CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Cornell University Library NA1502.H38 The ancient and medieval architecture of 3 1924 011 010 109 .,«,.... M Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924011010109 THE ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA: A STUDY OF INDO-ARYAN CIVILISATION THE ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE OF INDIA: A STUDY OF INDO-ARYAN CIVILISATION BY E. B. HAVELL AUTHOR OF 'INDIAN SCULPTURE AND PAINTING," "THE IDEALS OF INDIAN ART' ' ' lEfDIAN ARCHITECTURE : ITS PSYCHOLOGY, STRUCTURE, AND HISTORY ETC. WITH 176 ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAP LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W. 1915 .o All Rights Reserved a<S.PS3 ^ TO ABANINDRO NATH TAGORE WITH HIS guru's greetings : PREFACE All but the last three chapters of this book were written before the fateful days of August which saw Great Britain once more engaged in fighting for the liberties of Europe against a hateful military despotism. The splendid demonstration of Indian loyalty which the war has called forth should not blind the British nation to the fact that the work of building up our Empire in the East, so far from being finished, will inevitably grow more difificult year by year and demand more watchful care from British statesmen. It will certainly be impossible for Great Britain to continue to refuse India privileges which our ally, Russia, is willing to grant to her Asiatic subjects; and the problem of reconciling Indian aspirations with the vital interests of the Empire can only be solved satisfactorily by avoiding the dangers into which we have drifted with regard to the government of Ireland. The root of the Irish difficulties has lain in ignorance of Irish sentiment and Irish history. Similar causes will sooner or later produce similar effects on a far larger scale in India. It is therefore that I believe myself to be fulfilling a patriotic duty in endeavouring to remove the misconceptions of Indian civilisation which have so largely governed Anglo-Indian policy. It is good to remind ourselves how history is repeating itself—that our Indian comrades-in-arms are of the same stock as those who fifteen hundred years ago were fighting on Indian soil the same battles for liberty and for Aryan civilisation against those who, like the modern Huns, knew no right but might, as we are fighting together in Europe to-day. It is good for us to know that Indian civilisation is a branch of the same tree which we are proud to call our own. And this very feeling of comradeship makes it imperative for us to try to under- stand the political and social ideals which India herself has cherished for so many centuries, rather than impose upon her those which we, from our Western experience, judge to be best for her. Great Britain could grant India no greater boon than the restoration or reconstruction of her ancient Aryan constitution. None would accord better with Indian popular sentiment or do more to strengthen the ties of Imperial unity. " The present volume is supplementary to my Indian Architecture its Psychology, Structure, and History," which dealt with the Muhammadan and British periods, but it has a wider scope as a study of the political, VIU PREFACE as revealed social, religious, and artistic aspects of Indo-Aryan civilisation, chronological in the ancient and medieval monuments of India. Far the data furnished by and statistical framework of it I have mostly used the such well-known authorities as Professor T. W. Rhys Davids' " Buddhist " Dr. Barnett's India," Mr. Vincent Smith's Early History of India," and "Antiquities of India." The interpretation of Indian history and mytho- logy through the reading of the symbolism of Indian art is my own, and my authorities the architecture, sculpture, and painting here illustrated. error the same If my reading is wrong, my critics will convict me of from sources. The reasons for rejecting entirely Fergusson's classifications of styles and some of the chronological estimates which have hitherto been adopted for by all archaeologists are stated in the text. Owing to the fact that the last fifty years archaeological research in India has been conducted entirely on the lines laid down by Fergusson, it has been sometimes difficult for me, not having had the opportunities of collecting material for myself which officers of the Archaeological Survey of India enjoy, to give a sufficiently clear demonstration of various statements. The position of unquestioned authority which Fergusson's works have hitherto obtained has unfortunately had the effect of preventing the collection and publication of much material which would demonstrate the fallacies of his I the least doubt that deal more will be forth- theories ; but have not a great coming when the clues I have given are carefully followed up. In the meantime I must content myself with making the most of the material at my disposal. At some future time I hope to be able to deal with the subject more effectively in every respect. I have to acknowledge the valuable assistance rendered me by the Secretary of State for India in granting me permission to use illustrations from official publications. In etymological questions Professor T. W. Rhys Davids and Mr. F. W. Thomas have freely given me the aid of their accomplished scholarship. Dr. J. H. Marshall, CLE. (Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India), Mr. Abanindro Nath Tagore, C.I.E., Mr. Nanda Lai Bose, M. Victor Goloubeff and the Editor of L'Art Decoratif, Paris, have helped me much with the illustrations. I am indebted to Mr. Ratan Tata for placing at my disposal reports on the excavations now in progress on the site of Pataliputra, and to Mr. Murray for allowing me the use of blocks from Fergusson's works. Messrs. Johnston & Hoff- mann, Calcutta, have permitted me to reproduce one of their copyright negatives, and I have to thank Mr. J. Marshall for some useful references. E. B. H. — CONTENTS PAGES Preface vii-viii Introduction xxi-xxxv CHAPTER I The Mauryan Dynasty and the Foundations of Indian Civilisation— Indian Village and Town Planning 1-18 CHAPTER II Building Bye-laws—Village Dwellings—The Assembly-hall—The Ad- ministration of Villages and Towns— Constitutional Government in Ancient India—Village Walls and Gateways .... 19-32 CHAPTER III Fergusson's Classifications of Style— Divine Worship in Ancient India The Village Shrine in Asoka's Time—The Inspiration of Indo-Aryan Art 33-45 CHAPTER IV The Stflpa and its Symbolism ........ 46-54 CHAPTER V Symbolism : The Lotus-leaf Arch, or Sun-window—Pillars, Capitals, and Bases—The Vishnu Standard and Pillar—The Holy Mount—The Symbol of Death SS-64 CHAPTER VI The Chaitya-griha, or Buddhist Chapter-house— The raison d'etre of Rock-cut Temples and Monasteries—The Yikx\t Rock-cut Chaitya- house—The Birth of Gothic Art in Europe .... 65-77 — X CONTENTS CHAPTER VII The Vihara or Monastery—The Gautami-putra Monastery, Nasik—Monas- . 78-9' tery at Bedsa—Models of Monasteries at Mamallapuram . CHAPTER VIII Vishnu and Siva Shrines—The Allegory of the Dawn-maiden—The Brahma Shrine — Orientation of Indian Temples . 92-109 CHAPTER IX The Evolution of Indian Fine Art and its Influence on Temple Building The Gandharan School—The Philosophy of Indian Temple Building —Indian Arches—The Temple of Martand .... 1 10-124 CHAPTER X The Gupta Empire—Vikramaditya's Statecraft— Indian Colonisation Chinese Accounts of India in the Fifth and Seventh Centuries Harsha of Thanesar and his Government—The Feast of the Indian Trinity at PrayAga 125-139 CHAPTER XI Ancient Indian Universities—The University of Ajanta —Vishnu's Last Avatar 140-155 CHAPTER XII The Great Temple of Elephanta—The Trimiirti .... 156-165 CHAPTER XIII The Dynasties of Southern India—Aryan Civilisation in the South—The Five Great Assemblies— Local Self-government in the Tenth Century —Siva Temples at JB^dami—Temples at Pattadakal—The ViriipSksha Temple—The Evolution of Temple Planning .... 166-185 CONTENTS xi CHAPTER XIV PAGES The Tirth of Ellora—The Visvakarma Chaitya-house—The Dumar Lena Temple—The Ramesvara Temple—The Kail^sa Temple^—The Indra Sabha and Jagannath Sabha . 186-202 CHAPTER XV The Hindu Decadence in the North of India—The Temples of Khajuraho — The Domes of Mandapams — Sankaracharya and his Mission — Southern Indian Architecture in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries 203-216 CHAPTER XVI The Muhammadan Invasions and After ...... 217-223 Index 225-230 LIST OF PLATES Abbreviations.— I. O., India Office. A.S.I., Archseological Survey of India. The Kailasa Temple, Ellora : South Side ..... Frontispiece {From a Photograph by lifessrs. Johnston isf Hoffmann, Calcutta) PLATE I'ACING PAGE I. Indian Cottages, circa 250 b.c. {from the Bharhut reliefs) . .18 {I.O. List of Photographs) II. Modern Bengali Cottages and Roofs 20 III. Ancient and Modern Houses in Rajputana 22 IV. Stone and Wooden Pavilions in Ancient India 24 V. Northern Gateway of the SanchI StiJpa 26 [I.O. List of Photographs) VI. Town Gateway in Ancient India {from the Ainaravati Sculptures) . 28 (LO. List of Photographs) VII. Fortress Walls and Gates 30 VIII. Ancient and Modern Temple Gateways 32 IX. Village Shrines in Ancient India 38 X. A StOpa [Jrom the Ainaravati Sculptures) 48 (/.O. List of Photographs) XI. The Symbols of the Four Gates 5° XII. Vishnu Pillars and Standards (Dhwaja-Stambhas) . .56 ,\iii XIV LIST OF PLATES PLATE FACING PAGE XIII. The Sacred Lotus and the Water-lily . 60 XIV. Temple at Aihole {circa a.b. 600) . 64 (/.O. List of Photographs) XV.