Developing a Culture-Centered History Curriculum

KNOW YOUR HISTORY: DEVELOPING A CULTURE-CENTERED HISTORY CURRICULUM

Lisa Marie Daniels B.A., San Francisco State University, San Francisco, 2004

PROJECT

Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

EDUCATION (Multicultural Education)

CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO

FALL 2010

KNOW YOUR HISTORY: DEVELOPING A CULTURE-CENTERED HISTORY CURRICULUM

A Project

Lisa Marie Daniels

Approved by:

______, Committee Chair Forrest Davis, Ph.D.

______Date

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Student: Lisa Marie Daniels

I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the Project.

______, Graduate Coordinator Date:______

Maria Mejorado, Ph.D. Department of Bilingual/Multicultural Education

Abstract

KNOW YOUR HISTORY: DEVELOPING A CULTURE-CENTERED HISTORY CURRICULUM

Lisa Marie Daniels

Statement of Problem - The absence of African-American history from the standard curriculum has created a disconnection with African-American’s identity, culture and heritage, and continues to be an important issue in education. The study of African American history indicates that the American ethnic populations were deliberately divided for exploitation and specifically for economic gain. Proponents of African American history believe it will promote cultural identity, develop self-esteem, and correct many of the myths supported by the Eurocentric curriculum. The teaching methodologies of African American history in secondary grades (7-12) are inequitable and need a different strategy to empower students. African American students feel alienated because their culture is underrepresented in school curriculum. A student learning about his or her culture not only improves individual self-esteem and provides a sense of identity, but raises their grades and increases interest in school.

Objective - To identify content from African and African American Studies, which should be developed into a culture-centered history curriculum for grades 7-12; to acquire, adapt and/or develop materials appropriate for utilization in the implementation into the culture-centered history curriculum; to teach students about the African and African American experience and contributions from both a contemporary and historical perspective; and to promote both parent and community involvement in school.

Conclusions Reached – The incorporation of multicultural lesson plans and implementing culturally responsive pedagogical educators in the classroom enhances the learning experience in the American classroom.

______, Committee Chair Forrest Davis, Ph.D.

______Date

DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this work to my great-grandparents, Juan Ramos Hernandez and Alice Prothroe Hernandez; my grandmother, Margarita Hernandez; my mother, Lorraine Laura Britton Daniels Jeffries; my brother, Lauren (Nick) Jeffries; my children, Logan Miles Murdock and Alexandra Elise Alcutt – who all taught me the importance of family, history, culture and identity, and education; and to my “forever love,” David Charles Marshall. Thank you for being my muse and inspiring me to always do great things.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge Dr. Forrest Davis, for all of his support and encouragement throughout the Project. His tireless commitment to the learning community speaks volumes; Max Hunter, M.Ed. (University of Washington, Harvard) for the support and scholarly conversations; Linda Garrett and Yolanda Garland Love for being my dry shoulders and my cheerleaders, and finally, to all of my friends – you know who you are.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

Dedication……………………………………………………………………………...vi

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………vii

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………….. ………..1

2. LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………... 15

3. METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………..44

Appendix Sample Lesson Plans ……………………………………………...... 48

References……………………………………………………………………………...99

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

“There is very little that is more important for any people to know than their history, culture, traditions and language; for without such knowledge, one remains naked and defenseless before the world.” – Marcus Tillus Cicero (106 B.C.E. – 43 B.C.E)

The absence of African-American history from the traditional standard curriculum has created a disconnection with the African-American identity, culture and heritage; this continues to be an important issue in education. A minimal amount of scholarship involving African Americans students emphasizes their strengths, despite recommendations by professional literature to build on their strengths (Galassos & Akos, as cited in Day-Vines & Terriquez, 2008, p. 1). The study of African American history indicates that the American ethnic populations were deliberately divided for exploitation and specifically for economic gain. Des Dixon (1994, as cited in Henson) argues “today’s curriculum is largely Victorian, a late 19th-century expression of the industrial revolution as applied to the education industry” (Henson, 1995, p. 9). History is one of the first major disciplines in which African American scholars created autonomous intellectual traditions and institutions that existed side by side.

Gordon (1985) has argued that “mainstream social science has inadequately and

insufficiently addressed the life experiences of African Americans and other groups”

(King, 2004, p. 268). In social studies, there is the traditional path, with history and the

social sciences are taught from a textbook; the “structure of the disciplines” path, which

2 defines the investigated subject matter of the discipline and controls its inquiries

(Schwab, as cited in Stone, 1973, p. 210); the progressive path, through which teachers and students create an interdisciplinary curriculum focused on issues and decision- making; and there is the critical path, in which students and teachers engage in a problem-posing dialogue aimed at raising questions of social transformation (Evans,

2008, p. 16). Schwab (1973) argues the structure of the disciplines approach “is necessary to teachers and educators and must be taken into account in planning and developments of teaching materials as well as the elements of what we teach in the classroom”

(Schwab, as cited in Stone, 1973, p. 210). Proponents of African American history believe it will promote cultural identity, develop self-esteem, and correct some of the myths supported by the Eurocentric curriculum (Asante, 1991; Banks, 1993; King, 1992,

Ladson-Billings 1999). Cherry McGee Banks and J.A. Banks (2008) have identified efforts scholarly work, considered “emancipatory education,” which counteracts hegemony by positioning all peoples within the human collective to more accurately represent diverse cultures and groups (Karenga, as cited in Swartz, pp. 1052-1053).

Proponents assert that the “hegemonic forces that emanate from a European-centered or a

Eurocentric paradigm are ill-equipped to understand the African American experience.

They argue that Afrocentricity rejects a Eurocentric worldview and “adopts Africa as a takeoff point in any discussion of African civilization” (Oyebade, 1990, as cited in

Ginwright, 2004, p. 17). They maintain a curriculum that includes people of African descent in a true light will serve the best interest of all Americans (Asante, 1991; Harris,

1983; Jeffries, 1991; and Nobles, 1990).

This African centered focus should not be based on the need to submerge or dent the validity or perspectives of others, just because they are not of African descent. Grant

(2008) states “Afrocentric curriculum is written with the understanding that schools are society's agency of socialization and school curriculum serves not only to teach the principles of democracy but as a form of social control by influencing students' attitudes and modifying their behaviors. Afrocentric curriculum has its roots in educational and philosophical orientations that argue that education is not a neutral process but is used by government and other institutions for social and political purposes” (p. 892). Ashanti

(2003) defines Afrocentricity as a “critical discourse that is being used to form a critical pedagogy known as African-centered education” (p. 1). Keto (1994) argues “the Africa centered perspective will also make a major contribution by advocating for tolerance and inclusion in a multicultural world. People from different regions of the world have a right to declare and to affirm their perspective in creating and developing independent intellectual perspectives from which a global, “pluriversal” and multicentered perspective will emerge and influence the human sciences of the next century (p. 65). Nobles (1990) argues that an Afrocentric curriculum should be a tool for affirming African and African

American culture (Giddings, 2001, p. 466). Asante (1992) argues “through observations, inquiry, and discussion, I’ve found that children who are centered in their own cultural information are better students, more disciplined and have more motivation for school work” (pp. 29-30). However, none of the proponents of Afrocentric education has provided a complete K-12 curriculum that would replace existing Eurocentric curricula

(Giddings, 2001, p. 468). The School District of Philadelphia is the only school district

that has developed a culture-centered, single group curriculum, focused on

Afrocentricity. Gillespie (1989) writes:

On November 17, 1967, several hundred black students from Philadelphia's high

schools presented the Board of Education with a list of demands which included

the teaching of Afro-American history. The date will also be remembered as the

first time that the phrase – Negro or Afro-American History – became linked with

student unrest here and in other cities”(Traore, 2008, pp. 663-664).

How one defines “curriculum” depends on who you ask. Taba (1962) argues a curriculum “usually contains a statement of aims and of specific objectives it indicated some selection and organization of content; it either implies or manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching, whether because the objectives demand them or because the content organization requires them. Finally, it includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes” (Henson, 1995, p. 4). Webster’s Dictionary defines “curriculum” as “a regular course of study in a school.” Saylor and Alexander distinguished the difference between a school’s planned activities and its planned activities, as “curriculum encompasses all learning opportunities provided by the school” versus “a curriculum plan is the advance arrangement of learning opportunities for a particular population of learners” (Henson,

1995, p. 5). Richardson (2000) writes “a culture-centered approach starts from the viewpoint that students are positioned and that they come from somewhere with something, which is valuable and fundamental to the educational process” (p. 200). King

(2004) adds, “culture-centered knowledge conflicts with or disparages the cultural

5 knowledge and interests of dominated groups, and the ‘sameness’ of individuals serves as a rationalizing principle for domination that is represented as societal cohesion” (p. 271).

The teaching methodologies of African American history in secondary grades (7-12) are inequitable and need a different strategy to empower students. African American students feel alienated because their culture is underrepresented in school curriculum.

Culture refers to the consistent ways in which people experience, interprets, and responds to the world around them; it represents the “ways of being” of a collective population. Culture is a feature of all human groups and is shaped by historical, social, political, economic, and even geographic factors (Marshall, 2002, p. 8). Culture includes both past and present perceptions; and its perceived reality is reflected in its symbols, rituals and purpose (Gause, 2003, p. 3). Providing children access to stories that represent global diversity is one way to foster tolerance within the children, while improving achievement and self-esteem (Allington & Cunningham, 2002).

Culture, like any other social or biological organism, is multidimensional and continually changing. It must be so to remain vital and functional for those who create it and for those it serves. As manifested in expressive behaviors, culture is influenced by a wide variety of factors, including time, setting, age, economics, and social circumstances” (Gay, 2000, p. 10). Ladson-Billings (1994) agrees with the need of culturally relevant instruction, arguing if the children cannot see themselves in the learning materials, how can they relate to it and be relevant to their lives. A student learning about his or her culture not only improves individual self-esteem and provides a

sense of identity, but raises their grades and increases interest in school. Solorzano and

Yosso (2000) argue that critical race theory in education “begins to create a discourse that

articulates the ways in which teachers of color can initiate the processes of ending racial

subordination” (p. 115). Philadelphia Schools Superintendent, Dr. Mark Shedd, argued,

“identity is the problem of many Negro students....Negro history and culture, they feel

will give them an identity which they claim was taken from them when they arrived in

this country in 1619” (Traore, 2008, p. 666). To achieve a sense of identity, Steele (1995)

argues that “one must perceive good prospects in the domain; that is, one has the

interests, skills, resources, and opportunities to prosper there, as well as one belongs

there, in the sense of being accepted and valued” (p. 613). Without identity, a student is

susceptible to cultural devaluation and deculturalization.

Cultural devaluation involves the act and process of ascribing insignificance and/or deficiency to the cultures of specific collective populations. For example, through devaluation the histories, worldviews, and overall ways of being (i.e., languages, value systems, personal presentation styles, etc.) of particular collective populations are perceived as insignificant, quaint or even peculiar. When the histories of a people are written, they are built, in part, upon archival information (Green, 2002, p. 807). One manner of cultural devaluation is through exclusion or misrepresentation, whereby, in experiences common to most people in the society, the ways of being associated with low status cultural groups are distorted or ignored. Among these common experiences are representations in television programs, movies, and advertising, and elementary and secondary schooling (Marshall, 2002, pp. 9-10).

Deculturalization is one aspect of a strange mixture of democratic thought and intolerance that permeates American history. The concept of deculturalization demonstrates how cultural prejudice, racism, and religious bigotry can be intertwined and democratic beliefs. Deculturalization combines education for democracy and political equality with cultural genocide (Spring, 2004, p. 3). Williams and Land (2006) argue

“educational reform needs to be initiated to attack the core of the colorblind that irresponsibility overlooks the history, struggles, and individuality of a person in the name of being neutral and fair. The primary benefactors of such an education reform are generations of African Americans” (p. 585).

I was born on the east coast. My grandfather was in the Navy, and transferred to

San Diego’s Miramar Air Station when I was only six months old. My grandmother, who was first generation American, was a housewife who helped my mother raise me.

Although Gram was not a teacher, she instilled in me a vast knowledgeable of many subjects. One of the subjects she wanted to make sure I was aware of was African

American history. Being born in the 1960s and attending school in the 1970s, one would assume that there would be adequate learning materials discussing notable African

American contributions to American history in the public school curriculum.

I attended Riverdale Primary and Elementary School from first to eighth grade.

My mother and grandmother were able to have me skip kindergarten; their reason: that I already had social skills, knew my alphabet and numbers, could already read, and could use scissors. The school population consisted of mainly white students, a large population

of migrant students (Portuguese and Mexicans who were English learners), and a few

African American students. I got along with all of the students, who treated me with

dignity and respect. Most of the students I still keep in contact with, thanks to social

networking websites, the telephone, and letters. However, the atmosphere was not as

positive when it came to the relationship between the students of color and the teachers. I

remember my mother and grandmother frequently visiting the school, having to ask why

one teacher said to me, a six-year-old first grader, that they would like to “crack my head

open to see what was inside” because I was smarter than the average first grader. One

teacher had a psychologist come in to speak to me, asking me how I knew so much. I still

am amazed how a school administration would allow a first grader to undergo such

treatment. It made me feel like it was wrong for me to love learning, and that I was some

sort of “freak of nature.” I also heard from teachers, that I was “different, not like the

other black people they knew.” Kunjufu (1988) refers to this treatment as the “Jackie

Robinson” approach, when African Americans are selected to participate in certain

activities, because they are deemed “harmless” and non-retaliatory” (p. 78).

When I graduated from eighth grade, I had the grades to be class Salutatorian, but was told my grade point average was not high enough to be selected. The irony was that a white student had the same grade point average as me and was selected to be

Salutatorian. Once again, my mother and grandmother had to visit the school. The Vice-

Principal said that “the school did not feel compelled to have two Salutatorians this year”

and the voting process was “so close.” It made me wonder why teachers have low

expectations for African American students, why African American students are praised

for receiving an average grade, and when an African American student excels in the

classroom, it is treated like a phenomenon. I remember my African American classmates

say that I was trying to “act white” and was “selling out” because I enjoyed learning; my

grades were reflective of that. To me, being smart and African American seemed to

alienate myself from my African American peers. It is a matter of identity. Ginwright

(2004) argues that Afrocentrism proponents agree many African Americans, particularly

children and youth, suffer from an ethnic identity crisis and that rediscovering West

African and Egyptian philosophies holds the promise of cultural transformation for

blacks. Building ethnic pride, strengthening knowledge about African history, and

fostering a worldview that values community, balance, and harmony is one promising

strategy to improve the quality of life for blacks (p. 17).

In 2006, before I decided to pursue an educational career, I visited Rosa Parks

Middle School as a collaborative grant writer. While I was there, I had an opportunity to

visit some of the classrooms and attend a Black History Month assembly. Most of the

African American students were ignored, except when they exhibited detrimental behavior. I never witnessed any encouragement by the teachers, nor did I see the students showing any interest in the coursework presented. I thought if there were classes that showcased their culture, maybe these students would have incentive to come to school and look forward to learning. The lack of interest and culture-centered curriculum to meet the African American student’s needs is what I observed at Rosa Parks Middle School.

With no curriculum that addresses their history and their sense of identity, African

American students will lose interest in school, and most likely drop out.

I also had an opportunity to be a guest reader at Mark Hopkins Elementary School

in 2006, where I read stories in several classrooms. I noticed that the African American

children paid more attention when I read Anansi the Spider, an African folktale. These

students were eager to learn about a story they could relate to, and was part of their

identity. They also wanted me to return to read more stories about their culture. These

students have no idea that they are descendants of great royalty and a phenomenal

history. Many school textbooks misinform students about the events pertaining to their

culture. Scholarship written by Afrocentric educators not only dispel notions of African

American marginalization in United States history and culture, but gives people of color

an awareness of what needs to be changed in their curriculum. Harris (1983) cites a 1980

textbook as an example:

It is forgotten that the slave trade was begun by Negroes in Africa before Europe-

ans reached the “Dark Continent,” that every black bought by a slave trader was

sold by one of his own race, and that the victims of the system who were shipped

to north America were better off than those who remained in bondage in Africa;

better off, in fact, than many poor workers and peasants in Europe. (cited in Har

ris, 1993, p. 47)

Unfortunately, during my elementary and high school years, I did not see any offerings of African American history courses or adequate representation of African

Americans in K-12 history books. It did not seem like it mattered, since I was an avid reader and did not totally rely on the school system for my learning experience. My

grandmother (Gram) had an amazing talent for finding out-of-the-ordinary study aids.

She found comic books that featured African Americans, flash cards that highlighted achievements by African Americans and coloring books that celebrated the African

American experience. The omission of cultural history did not faze me, but my classmates of color were being cheated out of critical chapter of their education. This not only occurred in my primary and secondary educational experience, but well-known writers and educators experienced the same through several generations. Poet Gwendolyn

Brooks (1972), who was the first African American to win the Nobel Prize for Literature, admits in her biography that she had not heard of W.E.B. DuBois’ Souls of Black Folk until she was an adult (p. 175). Harvard Professor Henry Louis Gates (1990) points out that “in public schools overall, only Lorraine Hansberry and Richard Wright appear among the top fifty authors required in English classes between grades 7 and 12” (pg.

13). Poet Sonia Sanchez (1983) recalls “in high school and college, American literature contained no black writers. As a consequence, the only time I saw ‘me’ was in sociology courses, and then I was in an aberration . . . That’s really a terrible commentary on education” (p. 147). On the other hand, many of my classmates had limited information which was gathered by watching television. My classmates rarely visited the library and sadly took everything that our instructors taught us as gospel. This disturbed me as I continued my education. Most of my classmates of color did not have that opportunity and were cheated out of valuable information. Once again, the oppressive “banking system” (Friere, 1993, p. 58) of education claimed more victims. The banking approach often leads to: (1) students being viewed as passive receptacles waiting for knowledge to

be deposited from the teacher; (2) mono-directional pedagogical formats whereby

students do not feel their thoughts and ideas are important enough to warrant a two-way

dialogue with teachers; (3) “cradle classrooms,” in which students are dependent on

teachers for the acquisition of knowledge; and (4) students viewing schools as key

mechanisms in the reproduction of inequality rather than places where education is seen as a practice of freedom, a place to build critical consciousness, and social mobility

(Ginwright and Cammarota, as cited in Akom, 2009, p. 56). Engle (1960) envisioned a social studies classroom to consist of decision-making bodies in which students and teachers critically and analytically examined traditional material and current events in history texts and other media (Massialas, 2009, p. 246). I wanted to provide a learning system so that future generations would not be left out when it came to learning about their culture and identity.

One aspect of identity is communication style. I remember when the Oakland

Unified School District recognized African American Vernacular English (or Ebonics) as a legitimate language in 1996; that was my introduction to Ebonics. My son’s friends speak African American Vernacular English in school, although not all of them are

African American. A language is developed to the degree that it reaches a certain stability in a particular area and to the extent that is used in the comprehension and expression of the world by the groups that speak it (Macedo, 1987, p. 54). AAVE ranks among the most widely documented varieties in the sociolinguistic literature, yet its structure and status remain most controversial. Some scholars contend that AAVE bears the vivid imprint of the African languages spoken slaves who came to this country in waves from

13 the 17th to the 18th centuries. Others maintain that the devastating experience of slavery wiped out most if not all African linguistic and cultural traditions, and the apparently distinctive features of Spoken Soul come from English dialects spoken by white (British) peasants and indentured servants whom Africans encountered in America (Rickford &

Rickford, 2000, p. 129).

Purpose

Gollnick & Chinn (2006) write that some African American communities want an

Afrocentric curriculum in order to learn the truth about black history. Teaching a culture- centered curriculum will provide a positive identity, improve self-esteem and academic skills (p. 125). Asante (1991) argues “without a multicultural education, students remain essentially ignorant of the contributions of a major portion of the world’s people” (pg.

172). When curriculum designers ignore important vehicles such as social-class differences when they ignore the incorporation of the subordinate culture's values in the curriculum, and when they refuse to accept and legitimize the student's language; their actions point to the inflexibility, insensitivity, and rigidity of a curriculum that was designed to benefit those who wrote it (Macedo, 1987, p. 124). Therefore, alignment with the ideas of multicultural education reform is compatible with a curriculum reform that has been widely accepted (Giddings, 2001, p. 470).This is my attempt to present various learning tools that will reinforce the concept of a culture-centered curriculum for all students, focusing on African Americans in a single-group study. This project is a contribution to the knowledgebase in Black education by generating a dialogue of

14 possible research of culture-centered approaches by educators, students, and administrators of all ethnicities.

In Chapter 2, a literature review of relevant texts, articles, and studies is presented.

In Chapter 3, the methodology used in developing the curriculum is presented.

In Chapter 4, the curriculum is presented.

Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

A successful African American History curriculum should incorporate single-

group studies, culture-centered knowledge, and a service-learning component utilizing

oral history. By incorporating these aspects, students of color will learn about a part of

history that they can relate to, providing them with a sense of identity. Single-group

studies is defined as “an approach to multi-cultural education that is characterized by attention to a single group,” (Ladson-Billings, 1994, p. 110) but the main idea of the

Single-Groups Studies approach is to empower oppressed groups. Suzuki (1994)

addresses the benefits of students enrolled in an ethnic studies course:

“Ethnic studies should give students of color a sense of their history and identity

in American society, increase their awareness and self-confidence, and provide a

greater sense of direction and purpose in their lives. Programs should present a

more accurate version of American history by including groups that have been left

out, and they should meet economic, political and cultural demands by people of

color from both within and without local communities” (Suzuki, as cited in

Ladson-Billings, 1994, p. 110).

Single-group studies approach originates in educational, philosophical orientations that argue that education is not a neutral process but is used by government, labor, and business for social and political purposes (Sleeter & Grant, 2003, 117). This

16 approach attempts to counterbalance the traditional curriculum study of White, middle- class males. Guerra (1973) argues the need for bilingual education:

Monolingual and multicultural education in America has traditionally ignored the

cultural pluralism of American society. We acknowledge ethnic and racial differ

ences, religious variances, and a cultural heterogeneity of our cities, but the crite

ria of our value judgments, our value system, and our social consciousness remain

predominantly White Anglo-Saxon Protestant – that is, representative of the mon-

olingual, monocultural predominant society. The dichotomy between this cultural

pluralism of America on the one hand, and the imposing conformity of this mono

lingual and monocultural predominant society on the other, is something that has

never been reconciled (Sleeter & Grant, 2003, p. 116)

In many history courses, there is a constant battle between teaching the “sacred”

(reproduced through the development of a triumphal history) and the “profane” (failings that do not reflect the highest ideals of society) (Waters, 2007, p. 246). Students receive the “sanitized” historical version (sacred), and may not have the opportunity to learn the

“grim reality” (profane) historical version that they would obtain at the university level.

This also includes omission of various cultures in the telling of history. Disregarding a culture’s story, achievement or accolades in a history curriculum leads to failure, as those who are ignored lose interest and believe “Why should I care? This does not affect me.

There is no one I can relate to in this book!” Morrell (2002) argues “the failure of urban students to develop “academic” literacy skills stems not from a lack of intelligence but

from the inaccessibility of the school curriculum to students who are not in the

“dominant” or “mainstream” culture” (p. 77). Gramsci (1987) viewed literacy as both “a

concept and social practice that must be linked historically to configurations of

knowledge and power, on the one hand, and the political and cultural struggle over

language and experience on the other” (Friere, 1987, p. 1). King (2008) argues that

education is assumed to be on a meritocracy system, masking personal connection,

inheritance, structural inequalities, institutional racism and stereotyping in our economic

system (p. 231). Kunjufu (2001) writes there is a need for teachers to “be cognizant of the

child’s culture and learning styles before a curriculum is designed” and to “include the

capital of the child in the curriculum design” (pg. 46).

The history of African Americans provides a different and unique perspective on

the American cultural dialogue. Culture-centered knowledge “includes forms of

knowledge, i.e., thought, perception, and belief structures, that (by making ways of

knowing oneself and the world possible) function in behalf of integrating the extent (or

an envisioned) social framework” (King, 2008, p. 357). Kincheloe (1993) argues “when

black history is taught as a series of isolated events, black history ignores the question of

what it means to be African American?” (Castenell & Pinar, 1993, p. 25).

Wynter (1991) describes culture-centered knowledge as “the manner in which certain ways of knowing and perceiving social reality function within a given social framework” (p. 252). Widener (2010) writes that culture-centered education “explains

something about the richness of a distinct historical movement and the limitations that

18 adhered to a social movement that was destroyed before it could recognize its ultimate potential goals” (p. 214). The worldview from an Afrocentric perspective is a culture- specific social thought of peoples of African descent, focusing on social and historical experience and empirical reality (King, 2008, p. 357). Hine (1990) argues that the differences between African American studies and African centered thought are difficult to decipher, and an “ongoing debate over nomenclature” needs to be established to distinguish those differences (p. 15).

Afrocentricity argues that African peoples unconsciously adopt the Western worldview, perspective and conceptual frameworks. By accepting the viewpoint of

Eurocentric scholars and writers, people of color have attempted to overcome an inferiority complex of Europeans. These viewpoints are merely distorted images of

European superiority. It is up to us, as African peoples, to displace the European ways of thinking and replace that mindset with cultural African experiences. Asante (1991) argues, “as an intellectual theory, Afrocentricity is the study of the ideas and events from the standpoint of Africans as the key players rather than the victims” (p. 172). Mazama

(2001) writes, “the Afrocentric idea rests on the assertion of the primacy of the African experience for African people. Its aim is to give us our African, victorious consciousness back. In the process, it also means viewing the European voice as just one among many and not necessarily the wisest one” (p. 388).

The lack of curriculum including African Americans is reminiscent of Freire’s theories of power, culture and oppression within the education system (Darder,

Baltodono, and Torres, 2009, p. 5). Freire also relied on philosophers, such as Michel

Foucault, to reinforce his stance on oppression and power. Foucault argued that power is

in “the context of creative acts of resistance – creative acts that are produced as human beings interact across the dynamic of relationships, shaped by moments of dominance and autonomy” (Darder, Baltodono and Torres, 2009, p. 7). One example is in a classroom where the teacher only selects a certain few to answer the posed questions, leaving the others feeling upset and left out. The teacher controls the feelings and attitudes in the classroom. Those who were ignored eventually stopped raising their hands and lose interest in the subject discussion, challenging the oppressor as a resistant sub-culture in the classroom that rejects education as a positive experience (Darder,

Baltoldono and Torres, 2009, p.12). Murrell (2002) argues that knowledge in practice

emphasizes community as the framework for an understanding of the foundational

balance of a child’s education. As educators, we need to ensure that our students learn the

“whole truth” and that non-White people are not inferior, as most of written history has

taught us. Schools should ensure that all students have equitable opportunities to learn

and to meet high standards (Banks, et. al, 2001, p. 3).

As Williams and Land (2006) articulate, “Obvious and repetitive acts of racism

are being overlooked as key contributing factors affecting the achievement gap and

pedagogical practices within the classroom. Through a color-blind lens, “race neutral” laws and policies aid in sustaining White dominance and legitimize Black subordination, which is argued as an infringement upon African American civil rights (p. 579). Non- recognition of race reinforces and reproduces the flawed structure of society because it

20 does not allow for compensation from centuries of marginalization, exploitation and oppression. This form of “color blindness” extends into the educational area from policymakers to teachers in the classroom. One of my former high school classmates has been a primary school educator for over a decade. When she and I engaged in a conversation about race, she said that “children in that age group are too young to know about race.” Ladson-Billings (1994) writes:

Some teachers make such statements as 'I don't really see color, I just see chil

dren,' or 'I don't care if they are red, green, or polka dot, I just treat them all like

children.' However, these attempts at color blindness mask 'dysconscious racism,'

and uncritical habit of mind that justifies inequity and exploitation by accepting

the existing order of things as given (pp. 31-32).

Critical race theory (CRT) should be addressed when developing a culture- centered curriculum, as race is an integral part of education. It provides a lens through which to question, critique, and challenge the manner and methods in which race, white supremacy, supposed meritocracy, and racist ideologies have shaped and undermined policy efforts for African American student participation in higher education (Harper,

Patton, & Woodson, 2009, p. 389). Critical race theory is an offshoot of critical legal studies; a tool used by the establishment to maintain its power and domination over an unequal status quo and utilizes hegemony as a method to legitimize oppressive structures in America (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2009, p. 20). Racism and bias play a large part in determining which students gain entry into the more challenging classrooms. Thus,

African American students become victims to this institutionalized form of racism; a

system, as a result that harnesses low expectations and delivers an inferior curriculum

(William & Land, 2006, p. 581). Wynter (1968) describes hegemonic behavior in the educational profession:

Intellectuals and artists who belong to a subordinated group are necessarily going

to be educated in the scholarly paradigms of the group who dominates you. But

these paradigms, whatever, their other emancipatory attributes must have always

already legitimated the subordination of your group…Most have even induced us

to accept our subordination through the mediation of their imaginary (Scott, 2000,

p. 169).

Critical race theory uses storytelling to demonstrate how the white majority

impedes the cause of racial reform. One example is Arizona’s reasoning not to honor the

King Holiday, then honoring the late civil rights leader simply for monetary reasons

(potential loss of revenue due to lack of tourism and sporting events). This is the case

with the teaching methods of African American history, mainly focusing on a “watered-

down version” of slavery; Dr. Martin Luther King fighting for civil rights by himself and

only a handful of African Americans participating in military conflict. The omission of

persons of color in the teachings of American history perpetuates the oppression of

minority students, giving them the impression that they are second-class citizens and their

ancestry is not important in the fabric of this country; distort history and contribute to the

marginalization of non-black peoples of color (Ladson-Billings, 2009, p.19). These

omissions perpetuate racism in the classroom, leaving the white children thinking that

white males were the only makers of history. The analytical task remaining for African

American studies and African American education praxis is to undo the forms of

knowledge that sustain unjust and inequitable racialized educational outcomes (King,

2008, p. 50). Pinar (2004) states activists used two basic arguments regarding using

curriculum that provide an accurate history of African Americans and other persons of

color. He argues that portraying an accurate view of persons of color may help persuade

whites to revisit racist views, and misrepresentation of minorities in these textbooks

would give students a false sense of inferiority and insecurity. As King (2008) writes,

“recognizing the common problem of miseducation that African people share includes

the misrepresentation of our cultural heritage and the marginalization of contemporary

African realities – if they are addressed at all – it is important to search for solutions” (p.

159). Dilg (1999) recalled when interviewing several students about subject they wanted

to learn about, the students wanted to learn more about history. “We need curriculum that

exposes us to multicultural issues and how to deal with them.” “It’s important to

remember where we came from, but not segregate ourselves.” “[We need a balance]

between remembering the past and living for the future. [We need to] take lessons, but

not hatred, from the past” (pp. 30-31).

Service learning is a pedagogy for educating students. Critical pedagogy

implemented effectively requires a teacher well-versed in creating meaningful and open dialogue through which a wide range of alternatives are considered and discussed, in which the possible consequences of a given choice, interpretation, or decision is weighed,

in which decisions are tentative, choices deliberate, and actions carefully warranted

(Evans, 2008, p. 25). All models of service-learning are based on the premise that one

goal of a college education is to cultivate positive ethical habits and behaviors,

particularly toward the less fortunate members of society. Service learning connects

community service with the academic curriculum. Perkins-Gough (2009) argues

“effective service learning programs challenge students to reflect on their service

experiences through such activities as group discussions and journaling (p. 91).Service

learning must involve collective action and should help raise awareness of the need to

work with others. It should also increase students’ skills and confidence, whether it is

collaborating with other students or with members of the larger community (Codispoti, as

cited in Speck & Hoppe, 2004, p. 99). Public service is also a journey of self-discovery.

Students will discover their own opinions and beliefs about various issues. Public service

empowers students by showing them how social science can be applied to the real world

(Kunjufu, 2009, p. 62). Such activities not only promote academic learning but also can

help develop students' leadership skills, teach them how to be involved citizens, and give

them practice in working with others (Perkins-Gough, 2009, p.91). Gay (2000) agrees, as students “developing socio-civic skills for effective membership in multicultural communities is as important a goal of culturally responsive pedagogy as improving the academic achievement and personal development of students of color” (p. 20).

Service learning originated as youth service work performed by high school students as a part of a 1983 Ernest Boyer community service initiative sponsored by the

Carnegie Foundation (Dixon, Jones & Umoja, 2005, p. 31). Service learning is based on

Dewey’s (1997) criticism of traditional education, which he believed lacks holistic

understanding of students and content-focused curricula that emphasizes contributions to

the well-being of individuals and society. His concept of “experiential learning” states

individuals must engage in an experience that produces intellectual and moral growth or

results in conditions leading to further growth (pp. 12-13). Dewey argues “by providing

students with ‘the instruments of effective self-direction’ while saturating them with a

‘spirit of service,’ schools should ‘sustain and extend greater individualization on one

hand, and broader community of interest on the other’ and thus would constitute ‘the

deepest and best quantity of a larger society, which is worthy, lovely, and harmonious”

(Perlstein, 2002, p. 250).

Both educators and students can benefit from service learning. Carter Andrews

(2009) defines service learning as “an approach to teaching and learning in which service

and learning are blended in a way that both are enriched” (p. 274), and is a means to

foster deeper sociocultural awareness, civic participation, and social transformation in

pre-service students. Verducci and Pope (2001) argue service learning can make students

“aware of issues and problems of equity, equality, power, voice, and resources in education” (p. 7). In the context of K-12 education, the National Youth Leadership

Council in its third annual service-learning research compendium, Growing to Greatness

2006, reports that 28 percent of “public schools engaged in service-learning which is curriculum-based, has clear learning objectives, and meets community needs” (Scales and

Roehlkepartain, as cited in National Youth Leadership 2006, p. vi). Curriculum-based service-learning is a "credit-bearing educational experience in which students participate

25 in an organized service activity that meets identified community needs, and reflect on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of curricular content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of personal values and civic responsibility" (Bringle & Hatcher, 1995, p. 112). Damon (2009) articulates “not only is volunteering character-building in this way, it is also a good source of sparks of interest that may develop into a life purpose, as it can teach children a great deal about the practicalities they will need to make their way in the world, as well as introducing them to potential adult mentors ( p.158). Kunjufu (1988) argues that “every effort should be made to make the learning experience a hands-on experience” (p. 88). This project will incorporate a service learning component with students participating in an oral history project that incorporates mentors, youth, and veterans of color.

Oral history provides an avenue of thick description, analysis, and interpretation of people's lives through probing the past in order to understand the present (Janesick,

2007, p. 111). Thompson (1988) defines oral history as “a technique with its very own history, regularly defined as some variation of 'the recorded reminisces of a person who has first-hand knowledge of any number of experiences'” (Janesick, 2007, p. 111). The first-hand accounts of what the interviewees experienced may be perceived as “a way to repair the historical record by including the voices of participants outside the mainstream of society” (Janesick, 2007, p. 112). Bruner (1996) believes that stories are motivated by certain values, beliefs, desires, and theories; that they seek to reveal intentional states behind actions, or reasons, not causes; that they are rarely taken as “unsponsored texts”; and that “those worth telling and worth construing are typically born in trouble” (Gay,

2000, p. 42). By utilizing oral history into a social justice, single-group, culture-centered curriculum, youth learn about those left out of the traditional written record and society as a whole.

African Americans have experienced hegemonic actions from white supremacists since slavery, as victims of oppression. This is evident with grandiose omissions and improper rewritings of African American history. Hilliard (2001) writes “dominating populations crush or suppress the history of their victims destroy the practice of the culture of their victims, prevent the victims from coming to understand themselves as a part of a cultural family, teach systematically the ideology of white supremacy, control the socialization process, control the accumulation of wealth, and perform segregation and apartheid” (p. 24). These cases of intentional omissions were devised to utilize educational structures to destroy “critical consciousness” (Freire, 1993). This strategy would alienate Africans from tradition and each other, as well as instill African inferiority and white supremacy (Hilliard, 2001, p. 25). Kunjufu (1988) writes “one of the major repercussions of slavery was the public characterization of Africans being intellectually inferior. He calls this type of oppression “mental slavery,” which he argues is “more sophisticated, because when the chains are removed from the ankles and placed around the mind, it becomes more difficult for the oppressed to recognize the source of their plight” (p. 12).

King (2008) argues young people need to be technology literate and possess networking and problem solving skills in this globalized information economy. These

27 traits may help youth feel a commitment to serving their community at an early age and provide a motivating factor for academic achievement. Boyle-Baise (1991) incorporates the usage of oral history in a curriculum. This method provides knowledge of diversity and a more historical account of information. By using oral history to advance social justice goals, the oral historian/qualitative researcher maintains an active in the project and may contribute to social projects in ways which attempt to equalize and balance the historical record (Janesick, 2007, p. 119). One service learning organization that provides youth these opportunities is the Unsung Heroes Living History Project (UHLHP), which was founded in 2000. This oral history project is an inter-generational service learning opportunity, which collects and preserves the legacy of African Americans in the military by interviewing veterans and their families. Youth team up with a mentor, who interviews a veteran or a family member. That interview turns into a five-minute documentary, produced by the interviewer. This project will teach youth communication skills, the interview process, storyboarding, editing and video production. The final product can also be used as a project in a high school World History class.

UHLHP began in 2000, when I was attending Chabot College. One of my assignments was to write a biography about someone I knew. I knew instantly that my subject would be my grandmother, Margarita Hernandez. She was a great role model for me, and served as a “surrogate mother” while my mother made numerous attempts to

“find herself.” In one of our numerous daily conversations, she mentioned that she was a

“Riveter,” who read blueprints and performed tack welding on the USS Franklin

Roosevelt at the Brooklyn Naval Yard. Listening to her story fascinated me, and inspired

me to learn more about the African American experience in the military. Unfortunately,

when I attempted to gather information about African Americans in the military, there

was little information that I could obtain. The only information that mainstream America

would learn about African Americans in the military was during Black History Month

and the topics covered were the Tuskegee Airmen and the Red Ball Express. There were

many other stories since the American Revolution where African Americans made

contributions in the military, and I decided to obtain those stories from those who served,

or a family member willing to share the story about a loved one. By doing so, current and

future generations would be able to have relevant information about their culture and

their identity. Ioannou, et. al (2009) argue that “students in middle and high school often report negative attitudes toward their social studies classes, complaining that these classes are boring and irrelevant (p. 63). Since most students incorporate a great deal of technology into their lifestyles, utilizing multimedia would maintain their interest while they learn. Mayer (2001) defines multimedia as “the presentation of material using both words (spoken or printed) and pictures (maps, graphics, animation, diagrams, and videos)” (Ioannou, et. al., p. 64). The project also contains an inter-generational service

learning component, where youth are teamed up with a mentor and veteran (or family

member) and produce a five-minute documentary.

As previously mentioned, knowledge of identity is imperative in order to learn

about culture and ethnicity. Anthropologists George and Louise Spindler (1994)

researched the aspects of self and social identities, which included the “enduring self”

and the “situated self.” Both are interrelated, as the enduring self “provides a personal or

psychological cohesiveness in terms of experiences, meaning, and social identity; the

situated self “focuses on capabilities manifested in goal-oriented, context-specific aspects of the person” (Hallowell, as cited in Schram, 1994. P. 466).

One aspect of identity is communication style. When the Oakland Unified School

District acknowledged Ebonics (or African American Vernacular English-AAVE) as a language, the decision ignited a media firestorm while African Americans and whites protested using what was called an “ignorant” form of communication. A deeper look needs to be taken at what is considered African American Vernacular English; this form of communication is what today’s youth are speaking in the classroom, and is part of their identity. Rejecting AAVE as a legitimate form of communication is a detriment to today’s student’s academic achievement (Hecht, Jackson, & Ribeau, 2003, as cited in

Gollnick & Chinn, 2006, pg. 281). Woodson (1933) wrote regarding the tandem of language and education:

In the study of language in school pupils were made to scoff at the Negro dialect as some peculiar possession of the Negro which they should despise rather than directed to study the background of this language as a broken-down African tongue – in short to understand their own linguistic history, which is certainly more important for them than the study of French phonetics or Historical Spanish Grammar. To the African language as such no attention was given except in the case of the preparation of traders, missionaries and pubic functionaries to exploit the natives (p. 19)

AAVE is a term that covers the whole range of black speech, from the time

African Americas were unwillingly thrust on American soil and began to struggle to communicate in a foreign tongue to the present, when English is spoken by African

Americans of all social classes (except for those who speak Standard English) (Horton,

1984, p. 17). But many use AAVE, regardless of education level, ethnicity, socio- economic, or regional background. McWhorter (2004) explains the “bad grammar” we often use “just alternates that happen not to have been granted social cachet” (p. 17).

Language changes whether we like it or not. Languages have never evolved directly into their written forms; they begin as speech and very rarely transferred into a written form.

Brown and Yule (1983) categorize written language as primarily transactional, used to convey information, and spoken language as primarily interactional, or used to establish and maintain social relations. However, they also state that spoken language can be transactional in certain situations, and that foreign speakers of English often produce

“more perfect” English “because they produce complete sentences and articulate clearly”

(p. 23). African American students should be taught academic language; the language used in the classroom and in professional situations, and be able to utilize academic language and informal language in the proper context. This instruction is crucial for the professional and academic success of the student as they advance into the capitalistic world. Valdes (2001) defines the importance of when to use formal and informal language:

Interpersonal communicative proficiency involves the ability to speak and

understand English to face-to-face interactions, while academic language

involves, for example, extended discourse, the ability to read extensively and

intensively and to learn subject matter from such reading, and the ability to

display what is learned in both oral and written modes (p.6).

As previously mentioned, there is a link between language, culture, and identity.

Yamanaka (n.d.) argues “with language rests culture. To sever the language from the mouth is to sever the ties to homes and relatives, family gatherings, food prepared and eaten, relationships with friends and neighbors, cultural identity is utterly akin to language identity” (p. 2). Older generations will recall when family played an integral part of a student’s educational experience. Community and school worked together with parents to ensure the student was successful, the “historic Black community” (Irvine and

Irvine, 1983, as cited in King, 2005, p. 51). Billingsley (1968) expands on what the

“historic Black community” consists of:

In every aspect of the child’s life, a trusted elder, neighbor, Sunday school teacher, school teacher, or other community member might instruct, discipline, assist, or otherwise guide the young of a given family. Second, as role models, community members show an example to and interest in the young society (a responsibility assumed by professional educators) to help young members of a particular families find opportunities which might otherwise be closed to them. Fourth, as supportive figures, they simply inquire about the progress of the young, take a special interest in them. Fifth, in the formal roles of teacher, leader, elder, they serve youth generally as part of the general role or occupation (Billingsley, 1968, p.99).

In order for a student to understand why culture-centered learning is essential, one needs to understand what it took to get to where we are today. For every individual, his or her own cultural identity is a function of that of his or her people (Diop, 1990, p. 211).

My grandmother used to remind me that “you won’t know where you’re headed until you know where you’ve been.” Our ancestors risked their lives either by hiding books under their cabin’s floor slats, then sitting in a dimly-lit room to in an attempt to educate themselves or to escape their slave masters in hopes to find a better life. This project also brings up the importance of organized mass support of parents and the community in the school and student’s education. The old African proverb, “it takes a village to raise a child” remains relevant, especially when it comes to a child’s education.

Multicultural education emerged as a response to the Eurocentric bias pervasive in American’s urban schools. An outgrowth of the Civil Rights movement, multicultural education was viewed as a social response that could forge greater educational opportunities and was closely tied to the struggle for jobs, economic power, and community vitality (Ginwright, 2004, p. 3). In the mid-1960s, “the ideological and strategic focus of the [civil rights] movement shifted from passivity and perseverance in the face of adversity to aggression, self-determination, cultural consciousness, and political power” (Gay, 1983, p. 560). History was one of the first major disciplines in which African American scholars created autonomous intellectual traditions and institutions that existed side by side White America's various exclusionary academic infrastructures during the Jim Crow segregation through the Black Power era (Dagbovie,

2006, p. 635). Students of color across college campuses during the Civil Rights

Movement orchestrated riots, sit-ins, and protests demanding justice and acknowledgement. One protest occurred on November 6, 1968, when San Francisco State

College students and faculty conducted a five-month strike in order to establish Ethnic

Studies and Black Studies Departments at the campus (Rooks, 2006, p. 34). Black

Studies was the term used to describe the new academic endeavor, which primarily focused on the experiences of African Americans (Reid-Merritt, 2009, p. 77) In his

Introduction to Black Studies, Karenga (1993) defined African American Studies as “the systematic and critical study of the multidimensional aspects of Black thought and practice in their current and historical unfolding” (p. 21), and is “a discipline dedicated to an inclusive and holistic study of Black life” (p. 22). Mazama (2001) adds African

American studies “covers the social dynamics, the psychological dynamics, the languages, the literary and oratory expressions, the history, the artistic expressions, and so forth – the whole cultural and historical experience that defines us as a people.” Asher

(2002) argues “an Afrocentric curriculum is consciousness raising, seeks to improve the self-esteem and academic achievement of African American students, combats the

“acting White” thesis, aids in the transition to adulthood, and serves as a safe haven for

African American students”(Grant, 2008, p. 886). Murrell (1993) agrees, stating that

Afrocentric pedagogy “provides a warm, safe, and nurturing emotional environment where students receive expressions of esteem and positive regard from the teacher and creating opportunities for students to develop a sense of industry and self-efficacy”

(Grant, 2008, p.893). Baker (1993) noted that there were over 200 black studies

34 programs, most with black faculty, as early as 1973 (Baker, as cited in Ginwright, 2004, p. 13).

Christensen (2008) states “as educators, we have the power to determine whether students feel included or excluded in our schools. By bringing languages from their homes into the classroom, we validate their [student’s] culture and their history as topics worthy of study” (p. 59). As educators, we need to change the way students of color feel about attending school and educational success. Contrary to what they sometimes read in their school textbooks, young African Americans learned at home about their past in ways calculated to instill pride rather than shame (Litwack, 1999, p. 46). Steele (1992) writes “For too many black students school is simply the place where, more concertedly, persistently, and authoritatively than anywhere else in society, they learn how little valued they are” (p. 13).

Dilg (1999) argues students within a cultural group may struggle, as individuals deal with each other; some may assume a public identity and attitude and behavior comparable with the identity of the cultural groups. Students may criticize each other for thinking or behaving in a way that reflects a different relationship to the cultural identity

(p. 22). The concept of center is based on the belief that one’s history, culture, and biology determine one’s identity. However, dislocation occurs either when one lives on borrowed cultural terms and/or when one apprehends reality through another group’s center. So, the concept of center encompasses both our African identity and our disposition toward that identity (Mazama, 2001, p.397). Maton’s (1996) cultural

35 specificity perspective argues different ethnic groups have different cultural norms, experiences that differ from other racial groups in society. African Americans in the educational forum possess a “strong desire to surround oneself with symbols of one’s racial identity, and actively seek out opportunities to learn about one’s own history and culture, with the support of same-race peers” (Tatum, 1997, p. 76). Community forces influence students' adaptation to school, their perceptions and responses to school, and their beliefs about schooling. They suggest that although an individual's class and race affect social reproduction, the response of the individuals to their community forces is shaped moment by moment within their social environments. (Ogbu, as cited in Tatum,

2008, pp. 140-141). Fordham and Ogbu (1986) argue positive family support can help students of color, as peers may perceive that the desire to learn and high achievement is

“acting white,” or they are “selling out.” Young (2007) argues “acting white” is “an effect of racialization, where behaviors considered to be white, like academic prose, are presented as superior by teachers because universities stipulate it” (p. 121). By failing to succeed in class, the students assume they are being loyal to the peers who do not plan to further their education. In order to cope with devaluation while attempting to maintain positive self image, some African American students tend to disengage from school.

Those who disengage may label those students who continue to follow instructions and complete their work as “acting white” (Denbo & Beaulieu, 2002). Relatively poor academic performance and anxiety in the classroom may be causes of disidentification

(Steele, as cited in Yeakey & Henderson, p. 349). Datnow and Cooper (1997) argue that these students initially believe they will not succeed in the mainstream education system.

They write, “instead of ‘buying into’ the dominant ideology of a meritocratic system in which rewards are fairly distributed on the basis of hard work, these students chose to resist the dominant ideology, believing that no matter how hard they work, they would not rise up in the social system, or alternately, that success in school was equal to failure within their peer group” (p. 57).

How does one define “acting white,” or even “acting black?” Kunjufu (1988) writes about his aunt, who was labeled an “Uncle Tom,” because she had high expectations for African American students. He continues, “she did not want to be a crusader, and she was very disappointed that excellence as not respected by many people in the Black community, and that mediocrity was becoming the norm”( p. 15). In speaking correctly, Richard Wright, Jr. recalled of the Georgia community in which he was raised, any black person might be ridiculed as “proper” or “white folksy” (Litwack,

1999, p. 70). Ogbu (1987) calls this behavior “cultural inversion,” where “members of the population (e.g., black Americans) regard certain forms of behaviors, certain events, symbols, and meanings as not appropriate for them because these are not characteristic of the members of the other population.” This results in the “co-existence of two opposing cultural frames of reference or ideals orienting behavior, one considered appropriate for the minorities and the other for the dominant group” (pp. 262).

Two factors used to explain school performances differences within the African

American population are an oppositional collective or social identity and an oppositional cultural frame of reference – otherwise referred to as “fictive kinship” (Sleeter, 1991, p.

73). Fordham defines “fictive kinship” as “indicating a kinship-like relationship between

persons not related by blood or marriage, who also have some reciprocal social or

economic relationship” (Sleeter, 1991, p. 74). Children learn fictive kinship from their

parents and peers, associating themselves with peers and community members,

experiencing a multi-layered approach to life (Kunjufu, 1988, p. 19). Fordham (1991)

argues that “Ultimately, they (African Americans) come to the conclusion that in order to

become successful, they must adapt to the existing, organizational context within the

school. That concept may lead to the student’s academic “failure,” as most aspects of

African American culture are stigmatized and assigned a negative valence both in school

context and in the larger American society (Fordham, 1991, p. 473).

From an anthropological point of view, Fordham (1988) argues “the unique nature

of the historical experiences to which a group attaches significant meaning enhances the

possibility of its designation of a people.” Mbiti (1969) describes how all-encompassing

African kinship can be:

The kinship system is like a vast network stretching laterally (horizontally) in eve

ry direction to embrace everybody in any given local group. This means that each

individual is a brother or sister, father or mother, grandmother or grandfather, or

cousin or brother-in-law, uncle or aunt, or something else to everybody else. That

means everybody is related to everybody else (White, as cited in Gay and Baber,

1987, p. 19).

Another aspect of identity African Americans must grapple with is the concept of

“double consciousness,” which was penned by W.E.B. Dubois. Double consciousness is defined as “the linguistic duality of being African American at the forefront of struggle for democracy, identity, power, and social and cultural reproduction both in education and in the larger American social structure.” DuBois refers to a cultural double standard where African Americans juggle their identity with those projected by a more dominant one (Hopson, as cited in Yeakey & Henderson, 2003, p. 82). This is similar to what

African American students experience in an educational setting, being able to switch from informal (slang) language to academic language in the classroom. It could be a challenge, as Hopson (2003) notes: African American students in a hegemonic classroom who cannot make that switch find their mental and emotional state diffused, and quickly removing themselves from the learning experience (p. 82). Fordham (1998) further argues the linguistic and cultural identity African American students face in the classroom makes them “raceless,” undoing “their own sanctioned interactional and behavioral styles” in order to “adapt those styles rewarded in the school context if they wish to achieve academic success.” (p. 55). Hopson (2003) adds that becoming raceless allows African American students believe they can eliminate stigmas attached to their race in order to be successful in their professional and academic careers (Hopson, as cited in Yeakey and Henderson, 2003, p. 91).

African American males are under the most pressure when it comes to identity and school success. Some of the dilemmas facing African American males include: bearing the burden of being a person of color and the stigmas of being an adolescent male

(Spencer, 2001). McMillan (2004) writes “in order to improvement among African

American male achievement and reframe the academic achievement gap as a treatment

gap. Engagement studies suggest that African American students, and African American

boys in particular, are susceptible to academic disengagement” (p. 25). Kunjufu (2001)

argues that some educators believe African American males are expelled more than other

students is that they commit more infractions; however, it was the way the school

responded produced the demerits. African American males are compelled to base their

self-esteem instead on a kind of behavior that tended to support a stereotyped picture of

the African American male (Clark, 1967). African American males remain

disproportionately employed in the most vulnerable unskilled-labor and operative jobs in

the face of ongoing industrial restructuring. They are more likely than other groups to

experience long-term and sometimes permanent joblessness. Racial isolation within

depressed central cities has resulted in poor educational resources and little access to

available job options (Massey & Denton, 1993). Tatum (2006) adds that “African

American male students often exhibit various cultural-specific coping mechanisms; such behaviors as acting tough, failing to retreat from violence, avoiding self disclosure, and dissociating from school. These students are often subject to disproportionate and sometimes unfounded grade retentions and suspensions because teachers and administrators misinterpret these behaviors and find them offensive” (p. 44). He continues:

Educators who are seeking to identify ways to engage African American males in

reading-related tasks have little guidance in doing so. Academic, cultural, emo-

tional, and social—and relies on instructional practices that have proven effective

with African American males. Modifying curriculum on the basis of such texts

and creating a responsive environment can foster meaningful discussions among

students against an education backdrop of standards and accountability African

American adolescent males currently have limited exposure to this kind of quality

literacy instruction in school. A meaningful program should include texts that

shape a positive life trajectory and provide a roadmap that can help students resist

nonproductive behaviors. (p. 45).

It is suggested that African American males should play an active role in young

African American male’s life. Kunjufu (2001) suggests that “every African American

male must volunteer in a school at least one day a month” and that “professional African

American males should consider taking a one-year leave of absence from their jobs to

teach in a public school, preferably at the fourth grade level” (p. 33).

During the compulsory years of schooling, the inclusion movement has meant a paradigm shift in the way schools operate and in the diversity of students that they cater for (Forlin, 2010, p. 2). Multicultural education is the first step toward all students in a

global society. Effective implementation of school reform will places requirements on

teachers, designated curriculum directors, instructional supervisors, administrators,

parents, and counselors. Moll, et. al. (1992) argue “much of the teaching and learning is

motivated by the children's interests and questions; in contrast to classrooms, knowledge

is obtained by the children, not imposed by the adults. This totality of the experiences, the

41 cultural structuring of the households, whether they take place individually, with peers, or under the supervision of adults, helps constitute the funds of knowledge children bring to school (p. 134). These educators and parents must be comfortable with and confident in their ability to carry out the reforms, and attitude toward the reform movement, teacher education colleges and departments must provide their students with the opportunities to develop these necessary understandings, skills, and attitudes (Henson, 1995, p. 16).

Drafur and Edes (1998) argue the concept of the professional learning communities

“promise fundamentally altered teaching, learning, and the bureaucracy and individualism that pervades so many schools” (Servage, 2008, p. 63) and when “properly implemented, the professional learning community represents a 'transformation' from factory model schools to schools that embrace ideas and assumptions that are radically different than those that have guided in the past” (p. 20). Brookfield (2003) writes “in order for critical pedagogy to have an impact, transformative learning causes an individual to 'come with a new understanding of something that causes a fundamental recording of the paradigmatic assumptions he/she holds and leads them to live in a fundamentally different way'.” Akon (2009) argues “critical pedagogy is now more relevant than ever as a method for eradicating racialized opportunity gaps in achievement and for creating educational spaces that ameliorate the life and death issues that many of our youth face on a daily basis” (p. 53). Transformative learning and education entail a fundamental reordering of social studies relations and practices” (p. 142). Frieire (1987) argues, “a critical pedagogy must not repress student's creativity. Creativity needs to be stimulated, not only at the level of their individuality in a social context” (p. 57).

Administrators, teachers, leaders and professional development specialists can enhance the sustainability and long-term effectiveness of a professional learning community by providing opportunities within its infrastructure for teachers to hold open- ended conversations oriented to communicative hearing (Servage, 2008, p. 74), allowing them to engage one another in hopeful critical and creative dialogue. Teacher education institutions can perpetuate a cycle of empowerment which begins with their advocacy of a model of teaching that presents professional candidates who are competent in representing the needs and aspirations of an increasingly diverse school population

(Sleeter, 1991, p. 297). Ravitch (2010) argues that a “coherent curriculum” is necessary to prepare all students who are knowledgeable and are prepared for the responsibilities of citizenship, no matter where they are (p. A21). African American students who perform poorly in school do so in part because the curricula they encounter has little relevance to their lives and culture. Afrocentric scholars argue that cultural omissions in schooling and curricula consequently erode students’ cultural and self-esteem and contribute to poor academic performance (Ginwright, 2004, p. 3). Grant (2008) reinforces Ginwright's argument by writing “an Afrocentric curriculum helps students develop self-esteem, individual agency, the expectation of high achievement, and future career and social goals. Afrocentric pedagogy encourages critical inquiry. Students are taught to understand that to learn how to think for themselves is just as important as what they learn” (Grant, 2008, p. 893). By finding out where other people and their ancestors came from, what their respective ethnic backgrounds are, what cultural elements affect their lives, and what contemporary problems they face because of their ethnicity, people

43 become aware of both unifying commonalities and the enriching diversity in the culture and experience, past and present, of each group (Cortes, 1976, pp. 6-7).

Curriculum is significant because it is a powerful avenue through which concepts and ideas about racial equality, cultural diversity, and the history of inequities can be presented to students. It is where students are taught (or can be taught) the fundamentals of democracy, how to analyze social inequity, and how to conduct social action (Grant,

2008, pg. 890). Our children are more than capable of learning and excelling; our teachers need to re-acquaint themselves with the population they serve, and the must be open to new strategies and techniques that have proven effective with African American students (Kunjufu, 2009, p. 5).

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

The curriculum field came into existence when the modern techniques of control,

measurement, and planning were popular in political science, sociology, and natural

sciences (Smith, as cited in Null, 2008, p. 479). Three significant curriculum theory

writings in the 20th century helped define its history: Bobbit’s (1924) How to Make a

Curriculum, which discusses the need for educational institutions to be in tune with the needs of society; Tyler’s (1949) Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, which argues curriculum development is about helping schools to achieve whatever ends they have in mind; Smith, Stanley, and Shore’s (1959) Fundamentals of Curriculum

Development, argues curriculum development means cultural change, where schools and curriculum workers are supposed to guide the cultural evolution that takes place in society; and Taba’s (1962) Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, urges curriculum development to provide concrete guidance that helped curriculum development to attack the problems that surrounded them (Null, 2008, pp. 478-482).

Curriculum design is an exercise in designing change and characterized by expansion. Progressive and social justice education gave way to three dominant learning perspectives: Traditional, who believed schooling provides awareness and insight into the paradigmatic structure of the disciplines of knowledge; behaviorists, who believed schools would mass produce contributors to “successful living;” and experientialists, who perceive schools allow students to resolve problems that inhibited meaning and direction in their lives (Schubert, 1982, p. 221). Curriculum theory is nothing new, as the study

began in the late 19th century. In 1893, Col. Francis Weyland Parker established the

Committees of Ten and Fifteen, in order to revise high school and elementary school curriculum, respectively. Parker believed the “ultimate purpose of education was to develop the character of the individual” (Button, 1965, p. 253). Seven decades later,

Paulo Freire and James Herndon criticized schools for their “lack of focus on personal and public education” (Schubert, 1982, p. 224). Reconceptualists, such as William Pinar, saw problems of schooling as a microcosm of educational problems in our society. He writes, “deciding how to proceed in our everyday engagement with students and ideas is not a self-evident matter; it cannot be reduced to protocol or social engineering” (Pinar,

1999, p. 365).

The methodology is a sampling of culturally congruent lesson plans, which are designed to provide teachers with ideas that should be adapted to the unique needs and objectives an each student; and adapted to the individual teaching styles of each teacher.

The curriculum’s primary goals are twofold: To facilitate a critical reconstruction that would restore missing and hidden parts of African American people's culture and history and present the Black experience as a significant paradigm for human liberation and a higher level of human life (Grant, 2008, p. 892); and to make explicit the impact of personal perceptions and beliefs within a broader context of political and historical- cultural influences (Broadhead, 2002, p. 47). The challenge was to create curriculum that provided a sense of identity for the students and encouraged increased classroom participation. Training and exposure to content should be a prerequisite for revising and teaching this curriculum (Amuleru-Marshall, 1990, p. 3). The project will consist of the

46 development of instructional strategy and lesson plans to serve the academic needs of the students.

The project objectives are:

1. To identify content from African and African American Studies, which could

be developed into a culture-centered history curriculum for grades 7-12.

2. To acquire, adapt and/or develop materials appropriate for utilization in the

implementation into the culture-centered history curriculum.

3. To provide a framework so that the purpose and content of multicultural active

ties give meaning to the participants, students, parents, and can be implemented in

an effective, organized matter.

4. To teach students about the African and African American experience and con-

tributions from both a contemporary and historical perspective.

5. To promote both parent and community involvement in school.

Various grade appropriate trade books were examined that included that were authentically written from those in the field; that exemplified courage and overcoming obstacles to reach their ultimate goals; and to celebrate African American achievement in a pluralistic versus ethnic context. Lesson plans were developed using selected trade books, teacher-prepared materials, periodicals, reference books, and information gleaned from graduate studies classes, seminars and conferences. This study unit was designed as

47 both an enhancement to an existing multicultural social studies curriculum, or to implement as an initial multicultural curriculum.

APPENDIX

Sample Lesson Plans

African American Scientists and Inventors (Source: Kessler, G. and Judson, J. (2007), African American Scientists and Inventors, Black History Bulletin, 70(1), pp. 7-11.)

Lesson Plan Goals/Objectives: • To understand the contributions of African American scientists • Identify one scientist; gather and organize information about the individual using technology and print resources. • Use the information you obtain to write a report from the point of view of your scientist • Creatively present your findings to the class (speech, picture, etc.)

Activity

• Class researchers list of scientists provided by “African American Scientists” handout • Each student pair identifies one person from the list to learn more about. • Students use various print/online resources to learn more about: that person’s life, inventions, and accomplishments. Students use “Research Log” handout to facilitate this process. Students should learn: o Personal information that would be appropriate to use in the research paper about this scientist. o Historical information about the place and time this person lived and worked. Gather facts about the field of science in which this person succeeded for a round-table discussion. • Divide the students into groups. o One group goes to the library; the other group uses a computer lab. Switch halfway through class. • Students write short paper from the viewpoint of the scientist that they have chosen, based on their research • Students should:

o Describe how the scientist might have felt and what he/she might have thought at the time of his/her discovery. o What did this person contribute to the world of science? o In what time period in history did this person live? How did the time and place effect his/her accomplishments? o Did race or ethnicity play a role in his/her success/failure?

• Students should identify how they are going to present and what materials are needed

• Students present the scientists they have chosen to the entire class.

Resources: (Note: This is just a sample of African American scientists and inventors.)

o Benjamin Banneker: invented the first striking clock to be made completely in the United States. He also studied astronomy ad made the calculations to predict solar and lunar eclipses, as well as assist in the surveying of what is now Washington, D.C. o Guion Bluford: Retired Colonel of the United States Air Force and first African American astronaut in space. He participated in four flights of Space Shuttle between 1983 and 1992. o George Washington Carver: African American botanist who developed 300 uses for the peanut and 118 uses for the sweet potato. He also taught former slaves about agriculture and how to grow crops in order to be self-sufficient. o Charles Drew: African American physician and medical researcher. Inventor of the blood bank (system to produce plasma separate from the blood matter) and first African American surgeon to serve as an examiner on the American Board of Surgery. o Lewis H Latimer: Invented an improved toilet system for railroad cars to prevent people from using windows. Drafted the drawings required to receive a patent for Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone. Invented a device to manufacture carbon filaments for electric lamps and supervised the installation of electric street lights in New York City, Philadelphia, Montreal, and London. Expert witness in the court battles over Thomas Edison’s patents. o Elijah McCoy: Invented an oiling device for industrial machinery and thus caused the creation of the term the “Real McCoy,” which means the “real thing.” Also obtained patents for a folding ironing board and a lawn sprinkler. o Ronald McNair: traveled to a space as a mission specialist in 1984. He was a member of the Challenger crew whose spacecraft exploded in 1986. o Garrett Augustus Morgan: invented the gas mask and the electric traffic light. o Dr. Daniel Hale Williams: surgeon who performed the first successful open heart surgery. o Mae C. Jemison: first female African American to become an astronaut and fly in space. o Madame C.J. Walker: first African American to become a millionaire from her invention of hair care products. o Annie Easley: Developed computer programs that save valuable energy. Worked for NASA and developed computer codes for determining solar, wind, and energy.

African American Scientists

Choose one of the following names to complete your web search

Questions Answers

1. I invented the gas mask and the electric traffic light. A. Benjamin Banneker

2. I invented an oiling device for industrial machinery. B. Guion Bluford

3. I was the first female African American to become an C. Geo. Washington Carver Astronaut and fly in space.

4. I was a member of the Challenger crew that exploded in D. Charles R. Drew 1986.

5. I invented the first striking clock to be made completely in E. Lewis H. Latimer

6. I was a famous surgeon. F. Elijah McCoy

7. I worked for Nasa and developed computer codes G. Ronald McNair

8. I served as an expert witness in the court battles over H. Garrett Augustus Morgan Thomas Edison’s patents

9. I was the first African American in space. I. Dr. Daniel Hale Williams

10. I learned 300 uses for the peanut. J. Mae C. Jemison

11. I developed a system to produce plasma separate from the K. Mme. C.J. Walker blood matter.

12. I was one of the first African American women to become L. Annie Easley A millionaire due to my invention.

http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/lessons/africansci/orga.html

Research Log African American Scientists

I. Use the following Web sites to help answer the questions on the Worksheet.

• Garrett Morgan: http://www.kytales.com/Nmogn/nmog.htm • Yahooligans: http://www.yahooligans.com/ • The Faces of Science: African Americans in the Sciences: http://www.lib.lsu.edu/lib/chem • Honoring African American Astronauts: http://observe.ivv.nasa.gov/nasa/exhibits/afam_astro/afam_astro.html#MPA

II. Choose one scientist or inventor to focus on.

My scientist:______

Websites that are relevant to my scientist: http:// http:// http:// http://

III. Take notes on important facts and information as you do your research. Things to consider as you for your research:

1. Look for personal information that would be appropriate to use in a creative journal entry from the point of view of the scientist. 2. Look for historical information about the place and time this person lived and worked. Gather facts about the field of science this person succeeded in. Keep in mind that you will be using this information to present your scientist to the class.

Tag-team History

Subject Area: Social Studies Grade Level 7-12 Time: Ongoing

Objectives

1. Students will identify names associated with historic events.

2. Students will recognize that often different sociocultural groups perceive and ex perience the same historic event or time period differently.

3. Students will compare and contrast perspectives of dominant and subordinate groups historically.

4. Students will collect research information from diverse sources.

5. Students will represent different perspectives and experiences using new media (including Adobe Photoshop and Premiere)

Procedure

1. Select a time period or event in history, such as the Revolutionary War, the Civil Rights Movement, or the Rodney King Riots. Have students examine and analyze various books, such as The African American Experience (Globe, 1992), Lies My Teacher Told Me (Loewen, 2007), A People’s History of the United States (Zinn, 1997), and AfricanAmericans: a Concise History (Hine, 2008).

2. Have students read the standard textbook account of the event, then allow students to brainstorm who may have viewed or experienced this event or time period differently from, as well as similarly to, the textbook account.

3. Have students form small groups, and have them find out as much as they can about the event and/or person(s) involved in the event. Students should also make note of any significant differences the various authors perceive in their writings.

4. The class will make a five-minute documentary using PhotoShop and Premiere Elements. Each group is responsible for a production using text information, and obtaining pictures, maps, etc.

5. Have students view the documentary, each noting any significant patterns, then record their observations in a journal that documents all historical events studied during the semester.

Resources

Harley, S., Middleton, S., & Stokes C. (Eds.)(1992). The African American experience. Paramus, NJ: Globe Fearon.

Hine, D., Harrold, S., & Hine, W. (2008). African Americans: A Concise History. New York: Prentice Hall.

Loewen, J.(2007). Lies My Teacher Told Me. New York: Touchstone Books.

Zinn, H.(1997). A People’s History of the United States. New York: The New Press.

Oral History Project – (grades 7-12)

Oral history is a technique used by historians to record events witnessed and remembered by people who experienced them. There are people living in almost every community who have seen or participated in historical and social action events. After a discussion of who these people are and how they might be located, the students will decide whom they wish to interview. Everyone has a story, and preserving that story is important. In Africa, the storyteller (called a “griot” – pronounced GREE-yo) was revered as the tribal historian who knew all the information about the families and their generations.

Objectives:

To introduce the art of interviewing To generate a list of questions to ask during an interview To learn how to storyboard To learn Adobe Photoshop basics To learn to edit using Adobe Premiere

Materials: Paper, Pencils, Digital Recorder, Storyboard Form, Unsung Heroes Living History Project manual

Oral History Assignment (Grades 4-6)

Objectives: To introduce the art of interviewing To get a list of questions to ask during an interview

Materials: Paper, Pencils, Digital Recorder

Procedure: 1. Discuss with the class the idea of interviewing. 2. Talk about the different types of interviews, such as interviewing for information on a topic vs. interviewing for information about that person. 3. Talk about possible questions that could be asked during an interview. 4. Have students come up with possible interview questions. 5. Discuss what is appropriate and what is not, as well as what kinds of information they should be looking for in the interview process. 6. Give class time to come up with questions. 7. Divide class into groups of 2-3. 8. Have each group combine lists of questions and discuss again what is appropriate and what is not. 9. Discuss with class what order questions should go in order for the interview to flow from one thing to the next. 10. Each group should list questions in the way that they would like to ask them during an interview. 11. Have each group share their list of questions and get ideas and suggestions from other groups. 12. Each student should have a list of questions from their group. Shuffle groups and have students interview each other using their questions to make sure that they flow. 13. Once students have interviewed one another, have students reorganize questions as needed and discuss what worked and did not work in their list of questions.

Assessment: Each child will come up with a list of questions to ask the person to be interviewed. Each child will have practiced interviewing another person.

(Source: Audrey Pruitt, www.lessonplans.com)

Civil Rights Movement – Movie Analysis (Grades 11-12)

Both the 1994 film and Kirk Mitchell’s book, Mississippi Burning, present several dominant-group perspectives on the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s that are notable. African Americans were the primary architects of the Civil Rights Movement and led the first demonstrations and sit-ins. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was a frequent target of FBI head J. Edgar Hoover (Garrow, 1986). However, Mississippi Burning presents African Americans as shadowy figures and victims and two FBI agents as the “real heroes” and defenders of African American rights in the Civil Rights Movement. Your assignment is to write a movie analysis, following the guidelines below:

GUIDELINES FOR MOVIE ANALYSIS

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS Provide the information and follow the outline provided below in preparing your movie analysis. Papers should be typed and double-spaced and approximately 10 pages in length. Your analysis should include references to reviews of the movie. Review the chapter or chapters in your textbook that deal with the subject of the movie. References in your analysis based upon movie reviews or your textbook should be footnoted in the text of your paper. Provide a list of movie reviews read at the end of your paper and include the title of the review, author, date published, and source.

PART 1 Provide the title of the movie, the Director of the movie, and the year it was produced. Include any other background material about the movie. For example, was the movie based upon an actual event, a book, etc.

PART 2 Summarize the story or events presented in the movie.

PART 3 What aspects or features of the Civil Rights Movement are presented in the movie? What is the thesis or primary argument presented in the movie?

PART 4 Read the textbook chapter or chapters related to the movie. What major points discussed in the textbook are illustrated in the movie? How does the movie treat the issues discussed in the textbook? In what ways are the textbook and movie treatments similar or different?

PART 5 How persuasive is the movie? Is it misleading or does it help viewers better understand the political topic addressed in the movie? Defend your position with examples from the movie or class textbook. Consult outside sources such as reviews by movie critics. Be

58 sure to cite the sources in your paper and list them at the end of your paper.

Resources

Mitchell, K. (1989). Mississippi Burning. New York: Signet.

Parker, A. (1988). Mississippi Burning. United States: Orion

African American Jockeys

The African American Horsemen...Their physical endurance and riding style became legendary and helped to launch thoroughbred Horse racing into becoming the most prestigious sporting event in the history of the United States. As early as 1665, slaves were usually assigned to be jockeys; some slaves gained fame and freedom by riding. The Virginia-North Carolina border became known as the “Race Horse Region,” where most of the black jockeys lived.

In the 1700s, Austin Curtis became so popular that he was considered to be America’s first professional athlete. He turned his owner’s (Willie Jones) Roanoke, Virginia stable into the most profitable racing power in the American colonies. Jockeying was an opportunity for African Americans to seek a paid career; that is, until they grew too big to ride or were unemployed.

In 1889, 18-year-old George “Spider” Anderson became the jockey of Buddhist at Pimlico Racetrack in the Preakness. Before he could ride, he appeared in front of a judge at a makeshift courtroom. Anderson was charged with assaulting a coachman before the race. He eventually was allowed to ride, and became the first African American to win the Preakness.

Oliver Lewis was one of thirteen African-American jockeys in the first Kentucky Derby, which was held in 1875. African-American jockeys won fifteen of the first twenty-eight Derbys. Lewis and his horse, Aristedes, won the first ever Kentucky Derby. From 1875- 1902, African American jockeys won 15 of 28 Derbys. Isaac Murphy became the first jockey ever to win back-to-back Derbys (1890-91).

In 1919, Jimmy Winkfield, known as the “Black Maestro,” left Kentucky and headed to Russia, where he was entrusted with saving more than 250 thoroughbreds that were victim to gunfire and starvation. It was only 18 years before that Winkfield was the first jockey to win back-to-back Kentucky Derbies (1901, 1902). He headed to Paris, where he continued to ride and train, and in 1941, Winkfield returned to America as a “second- class” citizen.

Racing Vocabulary Colt – Male horse that is no more than four yeas old. Derby – A stakes race for three-year-old horses. Foal – Newborn horse not more than one year old. Filly – Female horse that is no more than four years old. Jockey – Person who rides the horse during a race. Mare – A female horse at least five years old. Oaks – A stakes race for three-year-old fillies. Paddock – Area where horses are saddled and paraded before a race. Pace – In horse racing, the word pace can mean either the speed a horse is running (a fast pace or a slow pace). But when someone says a jockey is a good judge of pace, it means the jockey is good at making decisions about when the horse should run fast or slow. Purse – The total amount of prize money distributed to race winners (usually the top four or five positions). Silks – The colorful jacket and matching cap worn by jockeys during races. Because each design is owned by a particular horse farm, you can tell who owns the horse by looking at the silks. Stakes race – A race in which owners must pay a fee to enter their horses. The Birthday of Thoroughbreds – January 1. (Many important horse races are open only to two-year-old horses or three-year-olds. To make it easy to calculate birth dates, every Thoroughbred is assigned January 1 as an official birthday. So, all foals born in March or April of 2007 will share an official birth date of January 1, 2007. All will officially become three years old on January 1, 2010, and can compete that year in the Kentucky Derby.) Trainer – A person who teaches and prepares horses and jockeys for racing. Triple Crown – An award and cash prize given if a horse can win three major races in the spring–Kentucky Derby (at Churchill Downs), Preakness (Pimlico track in Baltimore, Md.), and Belmont (Belmont Park in Long Island, N.Y.). Yearling – A horse in the second year of its life, beginning January 1 after its birth

What does it take to be a Thoroughbred? To be eligible to race in the Kentucky Derby and other big races such as the Breeders Cup and the Kentucky Oaks, a horse must be a pure Thoroughbred. All these horses are registered with an organization known as the Jockey Club. So what does it take to be registered as a Thoroughbred?

1. Great ancestors To be a Thoroughbred, a horse must be descended from one of three Arabian stallions that lived hundreds of years ago. These three horses had tremendous speed and great beauty, so they became the sires (male ancestors) of the entire Thoroughbred breed. They were known as the Godolphin Arabian, Byerley’s Turk, and the Darley. Marguerite Henry’s book, King of the Wind, which won the 1949 Newbery Medal, is compelling historical fiction based on the GodolphinArabian. For a contemporary, factual explanation of the three stallions, visit the website of the International Museum of the Horse (http://www.kyhorsepark.com/imh/bw/tbred.html).

2. Great height Even when they are standing still, Thoroughbreds look impressive because they are quite tall. The average height is listed as “sixteen hands.” What does that mean? The unit of measurement for horses and ponies is known as a “hand,” which is equal to about four inches (the width of a man’s hand). In contrast to the average Thoroughbred, the average Shetland pony stands about nine hands.

3. Great speed Thoroughbred horses are some of the fastest animals on earth. They can run more than a mile in less than two minutes. The fastest humans take nearly twice as long to run a mile.

Recognizing a Thoroughbred: Not a coat of many colors Although other breeds of horses come in a wide variety of colors, Thoroughbreds must be registered in one of six categories of color: bay, chestnut, dark bay/brown, roan/gray, black, and white. The most common colors are bay, chestnut, and dark bay/brown. The most rare colors are black and white. To those of us who don’t see the horses up close, it may be hard to tell the difference between a chestnut and a bay, but here is how experts define these colors.

Bay: a yellow-tan or bright auburn coat with black mane, tail, and lower legs. One famous example of a bay: Cigar, the 2005 Horse of the Year.

Chestnut: entire coat is red-yellow or golden-yellow. Most famous chestnut: Secretariat, nicknamed Big Red, winner of the Triple Crown in 1973 (Kentucky Derby, Preakness, and Belmont Stakes).

Dark bay/Brown: Entire coat is brown with possible areas of tan on the shoulders, head, and flanks; mane, tail, and lower legs are black. A famous dark bay: Bold Ruler, a 1957 Derby contender. Roan or gray: Up close, the coat may be a mixture of black and white hairs (“gray horse”) or red and white hairs or brown and white hairs (roan). Example: Winning Colors, 1988 Kentucky Derby winner.

Black: The entire coat of the horse is black, unless some white markings are present. Example: Black Gold, 1924 Kentucky Derby winner.

White: The entire coat is made of white hairs. Only fourteen white Thoroughbreds are registered in the entire United States. The first one was a filly, foaled in 1963 and named White Beauty.

What’s in a name? At the time a Thoroughbred is registered with the Jockey Club, the owner also registers an official name. Owners can be very creative, choosing names that are dramatic, funny, historic, or personal. However, there are a few rules to follow: • There can be no more than 18 letters, spaces, or punctuation marks. • You need special permission to use the name of a famous person. • You cannot re-use the name of a famous horse. • You cannot use curse words or words with a bad meaning. Here are some names of past Derby winners. Man O’ War. Smarty Jones. Spend A Buck. Sunny’s Halo. Genuine Risk. Tim Tam. Apollo. Azra.

Love those Silks! On race day, every jockey wears white pants, black boots, and a brightly colored jockey with a matching cap. The jacket and cap are known as racing silks, and the color and design tells you who owns the horse. Owners choose and design their silks, then register them with the JockeyClub. At the time Isaac Murphy was riding, racing silks tended to have a simple look – solid colors with a few strips or other small decorations. Today, silks come in every imaginable color and may feature designs inspired by polka dots, diamonds, zigzags, and other shapes.

Facts about Isaac Murphy • 1861 - Born near Lexington, Ky., perhaps on Jan. 1, “the birthday of Thoroughbreds.” Sometime after 1863, his father dies in the Civil War. • 1873 – While helping his mother with her laundry business, Isaac is noticed by a horse owner and becomes an apprentice jockey. • 1874 – Gets first win, on a filly named Glentina. • 1877 – Beats veteran jockeys at Saratoga and begins to ride for bigger stables. • 1879 – Finishes in the money at Kentucky Derby (second on Falsetto). In Detroit on the Fourth of July, wins all four races he enters. • 1882 – Marries Lucy Osborn of Frankfort.

• 1884 – Earns first Kentucky Derby victory (on Buchanan). Also wins Kentucky Oaks and Clark Stakes. (This still stands as a record: Isaac is the only jockey to win three major stakes races in a single week.) Wins Latonia Derby, Illinois Derby, and American Derby. • 1889 – Mentioned in Kentucky newspapers for his great wealth and lavish parties. • 1890 – Wins Kentucky Derby on Riley. Wins the much-publicized Salvator-Tenny match race at Coney Island before 40,000 fans. • 1891 – Sets a record by winning a third Kentucky Derby (on Kingman). • 1892-95 Struggles to maintain low weight required for riding. Rapid weight-loss methods damage his health. Acquires horses and tries his hand at training. • 1895 – Wins on a horse named Tupto in the last race of his career. Career winning percentage is 44 percent, a record never equaled. • 1896 – Dies in Lexington, Ky., and receives a hero's funeral. Grave later is left untended and eventually considered “lost.” • 1961 – Turf writer Frank Borries, Jr., fulfills a mission to locate Isaac Murphy’s grave. • 1967 – Grave is moved to an honorary location in Kentucky Horse Park. • 1977 – Arlington Park in Illinois names a race for Isaac Murphy. • 1995 – Gulfstream Park in Florida names a race for Isaac. Patsi Trollinger sees a news clipping about this race and begins research for a children’s book about Isaac. The book is published in 2006.

Hands-On Activities for Students

Broom Derby Many primary schools in Kentucky have an annual Broom Derby in the week before the Kentucky Derby is run each year. Each student takes a broom and converts it into a stick horse by adding ears and a mane. Groups of students run races with their stick brooms on the playground.

Design your own silks Invite students to design and color the racing silks they would use if they owned a horse farm. You can use a reproducible page from this kit that shows the outline of a jacket and cap, or allow the students to draw their own outlines.

Name that Thoroughbred Using the information available in this kit, let students choose their own imaginary Thoroughbred and name it. They can decide on a color for their racehorse, based on the six basic colors allowed in the registry. Their name should follow the rules of the Jockey Club. Allow any interested student to draw and color their horse. (If your students are art- challenged, like me, they may find it very difficult and frustrating to attempt this art project. Horses are hard to draw, and many crayon sets don’t have the colors needed to represent the details of a Thoroughbred!)

Writing prompts connected to Perfect Timing • Write a brief paragraph explaining why you think Isaac agreed to try riding a Thoroughbred. • Imagine that you are Isaac in his first race. Write about the race from beginning to end. Be sure to include details of things that happen. • Pretend that you are a reporter assigned to write a brief news story about the race between Salvator and Tenny. Think about what facts you will want to include and how your story might have a beginning, middle, and ending. Write the story. • Many of Isaac Murphy’s best friends were other jockeys who raced in places all over the world. Imagine that you are Isaac and write a letter to a friend in Russia describing the race on Salvator.

Questions for discussion These questions may be especially useful after an author’s visit or book talk featuring Perfect Timing.

What are some of the reasons that the boy named Isaac walked around Lexington carrying a basket to collect laundry? • Family circumstances: He and his mother needed to earn money. • Inventions: At that time, there were no automobiles, no electricity, and no washing machines.

Isaac attended jockey school. How was it different from your school? • The jockey school was inside a barn (different sights, sounds, and smells). • Everyone in Isaac’s school had to do chores and work hard.

Why was it so hard for Isaac to learn about pace? • He had to remember lots of information about different horses. • He had to figure out how to do several things at once: stay in the saddle on a galloping horse and keep control of the reins, count seconds in his head, and remember when to go fast or slow.

Isaac didn’t win his first race. What do you think are some of the reasons? • He was scared or nervous. • The horse was nervous. • The noise and excitement made it hard to think.

What are some of the reasons that Isaac thought the little horse named Tenny might be able to beat the big horse named Salvator? • Tenny could run very fast. • The jockey who rode Tenny was very good.

• In a race, you can never be sure which horse will win. Things can happen that are surprising.

Why did Isaac die as a young man? • He used crash diets to control his weight, and eventually that made him sick.