, 2013). In fact, prior to this psychosocial stage, an individual has only experienced a partial sense of identity, described as “a series of identifications rather than an identity” (Welchman, 2000, pp. 54). This series of identification forms the groundwork of an integrated psychosocial identity (Erikson, 1950/1963; Malakou, 2015; Stevens, 2008). The essence of identity seeks to find the answer to the question of “who am I” (Bjorklund & Hernández Blasi, 2012, p. 57). However, Erikson (1950/1963) states that the formation of identity is more than the sum of the childhood identifications. Identity is the conscious sense of uniqueness as well as the unconscious striving towards continuity of experience (Erikson, 1968/1994; Kroger, 2005). It is a deep sense of personal relevance (Stevens, 2008); a sense of belonging; the knowing where one is going; as well as the inner reassurance that an individual will be acknowledged by those that matter most to him or her (Erikson, 1968/1994). The adolescent explores his or her sense of identity through the perception of other people (Stevens, 2008). Erikson et al. (1986) adds that a sense of identity considers personal commitments, beliefs and attitudes in the context of activities and relationships. Certain attitudes, symbols and historical figures used to identify with are linked to the nations, subcultures and classes which the adolescent belongs to (Stevens, 2008). What is important to highlight is that this psychosocial stage is characterised by change, change in the physical, social and ideological spheres which leads to the contemplation of changes in attitude towards their body image and world views (Stevens, 2008). The changes in personal, societal, historical and familial forces form part of the conscious sense of self, known as the ego identity (Gross, 1987; Nel, 2013; Wastell, 1996).

This stage requires the adolescent to make decisions related to their occupational, social and sexual identity (Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008; Welchman, 2000). Occupational identity is the ability to decide on and settle in a career path (Erikson, 1950/1963; Malakou, 2015). It is the basis of acceptance of an existing work ethos and serves to continue it into adulthood (Erikson, 1976). Sexual identity is linked to adolescent love which involves the projection of a subtle ego-image onto another in an attempt to describe the individual’s identity (Erikson, 1950/1963). Social identity involves the loss of aspects of identity through the idealisation process directed at leaders of certain groups and cliques in an attempt to feel

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY included into these groups (Erikson, 1950/1963). An adolescent has the need for recognition and has a need to belong to a peer group with whom to associate with (Erikson, 1950/1963; Hersen & Thomas, 2006; Roets, 2015). It is important to reiterate that identity formation is relational and is formed in comparison to others such as things that we like and identify with or things that we dislike and disapprove of (Stevens, 2008). Therefore, the development of identity not only refers to the development of an individual sense of identity but also includes the sense of identification with the broader society in which an individual exists (Erikson, 1982; Saccaggi, 2015).

Erikson (1950/1963) emphasised that adolescents need a period of tolerance and space known as a “psychosocial moratorium” in order to facilitate the development of their identity (p.254). A psychosocial moratorium provides adolescents with space to experiment with new social roles which gives them the freedom to explore and fail before identity is crystalized (Erikson, 1950/1963, p. 254). This tolerance period aids the adolescent with a deeper sense of emotional awareness as they develop their sense of individual identity (Car & McNulty, 2006; Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008). An integrated psychosocial identity is thus facilitated by both a psychosocial moratorium within this psychosocial developmental stage but also the attainment of a good sense of trust, autonomy, initiative and industry (Malakou, 2015). This indicates that the groundwork for a successful development of identity is laid out from birth onwards (Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008).

In the event that: (a) psychosocial moratorium is not provided; (b) repeated failure of experimentations with new social roles occur; and/or (c) there is an inability to form a sense of identity and belonging; the adolescent may experience role confusion and identity diffusion (Carr & McNulty, 2006; Prenter, 2015; Sadock et al., 2015). Role confusion is defined as the uncertainty about an adolescent’s sense of self, leading them to simply imitate or conform to the values and identities of others in their environment (Freiberg, 1987; Nel, 2013). Kroger (2005) states that role confusion manifests as low levels of autonomy, self-esteem as well as the lowest sense of personal integrative continuity. Furthermore, role confusion leads to pleasing behaviour in an attempt to impress others and trying to gain acceptance from others (Erikson, 1976). Hamachek (1988) explains that individuals who experience role confusion are unsure of themselves. He further states that adolescents struggle to identify faults in themselves and in others (Hamachek, 1988). As such, they tend to be isolated from genuine connection with others (Kroger, 2005). In an attempt to defend against role confusion, adolescents over- identifying with heroes of cliques, cults, gangs and/or crowds leading to delinquent behaviour

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

(Erikson, 1950/1963; Nel, 2013; Sadock et al., 2015). The excessive experience of role confusion can lead to the malignant tendency of repudiation which is understood as the rejection of the self and others so much so that it may lead to pathological personality structures (Stevens, 2008).

The resolution of this psychosocial crisis leads to the ego strength of fidelity (Erikson, 1997). It is the ability to sustain commitment and loyalty to the adolescent’s chosen roles, beliefs, and affiliations despite the inevitable contradictions and confusions inherent to different value systems (Erikson, 1964; Markstrom, Berman, Sabino, & Turner, 1998; Nel, 2013; Stevens, 2008). It is accompanied by the positive self-description of being true to the individual's value system (Carr & McNulty, 2006). Fidelity is said to be the cornerstone of identity as ideologies are confirming and companionships are affirming (Erikson et al., 1986; Sadock et al., 2015).

The ritualization of ideology involves the exploration and adaptation of an individual’s ideological beliefs without losing their individuality (Fromme, 2010). It is the set of beliefs and values that serve as a guide to the development of identity (Stevens, 2008). Erikson (1964) describes this ritual as the inner coherence and the outer set of values that provide consistency for the developing individual identity. Bar Mitzvahs and other rites of passage help adolescents commit to a worldview or ideology as they are enjoined to become responsible members of their society (Erikson, 1976; Prenter, 2015). It is the negotiation of childhood morality and ethics that are developed in adulthood, which takes place (Erikson, 1950/1963). In contrast, the ritualism of totalism (sic) results in over-identification with ideologies of their hero figures or others they look up to, losing the individual sense of identity (Hook, 2002; Prenter, 2015). Moreover, the maladaptive tendency of fanaticism is described as the over-involvement in a particular social role leading to intolerance (Prenter, 2015). It is the overdevelopment of identity of rigid systems whereby ideals of cults seem unquestionable (Nel, 2013; Stevens, 2008). The malignant tendency of repudiation involves rejecting the need for a sense of identity (Prenter, 2015). This may lead to joining groups that inform how an individual identity should fuse with the belief systems of the cults, gangs or groups such as groups influenced by substance abuse (Boeree, 2006).

3.3.6. Intimacy versus Isolation: Love

The sixth of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages is labelled Intimacy versus Isolation experienced primarily in the early adulthood ages ranging from twenty to thirty five

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY years (Erikson, 1997; Hamachek, 1988, 1990). This psychosocial stage symbolises the beginning of the adult development within the life cycle (Stevens, 2008). This stage parallels with the psychosexual development of the genital stage which consists of the exploration of adult sexuality (Stevens, 2008).

The capacity for intimacy is closely linked to fidelity (Sadock et al., 2015). Intimacy is the ability to commit to concrete affiliations and partnerships while developing an ethical strength to abide by the commitment which includes significant sacrifices and compromises (Erikson, 1950/1963, p. 255). According to Erikson (1950/1963), there is a mutual search for a shared identity within intimate relations of friendships, sexual relationships and close affiliations that tests the strength of the individual’s sense of identity (Stevens, 2008, p. 52). The shared identity refers back to the resolution of the crisis in the Identity versus Role Confusion psychosocial developmental stage as deep involvement with another person demands putting the individual identity at risk (Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008). As such, this stage is a reflection of the epigenetic principle as the previous stage forms the foundation of an identity ready to be shared with someone else in an intimate manner (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994). This psychosocial stage requires one to lose themselves in the other including compromising the individual identity to be able to be intimate with another (Erikson, 1950/1963; Prenter, 2015). A destructive shared identity can be undone by revisiting the Identity versus Role Confusion psychosocial stage to strengthen the sense of self and individual identity.

The antithesis of intimacy is isolation which involves the distancing of oneself from people that threaten an unstable sense of individual identity (Erikson, 1950/1963). As such, true mutuality develops when the capacity for intimacy is balanced with the need for some isolation leading to individuals who are able to attain the ego virtue of love (Erikson et al., 1986; Nel, 2013). The virtue of love is defined as “the mutuality of devotion forever subduing the antagonism inherent in divided function” (Erikson, 1964, p.128). Erikson (1964) further states that there are different forms of love from infantile comforting love, adolescent passionate infatuation to love that develops into care for the other. The societal ritual in celebration of intimacy is usually conducted in the form of marriage which provides protection of the intimate connection and provides a sense of belonging within the context of the shared identity (Stevens, 2008; Nel, 2013). The opposite form of ritualization, otherwise known as ritualism is elitism which consists of exclusion of others for no reason (Erikson, 1982; Saccaggi, 2015). What is important to highlight is that this stage allows for an adult to combine

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY feelings of love and hate to be able to form integrated ethical ideas and counter ideas in a mature way providing the foundation of reciprocating these ideas onto the children of the next generation (Erikson, 1968/1994; Saccaggi, 2015).

In the event that sense of isolation is dominant, the individual attempts to overcome this experience by engaging in the maladaptive tendency of promiscuity. It is the endeavour in an attempt to connect. However, in the event that the sense of isolation is experienced in excess, an individual is understood to develop the malignant tendency of exclusion or distantiation (sic) (Erikson, 1950/1963). This means that any attempts by others to initiate intimate relations is rejected (Malakou, 2015; Stevens, 2008). Sadock et al. (2015) explains that the basis of various forms of prejudice, persecution, and psychopathology originate in extensive distantiation (sic). Capps (2004) further states that repudiation, prejudicial and rejective (sic) attitudes stem from: (a) a sense of self-endangerment; (b) differentiation between the familiar and the unfamiliar; and (c) complex interactions between intimate and antagonistic relations.

On the one spectrum, an inability to achieve intimacy may lead to the maladaptive tendency of promiscuity that consists of inappropriate boundary setting and inability to maintain necessary isolation leading to the development of pseudo-intimacy (Erikson et al., 1986; Saccaggi, 2015). On the other spectrum, the malignant tendency is exclusivity referring to excessive isolation as a result of inability to form intimate relationships (Erikson et al., 1986; Saccaggi, 2015). The malignant tendency of exclusivity also manifests in spiteful behaviours to compensate for the loneliness experienced (Boeree, 2006). 3.3.7. Generativity versus Stagnation: Care

The seventh stage of the psychosocial developmental theory is described as the Generativity versus Stagnation crisis experienced during middle adulthood around the ages of thirty five years until retirement, at approximately sixty five years (Gross, 1987; Hamachek, 1988, 1990). This is known to be the longest stage in the life cycle and is characterised by adults who are more aware of their social responsibilities towards the younger, weaker, less experienced and/or somewhat subordinate individuals (McAdams, De St. Aubin & Logan, 1993; Nel, 2013). Generativity is the impartation of knowledge and concern for the guidance of the next generation in an attempt to productively focus on the welfare of the future (Carr & McNulty, 2006; Erikson, 1997; Stevens, 2008). In doing so, the generative process is procreative, productive and creative (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1997; Nel, 2013). Welchman (2000) attributes socialisation to generativity as the process whereby knowledge, values and cultural

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY practices are shared with the next generation. Therefore, outcomes that are generated through the process of socialisation benefit the society at large and promote continuity from one generation to the next (McAdams et al., 1993; Nel, 2013). This may be achieved through parental, didactic, productive and/or curative ritualizations (sic) which facilitate intergenerational bonding (Nel, 2013; Prenter, 2015).

The antithesis is known as Stagnation which is described as “the mental deformation of self-absorption” (Erikson, 1964, p. 130). Stagnation involves the regression to an individual’s past conflicts because their own childhood crises remain unresolved (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994, 1997). Stagnation within relations manifests as pseudo-intimacy whereby “partners indulge themselves and each other as if they were their child” (Stevens, 2008, p. 53). As such, stagnant individuals indulge in their own pleasures without regarding its impact on the next generation (Roets, 2015). Erikson (1968/1994) highlights that stagnant individuals contribute to pathology or malignant tendencies in their children (biological and/or societal), which manifests as lack of faith and hope in the future (Erikson, 1950/1963). The malignant tendency of this psychosocial stage is rejectivity (sic) which is the preoccupation with the self and is the direct refusal of care towards certain interpersonal relations and/or societal groups of people (Erikson, 1982; Erikson, et al., 1986; Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008).

It is important to highlight that there is a certain degree of stagnation and rejectivity (sic) necessary to be able to direct care mindfully (Erikson, 1982). Therefore, the balance of this psychosocial crisis leads to the emergence of the ego virtue of care which is understood as the expansive concern for what has been generated by love (the previous ego virtue), while overcoming ambivalence adhering to irreversible obligation (Erikson, 1964; Stevens, 2008). The healthy balance of Generativity versus Stagnation leads to an individual who sought to integrate outward care for others with inward concern for him or herself (Erikson et al., 1986). As such, it is important that an individual has successfully attained virtues of the earlier stages (hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity and love) in order to care for and provide guidance towards the next generation for them to be able to develop these virtues themselves (Erikson, 1982, 1997; Nel, 2013; Saccaggi, 2015).

In essence, this psychosocial stage is characterised by the need to be needed whereby the older generation and younger generation live in co-dependence of one another (Erikson, 1950/1963; Nel, 2013; Stevens, 2008). As such, the psychosocial crisis shifts from an individual’s need of finding a place in the world to needing to help others in order to help

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY themselves (Erikson, 1950/1963; Saccaggi, 2015). The maladaptive tendency of overextension manifests when an individual cares for the younger generation beyond his or her own capacity leading to ineffective interest and care towards them (Erikson et al., 1986; Nel, 2013; Saccaggi, 2015). This, in turn, compromises the self-preservation and inward concern of an adult individual.

This psychosocial crisis engages in generational ritualization which include family traditions, didactic rituals and/or mentorship practices that convey important cultural values to the younger generation (Prenter, 2015). Erikson (1964) emphasises that “man needs to teach, not only for the sake of those who need to be taught, and not only for the fulfilment of his identity, but because facts are kept alive by being told, logic by being demonstrated, truth by being professed” (p. 131). As such, adults are often givers of rituals rather than the receivers (Saccaggi, 2015). Erikson (1982) describes this process as an adult becoming a numinous model for the next generation so as to convey guidelines in the form of ideal values and moral judgements. Erikson (1950/1963, 1997) further states that all social institutions are in some way reinforced by the notion of generativity. Therefore, all social institutions needed for survival and development of successive generations are passed on by individuals in this psychosocial stage (Erikson et al., 1986; Nel, 2013). 3.3.8. Ego integrity versus Despair: Wisdom

The last psychosocial stage is described as the crisis of Ego integrity versus Despair, which is experienced in late adulthood or beginning of retirement until death (Erikson, 1950/1963; Hamachek, 1988, 1990). This life stage is characterised by physical and psychological decline whereby the individual is no longer functioning as they were in the previous psychosocial stage, in their roles of parenting and/or workmanship (Erikson, 1982; Saccaggi, 2015). As the life cycle comes to a conclusion, in many ways it turns back to the beginning and is experienced as finite childishness (Erikson, 1964). According to Stevens (2008), the finite childishness is the relative helplessness experienced in the beginning of life too. This cyclical nature refers to generational relationship between an adult’s integrity and an infant’s trust (Erikson, 1950/1963; Nel, 2013). Erikson (1950/1963) elaborates by stating that “healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death” (p. 261).

Ego integrity is understood as the acceptance of both positive and negative life experiences while valuing the unique history and developments being historically and

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY societally situated (Erikson, 1950/1963; Prenter, 2015; Saccaggi, 2015). It is the integration of these life experiences that form a meaningful personal narrative (Prenter, 2015). Erikson (1978) described an individual with ego integrity as someone who is accepting of the fact that there is only one life cycle that he or she lives through. Furthermore, ego integrity includes the acceptance of the significant roles that people have played in their life cycle (Erikson, 1959). As such, it is the acceptance of the responsibility of the individual’s own life while being aware of possible regrets (Erikson, 1959). Individuals with ego integrity: (a) acknowledge and accept past choices; (b) accept the inalterability of the past; and (c) acknowledge and integrate legitimate feelings of despair (Erikson et al., 1986; Nel, 2013). It is in this final developmental stage where maturing forms of ego virtues of hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love and care integrate into a comprehensive sense of wisdom (Erikson et al., 1986).

The ego virtue of wisdom results from the balancing of integrity and despair. Wisdom is defined as “the detached concern with life itself, in the face of death itself” (Erikson, 1964, p. 133). Ideally, individuals should consolidate their sense of wisdom with legitimate feelings of hopelessness and cynicism which is characterised by the despair of the aging self (Erikson et al., 1986; Nel, 2013). Individuals who attain a sense of ego integrity and the ego virtue of wisdom can tolerate the inevitable finality of the life cycle and have a disconnected, but active concern with their life cycle (Erikson, 1978; Roets, 2015). It should be noted that not all individuals will achieve the ego virtue of wisdom, and that the achievement of wisdom is contextually bound by what meaning is specifically associated with aging within each context (Erikson, 1968/1994; Saccaggi, 2015).

The antithesis of despair may be experienced when there is an: (a) inability to integrate the individual’s life experiences; (b) inability to be content with the knowledge of the singular life cycle; and when (c) life events are perceived as unfulfilling and filled with intense dissatisfaction (Erikson, 1950/1963; Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008). Despair is often associated with a sense of disgust and a “chronic contemptuous displeasure with particular institutions and particular people…which…only signify the individual’s contempt of himself” (Erikson, 1968/1994, p. 140). The individual experiencing despair is overwhelmed by the feeling that there is not enough time to attempt alternate roads to achieving ego integrity within their given life cycle (Erikson, 1950/1963; Nel, 2013). In the event that despair is experienced in excess, the maldevelopment (sic) of presumption or distain may manifest. It is the lack of conscious conclusion about death that leads to the petty disgust of feeling finished and relatively helpless (Erikson, 1964). Both of these tendencies may result in the isolation of the

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY individual, preventing others from providing the individual with much needed assistance (Erikson et al., 1986; Nel, 2013).

3.4. Critiques of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory

Despite Erikson being a well-known psychoanalytic theorist and gaining recognition for his psychosocial developmental theory, his work has received a fair amount of critique too. The six major criticisms will be discussed here, namely (1) lack of methodological rigour; (2) ambiguity; (3) optimism and idealism; (4) cross-cultural applicability; (5) gender bias; and (6) prescriptive use of theory. 3.4.1. Methodological rigour

The first criticism of Erikson’s work is that the psychosocial developmental theory lacked methodological rigour (Granqvist, 2006; Saccaggi, 2015). Due to the fact that Erikson’s work is based on individual or small sampled clinical observations and case studies, it makes it difficult for empirical measurements and evaluations to be made (Hamachek, 1988; Karkouti, 2014). The question of rigour comes into play because his writings did not stem from the use of large samples and/or systematic interventions and reviews but were based on subjective interpretations (Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008). 3.4.2. Ambiguity

The second criticism is that Erikson’s work is too ambiguous which makes his theory difficult to operationalize (Hoare, 2005; Roets, 2015; Welchman, 2000). What adds to the difficulty in operationalization is that his theory provides a thorough description of the psychosocial developmental process, but it neglects to provide an adequate explanation for why the developmental changes occur (Hook, 2009; Prenter, 2015; Swartz et al., 2008). His theory lacks specific details of the developmental process because he does not explain in any detail how individuals move from stage to stage or how they actually resolve the psychosocial crisis within a particular stage (Miller, 2011; Prenter, 2015). In addition to the lack of detail on how an individual could resolve each developmental stage, the theory also does not explain the distinct personality differences that exist among individuals (Roets, 2015; Shaffer, 1996). Erikson (1976) explains that the idiographic nature of development prevents definitive description of the general developmental delays and their effect on future development (Roets, 2015). Erikson (1950/1963) adds that the difficulty in operationalization of his theoretical

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY constructs is also a result of the idiosyncratic nature of personality development which prevents rigid descriptions of his theoretical constructs. This suggests that the distinctive way in which individuals encounter and deal with developmental crises is based on the existing level of an individual's development, and may differ significantly between individuals (Roets, 2015). 3.4.3. Optimism and Idealism

The third criticism is that Erikson’s theory frequently seems too optimistic and idealises his descriptions of typical development (Maier, 1988, as cited in Hook, 2009). Roazen (1976) highlighted that although Erikson’s work is appreciated for being visionary, original, humane, and contributing comprehensive concepts, Erikson's idealism distorted his work and he was ineffective in providing practical explanations of psychosocial development (Roets, 2015). It is suggested that Erikson overvalues the adaptive and integrative functions of the ego (Lacan, 1997, as cited in Hook, 2009). Erikson’s theory derived from clinical interpretations which may have influenced his theory to either provide a fatalistic view of the psychopathologist or the optimism of the therapeutic ideal (Erikson, 1978; Roets, 2015). 3.4.4. Cross-cultural applicability

The fourth criticism relates to the cross-cultural applicability of Erikson’s model. Erikson (1950/1963) intended to develop a model that can be applied across cultures and viewed throughout cultures as an important facet of individual development. However, Erikson himself acknowledged that his conceptualisations are primarily individualistic and may only be applicable to western contexts (Craig & Baucum, 2002; Roets, 2015; Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008). It is Erikson’s focus on the development of identity as a core component of healthy psychological functioning that has been criticised as being individualistic and inapplicable to more collectivistic or non-western cultures (Saccaggi, 2015; Schachter, 2005; Wheeler, Ampadu & Wangari, 2002). According to Hook (2009), certain virtues such as independence, initiative and industriousness are more individualistic qualities that are specifically desirable within a competitive and capitalistic society. It is important to acknowledge that Erikson’s theory developed from a “predominately Western, white, middle- class, and Judeo-Christian socio-cultural tradition”, in the twentieth-century capitalist American context (Carr & McNulty, 2006, p.35). Therefore, the theory’s applicability is questioned when it concerns other ethnic groups or individuals who live in poverty and/or war stricken contexts (Carr & McNulty, 2006; Prenter, 2015).

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

3.4.5. Gender Bias

The fifth criticism is whether the psychosocial theory is applicable equally to both men and women (Hamachek, 1988). According to Hook (2009), Erikson based his psychosocial developmental theory on clinical work and historical transcriptions of male subjects. It is evident through Erikson’s theory that he viewed male development as normative and critics have therefore suggested that the application of his theory to female development, as well as his own comments on female development, suffer from various anatomical and gender biases (Horst, 1995; Saccaggi, 2015; Wastell, 1996). Horst (1995), being one of the critics highlights that Erikson had emphasized gender differences rather than ignored them, and that his focus on anatomical determinants reinforced the notion that gender differences are rigidly fixed (Nel, 2013). Hook (2009) further elaborates that Erikson’s later work is suggestive of procreative and maternal qualities of women but he conceptualised women to be more dependent and less assertive than men. From a feminist viewpoint authors have suggested that Erikson’s theory should be approached with caution as it may normalise some behaviours (such as extreme individualism versus interconnectedness) which are actually distinctly masculine in nature (Franz & White, 1985; Sacaggi, 2015; Sorell & Montgomery, 2001). The context in which Erikson's stages of development are based is on studies of white, middle-class males and yet his androcentric model is universally applied to women (Prenter, 2015; Swartz et al., 2008). It is important to emphasise Erikson’s use of the male pronoun in his writing and masculine assertions were the common practice in his time (Douvan, 1997; Prenter, 2015). Horst (1995) explains that if Erikson's complex use of the terms identity and intimacy are fully understood, there is no need to review his stages in order to better represent the experiences of women (Nel, 2013). For example, the weight given to trust, intimacy, and generativity, and the importance of feeling and awareness, also confirm qualities that resonate with women's development (Roets, 2015). Allen (2006) argues that Erikson was later influenced by the women's movement and his view of female development evolved by the mid-1970s (Prenter, 2015). 3.6.6. Prescriptive use of theory

The sixth criticism is that Erikson’s psychosocial theory is used prescriptively rather than as a guideline of personality development (Hook, 2009). Erikson was concerned with the possibility of his theory being applied as an ascending list of developmental traits, which would be "eagerly accepted by some as a potential inventory for tests of adjustment, or as new

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY production schedule in the manufacture of desirable children, citizens, or workers" (Erikson, 1964, p.134).

According to Karkouti (2014) the development of identity neither follows a strict timeline nor does it process in a linear, one directional fashion. Erikson (1959) further states that he did not intend to develop a new set of norms from which potential inventories of adjustment are tested. Unfortunately, it seems that the application of the psychosocial developmental theory is overly standardised without accounting for class, race and gender variables (Hook, 2009).

In light of the above mentioned criticisms, there are definite gaps within Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory. However, Corsini & Marsella (1983) state that a fair amount of research supports Erikson's ideas, especially within identity studies (Roets, 2015). For example, Marcia (1966) studied and supported Erikson’s theoretical approaches, in particular his reference to the adolescence psychosocial stage of development (Roets, 2015). Thus, many of Erikson’s ideas may be difficult to test empirically but scholars still consider Erikson's theory as one of the most influential in developmental and personality psychology (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2003; Roets, 2015).

3.5. Chapter summary

The chapter began with an introduction to Erik. H. Erikson. The outline of the introduction to this theorist covered his personal and educational background. Thereafter, his contribution to the field of psychology was discussed which was inclusive of his publications, the current usage of his theory in psychotherapeutic contexts as well as the core concepts of his theoretical framework. The chapter proceeded to explore the psychosocial developmental stages as the proposed developmental theory used in this psychobiography. Lastly, the critiques associated with this theory were detailed to create a more balanced overview.

Through the in depth explanation of this theory, there are three arguments that provide evidence that the psychosocial developmental theory is appropriate for this psychobiography in an attempt to better understand the life of Amy Jade Winehouse. Firstly, Erik H. Erikson has proved to be a well renowned theorist in psychology through his contributions to the field. As such, the use of his work is applicable in the context of a psychological study such as this research endeavour. Secondly, the psychosocial developmental theory acknowledges socio- cultural, historical and environmental influences on the individual’s personality development

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

(Barresi & Juckes, 1997; Nel, 2013; Stevens, 2008). Therefore, the complexity that contributed to Amy’s personality development will be acknowledged when using the psychosocial developmental stages. Lastly, Erikson has demonstrated interest in case histories and subsequently the field of psychobiography (Barresi & Juckes, 1997; Nel, 2013; Stevens, 2008). As such, using Erikson’s theory is deemed appropriate seeing as this research endeavour uses the psychobiography methodology.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Chapter 4: A review of the theoretical framework of psychobiography

4.1. Chapter Preview

This chapter will explore the components that contribute and influence psycho- biographical research studies. It starts by describing qualitative research and modalities that are categorised under it such as: phenomenology, interpretative phenomenological analysis and case study research. Thereafter, the international and local development of psychobiography research will be elaborated on. Once psychobiography research has been situated within a historical timeframe, various terms and definitions related to the psycho-biographical research method will be discussed. In addition thereto, psychobiography and associated concepts will be explained to be able to further clarify what psychobiography research entails. Lastly, the value of using psychobiography methods will be motivated.

4.2. Description of qualitative research

Qualitative research has been present since 1879 (Povee & Roberts, 2014). Qualitative research seeks to understand and interpret a phenomenon through rich descriptions within the contextual framework (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018; Neuman, 2003). The qualitative research process acknowledges the social construction of reality and confronts constraints of the everyday social world that may influence the study at hand (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). It is typically used when a researcher seeks to generate new constructs, theories, or hypotheses; develop detailed stories to describe a phenomenon; and achieve a deeper understanding of social issues (Neuman, 2003; Trochim, Donnelly & Arora, 2016). As such, it is the process whereby a gendered, multi-culturally situated researcher approaches the world with a set of ideas which form a theory that generates a set of questions to be examined through a specific methodology (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018).

Qualitative research methods makes use of empirical materials such as case studies; personal experiences; life stories; interviews; artefacts; cultural texts; as well as observational, historical, interactional and visual texts (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). Denzin and Lincoln (2008) further emphasise that qualitative research directs attention to the specifics of a particular case which is emic and idiographic in nature.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

In the qualitative research process, the researcher becomes involved in the events or the people that are being studied (Neuman, 2003). In this way, these events and people become an imperative contribution to the research process as they allow the researcher to access intimate first-hand knowledge in the research setting (Neuman, 2003). The path of inquiry in the research process is non-linear and cyclic in nature because research methodology steps may be revisited to provide even more details and description of the study at hand (Neuman, 2003). Therefore, the knowledge generated in qualitative research is adaptive, dynamic and in-depth.

There are four approaches to ensure rigorous and trustworthiness in the qualitative research design as stated by Lincoln and Guba (1985), namely credibility, dependability, confirmability and transferability (Houghton, Casey, Shaw & Murphy, 2013; Neuman, 2003). Credibility is comparable to internal validity in quantitative research so it accounts for the study to measure and test what it intended to (Shenton, 2004). Dependability is similar to reliability in quantitative data so it describes the study in such a way that if it were to be repeated by another researcher under the same context, using the same methodology and the same participants, the results would be similar (Shenton, 2004). Although this provides consistency, offering an opportunity for a study to be repeated, the ever-changing nature of qualitative studied phenomena shifts focus of an exact repetition of the study to a richer description of the study (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Confirmability is the neutrality and accuracy of the data. To ensure confirmability, the researcher needs to acknowledge his or her own predispositions to ensure that the results are experiences and ideas of the research participants (Shenton, 2004). The fourth approach proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985) is transferability which is compared to generalizability or external validity in quantitative research. However, in qualitative research transferability refers to the relevance of a specific study in other contexts (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). To ensure transferability or applicability to similar environments, the phenomenon needs to be explored comprehensively and described in great detail.

There are four different overarching research paradigms to consider: positivism, post- positivism, the critical-ideological perspective and constructivism-interpretivism (sic) (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Ponterotto, 2010). Ponterotto (2010) states that positivism is exclusively involved in quantitative research while the other three paradigms are more applicable to qualitative research. Positivism proposes that reality consists of only what is concretely perceivable through the senses and that knowledge is empirical in nature (Nel, 2013; Ponterotto, 2010). For this reason, there has been a strong preference to quantitative research despite qualitative research being present from 1879 (Povee & Roberts, 2014). Post-positivistic

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY research paradigm defines reality as one truth whereby the researcher attempts to be as dualistic and objective as possible to assume a disinterested scientist stance (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Nel, 2013). This is accomplished through the use of qualitative methods such as interviews and case studies that are applied in a quantifiable manner. The research process is thus systematised and variables are controlled as much as possible (Ponterotto, 2010). The critical-ideological perspective recognises that reality can only be understood to be shaped by political, cultural, economic, ethnic, gender and social factors (Nel, 2013). Therefore, within this paradigm, the role of the researcher is to be interactive and proactive with their own social justice values in mind (Ponterotto, 2010). The researcher is described to be a transformative intellectual individual who seeks to emancipate, advocate and bring about transformation through the research endeavour (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Nel, 2013). An example of a research process whereby the researcher’s social justice values help the inquiry is in participatory action research (Kidd & Kral, 2005; Ponterotto, 2010). Participatory action research is a collaboration of the researcher and participants in an attempt to empower the participants to promote structural changes in their communities and challenge the power relations within their communities (Visser, 2012b). The final research paradigm is the constructive-interpretivism approach which proposes multiple socially constructed realities in which the researcher-participant relationship is highly interactive in order to produce meanings and expressions of experiences (Nel, 2013; Ponterotto, 2010). In this paradigm, the researcher assumes the role of the passionate participant stance which enables the researcher to have a deeper level of communication through emotive connection to the study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008; Ponterotto, 2010). Phenomenology, as proposed by the philosophies of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) and Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), is a popular qualitative research approach in psychology within the constructive-interpretivistic paradigm which will be discussed below (Smith & Osborn, 2008).

4.2.1. Phenomenology and Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)

Phenomenology is the process of identifying components of a phenomena or experiences that make them unique and distinguishable (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014). Phenomenological studies focus on the subjective perception and description of experiences at a given moment (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014). A phenomena thus varies in perspective, location and context according to the perceiver’s subjective desires, wishes, judgements, emotions, aims and purposes (Willig, 2013). The aim of phenomenological inquiry is to discern and capture

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY the psychological meanings or meaning units given to a phenomenon as it appears within the context of the perceiver’s life (Giorgi & Giorgi, 2008). Meaning units are the segmented salient information that are captured for analysis (Trochim et al., 2016).

There are three phases in the phenomenology method that is involved in gaining understanding and knowledge into a certain phenomenon. These phases are “epoché” (sic), phenomenological reduction and imaginative variation (Willig, 2013, p. 84). “Epoché” (sic) otherwise known as bracketing, is the process of acknowledging potential suppositions the researcher may have about a phenomenon, and becoming aware of its effects on the subjective lived experience being expressed by a research participant about a phenomenon (Willig, 2013, p.84). This may assist the researcher in noticing new dimensions or different nuances of the phenomenon (Giorgi & Giorgi, 2008). The phenomenological reduction is the holistic description of a phenomenon within which the context it is experienced in. The experiential features of “what is experienced” are explored (Willig, 2013, p. 84). The imaginative variation is the structural components that are associated with the experience such as the dimensions of time, space and social relationships that make up the “how” an experience is made possible (Willig, 2013).

The approaches to phenomenological research include descriptive phenomenology and interpretive phenomenology. On the one hand, a descriptive phenomenological approach is the concrete description of a phenomenon with the aim to “reveal the essential general meaning structures of a phenomenon” (Finlay, 2009, p. 10). The purpose is to identify the psychological and significant meanings that make up the whole description of the phenomenon, and then describe the general structure of the experience (Willig, 2013). On the other hand, interpretative phenomenology is the evaluation of the nature and quality of phenomena which are embedded in socio-historical relations (Finlay, 2009; Willig, 2013). It is the interaction between initial presuppositions and assumptions with the evolving meaning of a phenomenon, that provides room for interpretation and knowledge to be generated (Willig, 2013).

Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) is a form of phenomenological research that focuses on understanding the lived experiences of participants from an interpretative position. (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014). According to Smith and Osborn (2008), the researcher plays an active role in the IPA process and as a result, there is an impact on their preconceived notions of the phenomena. It is a double hermeneutic process whereby the participants try to make sense of their world while the researcher is trying to make sense of the participants trying

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY to make sense of their world (Smith & Osborn, 2008, p. 53). IPA takes an idiographic approach because it tends to focus on the description of single cases within the unique contexts before providing universal results (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2014).

Psychobiography is implicitly phenomenological because it attempts to understand the subjective lived experiences of an individual using narrative inquiry (Z. G. Knight, personal communication, June 6, 2018). Narrative inquiry as a methodology is the exploration of a narrative view of the phenomenon of experience (Clandinin, Cave & Berendonk, 2017, p.90). It is narrative theories such as Tomkins’ (1979) Script theory, McAdams’ (1985) Life-story model of identity, and Singer and Salovey’s (1993) Self-defining memories that have laid the foundation for alternative interpretations of personal experiences (McAdams, 2008). The narrative theories to personality conceptualises an individual’s life story as a psychological phenomenon that functions as an integral part of an individual’s personality (McAdams, 1999). In essence, the narrative approach emphasises that people make sense of their lives through the construction of their personal narratives (Bauer, McAdams & Pals, 2008; McAdams, 1988; Saccaggi, 2015). According to McAdams (2006b), the narrative approaches in personality studies explicitly address contextual issues such as culture, class, and gender because life narratives are psychosocial constructions of the self. As such, narrative inquiry within psycho- biographical studies begins with and requires narration of lived experiences (Schultz, 2005b).

4.2.2. Case studies in psychology

There are numerous research approaches in psychological research and case-based or case study research is one of them. Case study research can either be quantitatively or qualitatively inclined (or a combination thereof) however only the qualitative approach will be discussed in this study (Nel, 2013). According to Yin (2009) a qualitative case study approach is used when there is an extensive and in-depth description required for a complex social phenomenon. It is the holistic and meaningful understanding of real-life events (Yin, 2009). Willig (2013) explains that a case study is an approach of studying a singular phenomenon by utilising a diverse range of methods for data collection and analysis. In addition to the diverse range of methods to be used, case study research encourages the use of a range of different sources when examining a phenomenon so that a variety of “lenses” explore the selected phenomenon in great detail (Baxter & Jack, 2008, p.544). The purpose of the inquiry into a phenomenon determines the number and type of case studies (Zucker, 2009). Due to the fact that case studies are rich in description, it is beneficial to hone into one or two case studies at

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY a time (Hammersly & Gomm, 2009). However, this does not exclude the possibility of the comparison of a series of cases as noted in multiple-case study designs (Willig, 2013).

According to Stake (1995), case study research is divided into three distinct categories namely; intrinsic, instrumental and collective case studies (Baxter & Jack, 2008). Intrinsic case studies are interesting to the researcher and the core concern is present within the case (Baxter & Jack, 2008; Willig, 2013). The aim of intrinsic case studies is to uncover the unique and complex case within the contextual framework (Schwandt & Gates, 2018). The instrumental case study is used to provide further understanding of a phenomena within a particular case while cultivating a new theory (Baxter & Jack, 2008; Hammersley & Gomm, 2009; Willig, 2013). Therefore, intrinsic case studies are a case dominant approach while instrumental case study is an issue dominant approach whereby the main function is to understand an issue rather than a situation (Baxter & Jack, 2008). Collective case studies considers a number of case studies that have a shared element. This approach is used to gain understanding into the common and different elements between cases (Baxter & Jack, 2008; Stake, 1995).

Edwards (1998) explains that there is a cyclical approach to research and that case study research may play an important role throughout the entire research process (Nel, 2013). He specifically emphasised the different phases of the research process highlight different kinds of case study work. There are three different phases of the research process, namely a descriptive phase, a theoretical-heuristic phase, and a theory testing phase (Edwards, 1998).

The focus of the first research phase is to describe a phenomenon in detail and as unbiased as possible, especially, when a relatively new area or phenomenon is being researched (Edwards, 1998; Nel, 2013). Within this research phase, a relatively unknown phenomenon is examined in an ideographical manner with the aim of producing an organised and coherent presentation of the phenomenon (Nel, 2013). This examination is categorised under the exploratory-descriptive case study work (Edwards, 1998). However, when the phenomenon has already been described, it can then be examined in more detail through focused-descriptive case study work (Edwards, 1998). In this category of case study work, specific questions are posed about the nature of the phenomenon so that a specific type of experience is described. Edwards (1998) further states that the descriptive phase of the research process cannot be entirely separated from the theory development phase. For example, Wiseman (1995) conducted a research study aimed at exploring the phenomenon of loneliness. This research process involved “a series of descriptive phenomenological case studies which enabled her to

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY characterize the subtleties of different experiences of loneliness and to engage creatively with existing conceptualisations of what it is to be lonely” (Edwards, 1998, p. 43).

The second research phase, namely theoretical-heuristic can benefit from the case study approach because descriptions generated during the descriptive research phase can be used as a basis for theory building (Bromley, 1986; Edwards, 1998; Nel, 2013). The categories of case study work within this research process phase include grounded theory building and hermeneutic work. Grounded theory building consists of: (a) categorisation; (b) identification of correlational relationships; (c) definitions of psychological structure; (d) propositions about process; and (e) propositions about causal relationships (Edwards, 1998; Nel, 2013). The theory derived from hermeneutic work, proposed to have been culturally and historically constructed. At this stage of the research process, theories can be refined through disciplined investigation and critical debate (Edwards, 1998; Nel, 2013).

During third and final phase in the research process being theory testing, the case study approach may be more useful than an experimental research design because testing propositions within grounded theory can be done through examination of individual cases (Bromley, 1986; Edwards, 1998). The individual cases can be used to critically evaluate the evidence for propositions relating to any of the five components of grounded theory as mentioned above (Edwards, 1998). Through this critical evaluation, the existing theory can be expanded by achieving a more differentiated body of principles (Edwards, 1998). Case study work can also be used to reformulate theory to expose the assumptions on which a psychological theory is based. This final category of case study work is known as metatheoretical deconstruction (Edwards, 1998).

Psychobiography studies are both a form of intrinsic and instrumental case study research because inferences are made based on the application of a psychological theory on an individual’s life narrative (Edwards, 1998; Nel, 2013). As discussed above, the case study research approach plays a significant role throughout the research process. In the context of a psychobiography, not only is the phenomenon of life experiences explored but aspects of psychological theories are developed and/or tested in the process. According to Stiles (2009), the application of theory in case study approaches are aimed at either facilitating conceptualisation of the case or improving the theory through evidence found through the case study research process. The use of the case study approaches in theory building is either deductive, inductive and/or abductive (Stiles, 2009). Firstly, deductive case research is when

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY inferences are made based on theoretical statements which are logically consistent and interconnected. Secondly, inductive case research is the application of observations to the theory. Lastly, abductive case research is the process of creating and modifying the theory (Nel, 2013; Stiles, 2009). As such, psychobiography studies may use inductive and/or deductive case research.

4.3. Psychobiography 4.3.1. The development of psycho-biographical research 4.3.1.1. History and Timeline of psycho-biographical development

Psychobiography emerged from Europe when Sigmund Freud’s analysed the life of Leonardo da Vinci’s in 1910 (Cara, 2007; Du Plessis, 2017; Elms, 1994; Freud, 1957; Kasser, 2017; Kőváry, 2011; Schultz, 2005b). Freud analysed da Vinci’s fantasies through the use of psychoanalytic theory and inferred that there were themes of homosexuality and infantile dependency in da Vinci’s childhood (McAdams, 2009). The psychological approaches to biography expanded when Erik Erikson applied developmental theories to his analysis of the life of Mahatma Gandhi (1969) and Martin Luther (1958). It was in the 1920s and 1930s that analysis of life narratives with the use of psychoanalytic theory, reached the discipline of psychology and/or psychiatry in the United States. Henry Murray (1967) and Gordon Allport (1937) insisted that the whole life cycle should be studied rather than segments of a person’s life narrative. Additionally, both these men encouraged that an individual’s life narrative be analysed from personality and developmental theories rather than psychoanalytic theory (Cara, 2007).

Psycho-biographical studies have been growing in popularity (Kőváry, 2011). The upward trajectory of psycho-biographical research can be attributed to influential historical- and methodology-orientated texts, including Life Histories and Psychobiography (Runyan, 1982a), Personology (Alexander, 1990), Uncovering Lives (Elms, 1994), and the Handbook of Psychobiography (Schultz, 2005a). There are also a variety of special issues in academic journals also dedicated to psycho-biographical research (Ponterotto & Reynolds, 2017).

4.3.1.2. Psychobiography in the South African context

The first psychobiography in the South African context was done in 1939 on the Afrikaans writer, Cornelius Jacobus Langenhoven, by M. P. O. Burgers (Fouché & Van

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Niekerk, 2010). Since then, the field of psychobiography expanded through the facilitation of academic departments within tertiary educational institutions (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010; Saccaggi, 2015). Up to date, there has been roughly seventy completed psychobiography masters and doctoral theses across South African institutions (Z. G. Knight, personal communication, February 8, 2017). The South African institutions involved in the postgraduate endeavours of psycho-biographical research include the departments of psychology at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Rhodes University, University of Johannesburg and the University of the Free State (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010).

Fouché, Smit, Watson and Van Niekerk (2007) conducted a systematic review of psycho-biographical research in South Africa between 1995 and 2004. The systematic review highlights the trends found in published works during that timeframe (Nel, 2013). Amongst the South African psychobiography studies, there are ethnic and gender trends directed towards white male research subjects (Fouché et al., 2007; Nel, 2013). The occupations of these research subjects vary from the majority being political figures followed by artists and sports personalities (Fouché et al., 2007). Furthermore, the most used theories applied in psycho- biographical studies are Levinson’s model (Levison, 1986), the Five-factor Model (Digman, 1990) and Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory (Erikson, 1963) (Fouché et al., 2007; Nel, 2013).

Fouché and Van Niekerk (2010) have identified the factors which have contributed to the growth in popularity of psycho-biographical research in South Africa. These factors include: (a) awareness of the logistical benefits of psycho-biographical methodology in postgraduate degree programmes; (b) the migration of psycho-biographical supervisors to various local universities; (c) the academic institutionalisation of psychobiography as a research focus area; (d) the call for theory-driven postgraduate research; (e) the acknowledgement of extraordinary South Africans; as well as (f) the momentum of the positive psychology movement (Nel, 2013).

Despite the ongoing growth of academic psycho-biographical research studies in South Africa, there are challenges to be cognisant of in the development of this research modality. These challenges include the need to further develop postgraduate psycho-biographical studies at South African universities that focus more on female and black personalities (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010). Regarding psychological theories used in psycho-biographical research, there is a need for a broader selection of psychological theories used to conceptualise the lives of

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY subjects besides Levinson’s model (Levison, 1986), the Five-factor Model (Digman, 1990) and Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory (Erikson, 1963) (Fouché et al., 2007). For continued advancement and academic acknowledgement, there is a need for public and academic exposure to academically institutionalised psychobiography and its marketing, for example by means of congress presentations and/or article publications (Fouché et al., 2007).

This study will be contributing to the developing knowledge base and academic exposure of psycho-biographical studies conducted at a South African university, namely the University of Johannesburg. In this particular study, the subject selection was motivated by the abundance of publically available material documented on the female British musician, Amy Jade Winehouse. In addition, the psychological theory that has been selected is Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory (Erikson, 1950/1963), which is one of the more commonly used theories as mentioned above. The choice of this particular theory is based on its reputable contribution to developmental and personality psychology, its consideration of environmental influences on development, as well as the theorist’s demonstrative interest in case histories (Barresi & Juckes, 1997; Stevens, 2008).

4.3.2. Terms and definitions

Runyan (2000) describes a psychobiography simply as the use of a psychological theory in the research of a biography. However, Ponterotto (2015) provides a more comprehensive definition: an intense life-span study of an individual of historical significance within a socio- cultural context using a psychological theory. A psychobiography focuses primarily on the psychological background and behaviour of a person so as to understand the life of the individual and to be able to make deductions about the individual’s inner experiences, such as motives, coping techniques, goals and/or style of relating (Cara, 2007; Ponterotto, 2014; Schultz, 2005b; Schultz & Lawrence, 2017). Psychobiography studies further acknowledge the diverse expressions of personality and in turn, enhance the understanding that individuals have the potential to adapt to their environment (Howe, 1997; Ponterotto & Reynolds, 2017). According to McAdams (2009), the aim of a psychobiography is to discern, discover or formulate the central story of an individual’s entire life, from birth to death, while considering how a psychological theory can substantiate the understanding of the central story.

Howe (1997) and McAdams (2006) highlight that the individual whom the psychobiography research is conducted on needs to be an exemplary individual who has contributed to socio-historical contexts significantly. These selected subjects are usually 74

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY individuals that possess creative and enigmatic qualities (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010). Roberts (2002) reiterates that cultural and social contributions influence an individual’s life. As such, these contributions need to be considered when answering the specific psychologically potent question of the psycho-biographical study (Schultz & Lawrence, 2017).

As noted above, plenty of emphasis is placed on the description of a psychobiography, but Van Niekerk (2007, as cited in Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010) suggests five main and universal characteristics of psycho-biographical research. Firstly, the psycho-biographical research needs to align with the principles of qualitative research. Secondly, there needs to be a holistic and comprehensive approach when exploring the lifespan of the subject. Thirdly, the subject needs to be clearly identified. Fourth, the collection of data on the subject should always start with biographical information as well as information collected by other researchers (Schultz & Lawrence, 2017). Lastly, the information collected needs to be of psychological significance and not to solve a pre-set supposition. In the event that these five principles are not applied, the quality and validity of the psychobiography comes into question.

4.3.3. Psychobiography and related concepts 4.3.3.1. Autobiography and Biography

This study describes a biography as the consideration of both autobiographical and biographical sources. On the one hand, autobiographies are subjective texts on experiences and events written by individuals about their own lives from the first person singular perspective (Saccaggi, 2015). As a result, autobiographies are selective, biased and based on an individual’s own self-reflection and their internalised perspective of their lives (Bromley, 1986; Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005; McAdams, 2005; Saccaggi, 2015). On the other hand, biographies are life narratives written by an external author who makes use of a variety of sources and information when compiling the life-history of the selected subject (Bromley, 1986). The variety of sources and information used in a biography includes historical, literary and artistic information that relates to the life story of an individual (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005; Human, 2015; Saccaggi, 2015).

Psychobiography is in contrast described as the synthesis of the disciplines of psychology and biography, interpreting a life story from a third-person perspective which may not necessarily be the same as the story told by the subject directly (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005; McAdams, 2005). The benefit of interpreting a life story from a third-person perspective is that a scientifically-based psychological theory can explore factors that influenced an

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY individual’s life story (Cara, 2007; Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010). However, Elms (1994) cautions psycho-biographical researchers that although the interdisciplinary alliance of psychology and biography may be symbiotic, it is not always an easy process.

4.3.3.2. Life Stories, Life Narratives and Life Histories

Fouché and Van Niekerk (2005) describe life history research as the collection of autobiographical information by a researcher of a sociology or an anthropology background. The information is gathered by the researcher being involved in the research process because the life story is conveyed either orally or through writing with emphasis on the subjective aspects such as personal thoughts, feelings, motives and events as experienced by the researcher (Bromley, 1986; Cara, 2007; Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005; Saccaggi, 2015). Life story research differs from a psychobiography in that the life story research is limited to the use of autobiographical information to test hypotheses and examine relationships across many lives without necessarily requiring contextual information (McAdams, 1995; Saccaggi, 2015). According to Kőváry (2011), in a psycho-biographical study the dynamic narratives are understood as originating from an individual’s unique life story and the discipline of psychology is then used to attempt to understand how their personality development and/or identity came to be from their life narratives.

4.3.3.3. Psychohistories

The scope and definition of psychohistory is surrounded by considerable confusion due to the fact that there are two disciplines involved, namely psychology and history (Nel, 2013; Runyan, 1988). Moreover, the terms psychobiography and psychohistory are mistakenly used interchangeably (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005; Ponterotto, 2014; Saccaggi, 2015). Psychohistory is the systematic application of a psychological theory to historical events, while psychobiography is the formal application of a psychological theory to study the life of a significant individual (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005; Runyan, 1988; Schultz, 2005c). Psychohistory was developed to address the gap between the knowledge of individuals and the understanding of socio-historical processes (Pozzuto, 1982). In light of this, Runyan (1982a) proposed that psychobiography studies be categorised under individual psychohistory while group psychohistory explores collective experiences and associated characteristics.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

4.3.3.4. Psychological case-studies

As previously explained, psychobiography is categorised as an intrinsic and instrumental case study. Bromley (1986) describes psychological case-studies as a scientific reconstruction and interpretation. It is based on available evidence of an episode (or set of related episodes) in the life of a person (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005, p. 5). Thus, the difference between a psychological case-study and a psychobiography is that a psychological case-study focuses on particular events or emotional episodes within an individual’s life history, while a psychobiography analyses and/or interprets an individual’s whole lifespan (Bromley, 1986; Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005, 2010). In addition, a psychobiography study’s findings may have an impact on particular aspects of psychological theories (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010). Nevertheless, Elms (1994) describes the aim of a psychobiography and psychological case-study as the exploration of an individual’s life, or aspects of their lives, to be able to interpret meaningful themes of their individual experiences.

4.4. Value of Psycho-biographical Research Design 4.4.1. Idiographic lens

According to Allport (1937), an individual is initially regarded as an example of a universal principle of human behaviour. What he meant by this is that the only way a general psychological principle can be understood is by analysing and understanding an individual as a whole (Allport, 1937; Darroch, 1938). However, generalised psychology, which is nomothetically orientated, tends to select a single attribute or function and studies it in isolation, neglecting the complexity that makes up a single individual (Allport, 1937; Hermans, 1988; McLeod, 2007). It was during the lat e 19th century that it became important in the biographical approach to study human individuality in an idiographic way (Kőváry, 2011).The term idiographic comes from the Greek word “idios” meaning own or private and in psychology specifically, Allport (1937) uses it to describe the aspects of a person that make them unique (Hermans, 1988; McLeod, 2007). In contrast, the term nomothetic originates from the Greek word “nomos” meaning law and specifically in the psychology field, Allport (1937) refers to the establishment of laws or generalisations between people (Hermans, 1988; McLeod, 2007). McAdams (2006b) suggests that the narrative turn in psychological research has also revitalized personality psychology’s commitment to idiographic research. Therefore, Allport’s idiographic approach to personality

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY psychology is aimed at combining the different dimensions of individuality to highlight an individual’s subjective narrative and respectively, their personality development (McAdams, 2006b). Seeing as personality is made up of a dynamic organisation of psychophysical systems, it is far more beneficial to treat an individual as a special combination of capacities, accomplishments and tendencies along with their various levels of traits and interests (Allport, 1937; Chapman, 1938; McLeod, 2007).

The idiographic approach has been criticised for polarising the study of human behaviour into dimensions of what is either “particular” or “general” without calibrating a reasonable explanation for the uniqueness of the person as a whole (Hermans, 1988). For this reason, Allport (1937) suggested a change in the term idiographic to morphogenic, to account for the unique elements of an individual within the context of the whole. As such, psycho- biographical case studies encompass a morphogenic approach because they provide the opportunity to describe the individuality of a person within a specific historical and psychological context while providing a unique and holistic description of the individual (Human, 2015; Kasser, 2017; McLeod, 2007). McAdams (2006a) proposes that psycho- biographical studies may be of significant value to the field of psychology in general (nomothetic) and to the discipline of personality psychology in particular (idiographic) because they are an examination of complete lives with the aim to structure the central story of an individual’s life according to a psychological theory.

4.4.2. Socio-cultural and historical variables

The fact that psycho-biographical research is a morphogenic approach, it is assumed that individuals are interconnected and interdependent to their social contexts (Allport, 1937; Prenter, 2015). As such, recognising the socio-historical and cultural context provides a holistic description of an individual. It is important to consider the impact of cultural and subcultural influences on the psychological development of the individual (Carlson, 1988; Nel, 2013; Prenter, 2015; Runyan, 1982a). When conducting a life history research such as a psychobiography, the gestalt context is essential to situate the study (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005). The gestalt context accounts for the biographical subject’s socio-historical culture, socialisation processes and family history which influences the development of personality (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005; Runyan, 1982a). Thus, the acknowledgement of the gestalt context provides the opportunity for the researcher to develop a sense of empathy for the historical figure being studied (Anderson, 1981; Human, 2015). Theorists such as Alfred Adler

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

(1870-1937), Erik Erikson (1902-1980), and Henry Murray (1893-1988) argued that the use of psychologically informed biography is best understood when a life is captured within its historical context (McAdams, 2006a).

4.4.3. Longitudinal phenomenology

Case-based research such as a psychobiography is a longitudinal study which examines the detail unfolding of life events over time and situations (Edwards, Dattilio & Bromley, 2004; Prenter, 2015). However, unlike other longitudinal or clinical case studies, the analysis of completed life cycles used in psycho-biographical research provides an opportunity to trace personality developments (Carlson, 1988; Schultz & Lawrence, 2017). As such, patterns can be detected from the analysis of biographical data which contrasts with fragmented considerations of an isolated life event or feature as noted in some case study research (Munter, 1975). It is through narration that the process of change over time is noted and past experiences are reconstructed (Human, 2015; Mouton, 2013). Fiske (1988) refers to the process that enables a researcher to observe changes in behaviour and personality over time as the “personality in action” (Fiske, 1988, p.820). The benefits of being able to study an individual’s life over a period of time are that the dynamic changes in personality are illuminated while providing possible reasons for said changes (Fiske, 1988; Prenter, 2015). According to Fouché and Van Niekerk (2005), the different dimensions and processes in personality functioning can be analysed at any given time in any particular situation of the individual’s life narrative. Therefore, ‘finished lives’ enable the comprehensive description of personality developmental patterns and behavioural processes (Carlson, 1988).

4.4.4. Subjective reality

Psycho-biographical studies provide illuminating descriptions and understandings of the inner experiences, thoughts, behaviour and feelings of the subject (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005; Kőváry, 2011; Prenter, 2015; Runyan, 1982a). It is through these descriptions and understandings of an individual’s subjective reality that the researcher develops empathy for the historical figure being studied (Anderson, 1981). Psycho-biographical studies explain a subject’s reality more in depth than narrative biographies of the same subjects because psycho- biographical studies have an extensive focus on the subject’s inner motives and experiences (Itzkowitz & Volkan, 2003). Howe (1997) stated that the aspects of events which are observable to others are not as significant to the particular individual as their own perception

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY and experiences of the same events. This highlights the important role of subjective reality when conducting a psycho-biographical study (Nel, 2013).

4.4.5. Creative research

The link between creativity and personality functioning dates back to the 1950s (Kőváry, 2011). According to Blum (2001), psycho-biographical research arose from psychoanalytic inquiry on the foundations, development, directions and sublimated transformation of artistic creativity (Prenter, 2015). Papiasvili and Mayers (2011) suggest that there is a creative process in the research of human functioning highlighted by the psychoanalytic inquiry.

According to Schultz (2005a), many psychologists believe that creativity is a sign of an optimally functioning individual. The same author proposes that the psycho-biographical studies of artists assist in uncovering what makes the individual psychologically healthy and successful. According to Fouché and Van Niekerk (2010), psycho-biographical studies on exceptional individuals may reveal psychosocial factors that facilitate their development of psychological strengths and greatness (Prenter, 2015). However, artists are considered to be prototypical outliners in that they are not necessarily inclusive of personality theories but represent the outlier of artistic personality (Prenter, 2015; Schultz, 2005a).

4.4.6. Theory testing and development

One of the advantages of psychobiography is that it provides a useful means for testing, developing and refining current psychological theories (Carlson, 1988; Prenter, 2015; Roberts, 2002; Schultz, 2005a). Psycho-biographical research contributes to the development of existing psychological theories in that it can be used as an experiment that confirms or disproves theoretical constructs and hypotheses (Carlson, 1988; Edwards, 1998; Nel, 2013; Prenter, 2015; Roberts, 2002; Schultz, 2005a). Schultz and Lawrence (2017) mention a number of examples where life history studies were used to develop and refine theories. These examples include: (a) Freud (1990, as cited in Schultz & Lawrence, 2017) analysed Leonard da Vinci to explore the nature of homosexuality and sublimation; (b) Maslow (1993, as cited by Schultz & Lawrence, 2017) focused on biographies to investigate the self-actualisation process within the life span of the individual to be able to suggest a generalizable construct of an optimally evolved individual; (c) Laing (1965, as cited by Schultz & Lawrence, 2017) explored the phenomenon of the false-self system and the notion of ontological insecurity in the experience

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY of schizophrenic individuals; and (d) Schultz (2005a) explores the self-defining memory of the lives of Jack Kerouac, Diane Arbus, Truman Captoe, Franz Kafka, Kathryn Harrison and Sylvia Plath through psycho-biographical research studies. Needless to say, the intensive studies of personal lives, aids the development of theories while contributing to scientific advancements (Elms, 1994; Ponterotto & Reynolds, 2017).

Yin (2009) suggests that theory plays a critical role in data collection, analysis and generalisation of research endeavours. In the data collection and analysis process, theory guides what aspects to focus on while proving guidance on what to analyse from the collected data (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005; Human, 2015). Furthermore, the conceptualisation and operationalization of the case study is guided by the theoretical framework (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2005). Regarding generalisation of psycho-biographical research, it is assumed that analytical generalisation is implied as it accounts for comparison of case data to previously developed theory (Yin, 2009). In contrast, statistical generalisation would suggest comparisons of collected data to the population (Yin, 2009). Kőváry (2011) states that, at times, it is more valuable to investigate that which is personally significant as opposed to that which is statistically significant because single lives are powerful stimuli that drive research inquiry (Prenter, 2015). It is suggested that speculations derived from single case studies can lead to formal propositions which can be tested against a larger population at a later stage (Schultz, 2005a).

4.4.7. Significance within academic institutions

Kőváry (2011) describes the use of psycho-biographical studies as a valuable educational tool in that it can aid the development of clinical and research skills. The advantages of psycho-biographical research in postgraduate studies are that it is theoretically inclined, easily administered and logical which makes it a more user-friendly approach to research as opposed to ethically strenuous conventional clinical research on live participants (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010). Psycho-biographical studies contribute to the comprehensive knowledge of psychological functioning. It has the potential to enable the development of self- awareness and enhance empathetic skills required in the training of clinical practitioners (Kőváry, 2011). For this reason, institutions are encouraged to not only focus on quantitative research but to explore the benefits of qualitative single case study work as it communicates psychological knowledge in a relatable format (Kőváry, 2011; Prenter, 2015).

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Psycho-biographical research and publication thereof began gaining reputation in various tertiary institutions in the United States (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010). Additionally, in the South African contexts more and more universities are encouraging psychology postgraduates to take on psycho-biographical research endeavours (Fouché & Van Niekerk, 2010).

4.5. Chapter Summary

This chapter attempted to contextualise psychobiography within the field of qualitative research while exploring the aspects of phenomenology and case study research. Further, the developments within psycho-biographical research were described. A thicker definition of psychobiography studies was provided, along with the explanations of related terminology and concepts. This allowed for distinctions and clarifications to be made regarding what psycho-biographical research entails. Finally, the value of psycho- biographical endeavours were highlighted.

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

Chapter 5: Methodology

5.1. Chapter preview

This chapter will highlight the methodological procedures that were considered in conducting this psycho-biographical research study on Amy Jade Winehouse. It will begin by outlining the research objectives of this study then progress into the research design used. The four phases of qualitative data analysis as suggested by Miles et al. (2014) will be explored. These phases include data collection, data condensation, data display, and conclusion drawing and verification. Thereafter the methodological limitations will be discussed along with the considerations applied to account for these limitations. Furthermore, the measures taken to ensure trustworthiness during this study will be explained. Lastly, the ethical considerations taken along with my reflexivity will be discussed.

5.2. Research objectives

The primary aim of this research study is to write a psychobiography on Amy Jade Winehouse. A psychobiography is described as an in-depth understanding of an individual (Runyan; 1988). As such, it is an intensive life-span study. It takes a historically significant individual’s socio-cultural context into account whilst making use of historiographic research methods. Thereafter, interpretations are made from established theories of psychology (Ponterotto, 2015). The psychological theory that is incorporated to ground the understanding of Amy’s life, is Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development (1950/1963, 1959, 1964, 1968/1994, 1976, 1978, 1982, 1997). This psychological theory seeks to explain the processes that unfolded in the development of Amy’s personhood and how that was intertwined with her identity as a musician, which forms the secondary aim of this study. The third aim is to investigate the applicability of Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development to Amy’s life. These aims can be achieved through the following three objectives:

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY

3. To contribute to South Africa’s developing field of psychobiography research studies.

5.3. Research design

The qualitative research process in which psycho-biographical research endeavours are categorised under acknowledges the social construction of reality and confronts constraints of the everyday social world that may influence the study at hand (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). Qualitative research includes the process of exploration as well as description. On the one hand, the aim of description is to present valid and accurate findings, and on the other hand, exploration is the discovery or uncovering process of these findings (Gilgun, 1994). Denzin and Lincoln (2008) state that qualitative inquiry aims to explore and understand the pattern of relationships between people, objects and situations with the purpose of eliciting the personal meanings attributed to them. In single-case designs such as psycho-biographical research studies, a relatively unknown phenomenon is examined ideographically with the aim of producing an organised and coherent presentation of the phenomenon (Edwards, 1998; Nel, 2013).This particular process is known as exploratory-descriptive (Nel, 2013).

In addressing the primary aim of this study, the psychologically salient aspects of Amy Winehouse’s life will need to be explored and described. This research study intends to provide a comprehensive and holistic understanding of Amy Winehouse’s identity development while acknowledging the influence her context may have had on her life narrative. It is a longitudinal life history research with a single case idiographic design (Flick, 2009; Runyan, 1982a). The exploration and/or description in the research endeavour is aimed at achieving an accurate and comprehensive representation of Amy’s life. As such, it is characteristically descriptive- dialogical because it involves a form of dialogue between the exploratory-descriptive findings with the theoretical constructs and propositions of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory (Yin, 2009). The use of theory to direct the research on this selected individual is in line with what Denzin and Lincoln (2008) reported about research designs. That is, that they are a flexible set of guidelines that connect theoretical constructs to strategies of inquiry. Single-case research designs such as psycho-biographical studies are theoretically-driven research which further contribute to the testing of theoretical propositions, developing theories and refining existing psychological theories by contributing to their knowledge base (Carlson, 1988; McAdams, 1988, 2006a; Prenter, 2015; Roberts, 2002)

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5.4. Qualitative data analysis

Du Plessis (2017) produced an article outlining the steps to follow when conducting a psychobiography to ensure veracity, rigour, quality and trustworthiness in the qualitative research methodology process. She based her approach on the phases of qualitative data analysis developed by Miles et al. (2014). These authors provided an analytic framework to facilitate the process of analysis seeing as it is the most difficult aspect of the research endeavour. However, this study has been structured in accordance to the phases proposed by Miles at al. (2014) with acknowledgement of applicable steps as suggested by Du Plessis (2017).

Table 5: Steps in conducting a psychobiography

Phases Steps Step 1: Select a subject Step 2: Identify primary and secondary sources relating to the subject. Critically evaluate the potential usefulness of these sources.

Data collection Step 3: Identify the context in which the subject lived, and determine the amount of contextual data that is needed for the psychobiography. Access this data. Step 4: Select an appropriate psychological theory/theories.

Step 5: Allow the data to reveal itself (using Schultz’s markers of psychological salience). Step 6: Ask the data specific questions relating Data condensation to the subject being studied. Step 7: Develop coding strategies and code the data accordingly. Multiple coding strategies will usually be necessary.

Step 8: Select display formats (use multiple Data display formats if at all possible). Step 9: Integrate coding with display.

Conclusion drawing and verification Step 10: Write up of psychobiography.

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Step 11: Revision of psychobiography in relation to specific questions developed previously. Step 12: Evaluation of research process

5.4.1. Data Collection

The data collection phase consists of four steps, namely (a) selecting a subject; (b) identifying primary and secondary sources relating to the subject to critically evaluate the potential usefulness of these sources; (c) identifying the context in which the subject lived and determining the amount of contextual data that is needed for the psychobiography to access this data; and (d) selecting an appropriate psychological theory/theories. Kőváry (2011) states that data collection follows the subject selection process.

In psycho-biographical research a specific subject is chosen to be investigated (Kőváry, 2011). The subject selection is conducted through focused, non-probable, purposive or theoretical sampling (Barbour, 2001; Flick, 2009; Morrow, 2005). Purposive sampling permits the selection of an individual that is information rich (Maree & Pietersen, 2016). According to Strydom and Delport (2011), the researcher’s judgement is an important factor in determining the characteristics and attributes that is required to ensure the available data is rich in description. Neuman (2003) states that non-probable and purposive sampling is suitable to psycho-biographical research because: (a) it assists in accomplishing a deep and meaningful understanding of the subject; (b) the research being conducted is selective and/or specialised; and (c) it allows for the description and exploration of the subject whom is characteristically individual and unique.

According to Fouché and Van Niekerk (2010), a psychobiography is a systematic and descriptively-rich study of an exceptional and contentious individual within a socio-historical context that is studied through a psychological reference point. As such, a suitable subject is one that has historical significance as there should be an abundance of data available to enable the researcher to conduct a psycho-biographical analysis (Elms, 1994; Saccaggi, 2015; Schultz, 2005c). Another important factor to acknowledge in the selection process of the subject, is that the decision is somewhat based on the researcher’s own particular interest which makes the process necessarily subjective (Kőváry, 2011). Therefore, the selected subject is someone that the researcher perceives is an extraordinary individual whom has influenced the general public significantly despite their inevitable shortcomings (Howe, 1997). Elms (1994) emphasises that 86

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY the selection of a subject for a psychobiography has to be an individual that has achieved a substantial amount of recognition for their actions, whether positive or negative.

During the subject selection process, the following questions as suggested by Du Plessis (2017) were explored:

1. Why am I (as the researcher) selecting this specific subject? 2. What are my feelings towards this subject? 3. What do I want to know about this subject? 4. Is there sufficient information available concerning this subject?

The subject selection of Amy Jade Winehouse was indeed subjective in nature as the young British jazz musician appealed to me as the researcher for numerous reasons. Firstly, a pilot literature study on the life history of Amy revealed that there was sufficient information about Amy in the public domain to be used for a psychobiography research endeavour. I found her life fitting within the context of psycho-biographical research studies because within her short life-span she was one of the most influential entertainment icons of the twenty first century. It was her powerful voice and original lyrics that gave her a unique image as a musician. Secondly, I as the researcher found her lyrics to be meaningful and that they were based on her life experiences. It seemed that she used this platform as a means of communicating her emotions. Thirdly, my feelings towards the subject were more positive than negative as I enjoy her music but it was through this research study that my interest and empathy towards her grew. Fourthly, when formulating the research objectives, I found it important to intend to understand Amy as a holistic individual rather than just Amy as a musician. As such, it is important to acknowledge the socio-historical context within which her identity emerged from.

The availability of suitable quantity and quality of data is encouraged through the use of primary and secondary data sources which facilitate insight into various psychological aspects of an individual’s functioning (Du Plessis, 2017; Saccaggi, 2015). As such, this study engaged in both primary (data produced by Amy Winehouse herself) and secondary published sources (data produced about Amy Winehouse by other people) which helped create a rich and varied perspective from which to draw insights from about Amy’s life. The primary sources used were mainly lyrics from Amy’s songs which she wrote herself, films that contained her direct viewpoints and a variety of media interviews. Furthermore, secondary sources were predominantly used which provided valuable biographical information in the form of

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY biographical books, an academic article, newspaper reports and magazine articles. The number of primary sources was limited which did not provide enough biographical information on, and/or insight into the development, life narrative and identity formation of Amy. The search for and selection of published data sources for this study was conducted via the World-Wide- Web and the information-system services at the University of Johannesburg libraries which included journal and book collections from various local as well as international publications. The sources of data used are indicated in the reference list of this study. Additionally, the list below provided to be the most informative sources which are provided so that they may be consulted, examined and reviewed by other researchers (Yin, 2009).

Table 6: Primary and Secondary sources used Primary sources Secondary sources Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015 Johnstone, 2011 Aabech & Simpson, 2017 McCrudden, 2016 Newkey-Burden, 2014 Salewicz, 2011 J. Winehouse, 2014 M. Winehouse, 2012

As noted by Rudestam and Newton (2007), and Yin (2009), there are five benefits for collecting and analysing published materials which include: (a) published material represent stable data sources that could be reviewed repeatedly; (b) published materials are useful for verifying information such as dates and the correct spelling of names and titles; (c) information can be corroborated for factual accuracy; (d) published materials are relatively accessible; and (e) the researcher can retrieve and study the material at length and at his or her convenience. However, Yin (2009) argues that published data may be subject to author bias, which compromises the credibility of the information. To address this concern, I consulted, examined and reviewed a number of sources to help support the research study. This is referred to as data triangulation which enhances the objectivity, dependability and the credibility of the research study (Willig, 2013; Yin, 2009). As such, the data was triangulated through comprehensive measures by extensively examining multiple sources (Burnell, 2013; Cohen & Crabtree, 2008; Creswell & Miller, 2000; Yin, 2009).

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5.4.2. Data condensation

The process of data condensation is described as the discard of non-vital information Miles et al., 2014). In order to begin the process of data condensation, it is important to allow the data to reveal itself (Alexander, 1990). What this means is that psychological salient information is brought to the fore through the assistance of primary indicators. Alexander (1990) identified nine indicators (see table below) that guide the initial reading of the data so that important scenes in Amy’s life were methodologically and systematically identified:

Table 7: Primary indicators of psychological saliency Any repeated communications, themes, scenes, events or happenings, means end Frequency sequences, relationship patterns, conflicts, obsessions, and so on. What comes first in a text occasionally tells Primacy us more than anything else, or tells us something uniquely significant. The effort by a subject to, in effect, italicize a happening in some way. This can assume Emphasis the form of over-, under-, or misplaced emphasis. The so-called “come again?” criterion, at issue when material jarringly stands out Isolation from surrounding text, and thus seems not to fit at all. Material that is marked by the subject as Uniqueness unprecedented or somehow especially singular. When a subject begins a story but neglects to finish it, in effect trailing off without Incompletion adding necessary details, a kind of avoidance to reach a conclusion. The act of getting, say, a memory wrong or Error and/or distortion distorting what really happened. Information in the life narrative that is Omission insufficient or lacking. Strenuous disavowal especially in the Negation absence of any positive assertion to the contrary.

The use of the abovementioned primary indicators facilitated the process of identification of the psychologically significant factors in Amy’s life. However, Schultz

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(2005c) reported that the indicators alone may result in hundreds of psychological salient scenes across the lifespan which can be overwhelming (Saccaggi, 2015). As a result, Schultz (2005c)’s criteria to identify prototypical scenes was used to be able to further substantiate the core features that made up the important moments in Amy’s life. Schultz (2005c) claims that “all prototypical scenes are salient, but not all salient scenes rise to prototypical status” (p.49). These prototypical scenes have great psychological significance because they have impacted the way an individual’s personality develops (Saccaggi, 2015; Schultz, 2005c). Furthermore, the guidelines for identification of the prototypical scenes are explained in the table below:

Table 8: Keys to identifying “prototypical scenes” Vividness, specificity and emotional Such scenes are never “lukewarm” intensity emotionally. Focus is intense, colour emphasised, dialogue recounted with precision, characters carefully positioned. Interpenetration Such scenes permeate or leak into a number of different contexts or activities or creative products (stories, poems, novels, memoir). Developmental crisis Such scenes entail a “decisive encounter” between a person and a particular sort of conflict, for instance Identity versus Role Confusion or Initiative versus Guilt. Family conflict Such scenes more specifically focus in on conflict within the family between, say, a daughter and father or two brothers or a son and a mother. Thrownness Such scenes place the subject in a situation that violates the status-quo. Something anomalous or surprising transpires, producing a feeling of disequilibrium. The normally taken-for-granted suddenly cannot be; old ways of making sense do not suffice. Repetitive story-telling thus allows one to extract meaning from the event, to decrease its unfamiliarity, the anxiety it provokes.

Following the identification of psychological salient information and the further categorisation of this psychological salient information into prototypical scenes, the data was reviewed to address particular questions. Alexander (1988) suggested that these particular questions are to be conceptually and theoretically constructed to be able to ensure that the answers align with the research objectives (Verwey, 2018). At this stage, Erikson’s

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(1950/1963; 1976; 1982b) eight stages of psychosocial development were used as the theoretical backdrop to which Amy’s prototypical life scenes were corresponded to. According to Saccaggi (2015), the linkage of the prototypical scenes introduces the formal psychological theory (that is, Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages) as an explanatory paradigm. Therefore, the questions that were posed to the data in order to achieve the research objectives were:

(a) Which of the prototypical scenes and psychological salient information would enable and facilitate the exploration and description of Amy’s psychosocial development? (b) To what extent does Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages help explain and facilitate understanding of Amy’s psychological functioning?

In answering the first question, I started by conducting an extensive literature review on both the life narrative of Amy Winehouse (as depicted in Chapter Two) as well as the core concepts associated with Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory (as depicted in Chapter Three). Thereafter, the prototypical scenes and the psychological salient information were evaluated according to the psychosocial developmental stages and recommended age ranges. These stages were used chronologically to organise the prototypical scenes and the psychological salient information into manageable chunks. Thereafter, they were organised into a matrix provided in the data display section of this chapter.

The second question relates to the appropriateness and applicability of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory in explaining Amy’s psychological functioning. In order to answer this, Amy’s prototypical scenes were evaluated in terms of ego virtues and whether the virtues were attained or not. The attainment of these virtues was not purely developmental, but rather whether a specific virtue could manifest or may be re-visited at any point in the individual’s life. The consideration of ego virtues as an indicator of psychological functioning assisted the exploration of the impact of the different prototypical scenes on Amy’s personality development by organising them according to the psychosocial stages. This, in turn, simplified the understanding of Amy’s psychological functioning by providing a framework through which functioning could be understood (attaining a certain ego virtue and/or resolving a certain psychosocial crisis).

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5.4.3. Data display

The display of data phase follows the data condensation phase. Miles et al. (2014) highlight that data display is a vital part of the research process because it allows the condensed data to be presented in a way that facilitates interpretation and drawing of conclusions. The most commonly used method of data display is extended text (Miles et al., 2014; Yin, 2009). The key feature of extended texts is that it involves the categorisation or grouping of large portions of information into meaningful chunks of data that are used to write up the psychological portrait of the selected individual in correlation to their life periods (Du Plessis, 2017; Saccaggi, 2015). Yin (2009) proposed that the researcher develops his or her own strategies in order to sort through and structure the vast amount of collected data (Burnell, 2013). Miles et al. (2014) and Yin (2009) caution that extended text alone may be a challenge in qualitative research because the amount of data displayed in extended text complicates or detracts from an accurate analysis of data (Verwey, 2018).

Miles et al. (2014) added that data display should move beyond text displays to incorporate additional visual formats such as tables, graphs and conceptual or analytical matrices. As such, analytical matrices developed during the data collection phase can provide the researcher with focal points, suggest preliminary study findings, and highlight gaps in the existing data (Miles et al., 2014). Matrices help condense and arrange the data in terms of patterns and themes which allow the researcher to make comparisons and detect differences (Miles et al., 2014).

With regards to this study, both extended texts and visual display formats were used. Initially, I as the researcher made use of extended text in both the literature review on Amy’s life as well as in the chapter explaining Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development. In addition to this, I as the researcher also made use of visual display of data in the form of tables as noted in Chapter Three and Five. Lastly, the use of a conceptual matrix (see table below) guided the integration of the theory chapter along with Amy’s life narrative. I as the researcher used a conceptual matrix in applying, integrating and organising the psychosocial developmental stages across Amy’s historical lifespan. As noted below, the blue shaded blocks represent the psychosocial stages with an associate significant life event in Amy’s life. Some of the life events are associated with one or some psychosocial crises as noted below:

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Table 9: Matrix of psychosocial development over the historical lifespan of Amy Winehouse

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development Significant Pre- Basic life events in birth Autonomy Initiative Industry Identity Intimacy Trust the life versus versus versus versus versus versus narrative of Shame and Guilt Inferiority Role Isolation Mistrust Amy Doubt Confusion

Winehouse

Pre-birth factors and dynamics around her birth Amy’s relationship with Alex Amy’s relationship with Mitchell Amy’s nickname, Nudge Amy’s relationship with Cynthia Amy’s relationship with Juliette Ashby Susi Earnshaw Theatre School Amy’s relationship with jazz music Janis and Mitchell’s Divorce Amy’s Self- harming behaviour Amy’s Mental Illness Sylvia Young Theatre School Amy’s Substance Use

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The Mount School The relationship between Tony, his children and Amy Brit School WENN Amy’s relationship with Chris Taylor National Youth Orchestra Frank Amy’s relationship with Blake Fielder-Civil Rehabilitation Back to Black

5.4.4. Conclusion drawing and verification

At this phase of the research process, conclusions are drawn and they are verified in an analytical process where critical interpretations of individual patterns are made from the condensed data (Miles et al., 2014). It is important to approach these interpretations with openness and scepticism (Miles et al., 2014). Schultz (2005b) highlights that “psychobiographies (sic) persuade in another sense when their conclusions rest on a convergence of evidence” (p.7). It is important to note that throughout the research process, preliminary conclusions are made which are subject to change once the data reduces (Miles et al., 2014). Du Plessis (2017) emphasises that it is important to revisit and evaluate whether the psychobiography has answered the research questions posed regarding the subject under investigation.

This final stage of conclusion-drawing involves the verification of the conclusions reached so as to evaluate the quality of the overall research process (Saccaggi, 2015). As such, the conclusions and/or findings need to continuously be revised for confirmability and plausibility (Miles et al., 2014; Verwey, 2018). Additionally, it is important to reflect on the researchers feelings regarding the subject and explore how these feelings may or may not have

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY influenced the conclusions that has been drawn (Du Plessis, 2017). In the event that the conclusions are not verified, the following results may manifest: (a) information overload; (b) the salience of first impressions or dramatic events; (c) co-occurrences may be construed as causal relationships; and (d) there may be a use of unreliable data (Miles et al., 2014).

This psychobiography study was written in chronological order in reference to Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development. Seeing as the data condensation strategies used already matched Amy’s life events to the psychosocial developmental stages, conclusions and inferences were drawn in accordance to these strategies. It was the ego virtues that guided the construction of the life narrative rather than simple chronological interpretation based on life events occurring at specific age ranges as one life event may have impacted other developmental stages and contributed to the resolution of the psychosocial crises. Additionally, the interpretations and assumptions made with regards to the psychological understanding of Amy’s life were tentative. The following section investigates the methodological limitations inherent in psycho-biographical research and explains how these limitations were accounted for. Thereafter, the process of trustworthiness is discussed along with the evaluation of the quality of the conclusions drawn.

5.5. Methodological limitations of a psychobiography and considerations applied to address these limitations

5.5.1. Amount of biographical data is infinite

In psycho-biographical research, psychological theories are applied to biographical data such as diaries, letters, autobiographies, biographies, photographs, songs, journals and stories (Fouché & van Niekerk, 2010). The problem is that the biographical data available is infinite and this poses a challenge in the research process of psychobiography studies because too many narratives of the selected subject can be overwhelming for the researcher (Kőváry, 2011; Schultz, 2005c).

Seeing as Amy was a world famous musician, there is a wide variety of interviews, biographies, newspaper articles, documentaries and music available in the public domain regarding her life narrative. As a result, it was necessary to employ strategies to reduce primary and secondary data sources to those that were the most psychologically salient. This was done through the application of two methods as suggested by Irving Alexander (1988, 1990). Firstly,

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I as the researcher allowed “the data to reveal itself” to be able to manage the large amount of data in smaller proportions and to “break the conscious communicational intent of the content” (Alexander, 1988, p.268). This was achieved through the usage of the primary indicators of psychological saliency as depicted in table 7. This method of “extraction by salience” involves the sorting of raw data into psychologically salient or important features that make up the life of the selected subject (Alexander, 1988, p.269). It is the primary indicators of psychological saliency that guided me, the researcher, through the data condensation process to work through the overwhelming amount of data (McAdams, 2006a). Secondly, I as the researcher asked the data questions as a means to identify relevant and prominent information that was in line with the research objectives (Alexander, 1988, 1990). These questions are illustrated in section two of this chapter.

5.5.2. Analysis of an absent subject

Kasser (2017) states that the American Psychological Association (APA) provides little guidance with regards to the ethical considerations which need to be complied with when conducting a psychobiography. Ponterotto and Reynolds (2017) attempt to explore the critical issues regarding the type of individuals to be selected as ethical candidates for psychobiography studies, as well as what information may be used in the study (Kasser, 2017). In an attempt to guide researchers with ethical issues of studies on absent subjects (i.e. a deceased individual), Ponterotto and Reynolds (2017) introduced the decision-making model. Firstly, this model considers the time frame of the historical subject’s life and the writing of a psychobiography. Secondly, it considers whether appropriate time is given post-mortem before sensitive, confidential and personal information is revealed about the subject (Ponterotto & Reynolds, 2017).

The interaction between the psycho-biographical subject and the researcher is characteristically different from either the relationship that exists between an interviewer and participant or a relationship between a psychotherapist and their patients (Anderson, 1981; Verwey, 2018). Psycho-biographical studies are usually conducted on an absent subject, which follows the ethical decision-making model as stated above, avoiding issues of confidentiality and consent forms involved in contexts such as therapy (Carlson, 1988; Elms, 1994). However, interpreting the life of a deceased subject means that the researcher is unable to access the subject directly and is reliant on historical data (Human, 2015). This means that the available data on the absent subject is usually archival and secondary sources (Anderson, 1981; Schultz,

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2005a) which may not contain as much quality and detail as would be available from direct contact with the subject (Anderson, 1981; Runyan, 1988; Saccaggi, 2015). Some examples of these sources include biographies, documentaries, films, journal articles, newspaper articles, autobiographies, books, diary entries, drawings, songs, public interviews and speeches as well as possible interviews with family and friends of the psycho-biographical subject (Anderson, 1981; Izenberg, 2003; Runyan, 1982b).

Despite the fact that conclusions made from studies on an absent subject are speculative (Saccaggi, 2015), the advantage of using the types of sources listed in the previous paragraph is that there is a vast and diverse amount of available biographical information because the entire life span is considered. This, in turn, allows for behavioural and consequential pattern processes across the lifespan of the subject to be identified, providing an integrative and holistic analysis of the subject’s life narrative (Verwey, 2018).

I as the researcher used numerous data sources seeing as the subject was inaccessible directly. These sources include the biography as depicted by Newkey-Burden (2014); the books written by Salewicz (2011), J. Winehouse (2014) and M. Winehouse (2012); unpublished honours research project written by Malakou (2015); the documentaries as complied by Gay- Rees and Kapadia (2015), as well as Aabech and Simpson (2017) as well as songs from the albums Frank and Back to Black, which all included information on Amy that was both intimate and personal. Thereafter, I as the researcher applied Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages onto Amy’s life, viewing it historically and highlighting both resolved and unresolved psychosocial crises across her life span. I as the researcher continued to explore the life events and subsequently, the effects these life events had on the developing identity, through the use of various sources depicting the complete life of Amy Winehouse, from birth to death.

5.5.3. Bias of psycho-biographical research

In psychobiography studies, the researcher interacts with the detailed life narrative of the subject so as to generate meaningful conclusions and understandings of the subject’s personality development (Anderson, 1981). During the research process, it seems inevitable that the researcher will experience countertransference-like reactions toward the subject being researched (Anderson, 1981; Erikson, 1974; Meissner, 2003). Anderson (1981) states that countertransference could be turned into an advantage should a researcher recognise it because it may indicate how others might have reacted towards or felt about the subject (Nel, 2013). 97

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Furthermore, it is important to understand the sources of the feelings experienced by the researcher so as to differentiate what feelings other researchers may have when conducting a similar study and what feelings are exclusively idiosyncratic (Anderson, 1981). The researcher’s awareness to his or her own emotional issues improves comprehension into the choice of subject and how findings are interpreted (Lawton, 2012).

The psycho-biographical researcher is encouraged to recognize that the limitations to objectivity may lead to belittle or idealize the selected subject (Elms, 1994; Meissner, 2003; Verwey, 2018). The selected subject’s characteristics may be accentuated resulting in the idealization of the subject by the researcher (Verwey, 2018). This idealization of the selected subject may be influenced by the fame and/or recognition of selected subject in the historical context, and/or due to the fact that the researcher spends an extended period of time examining the intimate and personal information of the subject (Anderson, 1981; Verwey, 2018). Meissner (2003) cautioned against findings that may be a projection of the researchers own identity and personality development as noted in Freud’s psychobiography on Leonard da Vinci (Freud, 1957; Elms, 1988).

In an attempt to reduce the bias in psycho-biographical research, it is important to apply disciplined subjectivity (Anderson, 1981; Erikson, 1974). Erikson (1974) defines disciplined subjectivity as an affective-cognitive interplay in which the researcher acknowledges that her or his perception of the selected subject is directly influenced by her or his own affective states, assumptions, biases and values. As such, the acknowledgement and awareness of the researcher’s bias may assist in developing a more neutral position to the subject. It is also encouraged that the researcher should develop a sense of empathy towards the subject by considering aspects that makes the subject unique and considering their experiences, defences, attitudes and values (Anderson, 1981; Nel, 2013). This aids the researcher not to assume a disparaging stance towards the subject (Anderson, 1981; Elovitz, 2003). Furthermore, it is important to engage in personal reflexivity while applying disciplined subjectivity and developing a sense of empathy towards the selected subject.

As suggested by Elms (1994), I as the researcher chose a subject that I felt ambivalent towards as I had limited prior knowledge to Amy Winehouse. I as the researcher became fascinated by her contribution towards the music industry and was provided the opportunity to extend on the work done by Malakou (2015). I as the researcher found that as the data condensed and was analysed, my appreciation and empathy grew towards Amy. It was my

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY engagement with her life narrative through the documentaries and books written by her parents that facilitated my empathetic stance. However, my feelings towards her and conclusions drawn were reviewed through reflective practices of regular supervision, personal psychotherapy and discussions with colleagues. As such, I as the researcher engaged in disciplined subjective practices as explained above. Additionally, my training as a clinical psychologist provides an inclination to pathological identification which was especially noted in the interpretation of Mitchell being an emotionally absent father. However, my supervisor made me aware of this and interpretations made were deemed speculative. The final draft of this study will be submitted for external examination to ensure an objective review.

5.5.4. Cross-cultural differences

According to Anderson (1981), many psycho-biographical researchers are under the false assumption that fixed psychological theories are sufficient to analyse the lives of the selected subjects without considering that personality development is influenced by factors of social, economic, cultural, political and historical relevance. Runyan (1982a) further explains that individuals do not exist in a vacuum but are influenced by their socio-historical contexts and social institutions of which they belong in. The problem is exacerbated when the choice of psychological theory for analysis of a subject’s life is not categorically cross-cultural (Anderson, 1981). Therefore, it is advised that cultural empathy is to be cultivated when selecting a psychological theory to be able to encapsulate the subject’s viewpoint while being contextually sensitive (Anderson, 1981; Elovitz, 2003). This will allow for a comprehensive, extensive and holistic understanding of how the contextual factors influenced the experiences and development of the subject’s narrative (Anderson, 1981; Neuman, 2003).

The use of psychosocial developmental theory is deemed appropriate because Erikson acknowledged the importance of culture and society on the developing psyche. He too was raised Jewish much like Amy and both theorist and subject were influenced by Eurocentric views. However, I as the researcher remained mindful that the theory was developed in a different context to that of Amy and took that into consideration while drawing the conclusions. A large amount of time spent researching Amy’s life allowed insights into various cultural- historical contexts of Amy’s life noted in Chapter Two (the life of Amy Winehouse) and Chapter Six (findings and discussion) (Malakou, 2015). Amy and I share differences in home language, geographical location, occupation, economic status, celebrity status and social

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY influence. These variances were reflected upon while considering the primary and secondary sources in order to develop cultural empathy during the write up of this study.

5.5.5. Easy genre

Some critics consider psychobiography studies to be an easy genre because it is idiographic in nature and consists of a sample size of a single subject (Runyan, 1988). This also brings about the issue of the lack of generalizability as it does with other case study research (Yin, 2009). However, it has been established that the value of single case study research, like psychobiography studies, is that it is contextually situated with focus on how economic, political, and/or social factors impacts the subject’s life (Willig, 2013). Therefore, psycho-biographical research contributes to a deeper, richer, and holistic understanding of individuality by acknowledging change and development over time (Elms, 1994; Willig, 2013). This in turn enables flexibility in identifying psychological patterns that may contribute to the development of new theories or expand on existing theories (Elms, 1994; Verwey, 2018). This is especially noted in good, persuasive psychobiography studies that require extensive knowledge in psychology and literary skilfulness (Elms, 1994; McAdams, 2006a; Runyan, 1988; Schultz, 2005a).

According to Schultz (2005a), the process of conducting a psychobiography begins with the examination of a vast amount of available biographical information with historical and personal value, followed by the life narrative of the subject being explored with interpretations and propositions made, with a psychological framework in mind. The findings are contextually situated because the researcher is expected to engage extensively in aspects of cultural, economic, political and social factors that have influenced the life narrative of the selected subject (McAdams, 2006a; Runyan, 1988). Therefore, it is evident that psychobiography research contributes to the discipline of psychology through analysis of a historically significant figure’s life, by illuminating the psychological dimensions that contribute to differences and/or similarities between the general population and the subject (Runyan, 1988; Verwey, 2018).

Throughout this research endeavour, I as the researcher consulted a vast amount of literary sources to be able to gain a holistic understanding of Amy’s life. This served to be a complex task as there are numerous sources that were consulted with the intention to discover salient information. I as the researcher of this study, compiled three literature review chapters, namely the life of Amy Winehouse (Chapter Two), Erikson’s psychosocial developmental 100

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY stages (Chapter Three) as well as a review of the theoretical framework of psychobiography (Chapter Four) which required a mammoth of reading. As such, it was not an easy research endeavour to engage in seeing as multiple steps were taken while writing up the above mentioned chapters to ensure the methodological rigour as discussed in this chapter.

5.5.6. Exceptions that are inflated

As previously stated, the aim of a psycho-biographical study is to apply a psychological theory to the lifespan of an individual with the expectation of psychological salient information to emerge regarding their identity and personality development. The application of psychological theory comes with certain limitations which include explanations or descriptions that are distinctively psychological while neglecting other types of explanations such as historical, economic or political factors (Anderson, 1981; Verwey, 2018). This is when expectations are described as inflated (Verwey, 2018). To counter this, the psycho-biographical researcher is encouraged to acknowledge the existing limitations in understanding the complexity of the subject because descriptions and explanations may either be complimentary to the selected psychological theory or they may have alternative outcomes (Anderson, 1981; Elovitz, 2003). Anderson (1981) proposes that psycho-biographical researchers should keep their explanations as speculative, as such any descriptions, conclusions, findings, and interpretations made are, provisional.

I as the researcher acknowledge that there are inherent limitations in the psycho- biographical methodology that do not fully explain the complexity that was Amy Winehouse. It is, thus, important to emphasise that the psychological explanations made in this study serve to add to and not to replace the understanding of Amy as a person. Thus, the aim is to formulate a psychological profile of Amy that has internal consistency but does not propose any finalised conclusions about her life. Furthermore, I as the researcher do not claim to have analysed Amy from every context nor does the research study claim to have uncovered the multi-faceted nature that makes up Amy in her entirety. This study is merely a proposed psychological explanation of her identity development through the lens of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages.

5.5.7. Reductionism

Reductionism is another limitation of psycho-biographical research. Reductionism is the act of reducing the complex explanation of concepts such as personality development and

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY behaviour, into oversimplified causal descriptions. The reductionist approach neglects to acknowledge contextual factors and/or influences on the personality development. Runyan (1988) explains that psycho-biographical research tends to overemphasize psychological factors at the expense of external social and historical factors. As such, there is a need to adequately acknowledge the complexity of a person by taking the cultural, economic, political and social factors into account as it influences the person’s life narrative. Triandis and Suh (2002) further state that psycho-biographical researchers need to acknowledge that personality development is influenced by a person’s culture, their adjustment to the environment, as well as the unique cognitions, emotions and habits that stimulate their expression.

In the context of adult characteristics and behaviour, Runyan (1982a) explains that reductionism would be to exclusively define it by early childhood experiences while neglecting the influences of formative years (Schultz, 2005b). Erikson (1969) terms this habitual effort of finding the causes of a person’s whole development in their childhood conflict as originology (sic) (Elms, 1994; Runyan, 1988).

Another factor of reductionism is that psychobiography studies tend to focus excessively on psychopathological processes and give insufficient attention to normality and creativity (Runyan, 1988). Anderson (1981) states that there is a focus on psychopathology and identification of pathographic (sic) processes while denying experiences that are normative, non-traumatic and influential known as psychological strengths. Therefore, a psychobiography needs to incorporate both psychological strengths and weaknesses to form a comprehensive and holistic depiction of the subject’s life (Runyan, 1988).

Anderson (1981) suggests four strategies in which to minimise reductionism. The first one is through the use of multiple sources that provide conclusions based on a “convergence of evidence” (Schultz, 2005b, p. 7). There were numerous data sources consulted, examined and reviewed so as to provide an in-depth analysis of the sociohistorical context through which Amy’s life narrative emerged from. The second strategy employed in order to address reductionism, is acknowledging that the complexity of Amy’s life is situated in her social and cultural contexts, which was done before proceeding to the analysis of Amy’s life through the eight psychosocial developmental stages (as noted in Chapter Six). This holistic consideration of Amy’s life was inclusive of the eugraphic (sic) approach (Elms, 1994), which involves the acknowledgement of healthy and well-adjusted factors within Amy’s life narrative. This approach assists in avoiding pathologizing (sic) the subject. In accordance, both Amy’s ego

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY strengths and weaknesses were acknowledged in the corresponding psychosocial developmental stages. The entire lifespan was considered and not any particular period of development, this served to minimize originology (sic).

The third strategy is to acknowledge that a psychobiography and its corresponding use of a psychological theory are one viewpoint through which to understand an individual’s personality (Anderson, 1981). Additionally, the conclusions of this study were drawn from Amy’s emergent life narrative and not fitting it into the psychosocial developmental stages, allowing for theoretical flexibility and eclecticism (Anderson, 1981; Roets, 2015; Runyan, 1982b; Schultz, 2005a).

The final strategy is to avoid excessive use of psychological jargon and that the use of psychological terms is always backed up by thorough explanations. This has been illustrated in Chapter Three where terminology from Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory was first thoroughly explained. This chapter provided the reader with a psychological backdrop from which to refer back to when reading through the findings and discussion chapter (Chapter Six).

5.6. Trustworthiness considerations 5.6.1. Credibility (Internal validity/authenticity)

According to Shenton (2004), it is important that a qualitative study investigates what it intends to investigate in the first place. This is achieved through the credibility, internal validity and/or authenticity of the data. Miles et al. (2014) reports that authenticity in qualitative research enhances the credibility of the conclusions and findings of a research study. Therefore, inferences that are drawn need to be plausible and clearly supported by the research design (Yin, 2009). Furthermore, credibility refers to the accurate interpretation of the available data, which is the true value of the research process (Miles et al., 2014; Neuman, 2003; Runyan, 1983). Neuman (2003) equates credibility to causality which is the accurate description of causal relationship between conditions. However, Miles et al. (2014) emphasise that the goal of qualitative research is not to establish causal relationship but instead, credibility should measure the quality of the research process, how well the research question is addressed and how accurate are the research conclusions (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004; Prenter, 2015).

To be able to credibility in qualitative research, Willig (2013) proposes triangulation which is the assessment of complementary data sources and methods that are used to achieve 103

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY analytically converging information. Triangulation is the use of multiple data sources (Barbour, 2001), for the purpose of ensuring interpretations can be verified and repeated (Burnell, 2013; Stake, 1995; Willig, 2013). It is used to achieve a holistic understanding of the subject while simultaneously avoiding bias (Flick, 2014; Saccaggi, 2015). In the beginning of psychobiography research studies such as Freud’s work, inferences were made on singular references (Elms, 1988). Freud later stated that singular references do not contribute to satisfactory analysis in psychobiography studies and as such conclusions require multiple perspectives (Elms, 1988). There are four types of triangulations, (1) data triangulation, (2) researcher triangulation, (3) theory triangulation, and (4) methodological triangulation (Burnell, 2013; Flick, 2009; Yin, 2009). Firstly, data triangulation requires the use of various primary and secondary data sources aimed at corroborating information on the same subject. It can therefore help avoid bias and formulate a holistic, comprehensive and accurate research study (Schultz, 2005a). Secondly, researcher triangulation refers to the use of different researchers who examine the same study to reduce bias and allow for further insights into conclusions (Tindall, 1999). Thirdly, theory triangulation is the use of different theories to analyse the same data allowing different perspectives on the same data to be gathered. It enables the acknowledgement of contextual subjectivity which accounts for the complexity and multiplicity of the subject (Verwey, 2018). Lastly the methodological triangulation is the use of different analytical methods which enable the data collection to be comprehensive and holistic while the conclusions that are drawn are open to critical evaluation (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The table below includes the criterion as set out by Miles et al. (2014) as well as the steps taken to ensure credibility, authenticity and/or internal validity in the research process:

Table 10: Steps taken to ensure credibility/internal validity/authenticity Tabular format followed in accordance to Saccaggi (2015) and adapted from the guidelines proposed by Miles et al. (2014).

CRITERION STEPS TAKEN 1. Context-rich, meaningful and thick descriptions. As noted in Chapter Six, descriptions have been aimed at linking patterns of behaviour to Amy’s life events. Thereafter, they have been presented in a detailed psychobiography that has incorporated a wide range of data.

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2. Account rings true, seem convincing or plausible. Although conclusions made are tentative, they have been supported by evidence from the data and not speculating beyond the data. 3. Triangulation produces generally converging conclusions. Multiple methods of triangulation have been used: (1) Data triangulation: There has been multiple primary and secondary data sources used to that depict the life of Amy Winehouse. (2) Researcher triangulation: There was continued discussion and feedback received from my supervisor. After this minor dissertation has been complied, it will be reviewed by external examiners. (3) Methodological triangulation: different data analytic strategies were employed. 4. Data is linked to theory. Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory was used to contextualise the findings and discussion chapter. 5. Findings are clear, coherent and systematically related. The psychobiography was structured systematically in accordance to the psychosocial developmental stages as noted in the findings and discussion chapter. 6. Confirmation procedures for assertions, propositions, Assertions and hypotheses hypotheses, et cetera are described. were confirmed through the use of strategies explained earlier in this chapter. 7. Areas of uncertainty are considered. It had been identified that it was not clear whether Amy resolved the crisis of Intimacy versus Isolation. In this regard, care was taken not to make speculations where data was not available to support the interpretations made. 8. Negative evidence sought. The psychologically salient information that contradicted the overall behaviour patterns

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were noted and commented on. Such as, the familial dynamics of Janis and Mitchell’s new partners, Tony and Jane. 9. Rival explanation considered. Opposing or rival explanations were commented on such as the motivation of her continued substance use being both a means of dissociation and a self-soothing agent. 10. If possible, findings replicated. It is difficult to replicate findings in psychobiography studies. However, an attempt was made to ensure each finding (whether an ego virtue was attained) was supported by more than one source of information. 11. Conclusions considered to be accurate by original This is not possible in psycho- participants. biographical research as the subject is absent and deceased. 12. If predictions are made, their accuracy is reported. No predictions were made in this psychobiography study.

5.6.2. Transferability (External validity/Fittingness)

One of the aims in research endeavours is to assess the extent to which the research findings could be useful or meaningful in other contexts (Human, 2015; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). This is referred to as transferability in qualitative research and is equivalent to external validity in quantitative research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). It is the applicability of findings of a particular study within a different context or to a different phenomenon (Miles et al., 2014; Saccaggi, 2015). However, psychobiography research emphasises the uniqueness and in-depth understanding of an individual (Ruiters, 2013; Stake, 1995). As such, the aim is not to generalise the findings of a psychobiography to other cases or the larger population known as statistical generalisation (Runyan, 1988; Yin, 2009), but rather to employ analytical generalisation where the theory used us generalised (Yin, 2009). Additionally, naturalistic generalisation is applicable to psychobiography research whereby a particular case resonates with the reader (Lincoln & Guba, 2000; Saccaggi, 2015; Stake, 2000). Tracey (2010) claims that “transferability is achieved when readers feel as though the story of the research overlaps with their own situations and they intuitively transfer the research to their own actions” (p. 845). It is through the clear documentation and acknowledgement of limitations, that the research procedures are evaluated for the degree of their fittingness or transferability to the

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY research (Miles et al., 2014; Saccaggi, 2015). Yin (2009) describes two strategies to ensure external validity or transferability in case study methods such as psycho-biographies. Firstly, it is recommended that generalisation is accomplished on a theoretical level by assessing the applicability for a theory to be used to substantiate hypotheses in single-case studies (Gomm, Hammersley, & Foster, 2000; Radley & Chamberlain, 2012; Saccaggi, 2015; Yin, 2009). Secondly, in the event that multiple-case studies are conducted, replication logic should be used. This second strategy is irrelevant to this study. The first strategy, however, verifies that psychobiography is theory-driven, providing the opportunity for testing, developing and refining existing psychological theories (Carlson, 1988; Prenter, 2015; Roberts, 2002). The table below describes the criterion followed to ensure transferability, external validity or fittingness (Miles et al., 2014) and what steps were taken in accordance to the criterion stated:

Table 11: Steps taken to ensure transferability/external validity/fittingness Tabular format followed in accordance to Saccaggi (2015) and adapted from the guidelines proposed by Miles et al. (2014).

CRITERION STEPS TAKEN 1. Sample characteristics are sufficiently described. Amy Winehouse was extensively described in Chapter Two of this minor dissertation. In addition, the reason for her selection is described earlier in this chapter (under data collection). 2. Sample limitations are described and resulting limits on The limitations on generalisation. generalisation due to the nature of psycho-biographical research have been acknowledged throughout the study. The focus of this research endeavour is to understand the life of Amy Winehouse and does not aim to generalise the findings to all musicians. 3. Sampling is theoretically diverse enough to encourage The theory used is that of an broader applicability. established psychological theory which has been used in many contexts of research as noted in Chapter Three. Thus, this study has theoretical generalisability seeing as it comments on the transferability of psychological theory to different contexts.

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4. Findings include enough “thick descriptions” so that The psychobiography and its readers can assess their appropriateness for their own associate analysis has been settings. described in detail as noted in Chapter Six. This has been set out in such a way that readers are able to draw their own conclusions by engaging in the findings and discussion chapter. 5. A range of readers report that findings are consistent with Thus far, discussions with my their own experiences. supervisor have revealed that the findings do resonate with her own experiences as an academic. However, further commentary can be made on this criterion once this minor dissertation has been finalised. 6. Findings are congruent with, connected to, or The findings are directly linked confirmatory of prior theory. to Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages seeing as it serves as an explanatory model through which the data on Amy’s life is analysed. 7. Process and outcomes described in conclusions are The nature of psychobiography applicable in comparable settings. studies is highly individual and speculative. Thus, conclusions are available for further research endeavours but it inherently has low generalisability. 8. Any theories and their transferability are explicitly stated. The psychological theory used has been explained in detail in Chapter Three whereby strengths and limitations have been described. In addition, the transferability of the theory to the psycho-biographical contexts are discussed throughout the study. 9. Report suggests settings where findings could fruitfully be Future research possibilities tested further. are discussed in the concluding chapter. 10. Where possible, findings have been replicated in other This is acknowledged in the studies to test their robustness. study done by Malakou (2015).

5.6.3. Dependability (Reliability/Auditability)

Dependability links to the consistency in the research procedure (Miles et al., 2014). It is thus the degree to which research procedures remain stable over time (Saccaggi, 2015). Lincoln and Guba (1985) describe dependability as the equivalent of reliability. In addressing

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY the issue of reliability, the researcher needs to reflect on the notion that if the research methodology (data collection and analysis) were to be repeated within the same context and with the same participants, would the results be similar? (Nel, 2013; Roets, 2015; Shenton, 2004; Yin, 2009). A detailed account of the research procedures ensures dependability (Human, 2015; Miles et al., 2014; Shenton, 2004). The goal of reliability is to minimise errors and bias (Yin, 2009). There are two strategies to ensure reliability. The first strategy is to use data matrices (Yin, 2009), the second strategy is data triangulation (Miles et al., 2014) while the third strategy is to use a consistent coding system during the data collection phase (Stake, 2000). It is important to highlight that dependability relates to methodological rigour (Tracey, 2010). The table below describes the criterion as set out by Miles et al. (2004) and the steps taken to ensure dependability, reliability or auditability:

Table 12: Steps taken to ensure dependability/reliability/auditability Tabular format followed in accordance to Saccaggi (2015) and adapted from the guidelines proposed by Miles et al. (2014).

CRITERION STEPS TAKEN 1. Clear research questions and features of the study design The research objectives are are congruent with them. outlined in the second section of this chapter. This study then made use of appropriate research methods as discussed earlier in this chapter. 2. Researcher’s role and status explicitly described. The researcher’s bias is acknowledged in the reflexivity section of this chapter. In addition, the relationship between the researcher and the subject has been explored in the discussions of the methodological considerations applied. 3. The findings show parallels across different data sources. Data triangulation was ensured by the use of multiple sources as mentioned in table 6 as well as the attached reference list. 4. Basic paradigms and analytic constructs clearly specified. An extensive description of the psychological theory and its associate basic premises was discussed in Chapter Three. 5. Data collected across a range of appropriate contexts, as This criterion is met through determined by the research question. the data triangulation process which was ensured by the use of multiple sources as

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mentioned in table 6 as well as the attached reference list. 6. Multiple field workers used comparable data collection This research study involved protocols. one researcher, a supervising researcher and an academic editor. 7. Appropriate intercoder agreement checks. I was the only coder of this study. 8. Data quality checks have been made. This study was conducted under supervision, with the supervisor serving to check the quality of the data. 9. Multiple observers’ accounts converge. Conclusions drawn in this study were facilitated by behavioural patterns rather than singular events. While this does not strictly relate to multiple observers, it does suggest a convergence of information that aids reliability. 10. Peer or colleague review. This minor dissertation will be sent for examination which serves as a form of review.

5.6.4. Objectivity (Confirmability)

Lincoln and Guba (1985) describe the nature of qualitative research as one that is affected by the researcher’s subjectivity. However, it is important that qualitative research studies are somewhat free from researcher’s bias and that the inevitable bias is acknowledged (Miles et al., 2014; Saccaggi, 2015; Tracey, 2010). Tracey (2010) describes this construct as sincerity because of the honest way that research bias is acknowledged throughout the research process. The research findings are then based on information about and situations inherent to the research which is relatively free from the researcher’s bias (Edwards, 1998; Krefting, 1991; Roets, 2015). As such, confirmability includes a detailed description of the stages in the research method so that the thoroughness of the research process is clearly communicated to the reader (2009). This then enables the assessment of the possible impact the researcher’s bias may have had on the study (Miles et al., 2014; Saccaggi, 2015). Graneheim and Lundman (2004) further state that confirmability is the degree to which the study’s conclusions are: (a) supported by the data collection; (b) viewed as free from research bias; and (c) substantiated by others (Prenter, 2015).

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Yin (2009) explains that case study research such as psychobiography studies are often criticised for failing to develop a sufficiently operational set of measures and that is why it is important to thoroughly explain and define concepts. On the one hand, there are three strategies proposed by Yin (2009) to increase confirmability. Firstly, multiple sources of data are used which encourages convergent lines of inquiry known as data triangulation (explained in the credibility section of this chapter). Secondly, a chain of evidence is established so as to justify inferences that are made. Lastly, the draft case study is reviewed by key informants so that the study can be cross-examined for objectivity purposes (Yin, 2009). On the other hand, Krefting (1991) states that there are two strategies to enhance confirmability, namely triangulation and reflective analysis. Tracey (2010) reports that reflective analysis such as reflexivity allow the researcher to admit to their own limitations and strengths. This on-going ‘reflective commentary’ helps improve transparency of the researcher’s bias and in turn ensures confirmability or objectivity (Shenton, 2004, p. 72). The table below indicates the criterion followed as state by Miles et al. (2014) and the steps taken to ensure objectivity, or confirmability:

Table 13: Steps taken to ensure objectivity/confirmability Tabular format followed in accordance to Saccaggi (2015) and adapted from the guidelines proposed by Miles et al. (2014).

CRITERION STEPS TAKEN 1. Explicit description of methods and procedures. Research steps described in detail earlier in this chapter. 2. Sequence of data collection to conclusion drawing can be Research steps described in followed. detail earlier in this chapter. 3. Conclusions linked with condensed and/or displayed data. See data matrix (Table 9) and quotations noted in Chapter Six. 4. Record of study’s methods and procedures. Research steps described in detail earlier in this chapter. 5. Researcher is explicit and self-aware regarding possible See Section Eight in this bias, affective states et cetera. chapter for a discussion on reflexivity. 6. Competing hypotheses or rival conclusions considered. Refer to conclusion chapter. 7. Study’s data are retained and available for re-analysis. All data used was available in the public domain and is easily accessible by other researchers. In addition, this study includes a comprehensive reference list indicating the data used.

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5.6.5. Utilization (Application/Action Orientation)

According to Miles et al. (2014), research studies have the potential to impact the lives of people. As such, it is important that research conclusions are evaluated in terms of their potential real world consequences (Saccaggi, 2015). Research has the potential to contribute to the understanding of social life (Tracey, 2010). It can contribute significantly to the knowledge base of existing theories, challenge methodological approaches, facilitate new discoveries, and form a catalyst to social change such as contributions to policy change (Tracey, 2010). These are some examples of the utilization and application of research findings. The table below will elaborate on criterion as set out by Miles et al. (2014) and the steps taken to ensure utilization, application or action orientation in this study:

Table 14: Steps taken to ensure utilization/application/action orientation Tabular format followed in accordance to Saccaggi (2015) and adapted from the guidelines proposed by Miles et al. (2014).

CRITERION STEPS TAKEN 1. Value-based and ethical concerns are addressed. The ethical considerations taken are discussed in the section below. 2. Findings are intellectually and physically accessible to Careful considerations were potential readers. taken during the write up of this minor dissertation to ensure that the language used was accessible to potential readers. In addition, the minor dissertation will be made available on various electronic platforms and the University of Johannesburg’s library once it has been examined. 3. Findings have the potential to generate ideas for future A list of possible further projects. research has been provided in the final chapter of this minor dissertation. 4. Project generates a worthwhile range of useful knowledge. This is a key criterion because any research endeavour aims to contribute to existing body of knowledge. This study contributes to the knowledge base of psychobiography studies, psychological theory (specifically Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages) and builds on the study

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done by Malakou (2015) depicting the understanding of Amy Winehouse’s life from a psychological perspective.

5.7. Ethical considerations

A psycho-biographical research study has ethical issues surrounding invasion of privacy and the potential embarrassment or harm the subject or relatives of the subject may experience (Runyan, 1988). These ethical issues regarding psycho-biographical research studies need to be considered both in the designing phase of the research study as well as when conducting the research study (Elms, 1994; Runyan, 1982b). Elms (1994) suggests two guidelines for managing the ethical issues in psycho-biographical research. These include:

(1) A psychobiography may not be conducted on a living individual unless informed consent has been given by the individual; and (2) A psychobiography should be conducted preferably on non-living individuals, who has no surviving relatives close enough to be embarrassed by the findings of the study.

In keeping with these guidelines, all the literature used in this study was available for the public and treated with respect as well as empathy. This intends to ensure non-maleficence. In the event that the results of the psycho-biographical research study were published, it is important to consider the implications of including sensitive or controversial information (Saccaggi, 2015). However, seeing as this study is academic in nature, is based on entirely public domain material, it poses fewer ethical problems.

5.8. Reflexivity

Macbeth (2001) states that reflexivity requires the researcher to be mindful of his or her own contribution to the meaning and knowledge constructions laid out in the discussions and/or findings of the research study (Roets, 2015). Reflexivity involves an ongoing self- awareness (Mann, 2016). There are two types of reflexivity, namely personal reflexivity and epistemological reflexivity (Willig, 2013). On the one hand, personal reflexivity involves the reflection of the researcher’s own values, experiences, interests, beliefs and social identities

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY which have influenced the research process (Willig, 2013). On the other hand, epistemological reflexivity involves the reflection on the researcher’s assumptions about the world and knowledge that have informed the research findings (Willig, 2013). It involves the increased focus on self-knowledge of biases, beliefs and personal experiences in the creation of knowledge (Steve, 2016). In addition, the use of language influences the meaning construction process and so it requires critical awareness on how the use of language has informed the research study (Willig, 2013). A technique to ensure reflexive practice includes journaling (Burnell, 2013; Cohen & Crabtree, 2008; Morrow, 2005; Williams & Morrow, 2009). Woll (2013) referred to this form of journaling as a process diary which assists the researcher to remain aware of preconceptions and biases experienced throughout the duration of the research (Roets, 2015). Another technique which can be employed is collaborative explanatory talks through supervision to facilitate learning from the experiences that accompany a research process (Mann, 2016).

During this study, I as the researcher took note of the fact that my interest lies in identity formation due to my own life experiences. In addition, my training and experiences as a clinical psychologist influenced my interpretations as noted in the findings and discussion chapter. The method that I as the researcher used to remain reflexive was to bring my experiences of transference and countertransference to supervision for further discussion. I as the researcher also made use of my personal therapeutic space to address any further bias and preconceptions that came up during the research process. Lastly, I as the researcher made use of informal discussions with colleagues to discuss the literature used in this study to ensure credibility of this psycho-biographical study.

5.9. Chapter summary

This chapter explored the methodological procedures considered in conducting this psycho-biographical research study on Amy Jade Winehouse. The research objectives of this study were outlined, followed by an explanation of the research design used. The four phases of qualitative data analysis as suggested by Miles et al. (2014) were explored, namely data collection; data condensation; data display; and conclusion drawing and verification. Thereafter, the methodological limitations were discussed along with the considerations applied to account for these limitations. Furthermore, the measures taken to ensure trustworthiness during this study was explained and lastly, the ethical considerations taken along with my reflexivity was elaborated on. 114

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Chapter 6: Findings and Discussion

6.1. Chapter preview

This chapter will discuss the psychosocial development of Amy Jade Winehouse. Seeing as Amy died at the age of twenty seven years, only the first six psychosocial developmental stages are applicable. The psychosocial developmental stages applicable to Amy’s life are: (1) Basic trust versus Mistrust, (2) Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt, (3) Initiative versus Guilt, (4) Industry versus Inferiority, (5) Identity versus Role confusion, and (6) Intimacy versus Isolation.

In following this psycho-biographical research study as explained in Chapter Four, Amy’s entire lifespan will be considered as outlined in Chapter Two, using Erikson’s theory, as discussed in Chapter Three. In doing so, the psychosocial developmental stages will be linked through the age ranges as suggested by Hamacheck (1990) to Amy’s life events. These age ranges are provided to serve as broad guidelines rather than actual cut-offs, as there are transitions between stages identified by the manifestation of crises, in accordance with Erikson’s theory.

The chapter is written in line with the epigenetic principle which states that aspects of each psychosocial stage of personality development are present from birth but individuals may revisit and/or rework crises in future psychosocial stages (Erikson, 1950/1963; Peedicayil, 2012). Interpretations and inferences will be made to suggest explanations for Amy’s behavioural patterns which contributed to her personality development.

6.2. Amy’s psychosocial development 6.2.1. Pre-birth

Erikson (1976) describes that the psychosocial developmental theory stretches across multiple generations and is thus, by nature, trans-generational. This suggests that events that occur prior to an individual’s birth are likely to have a significant impact on their future functioning (Erikson, 1976; Saccaggi, 2015).

In the case of Amy, she was born four years after her brother, Alex. Alex was in the Initiative verses Guilt stage thus he was in the stage defined as “on the make” (Erikson,

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1950/1963, p. 247). What this means is that the activities in which Alex engaged in had meaning because it facilitated the development of his sense of self and trust in himself. The activities in which Alex would engage in at that age included fantasy play whilst having the freedom to question (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994; Stevens, 2008; Welchman, 2000). Since he was able to question his environment, he may have experienced a curiosity about who his younger sibling was or how she would influence the dynamic of the family. He may have been confused about what it would be like to have a younger sister. During the initial encounter with Amy at the hospital, Alex frowned at his sister because he realised that he had now been "usurped by a red-cheeked impostor who was doing her damnedest to break the sound barrier. And to top it all, she was a girl" (Winehouse, 2014, p. 24). This illustrates the probable discomfort Alex most likely felt about sharing the attention of his primary caregivers with his new younger sister. Mitchell reported that Alex would tie up Amy's dolls when he would want to torment her (Winehouse, 2012). At the same time, Mitchell claims that Alex would stand guard at Amy's cot for hours at a time (Winehouse, 2012). These are examples of Alex’s feelings towards his sister. Alex and Amy's engagement as observed by their parents will be illustrated in the relevant psychosocial development stages below (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). For example, they interacted through dramatized rituals when Amy reached the Initiative versus Guilt psychosocial stage herself (Erikson, 1977). However, the texts do not elaborate on Alex’s personal experience of having a younger sister. Thus, these interpretations are speculative in nature.

It is also important to highlight the jazz ‘scene’ which Amy was born into as another precedent in the generational musical influences within Amy's family. Jazz originated from African Americans in the nineteenth century and it was only in the mid-1920s that it was thriving in Britain (Atkins, 2003; National Jazz Archive, n.d.; BBC [online], n.d.).The 1950s was the last decade that kept jazz within the boundaries of the youth culture and amongst the rising jazz stars was Ronnie Scott. Amy’s grandmother, Cynthia was a semi-professional jazz singer when she was younger. Through this avenue she met and got engaged to the saxophonist, Ronnie Scott (McCrudden, 2016). In 1956, the British government’s ban on American musicians performing in the UK was finally lifted after twenty one years (National Jazz Archive, n.d.). The National Youth Jazz Orchestra was established thereafter, by Musical Director Bill Ashton OBE, in 1965 and has since maintained its position as Britain’s university for young jazz musicians (National Jazz Archive, n.d.). Amy was a part of the National Youth Jazz Orchestra in the year 2000 (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012).

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In the 1970s, the contemporary jazz music scene was influenced by a fusion of rock and jazz genres (Atkins, 2003). Amy’s father Mitchell was also a semi-professional jazz vocalist when he was younger (Winehouse, 2012). Another musical link in the family was Amy’s mother, Janis’ uncle Leon who was a professional horn player and his son, Mark, who was a drummer for the Joe Loss Orchestra (Winehouse, 2014). Currently, Janis’s sister Debra Milne sings part-time in a jazz group called Jazz Latin Groove (Winehouse, 2014). Moreover, the Jazz Café opened in Camden, London, in 1990s and is still an active music venue (National Jazz Archive, n.d.). Amy bought her second apartment later in her life in Camden (Winehouse, 2012). These examples illustrate that Amy had a predisposition towards jazz music through the environmental influences and exposure to this musical genre.

The last precedent was Amy's Jewish heritage. Amy's great-great-grandfather was an immigrant from Minsk, Belarus in 1890 (Pfeffer, 2013; Weissman, 2015). Amy was born within the Jewish community of North London in 1983 (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2014). Newkey-Burden (2014) explains that between the World Wars one and two, many of the Jewish family moved from eastern London to the north. The Jews were known to be of lower to middle socioeconomic class and this was evident in the Winehouse family too (Newkey-Burden, 2014). Mitchell worked as a double-glazing salesman and cab driver, while Janis worked part-time as a pharmacist (Eliscu et al., 2011; Pfeffer, 2013; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014). Thus, both Janis and Mitchell had to work to financially support the family.

Newkey-Burden (2014) highlights that although Amy's family was surrounded by the Jewish community, with five synagogues (Jewish houses of worship) and three Jewish cemeteries in the area, they were not religious as such. Amy was, however, enrolled at ‘heder’ (a Hebrew Sunday School), attended synagogue once a year and attended Jewish Girls Brigade for two weeks (Pfeffer, 2013; Weissman, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). Amy enjoyed the familial component of the Jewish holidays and rituals, as it would bring everyone together (Newkey- Burden, 2014; Pfeffer, 2013; Weissman, 2015). An example includes Friday Shabbat dinners at their paternal grandmother, Cynthia's place (Weissman, 2015; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). It is important to note that her funeral was arranged according to the Jewish tradition whereby funerals take place a few days after the death (Hearsum, 2012; Lynskey, 2015). Amy died on the twenty third of July 2011 and was buried on the twenty sixth of July 2011 (Hearsum, 2012; Lynskey, 2015; Aabech & Simpson, 2017).

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These pre-birth settings helped me as the researcher to better understand the environment in which Amy was born and raised in. The fact that Amy had an older brother highlights that she was surrounded by other male figures while growing up. This may have contributed to her perception of men giving her a frame of reference other than the one she created with regards to her father. The second precedent factor, being the influence of jazz music on Amy’s life, is another frame of reference from which Amy evaluated her appreciation of music. There seemed to be an inclination towards this particular genre which Amy heard whilst growing up. It can be assumed that her first exposure to music, being jazz music, later inspired the melodies and lyrics she created as a musician. The last precedent factor being Amy’s Jewish heritage enlightened me as the researcher of the familial climate which she grew up in. The Jewish traditions were welcomed due to the fact that it brought Amy’s family together. It may be assumed that Amy had positive experiences and connotations with some of these traditions, in particular the Friday Night Shabbat dinners as it represented unity. This is something she may have sought within her family structure, especially from the age of nine years old (as elaborated in the section under Industry versus Inferiority).

6.2.2. Basic trust versus Mistrust

Infants develop a sense of basic trust when caregivers respond to their basic survival needs in a consistent and predictable way (Carr & McNulty, 2006). The emergence of the virtue of hope develops when there is balance between the crises of Basic trust versus Mistrust, whereby an infant learns to trust their environment but at the same time develops a degree of mistrust to ensure the infant engages in a necessary level of caution as well (Meyer & Viljoen, 2008). An infant learns that despite the unpredictable and ever changing environment, there is a knowing or trust that the infant will consistently experience comfort when in discomfort and that his or her basic survival needs will be satisfied (Malakou, 2015; Welchman, 2000). This development of trust includes learning to trust those that care for them in the environment as 118

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY well as the development of a sense of one’s own trustworthiness (Erikson, 1950/1963). In contrast, the inability to trust others leads to a depressive state where an infant becomes excessively cautious and withdraws from social relations because these interactions are unreliable to meet their basic needs (Stevens, 2008). Stevens (2008) adds that the ritualization of this stage is numinous which is described as the combined feelings of attraction and awe. This ritualization lays the foundation for future development of the social institutions of organized religion and associated religious beliefs and faith (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1976; Saccaggi, 2015; Stevens, 2008). However, the negative form of the ritualization or ritualism is known as idolism whereby there is an extreme adulation towards a caregiver (Stevens, 2008).

Although the biographical information on Amy’s infancy years are limited, Janis and Mitchell both state that Amy’s birth was welcomed by a large, supportive family (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). This implies that Amy was raised communally and that her caregivers received support in their child rearing roles. The key factors within this age range would be the quality of the relationship between Amy and her primary caregivers. According to Erikson (1950/1963) it is the responsibility of the mother to embody the role of a primary caregiver and provide a sense of trust by catering to the needs of their infants in a reliable and consistent manner. However, the literature indicates that Amy had three primary caregivers namely, Amy’s parents (Janis and Mitchell), and Amy’s paternal grandmother (Cynthia) (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Amy's parents and paternal grandmother impacted her development significantly, from her birth until her death.

Janis was described as a present and loving mother who cared for her child deeply (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2012). During Amy’s childhood, she was known to be an accident-prone child since she would try to swallow everything she laid her hands on. (Winehouse, 2014, p. 29). For example whilst in her pram, she attempted to swallow a cellophane wrapper which she got a hold of from a toy she had been playing with and started choking on it (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2014). Thereafter, Janis managed to retrieve the cellophane that was stuck in her throat (Winehouse, 2014). This example illustrates that Amy could rely on her mother as the caregiver that would provide safety and security which harboured a sense of basic trust towards her environment (Erikson, 1950/1963). During Amy’s infancy years, her mother was consistent, reliable and provided attentive care (Winehouse, 2014). In addition, her mother was emotionally invested throughout Amy’s life.

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Mitchell on the other hand reported that he lost his job days before Amy was born (Winehouse, 2012). This potentially created uncertainties regarding the financial climate of the family but Mitchell claimed he was not worried (Winehouse, 2012). He described his first interactions with Amy as a curious, exciting and nerve wreaking experience (Winehouse, 2012). Mitchell loved his children dearly but when he did eventually get a job, he worked long hours and was not supportive for the practical components of parenting (Winehouse, 2014). The practical components included emotional support; attendance at parent evenings; and assistance with homework (Winehouse, 2014). Mitchell admitted that he would over-indulge Amy as an overcompensation of his absence in her life (Winehouse, 2012). It is important to note that information is limited of Mitchell’s involvement during the infant years of her life however, it is known that he provided Amy with a lot of love (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012).

Amy’s paternal grandmother, Cynthia (otherwise known as Amy’s 'Nan') was described as a second mother to her and the “voice of authority” (Winehouse, 2014, p.52). She provided Amy and Alex with rules and structure to ensure consistency and safety. Amy respected her Nan and reported that she gained strength from her (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Later in Amy's childhood, either Cynthia or Janis would take her to her theatre rehearsals at Susi Earnshaw Theatre School (Winehouse, 2014). This shows that Cynthia was involved in the day to day rituals and activities.

It is important to note that Janis stated the following, "if there's one thing I wish the children had had growing up, it's greater consistency" (Winehouse, 2014, p. 52). Erikson (1950/1963) emphasised that the primary caregiver, mainly being the mother, needs to consistently and reliably attend to her child’s needs. These needs include emotional, physical and psychological aspects of human development. As such, the lack of consistency in Amy's upbringing is a reflection of an unpredictable and untrustworthy environment that may or may not have catered to all of Amy's needs. As a result of the inconsistency in Amy’s upbringing it can be assumed that she did not develop a lasting sense of the virtue of hope. Therefore she found it difficult to trust herself and her environment to always, consistently cater to her basic needs.

Towards the end of this psychosocial developmental stage, Mitchell admitted that he had been having an affair with his marketing manager, Jane, since Amy was eighteen months old (Winehouse, 2012). Janis reports that she “certainly went through a process of denial.

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Sadness, anger and confusion” with regards to Mitchell’s infidelity when she found out years later (Winehouse, 2014, p. 58). Seeing as Janis did not know of the infidelity whilst Amy was an infant, it is difficult to decipher whether Janis’ feelings regarding the infidelity were linked to her caregiving practices towards Amy. However, Mitchell’s infidelity can be seen as a symbolic loss of one of Amy’s primary caregivers which may have influenced her development of the virtue of hope. Erikson (1950/1963) wrote that the development of hope involves coming to terms with “a sense of inner division and universal nostalgia for a paradise forfeited” (p. 250). It seems that Amy did not come to terms with this inner division and universal nostalgia, which manifests as attention-seeking behaviour, especially towards her father. It seems that he did not fulfil her basic survival or emotional needs so that she could develop a secure sense of trust that her environment would be satisfactory and predictable. Thus, she symbolically searches for a paradise where her dad meets her needs and where she is understood by him.

This behaviour is notable later in life when she meets Blake Fielder-Civil and becomes infatuated with him. Gay-Rees and Kapadia (2015) reports that she would “worship the ground which he walked on”. This metaphor is loaded with religious inferences that Amy would idolise a paradise where the significant men in her life would meet her basic needs. Thus, it can be speculated that Mitchell’s affair may have had an influence on her personality development. According to Newkey-Burden (2014), Amy expressed her anger and frustration towards her father in the song What is it about men? (see Appendix A and lyrics below) in the album Frank because he put her mother through a lot of pain:

“…Emulate all the shit my mother hated//I can't help but demonstrate my Freudian fate…And I question myself again: what is it 'bout men?/My destructive side has grown a mile wide/And I question myself again: what is it 'bout men? I'm nurturing, I just wanna do my thing/And I'll take the wrong man as naturally as I sing/And I'll save my tears for uncovering my fears/For behavioural patterns that stick over the years…”

It is important to emphasize is that it would be over-interpreting to suggest that there exists a one-to-one relationship between her early symbolic loss and her later religious commitment to gain attention from the significant men in her life (in other words Mitchell Winehouse and later Blake Fielder-Civil). It is also important to address Amy’s religious heritage as Erikson (1976) mentions that this psychosocial developmental stage is linked to the social institution of religion. Amy was not a practicing Jew but she expressed that her Jewish identity translated to the communal aspect of family life (Newkey-Burden, 2014). As previously mentioned, Amy’s family celebrated religious events such as bar mitzvahs,

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY encouraged attendance of “heder” (sic) classes and when she died, her funeral was arranged in accordance to the Jewish faith (Hearsum, 2012; Lynskey, 2015; Winehouse, 2012).

6.2.3. Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

The second of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages is labelled Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt, experienced primarily within the age range from eighteen months to three years (Hamachek, 1990). Erikson (1968) explains this psychosocial stage as “a battle for autonomy”, because there are attempts at independent behaviour by the toddler (p. 108). This stage is characterised by the divergent urges to hold on and to let go of dependency (Erikson, 1968/1994, 1982). Toddlers are still fairly dependent on their caregivers. However, as soon as a child learns to navigate between these two divergent urges, it results in a rudimentary sense of self-confidence, as well as a sense of control over their muscles, impulses and environment (Erikson, 1950/1963). Through this process, the toddler develops a sense of autonomy (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994).

It is crucial to attain balance between the two dimensions, Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt, for the manifestation of a personal sense of agency with an appropriate degree of doubt and caution (Capps, 2004; Erikson, 1997; Prenter, 2015). Caregivers need to find a balance between being restrictive and being permissive to be able to set appropriate boundaries (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1976, 1997). The role of boundaries is to provide space for a child’s curiosity without jeopardising their safety or crossing the boundaries of social mores (Graves & Larkins, 2006; Nel, 2013). The boundaries form part of the foundation which is later known as discretion, self-governance and judging right from wrong (Graves & Larkins, 2006). Hence, the ritualization of judicial and social institution of law and order (Erikson, 1976; Stevens, 2008). When the crisis is successfully resolved and an appropriate balance of the crisis is attained, the ego strength or virtue of will is developed. Will is defined as “the unbroken determination to exercise free choice as well as self-restrain” (Erikson, 1964, p. 119).

Erikson (1976) explains that a child filled with shame and doubt will have trouble believing that they are worthy of consistent love and look down on themselves (Stevens, 2008). They will internalise feelings of guilt and try to either constantly adjust their views to fit the discriminating environment so as to avoid being in the wrong and want to be told what to do or rebel against the condemning authority, which can be either the caregiver or society at large (Erikson, 1976). In the event that there is too much autonomy and not enough experiences of

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY shame and doubt, the individual develops the maladaptive tendency of impulsiveness. It is the experience of an individual that jumps into things without properly considering their ability to handle the task at hand (Boeree, 2006).

As previously mentioned, Mitchell started having an affair with his marketing manager, Jane since Amy was eighteen months old (Winehouse, 2012). It can be inferred that the long hours he spent at work was because he was spending his time at work with Jane. As a result, he was fairly absent in Amy’s life and Janis, whilst working part-time herself, felt as though she was raising Alex and Amy as a single mother (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). Janis reports that Mitchell was not around for the important upbringing aspects of Amy's life and felt unsupported in aspects such as disciplinary measures and setting age-appropriate boundaries (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). Amy’s best friend, Juliette Ashby, has also commented that Mitchell was not really involved in her life until she became famous (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). According to Winehouse (2014), he tried to make up for his absence later in Amy's life by investing his time and energy in supporting her through her rise to fame.

Amy craved a lot of attention from everyone from an early age and she was often not disciplined for her naughty behaviour (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Newkey- Burden (2014) claims that Amy had a keen sense of right from wrong which is in line with the judicial ritualization of this psychosocial stage. Knowingly, Amy acted out through naughty behaviour so as to maintain the centre of attention (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). As a result, she was given the Yiddish nick name of “Nudge” which means “always pushing boundaries” (Winehouse, 2014, p.30). Although Gay-Rees and Kapadia (2015) claims that all Amy craved for was someone to say “no” to her, she was reportedly rebellious when someone tried to stop her from doing something (Winehouse, 2014). It can be inferred that Amy engaged in attention-seeking behaviour as a means to over-compensate for feelings of doubt, perhaps doubt that the attention she received would be inconsistent and conditional. Furthermore, Mitchell understood Amy’s rebellious ways as her medium of self-expression and when she would become extreme in her attention-seeking behaviour, he would ignore her with hopes that it would make her stop (Winehouse, 2012). Majority of the time, her attention-seeking behaviour was in the form of music and performance. She would continue singing in inappropriate places and times despite being told to stop (Salewicz, 2011; Aabech & Simpson, 2017; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). For example, Amy had an impromptu singing and dancing show at Alex's sixth birthday party when she was at the age of two going

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY on to three years (Winehouse, 2012). This example may suggest that Amy experienced a sense of doubt and insecurity when her parents’ attention was divided between Alex and herself. Not long after the incident at Alex’s party, Amy ran away three times in a mall and in one of the instances she "mischievously" lied about where her mother had been while she was wondering alone in the mall (Winehouse, 2012, p. 15). The fact that she wondered off at such a young age without her mother, can be seen as Amy developing a strong sense of autonomy without appropriate self-restraint. Thus, putting her at risk for future danger as noted later in her life with regards to the lack of restraint pertaining to her addiction problems. This suggests that Amy developed the maladaptive tendency of impulsiveness where she does not evaluate her ability to cope with the situation at hand while considering the associated consequences. Mitchell found these childhood incidents as Amy playing practical jokes on the family (Winehouse, 2012), and did not foresee the potential future harm it would have on Amy’s wellbeing.

Amy was reprimanded from time to time by either one of her parents but she would simply laugh and not take the attempts at boundary-setting seriously (Winehouse, 2012). It seemed that the boundary-setting was not reinforced consistently because her parents were both working and were unable to be consistent with setting limitations for her behaviour. Janis explains the following, "if the children could learn by example that would be more helpful than being strict about rules" (Winehouse, 2014, p. 39). Amy's Nan was the only person to say “no” to her and to set boundaries within her household (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). At the same time, this was an inconsistent occurrence as her difficult or naughty behaviour was often overlooked because she was the youngest grandchild (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012).

There is limited information about her behaviour during Hamachek's (1990) suggested age range but the lack of boundaries and inability for self-restraint is noted in her rebellion later in her life. As stated above, Erikson (1976) highlighted that a child filled with doubt will later rebel against the condemning authority while seeking external validation. Some examples of Amy’s rebellion is noted in her lack of adherence to school rules because she had piercings and tattoos at the age fifteen. This could also be seen as consistent to the Identity versus Role Confusion psychosocial stage. However, her rebellious behaviour continued to persist. Amy would take Alex's bicycle and ride recklessly on the roads, disregarding the rules of the road (Winehouse, 2012). She would also chew gum in class (Salewicz, 2011), and was late for school on most days without a care in the world (Winehouse, 2012, p.15). Although Amy

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY needed restriction, structure and rules, she resisted them from childhood into her adult life, including her music career. This behaviour contributed in creating her own style of music in spite of the record company’s requests and expectations of her (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015).

It is speculative that Amy did not fully achieve the ego virtue of will, seeing as the successful resolution of this psychosocial developmental stage is dependent on the development of a personal sense of agency, which Amy had, with an appropriate degree of doubt and caution, which Amy experienced in moderation. Her narrative illustrates self- confidence and a sense of control over herself, but she was not in control of her environment which led to a degree of an internalised doubt with regards to her environment (Erikson, 1950/1963). Thus she was rebellious to compensate for this helpless feeling and as a result of the maladaptive tendency of impulsivity, she acted according to her own rules. Hamachek (1988) stated that a child filled with doubt will have trouble trusting their ability to make decisions which was the case with Amy. However, this excluded the choices related to her music career. She seemed to seek validation from her environment, firstly from her caregivers and later from her romantic partners. An example in her later life was where she sought validation from her caregiver Mitchell, was when she wanted his approval to go to rehabilitation (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Salewicz, 2011). She valued her father’s opinion so much that when she was told by her closest friends and management that she needed to go to rehabilitation, she wanted her father’s approval first, who said she did not need to go to rehabilitation (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Thus, she did not go to rehabilitation. As noted in the song Rehab (see Appendix B and lyrics below) from the album Back to Black, she did not trust her own capabilities to make the decision for herself regarding rehabilitation for her addiction problems. She trusted her father's opinion when he reportedly said that she was not drug crazed and that she was fine (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015).

“…I ain't got the time and if my daddy thinks I'm fine/

He's tried to make me go to rehab but I won't go, go, go…”

The song Stronger than me (see Appendix C) from the album Frank, was dedicated to Chris Taylor, an ex-boyfriend of Amy's, after their break up. The lyrics of the song indicate that she needed him to be a man that could take control of the relationship and dominate her (see Appendix C and lyrics below). However, it can also be interpreted as her need for a stronger caregiver to take control by providing her with structure, rules and boundaries to help her regulate her emotions better.

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“You should be stronger than me/You been here 7 years longer than me/Don't you know?/You supposed to be the man…Why'd you always put me in control?/All I need is for my man to live up to his role/You always wanna talk it through- I'm ok/I always have to comfort you every day/But that's what I need you to do…”

Gay-Rees and Kapadia (2015) stated that Amy's friends criticised Janis for being too soft on her. Janis was struggling to keep Amy in check not only because she was working and studying part-time, but she also suffered from multiple sclerosis which went undiagnosed for more than fifteen years (Winehouse, 2014). Thus, Amy's caregivers did not have the capacity to reinforce rules and were emotionally preoccupied.

6.2.4. Initiative versus Guilt

The third of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages is labelled Initiative versus Guilt experienced primarily within the age range from three to six years (Erikson, 1997; Hamachek, 1990). The first psychosocial stage lays the foundation for basic trust in the world and in others (Stevens, 2008). The second stage is about exploration of a child's own capacities to start independent actions and as a result it facilitates self-confidence (Stevens, 2008). This third psychosocial stage adds onto autonomy, of the previous psychosocial stage. It is characterised by a child exploring his or her capabilities to initiate independent actions and having conviction in these actions (Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008). The child learns to trust their abilities in this psychosocial stage as they explore their world more vigorously utilising the freedom to initiate fantasy as well as motor play (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994; Malakou, 2015). Additionally, the use of language assists the child to think, plan, imagine and question which is linked to intellectual initiative (Stevens, 2008; Welchman, 2000). A child experiences feelings of guilt when their initiatives have unforeseen negative consequences (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994). The feelings of guilt are further internalised when a child is criticised for expressing their plans or punished for taking initiative (Prenter, 2015; Swartz et al., 2008). In the event that the psychosocial crisis remains unresolved, an individual becomes over-obedient and conforms to external moral rule by inhibiting the expression of their own desires (Stevens, 2008). The maladaptive ego weakness of passivity develops and leads to self- defeating behaviour where individuals procrastinate, struggle to accomplish personal goals as well as resist and/or avoid novel tasks (Hamachek, 2008).

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The successful resolution and positive balance of psychosocial Initiative versus Guilt, leads to the ego strength of purpose, which is the development of a sense of direction and perseverance towards a set goal (Erikson, 1964, 1997). A purposeful child is able to take initiative courageously by envisioning and pursuing valued goals uninhibitedly despite the fear of punishment or the defeat of infantile fantasies (Erikson, 1964; Stevens, 2008). According to Erikson (1950/1963), achieving purpose allows childhood dreams to become adult realities. Erikson (1950/1963) further states that a child of this psychosocial stage, also has role models and superheroes to look up to as they engage in dramatized rituals. This can manifest through play with toys or through story telling (Stevens, 2008). On the one hand, play through toys exhibit a miniature adult world filled with fantasy (Stevens, 2008). On the other hand, connection between societal order and this psychosocial stage lie in the stories children are told (Stevens, 2008, p. 49). What is important to note is that the negative counterpart or ritualism of this stage is impersonation whereby authenticity is lacking when taking on a specific role (Stevens, 2008). As an adult, the roles an individual plays and embodies are differentiated from who they truly are through the authentic ego experience (Erikson, 1964). When engaging in the impersonation ritualism, the authentic self cannot be discriminated from the role-playing (Erikson, 1964).

When considering Amy's life at this stage, it is essential to note that Amy began pre- school at Hampden Way, after she completed nursery school at Yaveneh (Winehouse, 2014). Mitchell reports that Amy could read and write before she started formal schooling because of Janis (Winehouse, 2012). Besides for Janis' work as a pharmacy assistant, at this stage she also trained as a pre-school play-group leader (Winehouse, 2014). These play-groups would encourage anything from climbing to bike riding, which Amy engaged in fearlessly (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). At the same time, Amy also showed a less confident side and had a problem with Janis sharing her attention with the other children in the pre-school play-group (Winehouse, 2014). This was due to the fact that she enjoyed and craved to be the centre of attention (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Whenever she was not the centre of attention, she would act out so that she was noticed and usually it was through singing (Winehouse, 2014). Newkey-Burden (2014) reports that at the age of five, she would be singing into a hairbrush in front of the mirror and she would often sing Gloria Gaynor's "I will survive" in the bathtub (Salewicz, 2011, p.6). It is important to note that Erikson (1964) characterises this psychosocial stage with dramatic ritualization and play. Janis describes that Amy had a

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY vivid imagination and that she would often read to them which encouraged story telling with social mores to learn (Winehouse, 2014).

Mitchell describes that Alex, Amy and he would play ball sports together (Winehouse, 2012). As stated above, she would also engage in motor play such as bike riding and climbing. These examples illustrate that Amy had the freedom to explore her physical and mental capacities which contribute to the development of a sense of initiative and purpose (Erikson, 1950/1963). Additionally, she seemed to have also developed intellectual initiative seeing as Amy could read before she started formal schooling (Stevens, 2008; Welchman, 2000; Winehouse, 2012). Amy was also known to have a mind of her own and was very opinionated (Newkey-Burden, 2014). She struggled to view things from any other perspective besides her own and she fiercely stood by her arguments (Newkey-Burden, 2014; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). As such, it can be insinuated that she was given the opportunity to explore her capabilities to initiate independent actions and had conviction in these actions which is an indication of a successfully resolved psychosocial crisis of Initiative versus Guilt (Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008).

At the age of four, Amy attended her reception year at Osidge Primary School where she met her lifelong best friend, Juliette Ashby (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). They were both very naughty and would often be in trouble together and be sent to the principal’s reception desk where misbehaved children were sent (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). An example of their shenanigans includes an instance when they were five years old where they went through the other children's lunch boxes during first play and ate all their crisps (Newkey- Burden, 2014). Another example is that one of them would run out of the classroom pretending to be crying, upon where the other would follow her out in an attempt to comfort her meanwhile using this trick to skip class (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011). This illustrates how a sense purpose for performance was attained whereby childhood dreams became adult realities (Erikson, 1950/1963).

A childhood dream of performance can be observed when Juliette and Amy were ten years old, they formed a musical rap double-act group called "Sweet and Sour" (McCrudden, 2016; Newkey-Burden, 2014, p.7). The reality of this childhood dream was her developing a career as a musician (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; McCrudden, 2016; Newkey-Burden, 2014; Aabech & Simpson, 2017; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Amy’s identification

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY with the role of a musician and performer manifests from her authentic self which steers away from the ritualism of impersonation. Her social identity and the roles she embodied will be discussed in the Identity versus Role confusion psychosocial stage. Another important feature of this psychosocial stage is a child's engagement with heroes and role models (Erikson, 1950/1963). Janis describes that Amy always wanted to be a singer because she loved performing and she received a lot of praise for it from her family members (Newkey-Burden, 2014; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). The Winehouse household would listen to music by Ella Fitzgerald, Frank Sinatra and Dinah Washington (Newkey-Burden, 2014). Amy reported that she was a fan of Kylie Minogue and Madonna up until the age of eleven and then she discovered Salt 'n Pepa who were her role models in the Identity and Role Confusion psychosocial stage (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). Their style of music (predominantly jazz, hip-hop and pop) and the musical role models she had from birth, form part of her occupational identity formation which will be discussed in depth in the Identity and Role confusion psychosocial stage. Another example of her love for performance and its connection to a childhood role model is noted in her addiction to American Wrestling shows such as "SmackDown" and "Raw" (Newkey-Burden, 2014, p. 13). She met her wrestling hero, Chris Jericho later in her life which she was more excited about than meeting any other musician (Newkey-Burden, 2014). The fact that Amy enjoyed wrestling illustrates her involvement in dramatized play and that she was always known to be a performer, through imaginative physical play.

6.2.5. Industry versus Inferiority

The fourth of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages is labelled Industry versus Inferiority experienced primarily within the age range from six to twelve years (Erikson, 1997; Hamachek, 1990). This stage marks the last of the childhood stages identified by Erikson and is regarded as the decisive phase (Saccaggi, 2015). Erikson (1950/1963) regards this stage as the decisive phase because this is the school-going age and the child experiences “a sense of finality regarding the fact that there is no workable future within the womb of the family” (p. 233). Moreover, the child’s world expands from the home environment to the formal schooling environment (Erikson, 1950/1963). This stage is characterised by learning new social skills, or what Erikson (1964) describes as “workmanship”, that form a prerequisite of adult life (p.123).

As the child progresses within this psychosocial stage, they receive recognition for producing things and applying their newly learnt skills (Erikson, 1950/1963). Stevens (2008) 129

THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY highlights that the child becomes aware of the fact that their performance is assessed in comparison to their peers. Furthermore, they develop a sense of industry when they are able to accomplish a set task and conversely develop a sense of inferiority when their abilities are inadequate. In the event that the child develops a sense of inferiority, he or she is discouraged to challenge themselves and work within their full capacity (Malakou, 2015). This leads to the development of the maladaptive ego weakness of inability where the child believes that he or she is not good learner, and as a result the child dislikes learning new things (Hamachek, 1988). Such a child craves the recognition received from production, but he or she is too afraid of failure to be a ‘producer’. This is linked to a fragile sense of persistence (Hamachek, 1988, p.358). Undoubtedly, the child that is encouraged and given reinforcement and confidence, will develop the ego strength of what Erikson (1950/1963) termed as “lasting competence.”

The ego strength of competence is the free exercise of dexterity and ability to complete set tasks (Erikson, 1964). This virtue is linked to the ritualization of formal education whereby the ego identity is based on the formulation of “I am what I can learn to make work” (Erikson, 1968/1994, p. 127). In conclusion, a successful resolution of this psychosocial crisis is achieved through the favourable ratio of industry and inferiority, whereby a child develops a sense of industry with a small degree of inferiority to ensure sensible humility (Boeree, 2006; Prenter, 2015).

This psychosocial stage is dominated by Mitchell and Janis' divorce (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). As previously mentioned, Mitchell started an affair with Jane when Amy was eighteen months old (Winehouse, 2012). Mitchell admitted that he loved both Jane and Janis (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2012). Janis explains that Mitchell wanted to have both if he could but she was uncomfortable with that idea (Newkey-Burden, 2014; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Through this example it can be inferred that the decision to leave Janis and his children was a difficult one because he loved them. Thus, his absenteeism is not a reflection of his regard for them but rather that he was exploring his own mutuality through his relationship with Jane. It can be assumed that Jane provided him with understanding that the choice was difficult and gave him the much needed isolation for him to come to the conclusion to be with her. In fact, Winehouse (2012) reports that Jane was adamant that she did not want to interfere with Mitchell’s commitment to his family (p.18). Mitchell’s choice to be with Jane may imply that he revisited his own psychosocial stage of Intimacy versus Isolation.

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Throughout Janis and Mitchell’s marriage, they ensured that they did not ever fight in front of their children and it seemed that they had an agreeable marriage (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2014). Prior to their final decision of getting a divorce, they gave marriage counselling a try but it was unsuccessful because of Mitchell's ongoing feelings towards Jane (Winehouse, 2014). As such, the news that they were getting a divorce was conveyed by Mitchell to Alex and Amy, with both parents present (Winehouse, 2014). On the one hand, Mitchell claimed that he ensured to communicate that the divorce had nothing to do with what they had or had not done (Winehouse, 2012). Janis, on the other hand, recalls that Mitchell told the children that they were lucky that they would still be able to see him unlike when he was a child and his father died at the age of sixteen (Winehouse, 2014). This may have communicated that Amy and Alex were in a fortunate position in comparison to Mitchell, which invalidates any negative feelings that may have experienced towards the announcement of the divorce and the divorce itself. In a way, Mitchell may have been insinuating that if they do feel negative emotions towards the news of the divorce, that it is shameful and so they doubt their autonomy to regulate their emotions impacting on the psychosocial stage of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt. Janis recalls the atmosphere during the divorce announcement being "surprisingly" casual in that Alex was half swinging on his chair and started chocking on his sandwich (Winehouse, 2014, p. 61). Amy stood quietly while her father was speaking and then erupted in giggles (Winehouse, 2014). This reaction can be as a result of discomfort and serves to deflect from the reality of hearing such unbelievably bad news. It can be seen as a defense mechanism (sic) of denial whereby the perception of the external reality is altered (Sadock et al., 2015, p. 161). It is easier to laugh at the bad news than to actually acknowledge the painful truth of the break in unity that is accompanied by divorce. Mitchell perceived that Alex took the announcement of the divorce badly while Amy seemed to have accepted it (Winehouse, 2012). However, Amy later told her mother that both Alex and her felt confused because neither of them ever heard their parents argue despite understanding that there were possible problems within their marriage (Winehouse, 2014).

Seeing as this psychosocial stage is characterised by a child's ability to produce things in comparison to their peers, Amy's reaction to the divorce was more favourable than Alex's reaction from Mitchell's perspective (Erikson, 1950/1963; Winehouse, 2012). It seems that this too was an example of Amy’s need for recognition, praise and attention from her father (Gay- Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Amy described herself as a "daddy's girl" which was signified by a tattoo she got later in life (Salewicz, 2011, p. 24). At the same time, Amy claimed to be angry

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY towards her father for his absence while she was growing up, which is apparent in Amy's early musical work (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2014). It can be assumed that Amy did not successfully resolve this psychosocial stage because of her downward spiral after the divorce announcement. Amy admitted that after her father had left, she felt that she could do as she pleased and decided to take control of her own life to compensate for the lack of control she felt over her parents' divorce (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014).

A sense of control is important in the process of free exercise of dexterity and as such, in the development of lasting competence (Erikson, 1964). Examples of her attempts at gaining control over her life included wearing make-up and short skirts, starting to smoke cigarettes and bunking school (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). In addition, she became more disruptive at school and would get into trouble for this (Winehouse, 2014). Seeing as this stage is described as the sense of finality attributed to the lack of the workable future in the family womb, the change in Amy's attitude reflects probable feelings of inadequacy in her ability to cope with the disruption to the family structure and it is probable that she developed feelings of inferiority (Erikson, 1950/1963).

It is important to reflect on the epigenetic principle because the divorce occurred in the Industry versus Inferiority phase but it impacted on all the future psychosocial stages, while also influencing previous psychosocial stages, one being Basic trust versus Mistrust. In the psychosocial stage of Basic trust versus Mistrust, a child learns to trust him or herself, as well as the environment which extends beyond the reliance of continuity on the environment, to include the ability to trust one’s capacity to cope with immature urges (Erikson, 1950/1963). The capacity to cope with unpredictability includes the ability to self-soothe when the caregiver is not in sight (Erikson, 1950/1963). It requires a child to possess an inner certainty as well as an outer predictable perception of the return of the caregiver (Erikson, 1950/1963; Saccaggi, 2015). However, Amy seemed to not have had the inner certainty that her parents would return to cater to her emotional needs perpetuated by the announcement of the divorce and the experience of the divorce itself. It is evident that through Mitchell's perception that Amy seemed to handle the divorce well, that he did not explore her emotional needs further than the day of the announcement and her reaction thereafter (Winehouse, 2012).

According to Newkey-Burden (2014), the experience of watching parents go through a divorce is almost unbearably difficult for any child. In Amy's case, she resorted to the

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY maladaptive self-soothing mechanism of self-mutilation because the only platform provided for Amy to communicate her feelings regarding the divorce with both parents present, had been on the day of the announcement. It is evident that Amy’s initial reaction to the divorce was fleeting and perhaps, even a way to avoid possible punishment for having a "wrong" reaction. This refers back to Initiative versus Guilt psychosocial stage where guilt is internalised due to unforeseen negative consequences, criticisms and/or perceived punishments (Erikson, 1950/1963, 1968/1994; Swartz et al., 2008). The song What is it about men? (see Appendix A and lyrics below) from the album Frank reflects a more negative experience of the divorce. Thus, the announcement of the divorce created a sense of uncertainty and lack of control which would bring up feelings of doubt directing back to the psychosocial crisis of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt.

“Understand once he was a family man/So surely I would never, ever go through it first-hand…History repeats itself, it fails to die…And I question myself again: what is it 'bout men?/My destructive side has grown a mile wide/And I question myself again: what is it 'bout men?...”

As mentioned above, the song What is it about men? (see Appendix A) from the album Frank has been referred to as a reflection of Amy's feelings towards her father and the divorce (Salewicz, 2011). This influenced her later attitude towards men, that is, that they are inherently unfaithful and incapable of meeting her emotional needs. This outlook is also expressed in her song Stronger than me (see Appendix C and lyrics below). Amy's attitude towards men references back to her relationship with her father and the template her parents' relationship had set. Amy’s parents’ divorce resulted in self-destructive behaviour as noted in her Identity versus Role confusion psychosocial stage of development. These self-destructive behaviours include self-mutilation, triggering her mental illnesses, alcohol and substance use which infiltrated through to the Intimacy versus Isolation psychosocial stage of development.

“You should be stronger than me…You supposed to be the man/Not pale in comparison to who you think I am…Why'd you always put me in control?/All I need is for my man to live up to his role/You always wanna talk it through- I'm ok/I always have to comfort you every day/But that's what I need you to do…Thought you had so many lessons to learn…”

Amy started self-mutilating at the age of nine as a mechanism to cope with her negative emotions regarding her parents’ divorce (Winehouse, 2014). It seems that the divorce led to Amy regressing to the first psychosocial developmental stage of Basic trust versus Mistrust.

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This stage is characterised by Amy’s reliance on her parents to help her re-confirm that the environment is a safe and predictable space by attending to her emotional needs (Erikson, 1950/1963; Welchman, 2000). In addition, the assistance on how to regulate negative emotion would have been facilitated by Amy’s caregivers’ guidance. Seeing as the divorce was perceived as a drastic change in Amy’s environment, she needed an emotional outlet. According to Suyemoto (1998), the primary function of self-mutilation is to regulate emotions, express one’s emotions and achieve a sense of control towards overwhelmingly negative emotions. The sense of control that is achieved in the process of self-mutilation relates back to the psychosocial stage of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt. As such, it can be inferred that Amy used self-mutilation as a strategy to gain control, help regulate and cope with her emotional distress caused by the change in her environment following her parents’ divorce (Winehouse, 2014). The literature indicates that Amy did not receive guidance from her caregivers on how to regulate negative emotions in an adaptive way and so she resorted to maladaptive self-soothing mechanisms such as self-mutilation and substance use (Newkey- Bruden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014).

As mentioned above, Mitchell reported that Amy seemed to take the news of the divorce well (Winehouse, 2012), which may imply that not much more attention was given to her regarding any painful or uncomfortable feelings that may have manifested later on. According to Winehouse (2014), Amy was angry at her father for not attending to her emotional needs and she expressed those emotions in her music. It is clear that initially Amy directed her anger and the associated negative emotions inwards (related to the malignant tendency of the Basic trust versus Mistrust psychosocial stage known as “withdrawal”), through the act of self- mutilation and later in her life she directed it externally by using language, music and lyrics (which is known as “intellectual initiative” of the Initiative versus Guilt psychosocial stage) (Suyemoto, 1998). This expression of emotions from internal to external mediums can be different manifestations of the same condition, for example her battle with Depression (her mental illnesses will be discussed later in the chapter). According to Gay-Rees and Kapadia (2015), she responded in an interview when asked about her experience with Depression, that it had been one where she felt funny and realised that something was different so she used music as an outlet. This vague description may suggest that the platform of music was used as a healthy self-soothing mechanism where Amy could communicate her feelings of hurt, anger and pain caused by the divorce (see Appendix A and lyrics below). This use of intellectual

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY initiative helped calm her down when she was overwhelmed by her emotions (Winehouse, 2012).

“…I'm nurturing, I just wanna do my thing/And I'll take the wrong man as naturally as I sing/And I'll save my tears for uncovering my fears/For behavioural patterns that stick over the years…”

Amy’s use of speech allowed for autonomy to develop as she became more in tune with her environment (related back to the Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt psychosocial stage). What this means is that she was more aware of her environment and the associated feelings that manifested as a result of the interpersonal interactions in her environment. Amy reportedly felt that to be heard in her family, she had to scream and that is why she was loud (Newkey- Burden, 2014). Thus, Amy's self-mutilation could also be seen as a means of communicating her internal pain through this external act of self-mutilation because she may have felt that the verbal expression of her needs, in the context of the divorce, would not evoke an environmental response (Suyemoto, 1998). Although parents are encouraged to allow their children to experiment with autonomy and initiating independent actions in this psychosocial stage of Industry versus Inferiority, it is also their responsibility to have an appropriate ratio between parental control and freedom (Erikson, 1950/1963; Roets, 2015). It seems that Mitchell was too preoccupied with his new relationship with Jane, and Janis was preoccupied with her studies and battle with Multiple Sclerosis (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Thus, Amy decided to take control of her life since her parents left her unmonitored (Salewicz, 2011).

Amy also suffered from other mental illnesses besides Depression such as acute panic attacks, substance use disorder and Bulimia nervosa (Johnstone, 2011; Jones, 2016; Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). She tried to conceal her low moods from her family members but Janis noticed that she started sleeping excessively and lost a lot of weight (Winehouse, 2014). These were all symptoms of Depression. As such, Amy was prescribed anti-depressant by the age of fifteen (Salewicz, 2011). It is noteworthy that Janis was diagnosed with Post-partum Depression after giving birth to Alex (Winehouse, 2014). This contributes to the heredity component of Amy’s mental illnesses. It can be assumed that Amy’s mental illnesses were not properly addressed as her substance abuse was the main focus noted by media reports whom did not provide enough attention to the underlying causes of her substance use (which could have been the Anxiety, Depression and Bulimia nervosa). However, the fact that Amy went to seek help for her depressive symptoms through the form of pharmacological intervention is an indication that she was not opposed to the idea of going for treatment. It is

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY important to emphasise that depressive symptoms are common among individuals with a substance dependency disorders (Sadock et al., 2015).

Amy had many failed attempts at rehabilitation for her substance use disorder, which can be a result of her poor motivation to sustain her abstinence from the substances she was using (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). It is important to note that Amy wanted her father to provide her with direction when she asked him whether she should go to rehabilitation or not (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; Aabech & Simpson, 2017). However, he was unable to recognise the severity of her addiction and claimed that Amy did not need rehab despite her friends and management saying otherwise (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Salewicz, 2011). According to Sadock et al. (2015), up to fifty percent of substance abusers have a comorbid psychiatric illness. Another mental illness that was disregarded, was her battle with Bulimia nervosa. Amy had first admitted that her severe weight loss was due to a new diet she was on where she could eat whatever she wanted and make herself vomit thereafter (Aabech & Simpson, 2017; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Both Janis and Mitchell dismissed her Bulimia nervosa as a “phase” that they believed would pass (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). This attitude from her parents suggests once again that the underlying causes for her mental illnesses went unnoticed. It can be assumed that Amy’s clinical presentation was three-fold as depicted in the following diagram:

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Diagram 1: Three-fold conceptualisation of Amy Winehouse’s mental illnesses

Personality Traits: Borderline Personality Traits (Discussed in section: Identity versus Role Confusion)

Mental illnesses: Bulimia nervosa, Anxiety and Depression (Discussed in section: Industry versus Inferiority)

Substance Abuse (Discussed in section: Intimacy versus Isolation)

As mentioned above, Amy’s proposed personality traits will be discussed in the Identity versus Role Confusion psychosocial stage while her battle with substances will be explored in detail in the Intimacy versus Isolation psychosocial stage. With regards to her mental illnesses, Amy suffered from acute panic attacks when she felt overwhelmed with emotions (Winehouse, 2014). This experience is categorised under Anxiety disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Bulimia nervosa is understood to be linked to anxiety-provoking experiences. An individual with anxiety experiences a loss of control which evokes emotional discomfort and experiences extreme stress manifesting in physiological responses such as difficulty in breathing and difficulty in thinking rationally (Sadock et al., 2015). As a result, the individual has a need for control which could be in the form of an inanimate object such as control over their food intake especially in the context Bulimia nervosa. This example reiterates the fact that Amy did not successfully resolve the psychosocial crisis of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt which is characterised by the sense of control facilitated by healthy

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY boundaries. Seeing as Amy’s parents were unable to set appropriate boundaries for her, she took it upon herself to engage in the self-harming behaviour such as self-mutilation and maladaptive eating patterns as a means to regulate her anxiety, create some structure and regain some control over her unpredictable home environment.

In the context of schooling, Amy was able to receive some form of structure. As previously mentioned, Amy attended Osidge Primary School at the age of four years and there she met her lifelong friend, Juliette Ashby (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). The school prioritised music education which was one of the reason's Janis and Mitchell enrolled her to the school (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014). Amy grew up in a musically-orientated home and her musical talent had been praised from a very young age. Amy and Alex's grandparents often asked them to sing for the family (Winehouse, 2012). At the age of six, her family members encouraged her to join a weekly theatre class called ‘Stagecoach’ (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). It was her solo performance through Stagecoach that convinced her family that her passion and talent for singing may lead to a professional singing career (Winehouse, 2014). As such, Amy received a lot of recognition and attention for her performance abilities (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012) which facilitated the sense of industry. This encouraged the ego quality of competence to emerge in the context of performance. However, Amy's teachers found it challenging to stop her from singing beyond the music education classrooms (Salewicz, 2011; Aabech & Simpson, 2017; Winehouse, 2014).

She would sing "fly me to the moon" by Frank Sinatra at the top of her lungs in class which reportedly calmed her down when she was overwhelmed at school (Winehouse, 2012, p.14). Amy disclosed that she felt smothered by the structured environment of school because she hated being told what to do (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Winehouse, 2014). It is evident that the expansion of the home environment to include the wider context of school, took aspects of previous psychosocial stages into account such as boundary setting in Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (Erikson, 1950/1963). Seeing as Amy always resisted boundaries and structure at home, it was no different in the context of schooling (Winehouse, 2014). Despite the fact that she may have wanted someone to say “no” to her, when someone did she rebelled against them (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). She further stated that she was naughty because she felt bored and under-stimulated in class (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Salewicz, 2011). For this reason, she was moved one year ahead of her age group at Sylvia Young Theatre School to provide more of a challenge but her disruptive behaviour persisted (Salewicz, 2011).

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Prior to her enrolment at Sylvia Young Theatre School, Amy attended Ashmore Secondary School where she performed well academically in the first year (Winehouse, 2014). Amy's school teachers stated that she had the potential and the intelligence to perform well academically but she struggled to concentrate long enough to accomplish a set task (Winehouse, 2014). She later received a lot of negative attention and punishment from school for her disruptive behaviour which could have contributed to the development of a sense of inferiority towards academics. Amy admitted that the constant negative reinforcement and punishment "got to her" which led to her eventually dropping out of school (Newkey-Burden, 2014, p. 11). It is thus evident that although she had the potential for developing a sense of industry towards academics, it was overshadowed by her behavioural difficulties and criticisms from teachers (Winehouse, 2014). The theme of Amy's disruptive behaviour and boredom in class continued through her adolescence stage noted in her transcripts at Sylvia Young Theatre School, Mount School and the BRIT Performing Arts and Technology School (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015).

Newkey-Burden (2014) reports that Amy identified herself as a singer and not an academic. It seems that Amy was not confident in her abilities to perform academically and was uninterested in being a “producer” in the academic sphere. Her disinterest can be seen as the consequence of the negative feedback she constantly received from her teachers. Gay-Rees and Kapadia (2015) notes that in many interviews all Amy felt competent in was her ability to make music. It was Cynthia who suggested that Amy attend the Susi Earnshaw Theatre School three hours a week at the age of eight going on nine (Winehouse, 2012). She landed her first paying job as an extra in The English National Opera's production of Don Quixote (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Thus, reinforcing her competence for performance once again. At the Susi Earnshaw Theatre School, none of the teachers gave negative feedback to Amy's parents (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). This highlights that although she felt restricted by the schooling structures, her loud and attention seeking behaviour was better suited for musical theatre and performance. Janis felt that she would be more manageable attending a full time theatre school because it was evident that her passion was performance (Winehouse, 2014). As such, she received a partial scholarship at the Sylvia Young Theatre School for her performance potential (Newkey-Burden, 2014; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012).

In this psychosocial development stage it is important for children to develop self- esteem in their abilities to produce things in the formal ritualization of schooling (Erikson,

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1964). In Amy's case it seems that she developed a sense of inferiority and feelings of inadequacy with regards to her academic performance abilities as she could not live up to the demands of the structured schooling environment (Erikson, 1964). Seeing as structure was eradicated from her home context through the divorce of her parents, her need for attention led to an escalation of disruptive behaviour in the classroom (Winehouse, 2014). It seemed that Amy was compensating for her feelings of inferiority by gaining any form of recognition or attention from her parents, whether the repercussions were good or bad. As such, this psychosocial developmental phase seems to be unresolved leading to the maladaptive tendency of narrow virtuosity that only accounted for her industry towards her musical performance.

6.2.6. Identity versus Role confusion

The fifth of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages is labelled Identity versus Role Confusion experienced primarily in the adolescence ages ranging from twelve to twenty years (Allen, 2006; Erikson, 1997; Hamachek, 1990; Prenter, 2015). Identity is understood as the conscious sense of uniqueness as well as the unconscious striving towards continuity of experience (Erikson, 1968/1994; Kroger, 2005). Furthermore, ego identity is described as the sense of belonging, the knowing where one is going, as well as the inner reassurance that an individual will be acknowledged by those that matter most to him or her (Erikson, 1968/1994). Erikson et al. (1989) describes the development of a sense of identity as the process which considers personal commitments, beliefs and attitudes in the context of activities and relationships. This psychosocial stage is characterised by change, change in the physical, social and ideological spheres which leads to the contemplation of changes in attitude towards their body image and world views (Stevens, 2008).

During this stage, adolescents are required to make decisions related to their occupational, social and sexual identity (Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008; Welchman, 2000). Occupational identity is the ability to decide on and settle in a career path (Erikson, 1950/1963; Malakou, 2015). It is the basis of acceptance of an existing work ethos and serves to continue into adulthood (Erikson, 1976). Sexual identity is linked to adolescent love which involves the projection of a subtle ego-image onto another in an attempt to describe the individual’s identity (Erikson, 1950/1963). In terms of social identity, an adolescent seems to lose aspects of their identity while idolizing leaders of certain groups and cliques in an attempt to feel included into these groups (Erikson, 1950/1963).

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Erikson (1950/1963) emphasised that adolescents need a period of tolerance and space to experiment with new social roles known as a “psychosocial moratorium” (p. 254). This facilitates their search for identity as it provides freedom to explore and fail before their identity is crystalized (Erikson, 1950/1963; Louw, Van Ede, & Louw, 1999; Prenter, 2015; Stevens, 2008; Welchman, 2000). Carr and McNulty (2006) highlight that adolescents are able to achieve a clear sense of individual identity when they experience a moratorium. Additionally, adolescents have a stronger chance of developing an integrated psychosocial identity if a good sense of trust, autonomy, initiative and industry have been attained (Malakou, 2015). As such, the groundwork for a successful development of identity is laid out from birth onwards (Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008).

The resolution of this psychosocial crisis leads to the ego strength of fidelity (Erikson, 1997). It is the ability to sustain commitment and loyalty to the adolescent’s chosen roles, beliefs, and affiliations despite the inevitable contradictions and confusions inherent to different value systems (Erikson, 1964; Markstrom et al., 1998; Nel, 2013; Stevens, 2008). It is accompanied by the positive self-description that is being true to the individual's value system (Carr & McNulty, 2006).

The formation of identity is a constant negotiation between the opposing psychosocial crisis poles. Firstly, Amy’s social identity formation will be considered along with influential components that led to her ideologies. Amy and her friends listened to rhythm and blues as well as popular music genres which include bands such as Madonna, Michael Jackson, En Vogue and Shangri-Las (Newkey-Burden, 2014; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). However,

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY it was the jazz genre of music that Amy was most influenced by, seeing as her familial environment was filled with jazz music from the likes of Frank Sinatra (Winehouse, 2012). Amy was most inspired by Ella Fitzgerald, Sarah Vaughan and Dinah Washington’s contributions to the jazz industry (Johnstone, 2011). These women are African American jazz musicians whose music was only made accessible in Britain after the mid-1920s (Atkins, 2003; National Jazz Archive, n.d.; BBC [online], n.d.). It is important to highlight that Amy seemed to be inspired by American musicians, and particularly by African American all-female groups such as Salt 'n Pepa and TLC (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012).

According to Salewicz (2011), Amy was drawn to Lisa “Left Eye” Loops from TLC because she was described by tabloids as a “bad girl” (p.8). The author further adds that Amy could identify with Lisa’s attitude because it was described as fierce and somewhat troubled (Salewicz, 2011). Furthermore, Amy enjoyed the fact that the musical group Salt ‘n Pepa would speak their minds and be upfront about people they did not like (Newkey-Burden, 2014). All these musicians most likely helped shape Amy’s perception of what a female musician should be. Amy's societal ideology was highlighted in the song Fuck me Pumps (see Appendix E and lyrics below) from the album Frank where Amy reflects on the social circles she was surrounded by. She criticised the typical girls who dressed in a certain way and shared specific ideas about men which were different from hers. This outspoken attitude in her music resembled the ideals of Salt 'n Pepa.

“When you walk in the bar/And you dressed like a star/Rockin' your F me pumps/And the men notice you/With your Gucci bag crew/Can't tell who he's lookin' to/Cuz you all look the same/Everyone knows your name/And that's your whole claim to fame/Never miss a night/Cuz your dream in life/Is to be a footballer's wife/You don't like players/That's what you say-a/But you really wouldn't mind a millionaire/You don't like ballers/They don't do nothing for ya/But you'd love a rich man six foot two or taller/You're more than a fan/Lookin' for a man/But you end up with one-nights- stands…You can't sit down right/Cuz your jeans are too tight/And you're lucky it's ladies night/With your big empty purse/Every week it gets worse/At least your breasts cost more than hers…Without girls like you/There'd be no fun/We'd go to the club and not see anyone/Without girls like you/There's no nightlife/All those men just go home to their wives/Don't be mad at me/Cuz you're pushing thirty/And your old tricks no longer work/You should have known from the jump/That you always get dumped/So dust off your fuck me pumps”

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Amy enjoyed and related to music about lost loves and other teenage drama (Newkey- Burden, 2014). Additionally, Amy was also influenced by hip hop artists such as Nas and Mos Def because of their socially conscious lyrics (Newkey-Burden, 2014). As such, it seems that Amy's ideology was that of bringing societal issues like relationships between men and women into consciousness through her music. Music became Amy's platform of expression of emotions and ideals (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). Therefore, it seems that Amy found the sense of belonging in the musical world.

Secondly, Amy’s occupational identity was made up of her academic and musical career. Amy reported that she felt like an outsider at school because she felt suffocated by the structured environment of the schooling system (Newkey-Burden, 2014). When Amy moved to The Mount School at the age of fifteen, Amy’s home environment changed as Janis and Tony started dating (Winehouse, 2014). Tony moved into Janis’ home with his son Robert and daughter Caroline who were both the same age as Amy and Alex (Winehouse, 2014). Janis admits that both Alex and Amy found the transition of the family structure difficult as it involved a whole new living environment (Winehouse, 2014). Amy and her family relocated to a home that did not have enough rooms so the garage was converted to a room for Amy (Winehouse, 2014). As a result, Amy reportedly felt disconnected from the rest of the family (Winehouse, 2014). This experience may be interpreted as emotional abandonment by her mother which reflects Amy’s revisit to the psychosocial stage of Basic trust versus Mistrust. Janis explains that “as the months wore on, we [Janis, Amy, Alex, Tony, Robert and Caroline] naturally drifted into two distinctly separate families living under one roof” (Winehouse, 2014, p. 95). This fragmented family structure adds to the interpretation that the environment was unpredictable and inconsistent which contributed to the development of Mistrust. Additionally, Janis reports that Amy and Tony never saw eye-to-eye because she found him to be boring and would overpower him (Winehouse, 2014, p. 95). Another relationship that was difficult for Amy was the fact that it seems that Janis compared Amy to Caroline who identified more with her Jewish faith and excelled academically (Winehouse, 2014). Caroline was reportedly more conscientious at school (Winehouse, 2014), the area that Amy developed the ego weakness of inability as noted in the psychosocial stage of Industry versus Inferiority. It can be assumed that the change in the family dynamics led to uncertainty and threatened Amy’s sense of belonging to her family. Winehouse (2014) explains that the concept of family had become romanticised and an intangible idea to Amy. This most likely caused her distress because she admits in the documentary by Gay-Rees and Kapadia (2015) that she identified herself as a

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY family girl. It seemed that Amy not only battled to find her place in the world but also in her family environment (Winehouse, 2014).

As mentioned before, Amy found her sense of belonging through performance which was cultivated from the home environment in her early childhood (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). When Amy was younger, she idolised her brother, Alex and would follow all his interests (Newkey-Burden, 2014). It is noteworthy that Amy's first proper word was “Alex” (J. Winehouse, 2014, p.24). This illustrates that Alex had a significant impact in her upbringing as he was most likely her first friend. At the same time, Amy seemed to compete with Alex for attention from their parents. This healthy sibling rivalry was reinforced by their grandparents who would often encourage Amy and Alex to perform in front of them (Winehouse, 2014). It was at the age of fourteen, when Amy was inspired by her brother to start learning how to play the guitar, seeing as Alex had taught himself how to play (Aabech & Simpson, 2017; Winehouse, 2014). Amy went on to write her own music around the age of sixteen years and was described as a charismatic and confident songwriter (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). This reinforces the sense of belonging to the music scene.

Amy seemed to have developed the identity of a musician as she was always praised for her exceptional musical abilities (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). It was then that she decided to become a professional singer and dropped out of school (Eliscu et al., 2011; Winehouse, 2012). Once Amy dropped out of school, she went on to work as a junior trainee showbiz reporter for two months at World Entertainment News Network (WENN) (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). WENN was a show business news agency, gathering service with bureaus around the world and it was run by Juliette Ashby’s father (Winehouse, 2012). Amy worked at WENN during the day and she would spend her evenings performing in small venues (Salewicz, 2011). A friend of hers eventually offered her free time in a studio to record, and this is where she recorded a demo with Sylvia Young Theatre School friend, Tyler James (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). She later went on to audition for the National Youth Jazz Orchestra, where she spent her weekends doing shows as a vocalist (Winehouse, 2012). She caught the attention of “Brilliant! 19 Management” during a National Youth Jazz Orchestra show (Newkey-Burden, 2014).

Amy signed a four year deal with “Brilliant! 19 management” to oversee all her activities in the entertainment industry (Winehouse, 2014). It was not long before she secured a publishing deal from EMI and a label deal from Universal Island Ltd (Gay-Rees & Kapadia,

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2015). Some of her accolades include winning the ‘Best British Female Artist’ award at the ‘Brit Awards’ in 2007 for the song Rehab (see Appendix B) from the album Back to Black, winning three ‘Grammys’ in 2008, winning three ‘Ivor Novello Awards’ for the songs Rehab (see Appendix B), Stronger than me (see Appendix C) and Love is a losing game (see Appendix D) from the album Back to Black (Salewicz, 2011). The positive reinforcement of her musical production and talents through accolades reinforces her occupational identity as a musician. It can be assumed that Amy developed the ego strength of fidelity with regards to her occupational identity as a musician.

Thirdly, it seemed that Amy did not attain the ego strength of fidelity when considering her sexual identity development linked with role confusion. Janis' cousin Joan became aware of Amy's sexual activity when she found condoms in her bag (Winehouse, 2014). Amy begged Joan not to tell her mother and she indeed kept it a secret (Winehouse, 2014). Shortly after Amy’s parents’ divorce, she admitted that she started bunking school shortly after her parents' divorce and used to bring her boyfriends home while her mother was at work (Newkey-Burden, 2014). Janis recalls coming home for her lunch break and found Amy lying in her dressing gown with her boyfriend whom she was unaware of (Newkey-Burden, 2014). In light of this, Janis put Amy put on contraceptive pills from the age of fifteen (Salewicz, 2011). In the song In my bed (see Appendix F) from the album Frank Amy claims that she could not separate her emotions from sex. However, Amy's exploration of her sexual identity can be noted in the song I heard love is blind (see Appendix G) from the album Frank. The lyrics “But you can still trust me, this ain't infidelity/It's not cheating; you were on my mind” illustrates that Amy various sexual partners should not be seen as infidelity or cheating. In addition, her sexualised lyrics such as "I just want to rip your body over mine" in the song Stronger than me (see Appendix C) from the album Frank is an indication that she was in touch with her sexual identity. It seems that the album Frank spoke mainly of adolescent love and Amy's perception of relationships at that stage. Amy produced her album Frank after the break up with her boyfriend, Chris Taylor whom she met at WENN (Salewicz, 2011). He was her first serious boyfriend and they dated for nine months (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Chris was seven years older than her and in the song Stronger than me, she reflects on her expectation that he should have been stronger than her because he was older and supposedly had more life experience than her (Salewicz, 2011; see Appendix C and lyrics below).

“You should be stronger than me/You been here 7 years longer than me/Don't you know?/You supposed to be the man/Not pale in comparison to who you think I am…I

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always have to comfort you when I'm there/But that's what I need you to do/Stroke my hair…”

Along with Amy's occupational identity comes the notion of her body image as a musician. When Amy was in The Sylvia Young Theatre School, she was influenced by the ideology that "lighter, smaller and thinner" is associated with stagecraft and being acknowledged as a performer (Newkey-Burden, 2014, p. 15). As previously mentioned, this environment facilitated Amy's unhealthy eating pattern where she presented with Bulimic tendencies (J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Her parents dismissed this behaviour as a stage that would pass in an attempt to provide psychosocial moratorium (Erikson, 1950/1963; Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). The psychosocial moratorium extended to Amy's experimentation with her body image such as her first tattoo of Betty Boop on her back at the age of fifteen and the fact that she pierced her own nose (Eliscu, 2007; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). Amy reported that by the time she was changing her appearance and getting tattoos, her parents had realized that she could do whatever she wanted (Newkey-Burden, 2014). Amy started taking control of her own life and changing her appearance, following her parents' divorce (Salewicz, 2011). It began with rebelling by wearing make-up and short skirts at the age of nine, to her getting her breast augmented as a young adult (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014). Mitchell understood her rebellious ways to be a form of expression thus he provided her with psychosocial moratorium to explore these new social roles (Winehouse, 2012). However, it seemed that there was an over-emphasis on the psychosocial moratorium provided to Amy without some sort of guidance leading to the maladaptive tendency of fanaticism. It seemed that she over-identified with a rebellious social identity so much so that it led to her experimental substance use becoming an addiction.

Amy started experimenting with cannabis and alcohol at the age of fifteen (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Newkey-Burden, 2014). Janis reports contradictory information as Amy wrote in her diary at the age of twelve already in an entry titled party reviews that she “drank loads but was not pissed. We passed around some exotic cigarettes” (Winehouse, 2014, p. 97). This was the start of her lengthy substance and alcohol use history. When considering the influence of substances in Amy's identity formation, it is important to consider the inter- dependant and integration of the soma, psyche and ethos; otherwise known as the notion of triple bookkeeping. Seeing as Amy's addiction worsened when she met Blake Fielder-Civil, the conceptualisation of the addiction in accordance to the notion of triple bookkeeping is discussed in the Intimacy versus Isolation psychosocial developmental stage. It is significant

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY that in the song Help yourself (see Appendix H and see lyrics below) from the album Frank, Amy refers to a man needing to help himself before he can be helped by Amy. This can be associated to Amy's addiction in that she needed to have the motivation to help herself first before anyone else could intervene.

“…I can't help you if you won't help yourself/(Help yourself, help yourself)/No, I can't help you if you don't help yourself/(Help yourself, no no no)/You can only get so much from someone else/(Get so much from, yeah)/I can't help you if you won't help yourself/(You can't help yourself)…”

According to the article: Amy Winehouse dead: Traits of ‘Borderline Personality Disorder’ explain her tragic life (IBT staff reporter, 2011), it is suggested that throughout Amy’s life she seemed to manifest traits and symptoms that are associated with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). BPD is defined as the pervasive pattern of instability of personal relationships, self-image, and affect which is marked by impulsivity manifesting by early adulthood (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Hall (2011) claims that a family member felt that Amy’s presentation aligned with BPD. An individual with BPD or traits thereof have issues with setting boundaries, amongst other things (Sadock et al., 2015). This is significant as it has been previously stated that Amy battled with developing healthy boundaries as characterised by the psychosocial stage of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt. In addition to this, she exhibited the maladaptive tendency of impulsiveness during this psychosocial stage which is also a symptom of BPD. Gabbard (2005) explains that an individual with BPD repeatedly revisits early childhood developmental stages such as Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt as noted in Amy’s case. He further states that parental divorce and maternal psychopathology such as Depression as self-reported by Janis in her book (Gabbard, 2005; Winehouse, 2014). Amy also exhibited symptoms of turbulent interpersonal relations, emotional instability, self-mutilating behaviour, substance abuse, attention seeking behaviour, idealisation and subsequent devaluing of her perception of Blake (explained later in the chapter), feelings of abandonment (explored in the next psychosocial stage as in the context of Isolation) and feelings of boredom (Sadock et al., 2015; Gabbard, 2005). These symptoms are associated with individuals whom present with a clinical picture of BPD. Individuals diagnosed with BPD have a fragile sense of self and thus seek validation from their external environment. This environment is marked by instability and lacks consistency. The exposure to inconsistent and neglectful care leaves an individual with feelings of abandonment (Gabbard, 2005; Nel, 2013). It can thus be assumed that Amy was afraid of abandonment and was attention-seeking

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY so as to be constantly reassured that she would not be abandoned, neither physically or emotionally. This illustrates that she did not successfully resolve the psychosocial stage of Basic Trust versus Mistrust. However, it would be presumptuous to assume that Amy met the full criteria for BPD but she seemed to have presented with a borderline personality traits thereof.

6.2.7. Intimacy versus Isolation

The sixth of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages is labelled Intimacy versus Isolation experienced primarily in the early adulthood ages ranging from twenty to thirty five years (Erikson, 1997; Hamachek, 1990). The capacity for intimacy is the ability to commit to concrete affiliations and partnerships while developing an ethical strength to abide by the commitment which includes significant sacrifices and compromises (Erikson, 1950/1963, p. 255). There is a mutual search for a shared identity within intimate relations of friendships, sexual relationships and close affiliations that tests the strength of the individual’s sense of identity (Stevens, 2008, p. 52). The shared identity refers back to the resolution of the crisis in the Identity versus Role Confusion psychosocial developmental stage as deep involvement with another person demands putting the individual identity at risk (Erikson, 1950/1963; Stevens, 2008). It is the process of losing oneself in another whereby compromises of the individual identity are made, to be able to be intimate with another (Erikson, 1950/1963; Prenter, 2015). A destructive shared identity can be undone by revisiting the Identity versus Role Confusion psychosocial stage to strengthen the sense of self and individual identity.

The antithesis of intimacy is isolation which involves the distancing of oneself from people that threaten an unstable sense of individual identity (Erikson, 1950/1963). Thus, true mutuality develops when the capacity for intimacy is balanced with the need for some isolation leading to individuals who are able to attain the ego virtue of love (Erikson, Erikson & Kivnick, 1989; Nel, 2013). The virtue of love is defined as “the mutuality of devotion forever subduing the antagonism inherent in divided function” (Erikson, 1964, p.128; Stevens, 2008, p.53).

In the event that sense of isolation is dominate, an individual is understood to be distantiated (sic) (Erikson, 1950/1963). This means that any attempts by others to initiate intimate relations is rejected and the individual then withdraws from engaging in intimate relations with people (Malakou, 2015; Stevens, 2008). Further, an inability to achieve intimacy may lead to the maladaptive tendency of promiscuity in an attempt to develop pseudo-intimacy

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(Erikson et al., 1986; Saccaggi, 2015). This psychosocial stage emphasises the role of intimacy in relations, when forming a shared identity (Erikson, 1950/1963).

In Amy's case, her most intimate connection in the form of a partner was her relationship with Blake Fielder-Civil whom she met in 2005 at the age of twenty two (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2014). Blake was a year older than her and worked as a production assistant on music videos (Salewicz, 2011). As such, music was a shared identification or common factor from the start of their relationship and it facilitated the formation of a shared identity. Another identification or commonality was that Blake also lacked stability in his life and had divorced parents (Salewicz, 2011). Both Blake and Amy's parents' relationship formed a template of intimacy in their lives. When they both met, they were already in relationships (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). The literature does not reveal who Amy's boyfriend was when she met Blake. It is evident that the virtue of fidelity from the previous psychosocial stage was not attained because there seems to be a lack of loyalty to the other partner. In this context, Amy was the other woman much like Jane’s role in her parents' relationship (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). After spending the summer of 2005 together, Blake ended his relationship with Amy to return to his girlfriend in an attempt to regain his own ego virtue of fidelity (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). This disruption in the shared identity exposed Amy's fragile individual identity and revealed the fact that her social identity was defined by rebellion. Amy chose to rebel through her substance use which increased after the break up with Blake (AthensBerlin, 2011; Lynskey, 2015).

Amy further channelled her emotional pain in the album Back to Black which she wrote in three weeks after the break up (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). This emphasises the stability of her occupational identity as a musician which had been established from the previous psychosocial stage. Thus, aspects of Amy’s identity were fragile such as her social identity, but her occupational identity ensured that she felt a sense of belonging in music and that there was an unconscious sense of continuity to process her emotions through music. The song Love is a losing game (see Appendix D and lyrics below) was specifically written about the unfaithful relationship Blake had with Amy while he was in a relationship with his former girlfriend (Salewicz, 2011):

“…One I wish I never played/Oh what a mess we made/And now the final frame/Love is a losing game…Though I battle blind/Love is a fate resigned/Memories mar my mind/Love, it is a fate resigned…”

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According to Lee (2015), Amy admitted that she went on to do one destructive thing after the next when she came out of an intimate relationship. Amy ended up sleeping with one of Blake’s friends to get back at him (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Despite this, Amy and Blake got back together in 2007 (Salewicz, 2011).

In May of that same year they got married in Miami with the court official being the only witness (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Amy lost her sense of self within the relationship which is expected in the process of shared identification (Erikson, 1950/1963). She expressed that she wanted to experience and feel everything that Blake was feeling because she wanted to remain connected to him (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). However, when Amy was without Blake such as the time when he was arrested in June 2007 for assaulting a barman, Amy committed adultery and was unfaithful to him by having a fling with a local in Saint Lucia islands (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Therefore, revealing that she did not attain the ego strength of fidelity from the previous psychosocial stage and engaged in the maladaptive tendency of promiscuity (Erikson, 1950/1963). It is, however, important to highlight that Amy was not unfaithful to Blake while being around him which contradicts the inference of her use of the maladaptive tendency of promiscuity.

As previously mentioned, Amy's use of cannabis and alcohol began at the age of fifteen (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Newkey-Burden, 2014). Moreover, it had been Blake that introduced Amy to harder substances such as crack-cocaine and heroin (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Blake and Amy's marriage revolved around their substance use but Amy reportedly claimed that she could not keep up with Blake's lifestyle (McCrudden, 2016). It was distressing for her as she claimed that she was so in love with Blake that she wanted to experience everything he was experiencing (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Therefore, Amy used substances as a means to relate to and connect with Blake, in an attempt to form a shared identity.

The notion of triple bookkeeping will be used to conceptualise and understand Amy’s struggle with her substance use and alcohol addiction (Erikson, 1950/1963). The consideration of the soma aspect of addiction will include the definition of addiction within the biological framework. The concept of addiction is understood as the repeated and increased use of a substance(s), and when deprived of the substance it gives rise to symptoms of distress and an irresistible urge(s) to use the agent again, leading to physical and mental deterioration (Sadock et al., 2015). The use of substances have similar effects on the activities of specific reward areas of the brain thus the habitual use of substances are typically characterized by immediate

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY gratification (short term reward), often coupled with delayed and long term harmful effects (Griffiths, 2005; Sadock et al., 2015). The long term use of a particular substance may eventually modulate neurochemical receptor system in the brain so that the presence of this exogenous substance is needed to maintain homeostasis thus developing a dependency on it (Sadock et al., 2015). In addition, the neurochemical receptors starts developing a tolerance overtime within the central nervous system which leads to an increased amount needed to achieve former effects (Griffiths, 2005; Sadock et al., 2015). For example, after Blake and Amy’s first break up Amy needed more crack-cocaine and heroin to get the type of feeling as once was received from a smaller dosage (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Conversely, the discontinuation or sudden reduction of the substance can lead to unpleasant physiological and psychological symptoms such as Amy’s lethargic mood when she tried to rehabilitate from substances (Griffiths, 2005; Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). According to Winehouse (2012), she lasted three hours in a rehabilitation centre in Surrey. This could have been as a result of Amy's lack of motivation for rehabilitation and her dependency on the substances.

Amy’s need to connect with Blake through the communication medium of substance use is psychologically salient (Kuss & Griffiths, 2011), which attempts to explain the psyche component of the notion of triple bookkeeping. Substance use becomes salient when this particular activity becomes the most important activity in the person’s life and dominates their thinking (preoccupations and cognitive distortions), feelings (cravings) and behaviour (deterioration of socialized behaviour) (Griffith, 2005). In Amy’s case, she needed an altered inner emotional state because she experienced overwhelming feelings triggered by the paparazzi as soon as her rise to fame began (Napier-Bell, 2017; Aabech & Simpson, 2017). According to Sadock et al. (2015), substance use is related to disturbed ego function translating to the inability to cope with an individual’s reality. Thus to be able to cope with reality, the addict will resort to choosing the short-term pleasure and pain relief feelings, while disregarding potential long term psychological, social and/or biological damage (Griffiths, 2005). Additionally, substances serve to reinforce pre-existing behaviours by terminating some aversive inner emotional states such as pain, anger, Anxiety or Depression (Sadock et al., 2015). According to Napier-Bell (2017), it seemed that Amy used substances as a means to self-soothe and alter her consciousness to be able to access her creativity without becoming overwhelmed by her emotions. It is important to emphasise that with Amy’s experience of loss (both physical and emotional losses), she had used another maladaptive self-soothing mechanism to manage her pain linked to the Industry versus Inferiority psychosocial stage.

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Firstly, she used self-mutilation to deal with the ending of her parents’ marriage; and secondly, she used substance to cope with her feelings of loss and pain as noted when Blake left her and/or when Cynthia passed away.

Regarding the ethos component of triple bookkeeping, Amy continued to be praised for her ability to sing and perform despite the obvious psychological and physical deterioration she had experienced as a result of her substance use (Napier-Bell, 2017; Aabech & Simpson, 2017). An example was that she presented with cardiac deterioration due to her addiction, this functional deterioration was used by the media as a selling point (Greene, 2015; Hearsum, 2012). According to Sadock et al. (2015), an addiction is linked to the environment associated with substance use such as the music industry. It seemed that the media bullied her by exploiting her mental illnesses and joking about the fact that she was “cooking crystal meth” (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). According to Antonio Maria Costa, the head of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Amy's behaviour had been singled out as an example of “glamorizer of cocaine” seeing as she was in the public eye (Salewicz, 2011, p.30). The music industry is known to be an enabler for substance use because they give a musician what they want so that he or she keeps producing creatively (Napier-Bell, 2017) even though the musician’s holistic wellbeing is impacted.

The online article “Music industry addresses drug culture” (Drug Rehabs [online], n.d.) describes that although there is a demand for substance use in musicians, record companies want artists to be able to perform at their best and states that recreational use of substances leads to detrimental effects on their music career. Towards the end of Amy’s career, her management team encouraged her to go for rehabilitation. As a result, they cancelled two of her Istanbul shows and one of her Athens shows because they wanted her to rehabilitate from substance use as it was affecting her performances on stage (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Salewicz, 2011). Once removed from the enabling environment, the individual may abstain from the use of substances as the accessibility is limited (Sadock et al., 2015). This is congruent with Amy’s case as noted when she went to Saint Lucia because she was clean from substance(s) use except for her use of alcohol for six months of her stay on the island (Gay- Rees & Kapadia, 2015). However, due to her maladaptive tendency of impulsiveness which she developed in the Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt psychosocial stage, it can be suggested that she engaged in substance abuse as an attempt to self-soothe despite evident long term negative consequence of the substances on her. Thus, she was able to recognise that the substance use was causing her harm but the remedial effects of the substances on her emotional

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY distress outweighed the seemingly negative effects at the time. In fact, Amy reported that, “I don’t think I can handle it (fame). I think I’d go mad” (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Herewith, it can be noted that the continued use of alcohol was an escape from her emotionally unbearable social reality (i.e. fame). This form of escapism is otherwise understood as the coping mechanism of dissociation. Sadock et al. (2015) defines dissociation as a temporary but drastic modification of a sense of personal identity to avoid emotional distress (p. 162). “Fame is traumatic because when it comes knocking at the door, it’s overwhelming” (Napier-Bell, 2017). This experience eventually led her to relapse which is understood as the tendency to revert back to earlier patterns of substance use and in extreme patterns a heightened used of the addiction (Griffiths, 2005).

As mentioned above, it is likely that Amy’s tolerance level increased and she needed more substances to reach the same feeling of what Napier-Bell (2017) describes as a deep sense of consciousness. According to Sadock et al. (2015), alcoholism and substance use are seen as an unresolved psychosocial crisis in the Basic trust versus Mistrust psychosocial developmental stage. The substance(s) being used is (are) representative of something stable, constant and predictable. Amy may have been provided with a stable, constant and predictable environment prior to her parents’ divorce but later on, the environment did not sufficiently cater to her emotional needs. Thus, Amy was not aided with the ego strengths of hope that would have enabled her to cope with difficulties and the unpredictable nature of life. It is important to re-emphasise that Amy's shared identity was not successfully attained either because those aspects of her individual identity were fragile. The social institution of relationship patterns is noteworthy as Amy seemed to worship the ground which her father and later, Blake walked on (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). As such, she became infatuated with the idea of a father that would meet her needs, which she sought from Blake too. An example includes her approval-seeking behaviour from her father to go for rehabilitation despite her management and friends encouraging her to do so. Another example was when both Blake and Amy attended rehabilitation together at Causeway Clinic in 2007 but ended up binge drinking after their first fourty eight hours there (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Amy's failed attempts at rehabilitation led to an increased intake of substances and Blake seemed to be a catalyst of this behaviour (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Amy channelled her emotions regarding her experience of being pressured to attend rehabilitation by creating the song Rehab (see Appendix B) for her album Back to Black (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015).

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Amy's rise to fame included three ‘Grammys’ in 2008 for the song Rehab (see Appendix B) and the album Back to Black for ‘Record of the year’, ‘Song of the year’ and ‘Best Female Pop Vocal Performance’ (Salewicz, 2011). In February 2007, she won ‘Best British Female Artist’ award at the ‘Brit Awards’ for the song Rehab (see Appendix B) and in May 2007, Rehab won the ‘Ivor Novello Award’ for ‘Best Contemporary Song’ (Salewicz, 2011; Winehouse, 2012). It seems that the media focused on her rise to fame and reinforced the idea that she did not need rehabilitation despite overt signs documented on the seventh of August 2007 when she overdosed from a combination of substances (Salewicz, 2011). In 2008, she developed emphysema from smoking crack-cocaine which later led to a compromised cardiac system (Greene, 2015; Salewicz, 2011).

Amy's mental and physical health deterioration were on public display and were used as a selling point by the media (Hearsum, 2012). Amy's every move was followed until the day she died on the twenty third of July 2011, evident from her Wikipedia page and '27 club' updates upon her death (Hearsum, 2012, p. 183). Amy had no privacy and when she attempted to escape the media by travelling to the island of Saint Lucia in December of 2008, her father brought a film crew to the island (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). According to Greene (2015), it seemed that Mitchell wanted to maximize on Amy's success without recognising Amy's emotional needs once again. Mitchell’s exploitation of Amy’s fame led to more self-destructive behaviour. Amy was booed off stage in 2009 and 2011 for being too intoxicated to perform (Salewicz, 2011). It can be suggested that this may have contributed to feelings of inferiority because being a musician was an aspect of her identity which she felt, up until this point, very secure and re-assured about. Through this example, it is reiterated that Amy's substance use contributed to her fragile sense of self and her lack of ability to cope with the pressures that came with her occupational identity as a musician. Thus, despite the fact that her occupational identity was securely developed, the social pressure of fame compromised her psychological and physical wellbeing. As such, this impacted her individual identity significantly and furthermore impacted her shared identity. She began to test her childhood friendships and withdrew from them because they were criticising her lifestyle that the pressure associated with fame brought on and substance use had facilitated (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015).

It also seemed that Amy started embodying a certain occupational identity and image once her 'Nan' passed away. Amy began to withdraw when her 'Nan' was diagnosed with lung cancer in 2004 (Winehouse, 2012). Her 'Nan' lived for two years thereafter and died in 2006 (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). From then onwards, Amy resorted to excessive drinking as well

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY as more weight loss due to her emotional pain and distress (Winehouse, 2014). She was unable to cope with the fact that a caregiver of hers, who provided stability and boundaries necessary in the Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt phase, had passed away (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). She reported that she gained her source of strength from her 'Nan' who contributed in raising her and now that had been lost (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Thus, the loss of her grandmother may have caused a sense of loss and fragility on her individual identity as well. Janis reports that Amy lost the sense of control after her grandmother died and as a means to compensate for that feeling, her Bulimia nervosa and eating patterns worsened (Winehouse, 2014). This lack of trust in her inner ability to cope with unpredictable life events is yet another example of the lack of ego virtue of hope.

Following her experience of loss, Amy changed her appearance to wearing a beehive and heavy eyeliner (McCrudden. 2016). It seemed that Amy's change in appearance was another means for her to express her emotions pertaining to the loss of her grandmother. She got a tattoo on her right arm to signify her 'Nan' (Salewicz, 2011). At a later stage, Amy underwent breast augmentation to try and sexualise her image as a musician (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Winehouse, 2014). It seemed that Amy was trying out another social role as characterised by Identity and Role Confusion psychosocial stage. The changes to her image can also be interpreted as her way of gaining attention from men because the significant men in her life had failed to meet her emotional needs. As such, it seems that Amy did not develop the ego virtue of love because in order to achieve this, the capacity for intimacy needs to be balanced out with the need of some isolation. Amy seemed to struggle with being isolated from her affiliations and partnerships, as noted in her relationships with Blake and her 'Nan', which often led to more self-destructive behaviour such as increased substance use and weight loss.

Amy died at the age of twenty seven which means that she did not complete this psychosocial stage. This is significant because before she died, she was engaged to the filmmaker Reg Travis, who her family and friends felt was having a positive influence on her (Winehouse, 2014). While Amy was with Reg, she managed to abstain from substances and alcohol use until her final alcohol binge that led to her death (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015). Amy died from alcohol toxicity and the post-mortem report indicated that she was five times over the United Kingdom's drinking-driving limit (Aabech & Simpson, 2017). Her alcohol tolerance level had decreased due to her compromised cardiac system from her struggle with addiction and Bulimia nervosa (Greene, 2015). The reason for her binge drinking was not found and thus it is difficult to comment on whether she successfully resolved this crisis or not.

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6.3. Chapter summary

This chapter explored Amy Jade Winehouse’s life through the lens of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory. It had been established that due to the fact that Amy died at the age of twenty seven years, only the first six psychosocial developmental stages were applicable. As such, the psychosocial developmental stages applicable to Amy’s life were: (1) Basic trust versus Mistrust, (2) Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt, (3) Initiative versus Guilt, (4) Industry versus Inferiority, (5) Identity versus Role confusion, and (6) Intimacy versus Isolation. A summary of the findings of each psychosocial developmental stages were provided to inform the reader of the distinguishing characteristics each psychosocial stage entailed.

This psycho-biographical research study then considered the events that occurred in Amy’s life in conjunction with the psychosocial developmental stages and their respective age ranges as suggested by Hamachek (1990). However, Amy’s life events were explored across the psychosocial stages, only where it was deemed relevant because the age ranges provided by Hamachek (1990) are used as a broad guideline rather than actual cut-offs. In addition, the epigenetic principle was incorporated which states that aspects of each psychosocial stage of personality development are present from birth but may be revisited and/or reworked in future psychosocial crises (Erikson, 1950/1963; Peedicayil, 2012). As such, interpretations and inferences were made across the psychosocial stages to suggest holistic explanations behind Amy’s behavioural patterns and personality development. It can thus be assumed that Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory was an appropriate theory to use when exploring the life of Amy Jade Winehouse.

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Chapter 7: Conclusion

7.1. Chapter preview

This chapter will discuss the concluding remarks of this research endeavour by firstly revisiting the research objectives and thereafter providing a brief summary of the findings and discussion. Furthermore, the limitations of the study will be stated along with the recommendations for future research. Lastly, I as the researcher will elaborate on my personal passage as part of the reflexivity process.

7.2. Research objectives revisited

As previously stated the primary aim of this research study is to write a psychobiography on the life Amy Jade Winehouse. This was accomplished through the application of the psychological theory by Erik H. Erikson, namely the psychosocial developmental stages (1950/1963, 1959, 1964, 1968/1994, 1976, 1978, 1982, 1997). The application of the psychosocial developmental stages onto Amy’s life story is illustrated in Chapter Six which suggests a possible explanation of how the events in her life contributed to her psychosocial development and identity formation. Therefore, the first objective and secondary aim was achieved to a large extent. The second objective was difficult to achieve although the exploration of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages were successfully applied within the context of psychobiography and with specific reference to the life of Amy Winehouse. It cannot be confirmed whether the application of Erikson’s theory in this research endeavour extended the understanding of the theory itself. Chapter Six proves as evidence that the third aim was fairly achieved as Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development was successfully applied to Amy’s life story. However, it is important to re-emphasise that Erikson’s theory provides one lens from which to analyse Amy’s personality development but it is not the only explanation that can be used. The final aim will be achieved whereby this minor dissertation will contribute to South Africa’s growing field of psychobiography research studies once it has been marked.

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7.3. Summary of the findings

Amy’s life narrative was considered from the framework informed by Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages as noted in Chapter Six. Seeing as Amy passed away at the age of twenty seven years only six of the eight psychosocial stages were applicable, namely (1) Basic trust versus Mistrust, (2) Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt, (3) Initiative versus Guilt, (4) Industry versus Inferiority, (5) Identity versus Role Confusion, and (6) Intimacy versus Isolation.

It seems that Amy did not successfully resolve the first and second psychosocial stage. As a result, she did not attain the ego virtues hope and will. Amy experienced an inconsistent environment which contributed to her destructive self-soothing mechanism of substance use which eventually led to her death. According to Sadock et al. (2015), alcoholism and substance use are seen as an unresolved psychosocial crisis in the Basic trust versus Mistrust psychosocial developmental stage because the substance(s) being used is (are) representative of something stable, constant and predictable. Additionally, it is suspected that Amy presented with symptoms of Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) which is marked by inconsistent and neglectful care, leaving an individual with feelings of abandonment (Gabbard, 2005; Nel, 2013). It can thus be assumed that following the divorce of Amy’s parents when she was nine years old, she was afraid of abandonment and was attention-seeking so as to be constantly reassured that she would not be abandoned, neither physically or emotionally. Another explanation for her attention-seeking behaviour could be that she would compensate for feelings of doubt that attention she received from the environment would be inconsistent and conditional, referring back to Basic Trust versus Mistrust.

Amy started self-mutilating at the age of nine following the announcement of her parents’ divorce. According to Suyemoto (1998), the primary function of self-mutilation is to regulate emotions, express one’s emotions and achieve a sense of control towards overwhelmingly negative emotions. The sense of control that is achieved in the process of self- mutilation relates back to the psychosocial stage of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt. Moreover, the second psychosocial stage is characterised by setting age-appropriate boundaries so as to ensure an individual is safe and cautioned against potential harm (Graves & Larkins, 2006). Amy’s caregivers were not able to set boundaries for her. According to Gay-Rees and Kapadia (2015), she sought someone to say “no” to her and set boundaries for her. An example

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY of this was when she turned to her father to guide her on whether or not she needed to go to rehabilitation for her substance use (Gay-Rees & Kapadia, 2015; Salewicz, 2011). He failed to meet this need of hers and she ended up not taking the necessary measures to help herself back to good health.

The psychosocial stages that Amy did resolve was the third and fourth stages. As such, Amy attained the ego virtues of purpose and competency (with specific reference to her musical abilities). Amy’s consistent recognition within the sphere of music and performance led to the career choice of being a musician. Not only was she praised for her musical abilities by her family, she received a partial scholarship from the Sylvia Young Theatre School amongst other accolades whilst growing up (Newkey-Burden, 2014; J. Winehouse, 2014; M. Winehouse, 2012). Her sense of purpose and competency is noted in her continued professional growth whereby the album Frank was nominated for the ‘Best Female Solo Artist’ at the ‘Brit Awards’ in January 2004. Additionally, the song Stronger than me (see Appendix C) which featured in the album Frank won the 49th annual ‘Ivor Novello Award’ for ‘Best Contemporary Song’. Amy’s second album Back to Black was written in the remarkably short time of three weeks, which she won three ‘Grammys’ in 2008 for (Salewicz, 2011). Additionally, in February 2007, she won the ‘Best British Female Artist’ award at the ‘Brit Awards’ for the song Rehab (see Appendix B) which is featured in the album Back to Black; while in May 2007, Rehab (see Appendix B) won the ‘Ivor Novello Award’ for ‘Best Contemporary Song’ (Salewicz, 2011). It is evident that Amy found her sense of belonging in the music industry which aids the identity formation process characterised by the fifth psychosocial stage of Identity versus Role Confusion.

This is just a snippet of the findings and discussion of the psychobiography. There are many more complex dynamics and life events that contributed to her psychosocial development that has been discussed in-depth in Chapter Six.

7.4. The limitations of the study

This section will explore the limitations associated with this study as noted in all research endeavours. The limitations inherent in the psychobiography methodology were discussed in-depth in Chapter Five, Section Five point Five under the heading “methodological limitations of psychobiography and considerations applied to address these limitations”.

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The use of Erikson’s psychosocial theory presents with limitations as noted in Chapter Three, Section Three point Four under the heading “critiques of Eriskson’s psychosocial developmental theory”. The two main limitations of the theory that are relevant to this study is the gender bias and cross-cultural differences. Seeing as Amy was a female British musician, it can be assumed that Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory did not successfully account for that. As such, future research may utilise alternative explanations and descriptions of Amy Winehouse’s lifespan development which might be more sensitive to the issues of gender and culture. Additionally, the use of more than one theory may aid in describing a more in-depth and varied psychological perspective of Amy’s life. This was not possible in this study due to the scope of a minor dissertation and the limitation in word count.

The limitations I found with regards to Amy was that the literature did not explore her mental illnesses in-depth and how it may have been linked to her addictive behaviours. There is no evidence that Amy was officially diagnosed with BPD and how this may have affected the way she approached her relationships. In addition, there was limited information on Amy’s relationship with Alex and information on Alex in general. As a result, it makes it difficult to comment on the child rearing practices of Mitchell and Janis that may again inform the diagnosis of BPD. Lastly, both Janis and Mitchell wrote their books on the life of Amy after her passing. This suggests that the content of these books were emotionally-loaded and inherently biased.

There was another limitation related the use of the primary and secondary sources on Amy as most of the information gathered were non-academic. The use of non-academic work compromises the dependability aspect of the trustworthiness of the research process as the data sources used for the construction of the psychobiography tended to manifest various degrees of bias. As such, I as the researcher recognise that the findings and discussion of this study is only a point of departure building on the work initiated by Malakou (2015) and in no way is being presented as final and/or conclusive evidence. It is merely a suggestive explanation and understanding of Amy Winehouse’s life story, according to the information made available in the public domain, from the perspective of Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stages.

7.5. Recommendations for future research

This research is a psychobiography on an exemplar individual whose life and aspects of their personality was illuminated by the use of psychological theory. For this reason, it is

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY suggested that the methodological principles of this psycho-biographical research may benefit future research endeavours with similar aims to this study.

The application of additional theories to examine the life of Amy Winehouse could provide valuable descriptions and explanations which were beyond the scope of this minor dissertation. As such, the application of additional and/or alternative theories is therefore recommended for future research especially within research endeavours with a larger scope such as a full dissertation or doctorate thesis.

It has come to my attention that there has been a new documentary released on the 2nd of November 2018 based on the album Back to Black and the events that occurred during the time around the production of the album (Bowenbank, 2018; Gil, 2018; Snapes, 2018). Seeing as I was at the end of my research process whereby the analysis of Amy’s life had been done with the available information made present during the time, I was unable to incorporate it into my research study. Thus, in the event that further research is done on the life of Amy Winehouse, it is encouraged that the future researcher incorporates this new documentary.

7.6. Personal passage and reflexivity

Throughout this research process, I as the researcher remained open minded about the outcome and discussion that would be found and/or made at the end. Therefore, I was pleasantly surprised to learn more about an individual I did not know a lot about. My empathy towards Amy grew the more I interacted with the research material and I found her lyrics to be sincerely linked to her life events. It is important for me to acknowledge that the song Stronger than me (see Appendix C) resonated in me due to my own experiences with my parents. However, I remained mindful of this and debriefed in my own therapeutic process so as to minimize bias as much as possible.

I found it interesting how the family dynamics precipitated the manifestation of Amy’s mental illnesses and how her environmental interactions impacted her identity formation. This has unfortunately not been documented while she was alive and thus there is limited conclusive information available regarding this aspect. I found that it was through this research endeavour that my interest in the topic of identity formation within the field of psychology grew. I support the idea to use Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory as one of the many possible theories to be employed to understand personality development seeing as it accounts for environmental influences on development. I enjoyed applying this theory in the context of an

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THE LIFE OF AMY JADE WINEHOUSE: A PSYCHOBIOGRAPHY individual life in the same way as I would have enjoyed a single-case study in clinical practice. This research process encouraged my curiosity in other psychobiography research and also facilitates my excitement about the future of this method of investigation.

7.7. Chapter summary

This chapter concludes this minor dissertation by re-stating the research objectives and commenting on whether these objectives were attained. Thereafter, a brief summary of the findings and discussion was provided. The chapter progressed by outlining the limitations of the study along with the recommendations for future research. Lastly, I as the researcher constructed a personal passage as part of the reflexivity process in order to conclude this research endeavour.

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Appendices

Appendix A: What is it about men?

Understand once he was a family man/So surely I would never, ever go through it first- hand/Emulate all the shit my mother hated/I can't help but demonstrate my Freudian fate/My alibi for taking your guy/History repeats itself, it fails to die/And animal aggression is my downfall/I don't care 'bout what you got I want it all

It's bricked up in my head, it's shoved under my bed/And I question myself again: what is it 'bout men?/My destructive side has grown a mile wide/And I question myself again: what is it 'bout men?

I'm nurturing, I just wanna do my thing/And I'll take the wrong man as naturally as I sing/And I'll save my tears for uncovering my fears/For behavioural patterns that stick over the years

It's bricked up in my head, it's shoved under my bed/And I question myself again: what is it 'bout men?/My destructive side has grown a mile wide/And I question myself again: what is it 'bout men?

Artist: Amy Winehouse Album: Frank Released: 2003

Source: https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/amywinehouse/whatitisaboutmen.html

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Appendix B: Rehab

They tried to make me go to rehab but I said, 'No, no, no.'/Yes, I've been black but when I come back you'll know, know, know/I ain't got the time and if my daddy thinks I'm fine/He's tried to make me go to rehab but I won't go, go, go

I'd rather be at home with ray/I ain't got seventy days/'Cause there's nothing/There's nothing you can teach me/That I can't learn from Mr Hathaway

I didn't get a lot in class/But I know it don't come in a shot glass

The man said, 'Why do you think you're here?'/I said, 'I got no idea/I'm gonna, I'm gonna lose my baby/So I always keep a bottle near.'/He said, "I just think you're depressed."/This me "Yeah, baby, and the rest."

They tried to make me go to rehab but I said, 'No, no, no.'/Yes, I've been black but when I come back you'll know, know, know

I don't ever wanna drink again/I just, ooh, I just need a friend/I'm not gonna spend ten weeks/Have everyone think I'm on the mend

It's not just my pride/It's just 'til these tears have dried

Artist: Amy Winehouse Album: Back to Black Released: 2006

Source: https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/amywinehouse/rehab.html

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Appendix C: Stronger than me

You should be stronger than me/You been here 7 years longer than me/Don't you know?/You supposed to be the man/Not pale in comparison to who you think I am/You always wanna talk it through/I don't care/I always have to comfort you when I'm there/But that's what I need you to do/Stroke my hair

'Cause I've forgotten all of young love's joy/Feel like a lady, but you my lady boy/You should be stronger than me/But instead you're longer than frozen turkey/Why'd you always put me in control?/All I need is for my man to live up to his role/You always wanna talk it through- I'm ok/I always have to comfort you every day/But that's what I need you to do. Are you gay?

'Cause I've forgotten all of young love's joy/Feel like a lady, but you my lady boy/He said 'The respect I made you earn -/Thought you had so many lessons to learn'/I said 'You don't know what love it get a grip' -/Sound as if you're reading from some other tired script

I'm not gonna meet your mother anytime/I just wanna grip your body over mine/So tell me why you think that's a crime/I've forgotten all of young love's joy/Feel like a lady and you my lady boy/You should be stronger than me/You should be stronger than me/You should be stronger than me/You should be stronger than me

Artist: Amy Winehouse Album: Frank Released: 2003

Source: https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/amywinehouse/introstrongerthanme.html

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Appendix D: Love is a losing game

For you I was a flame/Love is a losing game/Five-storey fire as you came/Love is a losing game

One I wish I never played/Oh what a mess we made/And now the final frame/Love is a losing game

Played out by the band/Love is a losing hand/More than I could stand/Love is a losing hand

Self-professed, profound/'Til the chips were down/Though you're a gambling man/Love is a losing hand

Though I battle blind/Love is a fate resigned/Memories mar my mind/Love, it is a fate resigned

Over futile odds/And laughed at by the gods/And now the final frame/Love is a losing game

Artist: Amy Winehouse Album: Back to Black Released: 2006

Source: https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/amywinehouse/loveisalosinggame.html

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Appendix E: Fuck me pumps

When you walk in the bar/And you dressed like a star/Rockin' your F me pumps/And the men notice you/With your Gucci bag crew/Can't tell who he's lookin' to/Cuz you all look the same/Everyone knows your name/And that's your whole claim to fame/Never miss a night/Cuz your dream in life/Is to be a footballer's wife/

You don't like players/That's what you say-a/But you really wouldn't mind a millionaire/You don't like ballers/They don't do nothing for ya/But you'd love a rich man six foot two or taller/

You're more than a fan/Lookin' for a man/But you end up with one-nights-stands/He could be your whole life/If you got past one night/But that part never goes right/In the morning you're vexed/He's onto the next/And you didn't even get no text/Don't be too upset/If they call you a sket/Cuz like the news everyday you get press

You don't like players/That's what you say-a/But you really wouldn't mind a millionaire/Or them big ballers/Don't do nothing for ya/But you'd love a rich man six foot two or taller/You can't sit down right/Cuz your jeans are too tight/And you're lucky it's ladies night/With your big empty purse/Every week it gets worse/At least your breasts cost more than hers

So you did Miami/Cuz you got there for free/But somehow you missed the plane/You did too much E/Met somebody/And spent the night getting caned/Without girls like you/There'd be no fun/We'd go to the club and not see anyone/Without girls like you/There's no nightlife/All those men just go home to their wives/Don't be mad at me/Cuz you're pushing thirty/And your old tricks no longer work/You should have known from the jump/That you always get dumped/So dust off your fuck me pumps

Artist: Amy Winehouse Album: Frank Released: 2003

Source: https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/amywinehouse/fuckmepumps.html

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Appendix F: In my bed

Wish I could say it breaks my heart/like you did in the beginning/It’s not that we grew apart/a nightingale no longer singing

It’s something I know you can’t do/Separate sex with emotion/I sleep alone the sun comes up/you’re still clinging to that notion

Everything is slowing down/river of no return/recognise my every sound/there is nothing new to learn you'll never get my mind right/like 2 ships passing in the night/in the night, in the night/want the same thing where we lay/otherwise mines a different way/a different way from where I’m going/oh, it’s you again listen this isn’t a reunion/so sorry if i turn my head/yours is a familiar face/but that don’t make your place safe/in my bed my bed my bed

I never thought my memory/of what we had could be intruded/but I couldn’t let it be/I needed it as much as you did

Now it’s not hard to understand/why we just speak at night/The only time I hold your hand/is to get the angle right/Everything is slowing down/river of no return/you recognise my every sound/there’s nothing new to learn you'll never get my mind right/like 2 ships passing in the night/in the night in the night/want the same thing where we lay/otherwise mines a different way/a different way from where I’m going/oh, it’s you again listen this isn’t a reunion/so sorry if I turn my head/yours is a familiar face/but that don’t make your place safe/in my bed, my bed, my ba ba dee dee bed

Artist: Amy Winehouse Album: Frank Released: 2003

Source: https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/amywinehouse/inmybed.html

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Appendix G: I heard love is blind

I couldn't resist him/His eyes were like yours/His hair was exactly the shade of brown/He's just not as tall, but I couldn't tell/It was dark and I was lying down

You are everything - he means nothing to me/I can't even remember his name/Why're you so upset?/Baby, you weren't there and I was thinking of you when I came

What do you expect?/You left me here alone; I drank so much and needed to touch/Don't overreact - I pretended he was you/You wouldn't want me to be lonely

How can I put it so you understand?/I didn't let him hold my hand/But he looked like you; I guess he looked like you/No he wasn't you/But you can still trust me, this ain't infidelity/It's not cheating; you were on my mind

Yes he looked like you/But I heard love is blind...

Artist: Amy Winehouse Album: Frank Released: 2003

Source: https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/amywinehouse/iheardloveisblind.html

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Appendix H: Help yourself

When I walk in your shoes/I understand a man confused/They much too big, but I don't care/I feel the weight your shoulders bear/Darling they empathize/Looking through your bloodshot eyes/And I know you, you're so frustrated/Above we all become what we once hated/Besides, nobody can be that wise

I can't help you if you won't help yourself/(Help yourself, help yourself)/No, I can't help you if you don't help yourself/(Help yourself, no no no)/You can only get so much from someone else/(Get so much from, yeah)/I can't help you if you won't help yourself/(You can't help yourself)

You got a degree in philosophy (philosophy)/So, you think you're cleverer than me ('cause you're so smart)/But, I'm not just some drama queen (drama queen)/'Cause it's where you're at, not where you've been/So, what do you expect from me (what do you want)/To hold your head above the sea (keep you high and dry)/And carry you even though you're bigger/'Cause don't you know you crush my tiny figure/And anyway, we're still so young (yeah, I'm so young)/And this isn't yesterday

I can't help you if you won't help yourself/(I can't help you)/No, I can't help you if you don't help yourself/(You won't help yourself)/You can only get so much from someone else/I can't help you if you won't help yourself

You might be twenty five but in my mind/I see you at sixteen years oh most of the time/And I'm, I'm just a child and you're full grown/And no I'm nothing like I've ever known yeah/You are like nothing that I ever knew

Artist: Amy Winehouse Album: Frank Released: 2003

Source: https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/amywinehouse/helpyourself.html

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