E816 January 2003

RURAL WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION FUND DEVELOPMENT BOARD Public Disclosure Authorized

ENVIRONMENT ASSESSMENT FOR RURAL WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECT II (RWSSP -II) Public Disclosure Authorized

FINAL REPORT Public Disclosure Authorized

NAWA RAJ KHATIWADA (Principal Investigator)

486 Shantinagar Marg Naya Baneshwor Kathmandu Public Disclosure Authorized JANUARY 2003 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The P'rincipal Investigator wotuld like to express his gratitude to the Rural Water Supply ancd Sanitation Fuind Development Board (The Fuind Board) for providing an opportunity to carry otut Environmnent Assessment of 'Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project II'.

The co-operation and support extended by Mr. Raj Babu Shrestha, Executive Director; Mr. Kishor Kumar Bihib, Deptuty Director, Mr. Mano.j Kumar Pokharel, Chief of the Administrationi, Mr. Dibya Klhadgi, Chief of the Teclhnical Division, Mr. Manoj Kumar Lal, Water Supply and Sanitation Engineer, Mr. Suvash Acharya and Mr. H-liral Gautam from the HRD section, Mr. Harish Clhandra Netupane and all other staff of the FuLnd Board are highly appreciated and thaniks are due to all of them.

Similarly, tlhanks are also due to Mr. Christoplhe Bosch, Water and Sanitation Economist of the World Bank who kindly provided a major suppot and help in concepttualization of the stuLdy, preparation and finalization of the study.

Thle Principal Investigator would also like to highly appreciate the comments and valuable suggestions provided by tlle Steering Committee members : Dr. Ram Bahadur Khadka, Dean of the School of Environmenital Management and Sustainable Development, Mr. Damodar P. Bhatta, Officer of Ministry of Population and Environment, Mr. Rajan lPande, Senior Engineer from Department of Water Supply and Sewerage.

It gives the stuLdy team a great pleasure to recall the kind co-operation and help provided by the following individuals dtui-ing the field visit: Mr. Khem Raj Sapkota - Section Officer of Nepal Red Cross Society Kaski District (NRCS-KAS); Mr. Tanka Raj Dhakal of Gaidakot Yuba Cltub (GYC); Mr. Piush Shrestha of Vijaya Development Resource Center (VDRC); Mr. Dipesh Kumar Clhoudhary, Mr. Gobardhan ChouLdhari, Mr. Govinda Prasad Choudhari of Shree Bhawaini Yuba Club (SBYCB) and Devi Prasad Bhandari of Center for Community Development Services (CCDSB).

Finally, the co-operationi, active participation and valuLable suggestions rendered to this stLdy by the memiibers of the users committees duLring the field visit are also highly appreciated and acknowledged.

Januiiary 28, 2003 Nawa Raj Khatiwada, Dr. Eng. Shantinagar, Kathmadtu ( Principal Investigator ) TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

T ITAL PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF FIGURES v LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY viii

I INTRODUCTION 1.1 General 1 1.2 Justification of the study I 1.3 Objectives of the environmental study 2 1.4 Methodology and activities 3 1 .5 Organisation and members of the study team 3

11 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED PROJECT 2.1 Introduction 4 2.2 Project objectives 6 2.3 Project components 6 2.4 Project policy parameters 7 2.5 Project area 8 2.6 Anticipated benefits 8 2.7 Project cost 9 2.8 Environmental attributes of RWSSP 1 9 2.9 Water quality assessment of RWSSP I Schemes 11 2.10 Environmental aspects of RWSSP I: lessons learned and issues of major concern 14 2.11 Groundwater issues 15

Ill BASE LINE ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS 3.1 General 17 3.2 Topography 17 3.3 Climate 18 3.4 Soils 18 3.5 Land use 19 3.6 Socio-economy 21 3.7 State of the environment 22 3.8 Status of water supply and sanitation 25 3.9 State of the forest, agriculture and biodiversity 30 3.10 State of water borne diseases 31

IV GUIDING POLICIES, REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS 4.1 World Bank's EA requirements 32 4.2 National EA requirements 33 4.3 National legislation on water resources management 36 4.4 Other relevant legislations 37 4.5 Staindards 39 4.() Policies 40 4.7 Inter-inational obligations 43 4.8 Existing environmental code of practice of other agencies 43

V IMPACT IDENTIFICATION AND MITIGATION MEASURES 5.1 IntroduLction 45 5.2 Impacts caulsed by the proposed project 45 5.3 Impacts caused onl the services provided by the proposed projects 46 5.4 Analysis of the environmenital impacts 46 5.5 Water quantity related impacts 46 5.6 Water quality related impacts 47 5.7 Enviionimental sanitation related impacts 48 5.8 Impacts related to the tradition and culture 49 5.9 Impacts related to planninlg and construction phase 50 5.10 Other impacts 50 5.11 Cumulative environmental impact 50

VI ALTERNATIVE ANALYSIS 6.1 Introduction 59 6.2 No project 59 6.3 Project witlhout considerinlg the environ-mental elements 60 6.4 Project addressing the enivironimental issues and incorporating the mitigation measures 60 6.5 Alternative for project components 61

VIl MITIGATION PLAN AND MONITORING 7.1 Environmental management plan 62 7.2 Environimental performance indicators 63 7.3 Modifications and additions suLggested to the existing RWSSFDB Formats 73 7.4 Tentative cost estimates 74

REFERENCES 76

APPENDIX A: Field visit report APPENDIX B: Questionnaire suirvey APPENDIX C : WHO water quality guidelinle APPENDIX D: Questionnaire formats APPENDIX E: Updated RWSSFDB Formats APPENDIX F: SuLmmary of response to the feedback provided

- iv - LIST OF FIGURES

Figuire Title Page

2.1 Coverage of RWSSP I 5 2.2 The project cycle under RWSSP I 8 2.3 Mapping of arsenic contamination in Nepal 13 3.1 Land cover / Land use and protected areas 18 3.2 Under five mortality rate by place of residence 29 4.1 Environmental assessment process in Nepal 34 6.1 (a) Development with projects not incorporating the environmental issues (b) Development with projects which address the environmental issues and incorporate mitigation measures 61 AP- I Intake collection chamber of Halede WSSSP A4 AP-2 Snail identified at the reservoir in Paudurkot WSSS A4 AP-3 Tapstand post and village pavement (Paudurkot WSSS) A5 AP-4 Traditional stone spout (Paudurkot WSSS) A5 AP-5 Tap stand post (Patichaur WSSS) A6 AP-6 Transmission main in the Begnas Lake (Simle Kusunde WSSS) A6 AP-7 A tapstand post of Taranagar WSSS A7 AP-8 Reservoirs under construction (Baikunthanagar / Saraswotinagar WSSSs) A7 AP-9 Tubewell in use (Shantanagar WSSS) A8 AP-10 Dugwell in Chiyabari WSSS A8 AP-] I Backyard of the house in Chiyabari WSSS A9 AP-12 Latrine and bathroom (Musaharnia WSSS) A9 AP-13 Intake of Kholaghari Mugu WSSS AIO AP-14 Tapstand post of Kholaghari Mugu WSSS AIO LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

2.1 Batchwise coverage of the projects under RWSSP I 6 2.2 Sanitary conditions around selected drinking water sources 9 2.3 Use of saved time in fetching water by the respondents 10 2.4 Changes in personal sanitation practices 10 2.5 Water quality data of surface and groundwater sources in Nepal 12 2.6 Arsenic concentration in different districts 13 3.1 Area, population and number of districts by geographic region 18 3.2 Elevation geology and soil characteristics by geographic region 19 3.3 Land use pattern 19 3.4 Distribution of households by selected water supply and sanitation indicators 27 3.5 Stattus of water supply and sanitation 1996 28 3.6 Housing characteristics by residence 28 3.7 Trends in the infant mortality rate in Nepal 28 3.8 Expected status by the end of ninth plan 29 3.9 Incidence of diarrhea by region 2055/2056 to 2057/2058 31 3.10 Top ten leading diseases by development region and ecological zones, FY 2057/2058 31 3.11 Top ten reasons for hospitalization 31 4.1 Policies related water and environment in some contemporary acts 39 4.2 Major socio-economic goals 41 5.1 Matrix of environmental impacts and mitigation measures 52 7.1 Summary of activities described by EMP 63 7.2 Environmental management plan 65 7.3 Environmental performance indicators 73 7.4 Tentative cost estimates 75 AP-1 Lists of schemes visited Al B-1 Distribution of respondents BI B-2 Summary of response from users B4

- vi - LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CBO - Community Based Organisation DDC - District development Committee DWSS - Department of Water Supply and Sewerage EA - Environment Assessment EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment EMP -- Environmental Management Plan EMAP - Environmental Management Action Plan EPA ---Environment Protection Act EPR - Environment Protection Rules FDB - FuLnd Development Board (Short form of RWSSFDB) IIMG - His Majesty's Government HiSE - Hygiene and Sanitation Education IDA - International Development Association IEE - Initial Environmental Examination JAKPAS - Janatako Khaniepani ra SarsaphaiKaryakram KAP - Knowledge Attitude and Practice LSGA - Local self Governance Act NWSC - Nepal Water Supply Corporation PM - Portfolio Manager RWSSP - Rural Water Stupply and Sanitation Project RWSSFDB - Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board SA - Service Agency SO - Support Organisation VDC - Village Development Committee WATSAN - Water Supply and Sanitation WRA - Water Resources Act WTSS - Women Technical Support Services WUC - Water User Committee WUG - Water User Group VHP - Village Health Promoters

vii - EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The concepf offlhe project (Rutral Water Supply andl Sanitation Phase II) is based on thle /-inciples tlhait (17)1)11priah' vater supply and sanitation technologies redutce the prevaili/ng traditionaleuvironmental risks in the rur-al commnunities anad contribtate to poverty reductioni (11n(1 social Capital 1n1obli-jltition The project is based on1the inztegrated aproach in wvhich einlp/hasis is given ons boti hara(lware components aindl softiware aspects. Th is st dv /1(5hs i(len4tfie(l a Jewt environmnental issutes r-elatedl to waiter supply andi(i saniitation schemnes undi(1er RWVSSI' 11, which nieedl to he inicorpor-ated in the scheme cycle in ordler to attaini tlhe en vironlli,nlat'al suistaimafhilit ofjtl/e project.

InltrOdIuICtiOnl

With the objectives of improving sector performance and delivering healtlh and hygienie benefits to rural population of Nepal, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project 11 (RWSSP 11) has beenl proposed by the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB). The project will receive financial assistance from International Development Association (IDA). RWSSP ll is planned to implement the rural water and sanitation activities in one hand, wlile on the other hand to empower the rural communities essential for the enlanicemiienit of socio-economy. The project aims at socio-economic development of deprived rural comnnLlities throughl the developmen-t of basic infrastructures. Social mobilization and organlizationi of the communLities is defined as the starting point in the project. Community participation at project planning, implementation and operation has been identified as thle pre- reqLuisite for the developmiienit of the sclhemes under RWSSP II. Targeting the poor and CenSlinillg the eqLuity and gender balance would be tlle basic principles of tllis project.

TIhle lproposecl project is witlhin the framework of the national policy on water supply antd sanitationi (WATI SAN) sector in Nepal. The proponent of the project, RWSSFDB or tlle Funld Board has been identified as a major stakeholder of the WATSAN sector in Nepal. The tentlh nationial plani (2002-2007) of Nepal has a target of improving the socio-economic indicators of- significanitly by providing water supply and sanitation facilities to 85% and 50% of the popultationl in Nepal. The proposed project RWSSP Tl is expected to have a significant contribution to aclieve this goal.

This study 'Environment Assessment of RWSSP II' is aimed at recommending measures for cnhiancing and sustaininig the positive environmental benefits of the project by identifying the both external and internal negative environmental impacts and by formulating the mitigation measLures and a plan to incorporate the measures in the scheme cycle.

The propose(d project

'Ilhc FuLnd Developmlenit Board was created by His Majesty's Government of Nepal on March 14, 1996 witlh the approval of formation by His Majesty's Government under the Developmenit Board Act, 1956. The Board is designed based on the experience of a field testing pilot project, acronymed 'JAKPAS' (the Nepali acronym of Janata Ko Khaniepani Ra Sarsafai Karvakram - meaning People's Water Supply and Sanitation Program). Encouraged by the optimlistic results of JAKPAS activity and with the support from IDA, the Board launched a five year (1996- 2001) project called Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project Plhase I (RWSSP I, Cr. 2912-NEP). The project had a goal of providing water supply and sanitationi services for 900 commnunities in four batches.

- viii - Total Population to be benefitecl from the four phased implementation is expectecd to he 550,000. 'l'he working principles of RWSSP I included: a demand lead participatory approach, increase community capacity to sustain the project, enhancement of the role of womeni in all aspects of the project, and integration of hygiene and sanitation education witlh techlnically, enivironmentally anid operationally sustainable water supply. This strategy anid the results Of the implementationi of RWSSP I obtained so far provided a good example in the sector of water supply and sanitation in Nepal towards the implementationi of the policy of (Iccentralized service delivery with greater involvemenit of private sector and NGOs. RWSSP I also illustrated the benefits and opportunities obtained tlhrouglh an altemative approach.

The concept and approach of RWSSP I is fouLnd to be sound and yielding successfuil results onl the gr-ouniid witlh inclications of stroing commtunity ownership and commitmenit wlhich paved a way for schclcme sustainiability. Witlh the tangible outptuts obtained and witlh an objective of providing the services to the remaining ruiral areas of Nepal, the Funld Board has propose(d a follow-on project of RWSSP 1, termed as Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Projcct 11 (RWSSP 11). The conceptual framework, institutional structure and the implementatioll ar-ranigemiienlt of RWSSP 11will be similar to RWSSP 1. However, the project will incorporate the lessonis learnied and more fLunctions are expected to be sub-contracted to qualified and comzpetenit private / NGO sectors in different regions.

IRWSSI1 11 has two major objectives: improving sector institutional performance and imiainsti-eamii this ("Board") approach in the Govemnment system and delivering sustainable health anid hygiene benefits to the rural population through improvements in water ancd sanitation faclcilities. The second objective is similar to that of RWSSP I and expected to be achieved by integr-ating healtlh and hygicene eduLcation, assisting women to idenitify ways to earn incomiie fromii time saved in cartying water and by strengthening government and n1on1- governmental capacities. RWSSP 11 is expected to be implemented on the unlcovered villages of the 49 dlistrlicts where RWSSP I has been focused and the remainiing 26 districts of the Kingdomii of Nepal. The proposed project is estimated to benefit some 700, 000 (in the rural, mllOlunltainS, hill and( the Terai) people in the Five development regions of Nepal.

Baseline environ mental status

Ihe topography of Nepal is comprisecl of Terai, Hills and Mountains. The Terai regioni conlstituLtes the most productive agricultural region of the country. The altitude of Terai ranges fiom 60 m to 300 n. The Chure range constitute the sotuthern hill region of Nepal with an altitude upto 2000 m. The altitude of the Mahabharat and the mid hills range from 600 to 3000 ni. The innler Himalayani Valleys sittuated at an elevation of about 4000 m is home to highllanld dwellers. The percentage distribtution of coverage and the population for mountains, hills and the Terai is 35.2, 41.7 anid 23.1 and 7.29, 44.28 and 48.43, respectively. Because of this topographical variation, the couintry exhibits the diversity not only in the natural resources and climatic conditions b1ut also the settlement pattern, socio-economy, tradition and culture. Consequently the water stupply and sanitation schemes located in the different regions demand specific consider-ationis for effective implementation and smooth functioning.

The type of the soil differs according to the geograplhic region. The soil in Terai and Churia regioni consists mainly of alluvial deposits derived from the erosion of sediments from the 1-limalays. This region is higlhly fertile and intensely cultivated. The Churia region comprises of nor-tlh dipping sedimentary rocks of tertiary age characterized by low elevation strike ridges. The Iid-hills consists mainly of low grade metamorphic and metasedimentary rocks suchi as

- ix - phyllite, quartzite, limestone and dolomite. The components of a rural water supply project normally come across the following land use types: forest and shrub area, crop land (Klhet and Bari ), barren land (Pakho Jarnin) and settlement area. Forest and shrub land are generally shallow and well drained soils occurring mostly on moderately steep to very steep terrain. The land which is used for crops like paddy, Khet, has relatively low permeability as of high value of clay or loam in the soil. Bari and Pakho Jamin have relatively high permeability values as of higlh content of boulder and gravel beds.

The land is distributed as: cultivated land - 20%, non-cultivated land - 7 %, grass land - 12%, forest land - 29% , shrub/degraded land - 11% and others - 22 % . National Population Census 2001 showed that the percentages of no. of households having agriculture land, and livestock and birds has remained to be 75.6 and 71.5, respectively The Census data also indicated that 84.08 % of the total households are located in rural settings. Thus it is very clear that majority of the population to be covered under RWSSP II will be farmers located throughout the 75 districts of Nepal. The opportunity provided by the existing landuse pattern of rural communities for rural water supply and sanitation is due to the nature of schemes to be of small scale and in isolated locations. However, the difficulty lies with the fact that it is costly and may not be feasible to cover the all scattered households of a community.

The population of Nepal increased from 18.491 million in 1991 to 23.15 million in 2001. Principal indicators of the socio-economy in 2001 included : life expectancy at birth-59.7 years, literacy rate - 53.74 %, per capita GDP- Rs 17,712 and per capita GNP - Rs. 18,451.

The Nepal Human Development Report 2001 estimated the Human Development Index (HDI) for Nepal to be 0.466. The indices for Mountain, Hill and Terai were estimated as 0.378, 0.5 10 and 0.474, respectively. On the regional basis, the mid-western (0.402) and far-western (0.385) had lower values than of national average showing the concentration of less productive economic activities there. Nearly four-fifths of the total population depends upon agriculture as its primary source of earning. Nearly four-fifths of all workers are also self- employed, almost all in the agricultural sector. Sixty-nine percent of the agricultural holdings, however, are less than one hectare in size. The agricultural GDP grew annually by only 2.3 percent dLuring the last two decades.

Nepal is heading for the economic development with liberalization policy and has implemented various programs for eliminating the poverty and achieve rapid growth rate. Private sector has been encouraged and efforts are underway to generate more employment. Although, Nepal lacks modern development infrastructure and the income level of majority of the population is fairly low, the mountainous landscape has also offered diverse potentials for economic development. The major potential areas include : hydropower and tourism. On the otlher hand the Nepalese society has a tradition of maintaining the harmony and peace among various ethnic communities. The family and kinship networks providing the individuals with wide ranginig personnel relations as well as social security in difficult times. People continue diverse ritual and religious practices which give meaning to their life resulting in to a stability in the society. Crisis management is a very regular activity of the majority of the households.

The key environmental issues of Nepal are related to forests, soil, solid waste, water, and air.

The forests have decreased in both area coverage and density over previous decades. Landslides, soil erosion, floods, encroachment of forests by cultivated land and people for settlement, among others, have been responsible for this. The forest has also been under great pressure from the ever-increasing demand of the livestock population for grazing and fodder. Species of flora and fauna have also declined due to forest depletion.

Nepal's mountains and hills are inllerently vulnerable to landslides and soil erosion. The rapid growth of hluman and livestock population is putting severe pressure on Nepal's natLural resources, especially soil. Deforestation, degradation of grasslands, encroachment of steep slopes, and intensive agriculture are leading to soil degradation. Unbalanced use of chemical fertilisers is also causing soil degradation through change in soil structure and acidification.

Solid waste management problems are caused by the introduction of plastic materials and changing consumption patterns, especially in urban areas, and these have resulted in an increase in the volume of solid waste. Of the total waste generation in the country, solid waste made up about 83%, agricultural waste constituted 11%, and industrial waste accounted for 6% according to a recent survey.

The major types of hazardous waste generated in the country are medical waste, battery wastes, pesticides, and a few types of industrial waste. The total consumption of pesticides in the country is approximately 55 tonnes of active ingredients per year. BHC, aldrin, and endosulfan are commonly used pesticides. Most unused pesticides are thrown on to open dumps. Obsolete pesticides are classified as hazardous waste. Currently, about 67 tonnes of obsolete pesticides are stockpiled in unsafe conditions at various locations in the country.

Air quality, particularly in the large urban areas of Nepal, has deteriorated. The energy supply in Nepal conies largely from traditional sources suich as fuelwood, agricultural residues, and animal waste. Air pollution has had a direct impact on human health. Respiratory diseases increased from 10.9% of the total outpatient visits (5,167,378) in 1996 to 11.6% of the lotal outpatient visits (7,115,981) in 1998. The inhabitants of Nepal's mountain region are mIuch more vulnerable to respiratory diseases because of the burning of fuelwood in poorly ventilated houses. Hospital records show that a greater number of respiratory diseases occutned in the Lirban population than in the rural population; and this may be due to the smoke and dust emitted from vehicles and industries. Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) accounts for more than 30% of total deaths in children under five years of age. A significant proportion of tlle popuLlation, in both rural and tirban areas, is affected by bronchitis causedi by domestic smoke.

Rivers and groundwater are major sources of drinking water in Nepal. Over time, the country's requirements for water for drinking and personal hygiene, agriculture, religious activities, industrial production, and hydropower generation have increased. Nepal's rural settlements and the majority of urban areas do not have access to sewerage networks. The domestic wastewater generated by these areas is discharged into local rivers without treatment. The decline in forest area reduced the water recharge capacity of groundwater sources. The water quality of rivers and lakes flowing through the large urban areas is deteriorating. The water quality of rivers flowing in remote areas is still acceptable. The quantity of water for household uses is severely limited and the quality of drinking water is poor in most cases, mainly due to the lack of treatment plants. The rivers are also major places for disposal of urban solid waste and industrial effluents.

Realizing the fact that the drinking water is one of utmost basic needs, stronger emphasis has been given to the Water Supply and Sanitation (WATSAN) Sector in Nepal. His Majesty's Government of (HMG/N) defined the two key objectives of WATSAN development as:

- xi - Increasingly utilise human resources for more prodLictive activities in the econonmy * Improve health status and welfare of the population by reducing incidence of water related diseases

The ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002) had a target of providing access to piped water supply facilities to 100 percent of the national population while the sanitation coverage was expected to be at 40 percent level. The Government of Nepal and various development agencies have made strong commitments to provide access to both water supply and sanitation for entire populationi of Nepal during the last two five year plan periods. However, still a large section of population is still deprived of safe drinking water and proper sanitation facilities. Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning (MHPP) reports coverage of water supply and sanitation expected at the end of ninth plan (1997 - 2002) as 71.5 and 25 per cent, respectively.

Guiding policies, regulations and standards

The objective of carrying out EA of projects proposed for World Bank's financing is to help ensure that they are environmentally sound and sustainable and thus to improve decision making.

As per the Bank's policy and requirement, EA is initiated as early as possible in project processing and is integrated closely with the economic, financial, institutional, social and technical analysis of a proposed project. The borrower is responsible for carrying out the EA. The Bank reviews the findings and recommendation of the EA to determnine whether they provide and adequate basis for processing the project for Bank financing.

The proposed project RWSSP II, is expected to have a net positive impact on human population and the environment. In fact and in a broad sense, the objective of RWSSP Il is to enhance the environmental quality by reducing the traditional environmental risks. In case of any adverse impact on environmentally important areas such as wetlands, forests, grasslands antd other natural habitats, the mitigation measures can be designed and incorporate easily so as to improve the environmental performance. Thus as per the Word Bank's criteria, RWSSP II has been classified as Category B project. The projects falling under this category require a limited enviroinmeintal review to determine potential negative impacts, identify the appropriate mitigation measures and recognize the identification of opportunities for environmental assessment.

His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMG/N) has enacted the Environment Protection Act, 2053 (1997) (EPA) and the Environment Protection Rules, 2053 (1997) (EPR). The EPA requires that an EA either in the form of an Initial Environmental Assessment (IEE) or an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) shall be carried out for all proposed projects which meet the criteria listed in Schedules 1 and 2 in the EPR. While EIA has been described as a detailed study or evaluation of the adverse environmental impacts, IEE has been mentioned as a report on analytical study or evaluation. The EPA clearly outlines the concerned agency or the Ministry approval of the proposal as a prerequisites for the implementation of a project. The provisions are made such that a proponent must submit a project proposal accompanied by either TEE or EIA studies for the approval. EPR made a clear specification on the project proposals related to the drinking water supply and waste management facilities requiring cither TEE or ETA.

-xii - Water Resources Act 2049 (1992) (WRA) has been implemented to make arrangements for the rational utlization, conservation, management and development of the water resources that are available in the Kingdom of Nepal in the form of surface water, underground water or in whatsoever form, and for determining beneficial uses of water resources, preventing environmental and other hazardous effects there of and also for keeping water resources free from pollution.

Local Self-Governance Act, 2055 (1999) (LSGA) aims at having institutional development of local bodies capable of bearing responsibility, by providing such responsibility and power at the local level as is necessary to formulate and carry out plans, and to constitute local bodies for the development of the local self governance system in a manner that they are able to make decisions on the matters affecting the day to date needs and lives of the people, by developing local leadership. LSGA has specific provisions related to the rural water supply and sanitation projects.

Other legislation related to water and environment in general include: Forest Act (1992), Pesticide Act, (1991), Solid Waste Act (1986), Soil and Water Conservation Act (1982), King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation Act (1982), Tourism Act (1978), and National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act (1973).

Article 7 of Environment Protection Act 2053 (1997) has made the clear provisions regarding the Environmental Standards.

The major issues related the water quality standards are: various national surveys indicated that the types of water sources and the sanitation affecting the quality of water consumed are primarily responsible for increased or decreased diarrhea incidences among children, there are still many unserved areas with water supply and sanitation facilities, the meaning of safe drinking watcr has been limited to accessibility of water at home / or at nearby place, from piped supply lines or boreholes and hand pumps, and vast majority of households is reported to use water for drinking without any further treatment (ex-boiling). Whatever may be the source of supply and the surface water quality data indicated that the sources where human activities are less prominent are found to be of chemically good quality and fit for direct drinking except bacteria, suspended solids, and in some cases iron have to be removed effectively.

This indicates that the major water quality problems are related to fecal contamination and seasonal attributes (turbidity in rainy season). In the past the water quality issues have been addressed by 'source selection principle'. The tenth plan (2002-2007) has a strategy of developing the national water quality guideline. WHO guidelines are to be followed till national standards on drinking water quality will be finalized.

The water supply and sanitation sector would contribute to the national goal of poverty alleviation by providing basic social service to people and infrastructure for economic development. CuLrrently following issues and challenges are in water supply and sanitation sector. * No match between the target and the amotnt of resources available for the development of the sector * Large number of rural water supply schemes in implementation / lack of potential will and commitment * Lack of co-ordination between the various organizations involved in the sector

- xiii - . Urban water supply system nin on operational subsidies, but rural schemes are maintained and sustained by users * Unavailability of perennial water sources in the proximity Principle of cost recovery in urban areas has not been effective. Promotion of Private sector participation needs to be given due attention . Infonnation management system in the sector is poor. A sound coordinating mechanism is lacking Need for increased awareness on health, hygiene and sanitation Nced for redefinition and delineation of appropriate roles and responsibilities Need for a strong regulatory body to monitor the performance of both the public and private sector

Realizing these issues and challenges, recent policy reforms have been made in the water supply and sanitation sector. Provisions for private sector involvement in urban water supply management have also been made. A national sanitation policy has been formulated by the govemment and is in process of cabinet approval.

The objectives of the sector in Tenth Plan are as follows: * To provide basic water supply service to 85% of rural and 95% of urban population of the country by the end of plan period so that the total population served by the water supply will reach 86.6 %. * To provide basic sanitation facilities to 50% of population * To upgrade water supply service levels To promote private sector involvement in management of urban water systems * To assist women by providing opportunities for social and personality development

The agencies involved in water supply and sanitation sector are: Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS), Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC), Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB), Melamchi Water Supply Development Board (MWSDB), INGOs, NGOs and CBOs, Local government agencies (VDC and DDC) and Users Committees.

Impact identification and mitigation measures

Because of the proposed country wide coverage of RWSSP II, the distinct topographical and climatological variations and the demand responsive nature of the schemes, the environmental impacts identified and listed in this study are not specific but of general in nature. The identified environmental impacts are classified in to two categories : impacts caused by the proposed project to the surroundings and the socio-economy, and the impacts caused by the exogenous factors to the services and facilities provided by the project.

Proposed individual interventions are targeted to cover only a few hundred houselholds. Therefore, no major environmental impacts to the surroundings are expected due to this project primarily due to small scale intervention. The net positive impact or benefits include: the water supply and sanitation projects will reduce the traditional environmental risks, more quantity of water available for bathing, washing and cleaning, the healtlh conditions will be improved, the personal health and hygiene status and sanitary conditions of the households will be improved, time and energy of the women and children required to fetch the water will be saved.

- xiv - The environmental impacts caused by various exogenous factors which will impair the sustainability of the project and intended services include the supply deficit, deterioration of water quality and problems created by improper use of the built facilities. These impacts are described below in details.

Significant reduction of the source discharge for the piped gravity flow system particularly during the dry season is a major concern regarding the issues on water quantity. However, this has been mentioned as a regular phenomena and also anticipated during the design period. It is recommended that an assessment be made if the dry yield is enough to meet the demand variation which emerge during the life time of the project. While selecting the sources emphasis must be given to select the one which has a higher safe yield (dry yield) to measuired yield ratio. If found necessary, use of alternative sources such as rainwater harvesting, recycling of greywater could be considered as a mitigation measure.

The issue of considering the animal demand might develop more pressure in RWSSP II as of the mirco-credit schemes and expansion of community forestry activities. It is recommended to make specific analysis if animal demands need to be considered in the proposed schemes.

Expansion of rural infrastructures lead to enhance the quality of life of rural people. This will encourage the people to construct their own latrines and bathrooms. Water use will be made more easy and readily accessible for example by installing the water tanks at individual households. With the improved quality of life, a hligher demand of water is expected, therefore, the present criteria of a minimum of 25 Ipcd and an average of 45 Ipcd must be reviewed.

In order to manage the occasional contamination from leaves, minute organic matters, insects, leech, algae, tadpole, small fish, Balu, Rato Juka and snail, the following mitigation measures are suggested: periodic clearance of the premises and buffer zones, periodic cleaning of the screen, ensure no faults or gaps during the slab construction and positioning.

Due to very small size of water supply schemes, financial limitations and operational constraints, it is not considered possible to provide comprehensive water treatment undcr RWSSP II. The conventional approach of'safe source selection' applied in Nepal could still be the best alternative. Precautionary measures such as: avoiding the first flush, water boiling for drinking, restricting open defecation at upstream areas could be employed. However, in special situations low-cost treatment options such as slow sand filter and roughing filters could be employed.

To tackle the contamination issues related to water collection and use, specific measures such as installation of pulley system or integrated well-hand pump systems and general measures of awareness are recommended. Proposed intervention to provide end disposal to the wastewaters include: recycling in the kitchen garden or paddy fields and disposal at soak pit. In Terai area, if there is not enough clearance between the point of disposal of effluent and the groundwater table or where the water table is very high other options such as use of constructed wetlands shoLuld be considered.

- xv - It is recommended to include stepping stone soling and establish dry stone side walls in the hilly areas and gravelling of the inner walkways in the Terai region. Similarly, engineered facilities must he suggested to the users to take care of the animals.

RWSSP I has made some interventions regarding the use of composting pit, disposal of animal wastes, separation and disposal of solid wastes from the household premises. Efforts are essential to make these activities more comprehensive not only during the project implementation period but also during life-span of the project. Similarly, it is essential to disseminate the information about good practices, scientific methods of household management, kitchen management, animal keeping and disposing the wastes. Audio video, poster, broclhures and radio program may help to carry out these activities. There must be an effective and sustainable awareness campaign for school children specially to disseminate the information of: maintaining a sanitary system in schools, maintaining the containers for keeping anal cleansing water and transporting water from the tap, proper ways of sitting on the squat pan and ways of keeping the toilet clean.

In Nepal, the traditional concepts in using the natural resources are interlinked with many festivals, rituals and group activities. In water resources people carry out these activities as they consider water to be a valuable resource without which the life and existence would be impossible. The belief behind such activities is to ensure the sustainability of the source, protection of healtlh and well being and the invitation to rain. They consider the water sources as holy places which are protected, trees are planted and people have ethical, morale and spiritual obligations to not damage the resources. Thus the negative impacts of the new project could he: possibility of discontinuation of traditional rituals and festivals, possibility of discontinuation of the old values and beliefs of considering the water sources as places of spiritual importance, possibility of discontinuation of practices of conserving the source and catchmenit area by plantation etc., possibility of discontinuation of the practices of not polltuting (defecating, washing etc) the sources of water considered as holy places and possibility of discontinuation of the beliefs that no one should damage or destroy the resources around holy places. The mitigation measures for these impacts could be: assessment of such practices during project plan, protection of old system (spout, stone tap etc. and other resources of archaeological and environmental importance around the system), develop facilities for doing such rituals in new schemes, develop a strategy that the proposed project provides a recognition and respect to the old practices, encouraging the users to continue such rituals and festivals either at the protected old sources or at the appropriate locations of the new schemes and encouraging the users to consider the new system only as more efficient and productive than the old one and they should keep on their practices.

Planning phase impacts include the conflicts of water supply rights and priority. Similarly the problems may also arise during the land acquisition. The conflicts must be resolved prior to the project implementation by developing a consensus based on the existing legislation. Compensatory measures must be adopted for the land acquired.

Construction phase impacts include damage to the vegetation, pollution due to construction wastes, loss of stability at the sand/ stone collection center and health risks to the porters. These impacts are site specific and pose only short tenn implications. Still, the impacts could be minimized by confining the construction activities onsite and along the designated pipeline routs. The construction wastes are not expected to have significant impact on land and ground or surface water sources. However, attention should be paid to ensure the proper disposal.

- xvi - Construction of project components in the community forestry areas might create disturbances to the forest users and forestry resources. It is recommended that a mutual understanding be developed with the user groups of the forest and impacts are minimized.

Laying of the pipeline in the lake water might cause disturbances to the lake water users. As the lake serves a major means of transportation and recreation, proper means (let the pipe be submerged and put at the considerable depth) be applied to mitigate the impact.

Alternative analysis

An attempt is made to systematically compare the three alternatives: 'no project', 'project without considering the environmental elements' and 'project incorporating the environmental attributes'.

As the socio-economic indicators such as infant mortality rates and life expectancy rate indicate that more interventions are essential to improve the quality of life of the people. These indicators reflect a relatively worse situation of health and sanitation and as well the socio-economy in the rLral areas. Water supply and sanitation facilities are directly linked to the health conditions in particular and socio-economy in general. If the program under discussion, RWSSP II, will not be implemented and the anticipated schemes under RWSSP II will not be undertaken, then the prevailing traditional environmental risks in rural areas will be continued till DWSS or any other agency will address the issue and make similar interventions. In conclusions, the 'no project' scenario will only maintain the status-quo.

The second option is project without considering the environmental attributes. In the past, the concepts in which the establishment of rural water supply and sanitation schemes has been based are: bringing the remotely located water to communities in order to meet the their hardship and the prevention of water borne diseases. The projects did not completely address the environmental issues of ecological integrity of the natural watershed and sources including flora and fauna and the link of water use to the sanitation and personal hygiene issues. Similarly, the mobilization of community strength and not transferring the ownership of the projects to the users were other issues which lacked the attention in the conventional approach. These issues are critical and without addressing them it is difficult to meet the objective of the sustainability of the schemes. Thus, the development without addressing the associated environmental issues may reduce the traditional risks for a certain duration but it will be difficult to maintain a stable state of risk levels. The positive benefits of projects falling in this category may be undermined with the adverse environmental implications.

The third scenario of implementing the projects addressing the environmental issues will be able to reduce the risks as desirable by the project objectives. The development with such projects will reduce the risks and maintain them at a minimum level. With the address of environmental issues both quantity and quality of the delivered services are ensured. The project takes care of the emerging future demands. Holistic approach which attempts to address the water supply, sanitation and environmental issues together is followed.

The proposed project, RWSSP I1 is a demand-driven and integrated one addressing the environmental issues as well. The positive benefits are fully ensured by taking care of the environmental impacts with the development incorporating the mitigation measures. Strong participation from the community and the support organizations during project planning and implementation will not create the problems related to the ownership and responsibility of

-xvii - operation and maintenance of the schemes. Thus it is expected that RWSSP II will achieve greater healtlh and economic benefits to the target commLunities. The alternatives for project comiponienits ar-c also givCnI.

Mitigation plan and moniitoring

Envir-onmiiienital Management Plan (EMP) aims to develop a framework for incorporatinig the mitigationi measures in the projcct cyclc and monitorinig of the environmental performance. The EMP is expected to not only redLuce the negative environmental impacts botlh due to thie project comlponlents and catuscd by cxogcnous factors on the services delivered by thc projcct, buLt will also help to enhlance the environmental benefits of the project.

The activities menitionied in EMP hiave been categorized in three grotups as discussed below.

* Policy and Technical gtideline related activities o Reviewing the criteria of 25 and 45 Ipcd o Developing a strategy for incorporating the animal demand o Developing a methodology for forecasting the demand pattern o IntroduLction and selection of water quality monitoring kits o Developing surrogate water quality monitoring parameters o Developing type clesign of low cost water treatment options o Engineering design of soak pits, construLcted wetlands and paved walkways o Engineering design of rehabilitation and protection of traditional soLurces o Selection of adaptive, resilient and holistic principle based technologies o Developing appropriate means to collect the water fronm dug well

* Sclheme specific activities o Water souLrce related conflicts resolutioln o Developing a consensus on voluntary contribution of land o Disposing constrLuction related wastes o Periodic cleaning of the vegetation in the component premises o Periodic clcaning of the plhysical infrastructures o Monitor-ing biological water pollution

* Traininig and capacity building related activities o Disseminiatin-g the information of appropriate sanitary practices to users and school children o Disseminating the infonnation of the proper use of the water supply and sanitary components o Ways to provide water and bath to animals o Using the toilets, keeping good sanitary conditions in the kitchen and housc premises o Encouraginig the ulsers to continue traditional rituals and festivals at the water sources

The major responsibility for implementing the policy related activities fall under thc jLirisdictioni of the FuLnd Board. Where as the WUC hias to play a major role in implementing the schemiie specific activities. It is the SO/SA whiclh need to take the lead for the training andc capacity buiilding activities.

- xviii - As the specific scheme under consideration may not have all the impacts identified. Tlherefore, it will be essential to sort out from the list, the specific activities to be carried in a specific scheme under RWSSP TI. It is recommended to develop a scheme specific Environmental Management Action Plan (EMAP) during the pre-development stage. The EMAP should be developed primarily with the purpose of: * Identification of key environmental issues likely to arise from the implementation of the water supply and sanitation scheme under consideration.

* Identification of the corresponding environmental mitigation measures to be integrated in the project design in order to minimise the impacts.

* Development of monitoring and evaluation schedules to be implemented during project construction and operation.

* Estimation of costs that are required for implementing mitigation measures.

The EMAP should provide guidelines to the construction and operation activities and the cost outlined in EMAP should be included in the Engineering Cost Estimate document.

Various indicators could be used to monitor the environmental performance of the water supply and sanitation projects. The three types of the indicators are described below.

Baseline Monitoring Water quality related : source discharge, groundwater table variation, per capita water availability, other physical and biological paramters

Impact Monitoring Health and sanitation related : number of diarrhea cases in children below 5 years of age, other water borne diseases, house cleanliness, drainage conditions, no. of latrines added every year, conditioni of the latrine in school

Socio-economy related : per capita income, savings from micro-credit schemes, no. of children attending school

Tradition and culture related : rituals and festivals carried out at water sources

Compliance Monitoring Water quantity related : per capita water use Water quality related : incidence of contamination with insects, leech, tadpole etc., microbiological parameter, physical chemical parameters (turbidity, pH, iron, fluoride, manganese, ammonia/nitrate, arsenic, residual chlorine)

Modifications and additions suggested to RWSSFDB formats

Based on the findings of this study modifications and additions in the existing RWSSFDB formats such as pre-feasibility form, pre-feasibility site appraisal form, development phase proposal and project implementation proposals are suggested.

- xix - CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

With an objective of providing water supply and sanitation facilities to the rural population of Nepal, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project Phase II (RWSSP II) has been proposed by the Rtural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB). The project will receive financial assistance from International Development Association (IDA). RWSSP If is plannled to implement the rural water and sanitation activities in one hand, while on the other hand to empower the rLural communities essential for the enhancement of socio- cconiomy. The plroject aims at socio-economic development of deprived rural commuLnities throuLghl the developmenit of basic infrastructures. Social mobilization and organization of the communities is defined as the starting point in the project. Community participation at all levels of project planning, implementation and operation has been identified as the pre- requisite for the development of the schemes under RWSSP II. Targeting the poor and ensurinig the equity and gender balance would be the underlying principles of this project.

The proposed project is within the framework of the national policy on water supply and sanitation (WATSAN) sector in Nepal. The proponent of the project, RWSSFDB or the FuLnd Board has been identified as a major stakeholder of the WATSAN sector in Nepal. The tenth nationial plan (2002-2007) of Nepal has a target of improving the socio-economic indicators significantly by providing water supply and sanitation facilities to 95 % and 50 % of the population in Nepal. The proposed project RWSSP II is expected to hiave a significant contribution to achieve this goal.

The Ftund Board provides assistance to the rural communities througlh Support Organisations (SOs). SOs are private or national / international NGOs, community based organizations (CBOs) or co-operative agencies. The communities with a support from SOs manage the planning, inmplemcntation and operation of the projects focusing particularly on1community awareness, planning and training aspects of the projects. The objectives of the Board activities in water supply and sanitation sector are to: deliver sustainable hiealtlh and hygienie services throuiglh improvement in water supply and sanitation, improve incomes of women through time saving as water is brought closer to their dwellings, and improve the capabilities of sector institution both government and non-govemnment. The working principles of the Board include: demand lead or responsive participatory approach, ensuring the sustainability of the projects by increasing the community capacity, considering women users as primary actors of water and sanitation and enhanicing their role in the project and decision making through active participation, integrating hygiene and sanitation edtucation with technically, environmenitally and operationally sustainable water supply.

1.2 Justification of the study

The prime objective of the water supply and sanitation facilities is to reduce the health risks associated witlh the diseases such as diarrhea, scabies, schistosomiasis and malaria. The main health benefits of these services lie in the reduction of fecal-oral diseases. As the mortality rate due to water borne diseases is still very high in Ncpal, establishment of sustainable water supply projects plays a crucial role. It is a well understood fact that the hardware by itself is not enough and, therefore, softwares which include creating awareness, capacity building and

-1I- manpower training are also equally important.

Sustainable water supply and sanitation projects have many indirect socio-economic benefits. Rural people save the time of carrying water and use it for other productive jobs wlhich help them to increase their income. While developing the water supply and sanitation projects, a demanid driven participatory approach has been practiced in Nepal in recent years. This community based approach has helped in empowering the niral communities which has been proved successful in community water supply and sanitation projects having the multiple similar effects in other sectors also such as community forestry and micro-financing. These participatory projects and activities have significantly contributed in raising the per capita income and the quality of life of the rural people.

On this background and similar to other water supply and sanitation projects, the anticipated oultputs of RWSSP II are the positive health and environmental benefits through the supply of 'safe' drinking water and creation of sanitary conditions in the community settlements. Howevcr, a number of adverse impacts could occur, if the schemes are not properly planned, located, designed, constructed, operated and maintained (FDBb, 2002). Potential negative impacts, both individual or cumulative, include: - Hydraulic interference between existing and new well sources. Source tapping may deny water to previous tusers of the source not connected to the scheme, particularly downstream tusers; - Induced erosion caused by pipe laying, general construction activities, deforestation, improper drainage, and overflow of reservoirs or other components - Increased water use without adequate wastewater disposal may cause pollution problems and mosqulito breeding; as would ponded water around water points - Shallow aquifers may be contaminated due to poor quality, well head construction and the siting of latrines close to well points.

In addition to these, the other issues of negative impacts may include: increased health risks due to specific contaminants for example arsenic and impairment to the traditional culture and customs related to water use. There are a number of environmental issues to be takeni which do not feature prominently at policy or implementation level (FDBb, 2002). This is because of the fact that some of the issues are very specific and not noticeable at the time of planning or implemenitationl but crop-up later. The environmental risks associated could be avoided or minimized with careful planning and design.

Thus in ordcr to ensure the environmental sustainability of the project, it is essential to address these issues and identify potential mitigating measures. Environment Assessment Study and consequent preparation of Environmental Management Plan (EMP) meet these goals.

1.3 Objectives of the environmental study

The key objective of the Environment Assessment (EA) Study is to recommend measures for enhancing and sustaining the positive environmental benefits of the project. Appropriate meastures to mitigate any identified adverse environmental impacts will be integrated as part of the overall project design (FDBc, 2002).

- 2 - Specific objectives of the EA are: - identify and assess the existing environmental issutes (with a focus on water quantity and q1uality issues, personal hygiene, health, household environment and sanitation, and environmental sanitation issues) and how these issues will be addressed through the variouLs activities / tasks under the proposed project; and - recommend an Environniental Management Plan (EMP), including well-defined performanace indicators for the identified issues

1.4 Methodology and activities

The employed metlhodology and the activities carried out for the study were as follows: * Review of relevant doctuments of RWSSP I (tlhe web page, annual reports, monitoring and evaluation forms, documents related to specific schemes, technical manual, formationi order, newsletters, brochture etc.) * Review of relevant policy documents (World Bank's policy, Enivironmental Act and Regulations, Water Resource Act, Local Self Governance Act etc.) * Discussion and meetings with the Fund Board Staff, SOs , WUGs and WUCs * Consultation with DWSS, Department of Forestry and Soil Conservation, National Soil Research Council, Ministry of Population and Environment, Department of Statistics etc. * Field visits to four-teen selected schemes in seven districts (details given on Appendix A and Appendix B) * Questionniiaire Survey * Presentation of the field report and findings to the Funld Board Staff and discussion * Organising a stakeholder's workshop to get the feedback on the report

1.5 Organisation and members of the stuidy team

With anl aim of contributing to the environmenital sLustainability of the water supply and sanlitation schicimles, the Fund Board designed an 'Environment Assessment' study for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Phase II and invited proposals from individual constultants. Consequently, the contract for consultancy services was signed between the Mr. Raj Babu Shrestha, Executive Director of Funld Board and Dr. Nawa Raj Khatiwada, Principal Investigator for the study on May 20, 2002.

T'he client has designated Mr. Raj Babu Shrestlia, Executive Director as Client's Coordinator; the Coordinator will be responsible for the coordination of activities under this contract.

The personnel comprising the study team and their responsibilities are given below.

Technical / Managerial Staff Name Position Task Dr. Nawa Raj Khatiwada Principal Investigator (PI) Carry out all essential activities

Mr. Bidur Adhikari Assistant to PI Secretarial work Helping PI in logistics during the field and desk study

-3 - CHAPTER II

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED PROJECT

2.1 Introduction

The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (the Board) was created by His Majesty's Government of Nepal on March 14, 1996 with the approval of formation by lHis Majesty's Govemment under the Development Board Act, 1956. The Board is designed based on the experience of a field testing pilot project, acronymed 'JAKPAS' (the Nepali acronym of JCnCcita Ko Khanepani Ra Sarsafai Karyakram - meaning People's Water Supply and Sanitation Program). Preparation studies for the pilot project were carried out with funding by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and a grant from Japanese Grant Facility (JGF). The World Bank executed the pilot project for a period of three years, during 1993-96, financed by two additional JGF grants. JAKPAS was instrumental for the Government of Nepal to institute a service delivery mechanism to deliver sustainable water supply and sanitation services. Encouraged by the optimistic results of JAKPAS activity and with thc support form Intemational Development Association (IDA), the Board launched a five year (1996- 2001) project called Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project Phase I (RWSSP I, Cr. 2912-NEP). The project had a goal of providing water supply and sanitation services for 900 communities in four batches.

The RWSSP I has a coverage of the following districts (Fig. 2. 1).

Eastern Development Region: Dhankuta, Ilam, Jhapa, Khotang, Morang, Panchthar, SankhuLwasabha, Saptari, Siraha, Solukhumbu and Udayapur.

Centtral Development Region: Bara, Bhaktapur, Chitawan, Dhading, Dhanusha, Dolakha, KathmandLu, Kavre, Lalitpur, Mahottari, Makawanpur, Nuwakot, Parsa, Ramechhap, Rasujwa, Rauitahat, Sarlalhee, Sindhuli and Sindhupalchowk.

PWesterni Development Region: Arghakhanchi, Baglung, Gorkha, Gulmi, Kapilbastu, Kaski, Lamjunlg, Myagdi, Nawalparasi, Palpa, Parbat, Rupandehi, Syanja and Tanahu.

Mild-Western Development Region: Dailekh, Dang, Pyuthan and Surkhet.

Ftar- Westerni Development Regioni Kailali.

RWSSP I has been implemented in a batch wise basis. The Batch wise coverage is given below (Table 2.1). Total Population to be benefited from the four phased implementation is expected to be 800,000. The working principles of RWSSP I included: a demand lead participatory approach, increase community capacity to sustain the project, enhancement of the role of women in all aspects of the project, and integration of hygiene and sanitation education with technically, environmentally and operationally sustainable water supply. T'his strategy and the results of the implementation of RWSSP I obtained so far provided a good example in the sector of water supply and sanitation in Nepal towards the implementation of the policy of decentralized service delivery with greater private sector involvement. RWSSP I also illustrated the benefits and opportunities obtained through the institutional development and an alternative service delivery approach.

- 4 - Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project Area-200 1

I O Dfoicct Coewq. by &dt B-Nv n t J i ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~B-iB-ll 9-lil y SU_t_ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Egien a I < ~~~~~~~~~~~t ~~~~~~Cer*rk a 15 18 16

Coverud totl of 49 d_ia

I. Batch I Schemes 1Schemes in Batch 2. Batch III Schemes Addional Schemes in Batch 11 3. Batch III Sdcmes tional Schemes in Batch Ill 4. Batch V Schemes g Expected Additional Sdcemes in Batch IV

Fig. 2.1 Coverage of RWSSP I

-5 - Table 2.1 : Batch wise coverage of the projects under RWSSP I (FDBa, 2002) Batch component Development Region No. of Schemes* Batch I Central & Western 76

Batch 11 Central & Western 206

Batch ITI Eastern, Central & Western 289

Batch IV All 5 Development regions 359 * The figures were updated during the time of final report submission

The concept and approach of RWSSP I are found to be sound and yielding successful results on the ground with indications of strong community ownership and commitment which paved a way for scheme sustainability. With the tangible outputs obtained and witlh an objective of providing the services to the remaining rural areas of Nepal, the Fund Board has proposed a follow-on project of RWSSP I, termed as Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project Phase 11 (RWSSP II). The conceptual framework, institutional structure and the implementation arrangement of RWSSP II will be similar to RWSSP I. However, the project will incorporate the lessons learned and more functions are expected to be sub-contracted to qualified and competent private / NGO sectors in different regions.

2.2 Project objectives

The project tinder discussion aims to influence the broader sector institutional performance by leveraging tlhe success of RWSSP I as well as expanding the proven impact of this approach on poverty reduction and social capital mobilization at the grassroots level. The specific objectives of RWSSP IIare (FDBb, 2002):

- improve the sector instittutional performance and mainstream the approach taken by the Fund Board in the Government system and

- deliver sustainable health and hygiene benefits to the rural population througl improvements in water supply and sanitation facilities.

It is expected that the impact of the actions meeting the first objective will be in the policy framework for delivery of services leading to the role of Government line agencies be changed to facilitator from the implementing authority.

The impact of the actions meeting the second objective, which would be similar to RWSSP 1, will be in improving the health conditions of general public, empowering the women and saving their time for income generating activities and strengthening the governmental as well as non-governmental capacity in delivering the services.

2.3 Project components

There are three basic components of RWSSP II.

- Strengthening operational and institutional capabilities of the Board

- 6 - The project intends to have a two fold objectives as outlined above and the overall responsibility of implementation of the project lies within the Board. Therefore, the project will help the Board to mature into an effective institution, consolidate the outcomes of RWSSP I and expand the scope of work. The legislation is expected to be revised to make the organization more autonomous which may allow the Board to take on schemes supported by other donors too.

- Selection and construction of schemes

This component includes community development activities and construction of water supply and sanitation facilities. Similar to RWSSP I, the proposed project would promote active participation of the communities in all stages of decisions about the planning, construction, and management of their scheme, to increase local ownership and effective use and sustainability. These activities are capacity-building activities such as community mobilization/organization and non-fonnal education; hygiene and sanitation education; and technical support services to women. Construction of water supply schemes would include gravity flow systems (including spring protection), shallow and deep ttubewells, dug wells, and catchment protection.

- Study reports

This component includes pre-development phase studies, monitoring and perforrnance evaluation studies, payment monitoring studies, preparing documents at the beginning and after completion of the schemes, Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) studies, and other independent audits.

2.4 Project policy parameters

The Board is supervised and managed by seven Board members comprising of four Government's Joint-secretaries, two professionals representing non-government sector and one representing private sector. The chairperson of the Board is elected for a three-year term from among the seven Board members. The Board policies are implemented by the head office. The head office consists of forty-four staff which include six managers, nineteen officers ( including fifteen portfolio managers) and nineteen support staff.

The Board will be responsible for Board policy and for monitoring its implementation. All necessary powers to approve the budgets, programs, and plans, and to approve the selection of support organizations and schemes would be conferred on the Board to allow it to work in a flexible and fully accountable manner. The Board will be responsible for project implementation. The Board will subcontract with support organizations and communities that meet eligibility criteria (defined in the rules of the Board Formation Order) to assist beneficiary communities to plan and implement water supply and sanitation schemes that meet established eligibility criteria. The Board will contract service agencies (SAs) for activities suchi as project promotion, training, appraisal, monitoring and evaluation, research and development, and auditing of Board accounts. It would also be responsible for administering all project-funded studies.

The overall responsibility for implementation would be with the Board. The implementation arrangements for RWSSP II would be very similar to RWSSP I. As per the Board policy, the communities assisted by SOs will plan design, implement, operate and maintain their

- 7 - schemes. The communities, with support from SOs , will register a Water User Group (WUG) which comprises of al the participating households and form a Water User Committee (WUC), the executive body of the WUG.

The scheme cycle (Fig. 2.2) from identification to completion was on average 36 months for RWSSP I. The 'pre-development' phase lasts for 13 months to identify SOs and schemes that meet the eligibility criteria to enter into a 'development phase'. The 'development phase' lasts for 10 months and include the development of a community action plan to carry out a need assessment, training in hygiene and sanitation education, non-formal education and registering the WUGs and promotion and building of latrines.

The 'implementation phase' lasts fir about 13 months and begins after an audit of the development phase. This phase is mainly focused on construction activities of the scheme components.

Pre-development Phase Selection of Sos, pre-feasibility studies, submission of proposals, 13 months scheme approval, preparation of development phase contract

Community organisation and mobilization, formation and Development Phase registration of WUG, Up-front capital cost contribution in Cash, 10 months O&M fund collection, Community Action Planning, HSE initiation, training of SO staff and community, Preparation of implementation phase contract

Iplem-enitation Phase Construcetion work, HSE, WTSS plan execution, training to SO 13 monthis staff and community, KAP impact study and Technical Audit

Sustainable water supply and sanitation

Fig. 2.2 The Project cycle under RWSSP I

2.5 Project area

Since the project, RWSSP II, adopts a demand driven approach, it is not possible at this stage to identify the specific schemes and number of districts that the schemes will cover. However, it is expected that the likely areas are the uncovered villages of the 49 districts where RWSSP I has been implemented and the remaining 26 districts of the Kingdom of Nepal. The project will now reach out to development regions such as the Far West and Mid West and build capacity of both SOs and communities in those regions also.

2.6 Anticipated benefits

The proposed project is estimated to benefit some 700, 000 (in the rural, mountains, hill and the Terai) people in the five development regions of Nepal. Of this, women / girls would constitute more than 50% and would be the primary beneficiaries of the project (FDBb, 2002). Similar to tlhe foregoing project, RWSSP II would also contribute to institutional strengthening of local NGOs and private sector firms by building the capacity of their staff as

-8- well as introducing systematic office and personal management practices which are essential for them to work with the Board and communicate with the community.

2.7 Project cost

The cost break down as per the project components follows. The component operational and institutional strengthening of the Board will take US$ 6.0 million. Similarly, the costs of the components selection and construction of schemes and studies have been estimated to be US$18.0 million and US$ 1.0 million. Thus the total cost of the project is given as US$ 25.0 million.

2.8 Environmental attributes of RWSSP I

Annual report 2000/2001 of the Fund Board reports that on the completion of Batch III phase, 570 communities (population of 333073) are served by gravity schemes and 28 communities (population of 31975) are served by the schemes withdrawing water from ground sources (FDBe, 2002). On the average basis gravity piped flow schemes serve 96 households with average population of 585 where as the ground water scheme serve 284 households with an average population of 1618. The report further pointed that the average pipe length of the gravity scheme is of 5.6 km with an average transmission pipe line of 2.38 km. The average per capita scheme based on the current population is Rs 2245.00.

The sanitation conditions around drinking water sources of the completed schemes were found to be quite impressive as shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Sanitary conditions around selected drinking water sources (FDBe, 2002) Sanitary condition Before project (%) After project (%)

Accumulation of wastewater 26.68 1.79

Dcfecation by people 7.17 0.11

Defecation by animal 18.6 2.8

Washing and bathing 92.15 58.29

Similarly, a survey indicated the time saved for fetching water per household per day for drinking and non drinking purpose were estimated as 130.3 and 105.3 minutes, respectively. The time saved has been found to be used for different activities as shown in Table 2.3.

The project was found to be instrumental in creating the awareness of the causes of diarrhea. A survey of 837 households indicated that only 71.68 per cent of the households had the such awareness before the project, however the number of such respondents were found to be 84.95% after the project completion (FDBe, 2002).

The changes in personal sanitation practices were found to be quite significant as shown in Table 2.4.

9- Table 2.3 Use of Saved time in fetching water by the respondents (FDBe, 2002) Activities Number Percent

Childcare 315 15.87

Family care 369 18.59

Household work 267 13.45

Increase earning 542 27.30

Sanitation 492 24.79

Total 1985 100

Table 2.4 Changes in personal sanitation practices (FDBe, 2002) Categories Percent Before project After project Food covered 54.12 93.67 Eating stale food 73.00 69.35 Eating stale food after heating 27.08 65.35 Eating raw fruit / veg. after cleaning 58.42 89.84 Cleaning cooking and eating-pots 76.11 95.46 Covering water keeping pots 22.22 82.68 Toilet at home 21.62 71.80 Regular use of toilets 20.91 71.21 Use of toilets with sandals/shoes 23.30 68.34 Washing hands before meals 71.68 98.21 Washing hands after toilet 55.00 75.27 Brushing teeth regularly 64.28 94.74 Clipping nails regularly 58.18 90.92

Healthy home survey has been carried out to identify health and sanitation situation of the community of all the schemes of Batch - I, II and III. So far in Batch I to III, a total of 626 Village Health Promoters (VHPs) have been selected and trained, and now are actively involving motivating community to built household latrines, involving personal household and environmental sanitation at the community. With the assistance of these VHPs, about 4, 240 different health and sanitation education (HSE) sessions have been conducted. The annual

- 10- report 2000/2001 indicated that a total of 16, 652 household latrines were constructed. Of the constructed latrines, about 58% are built from the Sanitation Revolving Loani Fund (SRLF) which is establislhed and run by WUG witlh assistance of the project, and rest is self help. About 90% of the latrines were found to be clean and maintained well and 100% of them were bl-oUght in practice. Likewise a total of 177 institutional latrines have been constructed in 177 diff'erenit scllools uinder the schemes of Batch I to III. In order to create awareness amonig stLidents on health and sanitation and make school environment clean, 640 different schools healtlh and sanitation campaigns, rally, game and other sanitation related activities hlave been organizcd in Batclh I to III at the sclhools.

2.9 Water quality assessment of RWSSP I Schemes

A sumnmiiary of the water quality parameters from the schemes of RWSSP I is given in T'able 2.5 (RWSSFDB, 2002). The number of sampled sources is indicated on the bottom of tlle table. Twenty eiglht districts were covered by the sampling survey. It shIould be noted 1ecIC that tlhere is also a temporal and spatial variability in water quality parameters. Therefore, a careful interlretation is needed to analyse such data. The water quality data were obtainied from the sources that were more susceptible to the biological contamination. For a quick comparison of the water quality parameters, WHO guidelinie values are also given on Table 2.5. The paramiieter exceeding the guideline values and of concern are turbidity, iron, maniganiese, ammonia, nitrate, and fecal coliforms. It is important to note here that the presence of fecal coliform values in high numbers is a major concern. Even the spring sources are loLund to have bacteriological contamination. This is critical during the beginning of rainy season whcln the fecal matter scattered in the catchment area gets transported to the soLurce increasing thc risks of water borne diseases. The mitigation measures of the pollution due to this 'First liislh' phenomena are suggested in later chapters.

Conltaminlatioll of groundwater due to arsenic in Terai area is an emerging water quality issLue in Nepal. It is estimated that about half of country's population of 23 million reside in Terai area. Based on the various investigation and research stLudies, TanduLkar and Neku (2002) reported that 27 % of thlis population (2.6 million) is exposed to an arsenic concentrationi of greater tlhan WHO drinking water guideline value of 10 ktg/L. The researclhers furtlhcr reported that 4 % of this population (3 96, 000) is exposed to a concentration of greater tlhan the Inter-imii Standard of 50 Ftg/L. Most affected areas include Rautahat, Bara, Parsa, Nawalparasi, Rupandehi and Kapilbastu districts. It is important to note here that the risks by drinkinig arsenic contaminated water include upto getting skin cancer. Khatiwada et al. (2002a) estimated that by drinking the water contaminated with arsenic at a level of 0.3 mg/L for 60 years, there will be additional 17500 cancer cases out of one million people. Tlis risk is reduced to levels of 3000 per one million and 600 per one million at exposure levels of concentrations 50 pLg/L (Nepal Interim Standard) and 10 ptg/L (WHO Guideline value). Slhrestlha et al. (2002) provided additional information on the arsenic contamination in Nepal particuLlarly in Terai region. The outcome of this study is shown in Fig. 2.2. The results obtained by this study is in close agreement with the results obtained by Tandukar and Neku (2002) as discussed above. The results obtained by the former study are also shown in Table 2.6. It is inter-estinig to note herc that the maximum concentration recorded has been wliclh 2.8 mg/L is far greater thani eitlher WHO guideline valuc or Nepal Interim Standard.

- 11 - Table 2.5: Water Quality Data of Surface as well as Ground water in Nepal

S. N. Parameters __WHO Limits __Surface water ______Ground Water ____ - - _____ -- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SpringStream Sprin FdSt~ream Hand -______Pump Dugwell ___ Artisian ~~~~~~~Min ~~~~Avg Max Min ~~~~~Max Avg Max Min Avg~ Max Min Av Max Min A Physical A "~ysis -- Max ~Min Ay . -- _ _ _ .. _ _ _ _ _ - .- - - _ _ _ -.. _ _ _ _ - - .- 1 Temperature, (00C) __ -26 12 19.9 31 16 21. 6- 32 15 22.5 2 Colour, pChomciy UJnit) ____15 ND(<05) ND(< 5) ND(<0.5) ND(1 100 ______Nil 217-4 >1100 Nil 384.8 >1 100 Nil 259.2 Source:RWSSFDB (2002) 240 Ni) 144.0 >1100 460 460 Nil 264.3 N= 26 N= 25 N= 2-2 Note N= 65 N= 2 N= 7 ND: Not Detected These samples are collected in Baglung. Bhaktapur. Chitwan. Dhanusa. Gorkha. Gulmi. ilam, Kaski, Kathmandu, Kavre, Lalitpur. Makawanpur, Mohottan, Nawalparasi. Nuwakot, Parbat, Parsa, Rautahat. Rupendehi, Saptan, Sarlahi, Sindhuli, Sindhupalchowk, Tanahu, Udayapur, Siraha, Jhapa and Kapilbastu districts

- 12 - Arsenic concentration I.11 IBelow 10

%~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Ab 501

L'rlanusna ean Mr9Jhp

Fig. 2.3 Mapping of the arsenic concentration in Nepal

Table 2.6: Arsenic concentration in different district Total Maximnum Concentration Samples with different level of Arsenic ug/L District samples 0-jo %0-10 >10-50 %010-50 >50 % >50 ug/L Kailali 167 88 47 65 35 34 18 161 Kanchanpur 156 130 83 17 11 9 6 221 Banke 760 671 88 78 10a 11 1 270 Bardiya 530 385 73 125 24 20 4 181 Dang 100 91 91 9 9 0 0 50 Rupandehi 1999 1749 87 216 11 34 2 2620 Kapilbastu 2314 2005 87 232 10 77 3 589 Nawalparasi 1164 621 53 340 29 203 17 571 Chitawan 85 85 100 0_ 0 0 0 8 Parsa 1926 1669 87 204 211 53 3 456 Bara 1850 1612 87 188 10 50 3 254 Rauthat 2007 778 39 968 48 207 10 213 Sarlahi 367 287 78 66 18e 14 4 98 Mahottari 67 58 87 8 12 1 1 41 Dhanusha 113 78 69 28 25 7 6 140 Siraha 113 83 73 21 19 9 890 Saptari 397 350 88 43 11 4 1 70 Sunsari 200 176 88 22 11 2 1 75 Morong 134 124 93 9 7 1 1 50 Jhapa 463 393 85 1 69 15 1 _ 0 79| Total 14932 11433 77 2708 18E 737 5

- 13 - 2.10 Environmental aspects of RWSSP I: lessons learned and issues of major concern

Water quantity: RWSSP I allows reliable sources that can provide an absolLute minimum demand of 25 Ipcd (in case of non-availability of any other options) to an average demand of 45 lpcd. The sanitation part of RWSSP I has provision for a significant number of pour flulsh latrines in every scheme. During the field visit by the team of this study, what has been observed that many houselholds under the completed schemes have now not only pour flush latrines but also the provision of bathrooms. Improved life style of people has a direct impact on the installationi of these facilities. Because, RWSSP I not only includes the schemes in rural remote areas but also the places which are in the national highways, and communities close to the municipalities and district headquarters. In these areas the quality of life is almost similar to what is there in municipalities and towns. To keep a good sanitary condition in the latrine, it is essential to flush after every defecation.

Assuming a pOur-flUSh latrine needs an average of 2-3 L of water for every flush, a person would need 12-18 L of water everyday for the flushing purpose only. The minimum criteria of either 25 Ipc(d or 45 Ipcd is meant for domestic demand which includes: drinking, cooking, bathing, washing clothes and dishes, latrine flushing, feeding and washing the animals and maintaining the sanitary conditions in latrine, bathroom, kitchen and entire households. With expansion of rural infrastructures, the quality of life of the people in rural areas increases and consequently the water demand too. The water supplied should be able to meet the basic reqtuirement including the quantity essential for maintaining a minimum sanitary conditions in latrines and household premises. These facts lead to the conclusion that an assessment of the demand pattern including the breakdown of 20 or 45 Ipcd in meeting the requirement of specific activities as outlined above be made.

WVater quiality . The major water quality issue is related to the microbiological contamination. As slhowni in Table 2.5, the presence of fecal coliform in the water sources indicates that even the spring soturces are not safe from bacteriological pollution. Arsenic contamination is also an another issue bLut the samples containing arsenic exceeding the standards and guideline values is only a vety small. As outlined above in section 2.9, the risks due to bacteriological contamination are of acute and higher magnitude in nature than that of the risks due to arsenic problems. Thus making the supplied water bacteriologically safe still gets the first priority. There are other problems too for example: contamination with suspended solids, iron, manganese and turbidity.

Etivironmzenital saniitation .- The existing practice for the disposal of plateform-drained wastewater, stormwater, gray water, and septic tank effluent is to dispose in the nearby areas and let it take the natural course. The problems due to non-engineered disposal is ponding, promoting mosquito breeding and contamination of downstream sources or groundwater. In Terai area, wlhere the shallow groundwater is extensively used, there is a possibility of contamination from the disposed blackwater (effluent) or greywater. Other environmental sanitation issues include development of facilities such as stone soling on the pavements and dry stone side walls in village walkways in the hilly areas. In Terai areas such facilities could be the gravelling of the walkways in the villages. The problems created by non-engineered walkway facilities are: difficulty in maintaining the smooth flow of traffic, difficulties from the muddy and dirty portions in the walkways, creation of water patches, erosion of the base and physical burden to refill the eroded portion. By not having the proper place for animals to drink and bath, often unsanitary conditions are created. Some interventions have been made

- 14- on composting pit, disposal of animal wastes, separation and disposal of solid wastes from the household premises during the implementation of RWSSP I.

It has been fclt essential to make these activities more comprelhensive not only during the project implementation period but also during the whole life-span of the project. Similarly, it is essential to (lisseminate the information aboLut good practices, scientific methods of hiousehold management, kitchen management, animal keeping and disposing the wastes. There munst an effective and sustainable awareness campaign for school children specially to disseminate the inforrmation of: maintaining a sanitary system in schools, maintaining the containers for keeping anal cleansinig water and transporting water from the tap, proper ways of sitting on the squat pan and ways of keeping the toilet clean.

Traditionial wvater values.- Many of the water supply schemes are replacing the traditional spouts, kuwas or other supply as these traditional sources could be away from the community or they are simply inadequate to meet the demand of the community. In Nepal, the traditional concepts in using these sources are interlinked with many festivals, rituals or group activities. The reason for carrying out such activities in the water sources is to ensure the sustainability of the source, protection of health and well being. In this way the water use also has a spiritual link to the people and they are obliged to protect the sources. Trees are planted on the catclhment areas, proper sanitary conditions are maintained on such premises and young generations are made aware on this spiritual ties to water. RWSSP I formats do not make any provisions for the assessment of such traditional concepts and practices. It is proposed that RWSSP TImakes such arrangement so that the traditional values are respected to ensure the sustainability of the new water supply and sanitation schemes. Detailed discussion on these issues are also given on Chapter V.

2.11 Groundwvater issues

The followings are the findings and recommendations from the recent study on RWSS I grolindwater schemes (RWSSFDBa, 2002).

The objectives of thie study were to: identify the rcasons for the failure of tube well schemes implemented for rLural water supply, investigate hydrogeology and nature of aquifers for tuLbe well construction in the area and produce hydrogeological maps for pre-developmnent, development and implementation activities, reduce the chances of failure of tubewell scheme for fuiture program, identify feasible area for tube well schemes and prepare a adequate gulideline for tube well survey, construction and installation.

The study has identified three hydrogeologic situation in Terai and valleys in Nepal. The first category includes the northern part termed as 'Bhabher zone whiclh has a hard formation (boulder to gravel), deep water level in the range of greater than 7 m below ground level (BGL) and a high fluctuation of water level over 4m. The second category includes middle Terai area which has hard to medium formation (coarse gravel and occasionally pebbles and cobbles), shallow to medium level water level in the range of less than 7 m BGL and medium to low fluctuation of water level of 2 to 3 m. The third category includes the main Terai or tile southern part where medium to soft formnation (gravel to sandy or silty coarse), shallow water level in the range of less than 5 m BGL, low fluctuation of water level (I to 2 m) exists.

The report has made a discussion on the existing situation of completed schemes. For example, the Dug Well scheme of Mushamiya WSS scheme in Sirha district which was also

- 15 - visited by the team members of this stuLdy, has static water level (SWL) in the range of very critical zone. The level is 21 to 22 ni below the top of the dug well. There is a possibility that the wells might be depleted due to draught and peak dry period.

The report lhas outlined the following lessons to be learned. - schemes have been implemented without adequate survey and design - the major driving factors are local demand and local technology - seasonal water level fluctuation has been ignored - tube well / dug wells were also constructed in wet season too which implied that adequate depth might not have been reached - no pre-survey and pre-test for lithology, water quality and water level have been conducted - users expect for high discharge artisan wells - timne gap between tube well installation and construction of plateforms which lead to unwanted slhaking by the children - maintenance is not followed and tool box is not provided to the commuinity - water logging persists around tubewell in some schemes

The report has made the following recommendations in order to ensure the successful dug well and tube well schemes. - During pre-development phase, secondary information on the hydrogeological and other aspects should be collected from the groundwater field offices under the Department of Irrigation, Ministry of Water Resources and HMG district offices, Community Groundwater Irrigation Sector Project, Community Shallow Tube Well Irrigation Project, Groundwater Rural Development Project - It is desirable to have groundwater survey and mapping which provides the information on existing TW/DW inventory, depth to aquifer, static water level, pumpinlg water level and water quality - The construction or implementation of TWs or DWs should be carried out during the dry season ( January to May) - Standard design for TW and DW and information on local hydrogeology, water quality and litlhology should be provided to the community - ReguLlar monitoring program is essential and shouild include the monitoring of indicators related to water quality, water level and environment in general - Arsenic case in Nepal is not investigated thoroughly in a systematic way to find root causes of contamination. There are several mitigation measures applied in other countries. These have to be initiated in seriously affected areas: Nawalparasi, Rautalhat, Sarlahi, Parsa and other districts - Technicians under SO, SA and engineers / PMs involved in the program should have thorouLgh knowledge of groundwater and aquifer system like confined, unconfined and pheratic aquifers and how to utilize them in the community level. The system should be so designed that it should be low cost, sustainable and feasible with technical and financial justification. For this purpose, groundwater training to all levels is very essential. - Artisan leakage like in Gadi Schemes should be sealed properly or controlled to make the groundwater environment friendly. Otherwise grounldwater reserve or aquifer system/ artisan head will be exhausted

- 16 - CHAPTER III

BASELINE ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS

3.1 General

Nepal is a land-locked country located in the Himalayan Region where the Indian plains meet the Tibetan plateau of China. It covers an area of 147,181 square kilometers with a majority of the terrain predominated with mountains and hills. Geographically Nepal is located in between 26° 22' and 30° 27' N latitude and 800 4' and 880 12' E longitude. The unique topography of Nepal includes a terrain of altitudes ranging from 60 m in the south to 8, 848 m in the north which includes the highest point on earth called the Everest. Nepal has an average north-south width of 193 km and east-west length of 885 km. Consequently, the country has a wide range of climatic zones including the tropical in the low lands to Arctic in higlher altitudes within a short span of 80-150 km resulting a bio-diversity of sub-tropical Rain- forests to Alpine deserts. The northern part is comprised of Himalayas which is mostly snow covered round the year and the southern part has a narrow belt of plain area. The rest of the country is Middle Hills which includes many valleys and hilly watershed areas and has been the traditional zone of human occupancy in Nepal and it is extensively cultivated with high population pressure. Kathmandu Valley, capital city of Nepal and Pokhara Valley, a major tourism spot lie in this region.

Administratively, Nepal has been divided in to 5 development regions, 14 zones and 75 districts. Districts are further divided into smaller units, called Village Development Committee (VDC) and Municipality. Currently, there are 3, 914 VDCs and 58 Municipalities in the country. Each VDC is composed of 9 wards, Municipality ward ranges from 9 to 35 (CBSa, 2002).

3.2 Topography

The topography of Nepal is comprised of Terai, the Chure range, Inner Terai, Mahabharat range, Midland hill region, main Himalayas, the inner Himalayan Valleys and the Trans- Himalayan ranges. The narrow strip of flat alluvial terrain along the south boarder is called Terai which covers 23 percent of the territory. The Terai region constitutes the most productive agricultural region of the country. The altitude of Terai ranges from 60 m to 300 m. The Chure range constitute the southern hill region of Nepal with an altitude upto 2000 m. Inner Terai is the disjointed from Terai by the Chure range but the topographic features are similar to those of Terai region. Situated in between the Inner Terai, Chure range and the Terai, and the Himalayan region, the Mahabharat Lekh and the mid hill region constitute about 40 % of the land area of Nepal. The altitude of the Mahabharat and the mid hills range from 600 to 3000 m. The inner Himalayan Valleys situated at an elevation of about 4000 home to highland m is dwellers. However, only 7 % of the population reside in the Mountains. Area, population and number of districts by geographic region is shown in Table 3.1. Because of this topographical variation, the country exhibits the diversity not only in the natural resources and climatic conditions but also the settlement pattern, socio-economy, tradition and cuilture. Consequently the water supply and sanitation schemes located different in the regions demand specific considerations for effective implementation functioning. and smooth

- 17- Table 3.1: Area, population and number of districts by geographic region (CBSb,c, 2002) Physiographic Area Number of Population region in 2001 (million) districts kmrn_2 % Size % Mountains 51, 817 35.2 16 1.69 7.29 Hills 61, 345 41.7 39 10.25 44.28 Terai 34,019 23.1 20 11.21 48.43 Total 147, 181 100 75 23.15 100

3.3 Climate

Depending on the altitude that varies from 60 m in Terai to more than 8000 m in the Himalaya, the country experiences a wide range of climatic conditions. The five major climatological zones are: subtropical, warm temperate, cool temperate, alpine and arctic. The climate of Terai, Inner Terai and Churia range is sub-tropical. Warm temperate climate prevails in the hilly areas in general. However, even within a cross-section of a mid hill area, lower river valleys are sub tropical and high ridges are cool temperate. Most of the rainfall occurs during the summer monsoon season. Winter temperatures are mild. Alpine climate appears in the higher mountatin regions with low temperature in summer and extremely frosty condition in the winter. The annual mean precipitation in the country is 1500 mm most of which (80%) occurs during the Monsoon season (June - September). The highest mean rainfall of 5202 was recorded in Lumle in Kaski district where as minimum was observed in Mustang (CBS, 1998). Temperatures are lowest during winter and remain hot in the pre- monsoon period. In the Terai, temperatures can go up to 440 C in the summer and fall to 5° C in the winter. The corresponding temperatures for the hill and mountatin areas are 41° C and 300 C, respectively, in the sumnmer, and 30 C and far below 00 C, respectively, in the winter. The valley of Kathmandu hias a pleasant eqtuable climate with average summer and winter temperatures of 1 90 - 270 C and 20 - 120 C, respectively. During monsoon the relative humidity reaches more than 80% because of the ample supply of moisture by the south easterly monsoonal flow but decreases to less than 50% in the dry season. Annual pan evaporation rates of 1400 mm to 1900 mm are usual. Ramechhap, Manang, and Mustang are the places where typical hiigh wind speeds of more than 30 m/s. Average sunshine hours are varied between 4 - 8 hours per day (CBS, 1998).

3.4 Soils

The type of the soil differs according to the geographic region. The soil in Terai and Churia region conlsists mainly of alluvial deposits derived from the erosion of sediments from the Himalays. This region is highly fertile and intensely cultivated. The Churia region comprises of north dipping sedimentary rocks of tertiary age characterized by low elevation strike ridges. The mid-hills consists mainly of low grade metamorphic and metasedimentary rocks such as phyllite, quiartzite, limestone and dolomite. Table 3.2 provides a brief summary of the geology and soil type by geographic region.

- 18- The components of a rural water supply project normally come across the following land use types: forest and shrub area, crop land (Khet and Bari ), barren land (Pakho Jamin) and settlement area. Forest and shrub land are generally shallow and well drained soils occurring mostly on moderately steep to very steep terrain. The land which is used for crops like paddy, Khet, has rclatively low permeability as of high value of clay or loam in the soil. Bari Pakho Jamin have and relatively high permeability values as of high content of boulder beds. and gravel

Table 3.2 Elevation, geology and s il characteristics by geog aphic region (KESL, 1986) Elevation, m Geology Soil type Terai and Inner 60 - 300 Quaternary alluvium Ustochrepts, Haplustolls, Terai Haplaquepts, Haplustalfs, Ustifluvents and Ustorthents Churia range 200 - 1500 Tertiary sandstone, Ustochrepts, Haplustolls, siltstone, shale and Rhodustalfs, Ustorthents, conglomerates Dystrochrepts, Haplaquepts, .______Usti fluvents Mahabharat and 800 - 3000 Phyllite, quartzite Ustochrepts, Haplustolls, mid-hills limestone and islands Rhodustalfs, Haplumbrepts, of granite Ustorthents, Ustifluvents High mouLntain 2200 - 4000 Gneiss, quartzite and Eutrochrepts, Dystrochrepts, mica sheets Haplumbrepts, Cryumbrepts, Cryorthoents and Ustorthents Himalaya > 4000 m Gneiss, schist, Cryumbrepts, Cryorthents limestone and Tethys and Rock . ______sedim ents

3.5 Landuse

There is a great variation in land resources and land use pattern across different regions of Nepal (Fig. 3.1). The distribution of land according to land-use type is shown in (UNEP, 2001). Table 2.3 Table 3.3 Land-use pattern (1999 Land-use type Area ('OOOha) i Cultivated land 2,968 20 Non-cultivated land 998 7 Grass land 1,745 12 Forest land 4,269 29 Shrb / degraded land 1,559 11 Other land uses 3,179 22 Total 14,718 100

- 19- I'-Oa 83 540°

Nepal b , > KX Land Cover / Land Use and Protected Areas

K ,; - - 8 . /,,; Legend /¢ w<.^j Land Use/ Land Cover -1978/79 (LRMP)

TL. ^ . - - t /////////o ¢_ Forest 138.6%J Snow and Ice 13.6%) )-T¢ ' ; .: /////// Shrua6nd 14.1%) Rocks / Sries ard Slips (13.1% 4 * , ;- //////// \ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Agfrculture 126.9%/J Sand / Grisvel /Bouwtlis 11 .S* ' /4////W'f? '-'' ;a'ss /X/X 1 , Grazing Land (12.0%) Urban (0.1%) / ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Lakes!Reservoirs/ Swamps (0.1I%) PoetdAe WF 98

. . Kf--. ------. - - so o so 1 00 kin} ; 1h

20-~ ~ ~ ~ ~ # Projecion: IJTM,S perW Everei, XSbil 400000, Ori4in- 84 *00'E26'8 1S5'N >.J: Source: land Cover Daii.ta1:00) La Resources MappingProject, 1986 .\, = Protectd Area: WWF vNepal, 199s Fig. 3.1 Land cover / Land use and protected areas

- 20 - The agricultural lanid arca has increased from 2,376 thousand hectares in 1980 to 2, 968 thousand hectares in 1985. However, it has remained constant during 1985 - 1999 period (UNEP, 2001). The per capita agricuiltural land has declined from 0.16 ha in 1980 to 0.13 ha in 1999(CBS, 1999). Preliminary findings of the National Population Census 2001 showed that the percentages of no. of houselholds having agriculture land, and livestock and birds has remained to be 75.6 and 71.5, respectively (CBSc, 2002). The Census data also indicated that 84.08 % of the total houselholds are located in rural settings. Thus it is very clear that majority of the population to be covered under RWSSP II will be farmers located throughout the 75 districts of Nepal. The opportunity provided by the existing landuse pattern of rural communities for rural water supply and sanitation is due to the nature of schemes to be of small scale and in isolated locations. However, the difficulty lies with the fact that it is costly and may not be feasible to cover the all scattered households of a community.

3.6 Socio-economy

The population of Nepal increased from 18.491 million in 1991 to 23.15 million in 2001 (CBSc, 2002) . The distribution in three geographic region is shown in Table 2.1. Other principal indicators of the socio-economy in 2001 included: life expectancy at birth-59.7 years, literacy rate - 53.74 %, per capita GDP- Rs 17,712 and per capita GNP - Rs. 18,451.

The Nepal Human Development Report 2001 estimated the Human Development Index (HDI) for Nepal to be 0.466 based on Life Expectancy at birth of 59.5 years, adult literacy rate of 50.7 % and mean years of education to be 2.9 years and a GDP per capita of Rs. 1, 237.00 (UNDP, 2002). The HDI for urban areas (0.616) far outstripped that for rural areas (0.466), where more than 80 % of the population live, because of far better access to services, resoturces, and opportunities. The indices for Mountain, Hill and Terai were estimated as 0.378, 0.510 and 0.474, respectively. The broad scattering of communities in the mountains slharply limits access to services and information and severely disadvantaged people who live tlhere. On the regional basis, the mid-western (0.402) and far-western (0.385) had lower values thian of national average showing the concentration of less produlctive economic activities there.

Nearly four-Fiftlhs of the total population depends upon agriculture as its primary source of carning. Nearly four-fiftlhs of all workers are also self-employed, almost all in the agricultural sector. Sixty-nine percent of the agricultural holdings, however, are less than one hectare in size. The agricultural GDP grew annually by only 2.3 percent during the last two decades.

Tourism is considered to be one of the most potential sector for the economic and social development of Nepal. Nepal has been a destination for tourists because of its cultural, social and natural resources. Energy demand is met from a combination of traditional and commercial soturces such as fuelwood, agricultural residues, animal wastes, solar power and hydropower. Traditionally fuelwood has been the major source of energy and about 70% of the total population meet their energy demand from forest products. The major mode of transport is road networks. Domestic air transport still plays a vital role as a means of transport as many districts of the country are still not connected by road networks.

Nepal is heading for the economic development with liberalization policy and has implemented various programs for eliminating the poverty and achieve rapid growth rate. Private sector has been encouraged and efforts are underway to generate more employment. Although, Nepal lacks modern development infrastructure and the income level of majority of

- 21 - the population is fairly low, the mountainous landscape has also offered diverse potentials for economic development. The steep topographical features and high run-off are the main factors offering a hydroelectricity potential of 45,000 MW installed capacity although theoretical hydropower the potential of Nepal's rivers, based on an average flow, has advocated at been 83,000 MW which is one of the largest potential in the world. country Similarly, tlle posses strong tourism viability as of many natural, archeological attractions. and religious

On the other hanid the Nepalese society has a tradition of maintaining the harmnony and peace among various ethnic communities. The family and kinship networks providing the individuals with wide ranging personnel relations as well as social security in difficult times. People continuLe diverse ritual and religious practices which give meaning to their life resulting in to a stability in the society. Crisis management is a very regular activity of the majority of the houselholds.

3.7 State of the environment

The following paragraphs provide a synopsis of the state of the environment in Nepal as discussed in the State of the Environment Report, 2001 prepared by United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 2001).

The key environmental issues of Nepal are related to forests, soil, solid waste, water, and air. Forest depletion

The forests, a major resource base of Nepal, cover an area of 42,682 sq.km, 29% of the total land area, and shrub covers 15,601 sq.km or 10.6% of the total area. Forest depletion is one of the major environmental issues in the country. The forests have decreased in both area coverage and density over previous decades. Landslides, soil erosion, floods, encroachment forests by cultivated of land and people for settlement, among others, have been responsible this. for

Out of the total land area in the country, the forest area, according to the Land Resources Mapping Project (LRMP) accounted for 38% in 1978/79; in 1994 the area had declined to 29%. The slhrub area increased dLuring the same period from 4.7 to 10.6%. This has been mainly due to uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuelwood and forest clearance for agricultural land. Between 1978/79 and 1994, the estimated rate of annual deforestation in the Hills was 2.3% compared to 1.3% in the Terai, while for the country as a whole it was 1.7%. During the same period, the annual decrease in forest and shrub together was 0.5%. In terms of area, the forests of the country decreased by 24%.

The agricultLral area increased from 235,900 ha in 1980 to 2,968,000 ha in 1985 remained constant and then up to 1999. This increment was mainly due to the encroachment areas. The forest on forest was also encroached by development works and human settlements. There has been a decrease in the growing stock rate of the trees. In 1985, the total growing stock was 522 million cubic meters of bark up to 10 cm top diameter, and this dwindled down to 387.5 million cubic meters in 1999. The growing stock for sal (Shorea robusta) in the Terai forests declined from 101 m3/ha 3 to 72 m /ha and for other hardwood forests the decline was from 76 rn3/ha to 58 m3/ha. Fuelwood constitutes 78% of the total fuel consumption and its - 22 - use is one of the main causes of forest depletion. This is basically due to the lack of alteniative fuel to wood. As a result, distances from the villages to the forests have increased.

The forest has also been Linder great pressure from the ever-increasing demand of the livestock population for grazing and fodder. Species of flora and fauna have also declined due to forest depletion. In 1996, 47 endemic plant species were found to be under immense threat. The country's threatened animal species, including mammals and birds, had shares of 3.8 and 2.3% respectively of the world's endangered species. Landslides, soil erosion, and floods have occurred as a result of the clearing of forcsts, particularly in the hills. While sedimentation has taken place in downstream areas, the occurrence of floods and landslides has also affected huLman life and property.

Soil degra&cla ion Nepal's mountains and hills are inherently vulnerable to landslides and soil erosion. The rapid growtlh of humnani and livestock population is putting severe pressure on Nepal's natural resources, especially soil. Deforestation, degradation of grasslands, encroachment of steep slopes, and intensive agriculture are leading to soil degradation. Unbalanced use of chlemical fertilisers is also causilng soil degradation through change in soil structure and acidification.

Development works, particularly the construction of mountain roads without adequate conservation measures, have also contributed to landslides and soil erosion. Studies have shown that 60-80% of the total annual soil loss from cultivated terraces occurs during the pre- monsoon season. The declining soil fertility has resulted in stagnancy in the production of major food crops.

The one-way flow of nutrients from forest to farmland has resulted in rapid depletion of nuLtrients in forest soils. The Ninth Plan (1997-2002) realised that the decline in crop production is mainly due to soil degradation.

Soli(d iaste Inanagement Solid waste managemenit problems are caused by the introduction of plastic materials and chaniging consumnption patterns, especially in urban areas, and these have resulted in an increase in the volume of solid waste. The urban population makes up about 15% of the country's total population. However, the rapid growth in urban population by over 5% per annum in Nepal has exerted tremendous pressure on the urban environment. One consequence of this is an increasing amount of garbage, which is often seen littering city streets or in duLmps on the river banks and in other public places.

Urbanisation in Nepal is characterised by haphazard and unplanned urban growth, inviting many environmenital problems such as encroachment of public areas and river banks, air pollution, water pollution, and solid waste. Among these, solid waste seems to be the most visible problem. Households are the main sources of solid waste in Nepal. The per capita waste generation is estimated to be 0.48 kg per day. In 1999, about three million urban residents in Nepal's 58 municipalities generated a total of 426,486 tonnes of waste, to which the city of Kathmandu alone contributed 29%. Of the total waste generation in the country, solid waste made up about 83%, agricultural waste constituted 11%, and industrial waste accounted for 6%.

The major types of hazardous waste generated in the country are medical waste, battery wastes, pesticides, and a few types of industrial waste. An estimated 500 tonnes of hazardous

- 23 - waste is generated per year from hospitals and 235 tonnes from dry cell batteries including factory waste. Most of these wastes are either dumped with the rest of the garbage or burned in ordinary kilns. The total consumption of pesticides in the country is approximately 55 tonnes of active ingredients per year. BHC, aldrin, and endosulfan are commonly used pesticides. Most unused pesticides are thrown on to open dumps. Obsolete pesticides are classified as hazardous waste. Currently, about 67 tonnes of obsolete pesticides are stockpiled in unsafe conditions at various locations in the country.

Water quiality Rivers and groundwater are major sources of drinking water in Nepal. Over time, country's requirements the for water for drinking and personal hygiene, agriculture, activities, religious industrial production, and hydropower generation have increased.

Major towns and cities in the Hills have acute problems of water availability. In the Kathmandu Valley, water supply meets only 79% of the total urban demand of 145 litres/day during million the rainy season. The carpet industries alone consume about of water 6.1 million litres per day and generate 5.5 million litres of waste water daily.

In 1998, the total annual withdrawal of water for consumptive uses was 16.70 billion m3 /year, which accounted for 7.4% of the total capacity. In 1994, it was 5.8%. In other words, the annual per capita withdrawal of water 3 3 was 760 m in 1998 compared to 650 m in 1994. Nepal's rural settlements and the majority of urban areas do not have access to sewerage networks. The domestic waste water generated by these areas is discharged into local rivers without treatment. Forty per cent of Nepal's total industrial units (4,271) in 1992 were found to have a direct linkage to water pollution caused in the vicinity. In Kathmandu Valley, this accounlted for 57% of total industrial units (2,174). All industrial wastes in most cases are directly discharged into local water-bodies without treatment.

The use of chemical fertilisers (NPK) per hectare increased tremendously from 7.6 kg in 1975 to 26.6 kg in 1998. The decline in forest area reduced the water recharge capacity of groundwater sources. The water quality of rivers and lakes flowing through the large areas is deteriorating. urban The water quality of rivers flowing in remote areas is still acceptable. The quantity of water for household uses is severely limited and the quality of drinking water is poor in most cases, mainly due to the lack of treatment plants. The rivers are also major places for disposal of urban solid waste and industrial effluents.

Patient visits to hospitals because of diarrhoeal problems have increased tremendously. A report obtained from a local hospital in Kathmandu showed that 16.5% of all deaths were due to water-borne diseases. Rivers, ponds, and lakes, particularly in the major urban areas, been greatly affected have by dumping and discharging of household waste, sewerage, industrial effluents and into them. The aesthetic value and biodiversity of water been affected. bodies have also

Airpolluttiouz Air quality, particularly in the large urban areas of Nepal, has deteriorated. Several factors are responsible for this. The energy supply in Nepal comes largely from traditional sources such as fuelwood, agricultural residues, and animal waste. These sources make up nearly 90% of

- 24 - the total energy consumption. Other sources like petroleum fuel, coal, and electricity share the remaining 10%.

The number of vehicles is rising rapidly, particularly in the major urban areas. The total number of vehicles in the country increased from 75,159 in 1990 to 220,000 in 1998. The two-wheeler was the largest, accounting for nearly 51% of the total vehicles. As a consequence, the consumption of petrol and diesel increased from 31,056,000 litres and 195,689,000 litres in 1993 to 49,994,000 litres and 315,780,000 litres in 1998. All the vehicles (four wheels and two wheels) are responsible for emitting pollutants such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, suspended particulate matter, smoke, and soot.

In 1994, Nepal's total industries numbered 4,487, of which 74% were classified as air polluting industries. Of the total air polluting industries, Kathmandu alone had 33%. Emission of carbon dioxide was estimated to be 15.45 x 107 tonnes in 1999. Annual emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from petroleum products was estimated at 72,000 tonnes of carbon and 1790 tonnes of nitrogen from 1970-1990. Methane production was 1.2 million tonnes in 1997. Due to deforestation and burning of fuelwood, the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO ) in tlhe atmosphere 2 has increased. It is estimated that the annual deforestation of 26,602 hectares of land has emitted 7.77 million tonnes of CO 2 into the atmosphere.

The impacts of air pollutionl in Nepal are as follow.

- Air pollution has had a direct impact on human health. Respiratory diseases increased from 10.9% of the total outpatient visits (5,167,378) in 1996 to 11.6% of the total outpatient visits (7,115,981) in 1998.

- The inhabitants of Nepal's mountain region are much more vulnerable to respiratory diseases because of the burning of fuelwood in poorly ventilated houses. Hospital records show that a greater number of respiratory diseases occurred in the urban population than in the rural population; and this may be due to the smoke and dust emitted from vehicles and industries. Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI) accounted for more than 30% of total deaths in children under five years of age. A significant proportion of the population, in both rural and urban areas, is affected by bronchitis caused by domestic smoke. - The air quality in Nepal's major urban areas has deteriorated because of the emission of smoke from vehicular traffic. Dust particles emitted by cement factories have caused an adverse impact on vegetation growth, as well as low visibility and low degree of incoming sunlight.

3.8 Status of water supply and sanitation

Realizing the fact that the drinking water is one of utmost basic needs, stronger emphasis has been given to the Water Supply and Sanitation (WATSAN) Sector in Nepal. His Majesty's Government of (HMG/N) defined the two key objectives of WATSAN development as: * Increasingly utilise human resources for more productive activities in the economy

- 25 - Improve-health status and welfare of the population by reducing incidence of water related diseases

Planned development of the WATSAN sector commenced with the advent of the Third Five Year Plan (1965-1970) in which 1.5% of national budget was allocated to this sector. During these periods the coverage of water supply had remained less than 10% of the entire population and the figure for life expectancy was 40 years. Infant Mortality and Child Mortality per 1000 live birth were 180 and 290 respectively at the beginning of Third Five Year Plan. HMG/N prioritized the WATSAN sector during the implementation of International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade (IDWSD), 1981-1990 and set a fairly ambitious target of primarily focussing on the provision of water supply. As the investments to match this ambitious target were not forthcoming and the approach was prominently geared to water supply without due consideration on sanitation and health sub sectors. The task of providing water and sanitation facilities to all remained as a major challenge to the concerned authiorities. Therefore, the Government pursued firm policies and programms in the WATSAN sector. Emphasis has been given to replace the he traditional 'top-down' or the 'supply driven' approach of the sectoral agencies by 'demand responsive' and participatory approach, which greatly lays focus on the significance of the user's participation. In lieu, a coordinated and integrated approach has been adopted which leads to the development of water supply and sanitation programs in parallel. A major 'implementer-to-facilitator' shifl of role of the implementing authorities has been envisioned to achieve sustainability through a co-ordinated action.

During the Eighth five year plan (1992-1997), the Government has increased the budgetary allocations to this sector by more than 5%. HMG/N has taken a proactive developmental strategy that considers long term sustainability and decentralised approach and solicits participation of all direct and indirectly involved stakeholders.

As outlined above drinking water, on the positive side, has become much more accessible thain in the past. Piped and hand-pumped drinking water facilities, which are also comparatively safer, have expanded considerably due to governmental, NGO/fNGO, Community based organisations (CBO) and private initiatives in the rural and urban areas. Thus, within a span of five years (between 1991 and 1996) access to piped water in the rural areas has nearly doubled (Table 3.4). Access to hand-pumped groundwater has also increased substantially and use of the uncovered spring water and river/spring water has decreased.

Access to latrines, however, is extremely low in the rural areas. It is also the single most potent source of environmental pollution. Very high prevalence rate of diarrhoea and dysentery and other water-borne diseases owes principally to the low level of access to latrines. Access to latrines, furthermore, and unlike access to drinking water, increased only marginally during 1991-1996. The MOH data on latrines are fully corroborated by the 1996 NPC-UNICEF (1997) data as well.

Limited hiousing space, which is proximately rooted in the relatively large family size and broad-based poverty, also leads to a variety of pollution. Indoor smoke pollution and diseases associated with1 such pollution are endemic, particularly in the northern areas with a cold climate where the fuelwood-based hearth is also utilised as a living room and the kitchen heat is utilised to heat the home. Communicable diseases find a receptive condition in such settings. The very higlh incidence of skin diseases there, noted earlier, can be linked to such

- 26 - housing conditions. The high incidence of tuberculosis, measles, etc. can be similarly linked as well,

Table 3.4: Distribution of households by selected water supply and sanitation indicators and rural urban locations ( MOH, 1992, 1997)

Indicators 1991 1996 .______.Rural Urban Rural Urban Sources of drinking water Piped water 16.3 51.3 29.1 57.4 Well water 12.1 6.4 7.0 8.7 Hand pump 26.5 38.6 33.30 27.3 Spring water (kuwa) 32.9 2.9 20.80 0 River/Stream 9.09 0.20 7.60 3.30 Stone tap 2.7 0.60 1.60 1.80 Others 0.6 0.10 1.40 0.60 Toilet in the house Yes 16.5 69.8 17.7 73.7 No 83.5 30.20 82.30 26.3 Persons sleeping per room 1-2 32.5 55.2 37.8 52.0 3-4 37.1 29.2 37.5 31.9 5-6 19.90 11.40 17.40 12.70 7 plus 10.5 4.2 7.1 2.8 Mean persons/room - - 3.5 3.0 Sample size of households 23,134 162 7336 716

The ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002) had a target of providing access to piped water supply facilities to 100 percent of the national population while the sanitation coverage is expected to be at 50 percent level. In addition, this was expected to be accomplished within a conceptual framework of sustained development, effective service delivery and equitable distribution of the services. It should define and create clear-cut rules and responsibilities of government, local institutions, NGOs and other stakeholders. The major strategies adopted are classification of service level according to water quantity, quality, accessibility and reliability; mobilization of local resources, protection of existing water sources, prioritization of projects benefiting the backwards and underprivileged communities, encouraging the active participation of user groups, integration of sanitation programs and water supply activities to improve hygiene and public health, development of appropriate technologies, facilitation of decentralized operational modalities by involving all stakeholders, and making user groups and local authorities fully responsible in the process of project planning, operation and maintenance services.

His Majesty's Government of Nepal and various development agencies have made strong commitments to provide access to both water supply and sanitation for entire population of Nepal during the last two five year plan periods. However, still a large section of population deprived of safe drinking water and proper sanitation facilities. The water supply and sanitation achievements were far below than the targets made by the eighth plan (1992-1997) and ninth plan ( 1997 - 2002). Table 3.5 provides a summary of the findings reported in the State of the Sanitation Report 1999/ 2000 (NSASC, 2000).

- 27 - Table 3.5 Status of Water Supply and Sanitation 1996 (NSASC, 2000) Source Rural Urban Total Access to water - NMIS' Estimate 50.0 81.0 53.0 - Nepal Liv. Standard Survey 68.8 95.6 2 70.4 - NFHS 61.4 84.7 63.4 Plan targets Eighth Plan (1997) 71.0 77.0 72.0 Ninth Plan (2002) 100 100 100 Access to latrine - NMIS Estimate 12 63 15 - Nepal Living Standard Survey 17.7 73.7 23.8 Plan targets Eighth Plan (1997) 8.9 48.5 12.9 Ninth Plan(2002) 36.0 60.0 40.0 'Nepal Multiple Indicator Surveillance, 2 National Family Health Survey The findings of a nationally representative Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) conducted during January, 2001 to June, 2001 by Ministry of Health, New ERA and ORC Macro are given in Table 3.6.

Table 3.6 Housing characteristics by residence Background characteristics Urban Residence Rural Residence Total Source of drinking water - piped water 55.2 33.0 35.4 - Dug well 10.9 3.8 4.6 - Tube well / bore hole 30.8 38.1 37.4 - surface water' 3.1 24.9 22.7 Time to water source % less than 15 minutes 93.0 74.1 76.1 Sanitation facility - Flushl toilet 58.3 6.1 11.5 - Traditional pit latrine 14.6 17.1 16.8 - Ventilated / improved pit latrine 7.0 1.5 2.1 -No facility bush / field 20.1 75.3 69.5 spring /kuwa, river/stream/pond/lake, stone tap/dhara

NDHS has also a presented a trend on infant mortality rate in Nepal as shown in Table 3.7. Table 3.7: Trends in the infant mortality rate in Nepal, 1969-1998 (MoH, New ERA and ORC Macro, 2002) Approximate NFS 1976 NFFS 1986 NFHS 1991 NFHS 1996 NDHS 2001 midpoint 1969 156 1974 140 1979 90 123 1984 103 115 127 1988 80 108 107 1993 79 90 1998 . 64 - 28 - Fig. 3.2 shows the under-five mortality rates by place of residence.

Deatlhs per 1,000 births 1 8 (14

140{/

100 I 2 / 84

UJrh.tnI Riur.l om1 itlol1 1 H11 erlir Eastern Ceilral We_tern Mid- Far- western western PI(e of rfidelQit'(

ii ii. I r iii Ihi-ii.ir I,rI hd ~'J.iii I I lhi 'ifrsue Nqm)dl2i iiI

Fig. 3.2 Under five mortality rates by place of residence

Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning (MHPP) reports the status of water supply and sanitation expected at the end of ninth plan as shown in Table 3.8.

The estimates for water supply status made by NDHS as shown in Table 3.6 and MHPP's figures as shown in Table 3.8 are in close agreement. However, there is a slight difference with the sanitation figures.

Table 3.8 Expected status by the end of ninth plan' (MHPP, 2002) Description Rural Urban Total Population per cent Population per cent Population per (in thousands) (in thousands) (in thousands) cent Basic water 14464 71.3 2512 72.6 16976 71.5 supply Basic 4094 20.0 1826 53.0 5920 25.0 sanitation benefited population does not include coverage by NGO, Local development agencies and RWSSP in FY 2000 / 01 and 2001/02

- 29 - 3.9 State of the forest, agriculture and biodiversity

Following is a synopsis of the state of the forest, agriculture and biodiversity as reported by the State of the Environment Nepal: Agriculture and Forestry 2001 (MOPE 2001).

Agriculture constitutes the base for Nepal's economic growth and over 80 % of the active population depend upon agriculture. The percentage of people dependent on agriculture has declined graduLally from 91 per cent in 1981 to 81 percent in 1991. On an average about 65 per cent of the total cultivated land is rain fed. The Terai plains constitute 43 percent of the total cultivated land. The land distribution is also uneven. About 62.8 per cent of the land is owned by 16.1 per cent of the farmers. Agriculture sector accounts for 42 per cent of GDP. In comparison to the population growth rate, agricultural growth still lags behind resulting shortage of food produced. Nepal was self sufficient in food-grains until the 1980s but now the country has to import food. In addition to the loss of top fertile soil due to soil erosion, the agricultural land is also affected by river-bank cutting, sedimentation and inappropriate use of agro-chemicals such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides. These attributes have decelerated thie uLnit area agricultural production.

Forests constitute Nepal's largest natural resources in terms of coverage. The major use of forest products is for firewood, food, fodder, timber and medicines. About 29% of the total area of Nepal is under forest coverage with additional 10.6 % as shrubs or degraded forests. About 80% of the total population depend on forests for fuelwood. The fuel consumption for hotiselhold and industries is estimated at 15.4 million tones per year for 2000 as compared to 11.3 million tones per year in 1985. Annual per capita fuel wood consumption in the hills is estimated to be 640 kg while it is 479 kg for Terai. About 42 % of the fodder supply for total digestible nutrient for cattle is met from the forests. The effects of forest depletion are not only the difficulty in meeting the energy and fodder demand, soil loss, landslides and flood but also the migration of people to Terai/urban areas, drying up of water sources, loss of biodiversity and change in wildlife habitat. Nepal has a vast pool of species diversity. About 118 types of ecosystems (natural biomes) have been identified in different physiographic zones of Nepal. Nepal has over 2 % of flowering plants, 3 % of pteridophytes and 5 % of bryophytes of the world's flora. In general, the vegetation in Terai area is shared by Sal and mixed hardwoods in the forests. Churia region is characterized by the Sal, mixed hardwoods and pine forest. Mid-hills are mainly covered by the pine forest, mixed hardwood and oak forests. 1-ligh mountains have the coverage with fir, pine, birch and rhododedron species, open meadows and tundra vegetation. About 4.5 % of the world mammals are reported in Nepal. Similarly, over 9% of the reported species of birds at the global level are found in Nepal.

Recently community forestry programmes have been instrumental in conserving the forests and meeting the demands for forests products. More than 8, 50, 000 ha of forest has been handed over to about 10, 500 Forests User Groups since the implementation of Forest Act 1993. The Federation of Community Forestry Users, established in 1995, has expanded its offices in over 60 districts. Soil conservation activities have been expanded with people's participation and over 800 community soil conservation user groups has been very active for soil conservation and watershed management. Several conservation successes are found in protected areas due to increase of wildlife and habitat improvement. Sixteen protected areas have been established during the last three decades and the land covered by such areas totals 18.14 per cent (26,696 kmi2) of the total area. The percentages breakdown of protected area is as follows: conservation area - 43%, national parks - 38 %, buffer zone - 10%, hunting reserve- 4% and wildlife reserve - 4%.

- 30 - 3.10 Status of water borne diseases

Table 3.9 shows an increasing trend in the number of diarrhoeal visits from FY 2055/56 to FY 2057/58, although there have been fewer diarrhoea epidemics in the country than there were a few years ago (DOH, 2001). Additional information is provided in Table 3.10 and 3.11

Table 3.9: Incidence of Diarrh ea by Region 2055/ 056 (1998/99) to 20 57/58(200 /2001) Indicators Year EDR CDR WDR MWDR FWDR National Total diarrhoeal 2055/56 134137 174964 118601 77217 56901 561820 visits 2056/57 140188 175513 105181 74436 55074 550392 2057/58 171772 180801 115786 78930 61058 608347 Total diarhoeal 2055/56 150 201 113 152 39 655 deaths 2056/57 17 35 31 77 66 226 2057/58 14 45 66 44 60 229 Incidence of 2055/56 180 167 178 164 171 172 diarrhoea 2056/57 183 162 153 154 160 164 1000 <5 years 2057/58 219 163 164 159 173 177 Popn

Case Fatality Rate 2055/56 1.1 1.1 1.0 2.0 0.7 1.2 1000<5 yrs. Popn 2056/57 0.1 0.2 0.3 1.0 1.2 0.4 2057/58 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.6 1.0 0.4

Table 3.10 : Top ten leading diseases (total new visits as a percentage of total population), by development region and ec logical zones, FY 2057/58 Develo !ment Region Ecological Zone Diseases / conditions N'onal EDR CDR WDR MWDR FWDR M'ntain Hill Terai Skin diseases 5.51 5.33 5.41 6.34 5.12 5.10 5.14 4.67 6.35 Diarrhoeal diseases 3.35 3.32 2.61 3.96 3.84 4.10 4.51 3.61 2.93 ARI 3.13 3.20 2.29 4.12 3.52 3.31 4.40 3.51 2.58 Intestinal worms 2.82 3.17 2.46 3.16 2.74 2.63 4.48 3.11 2.30 Pyrexia 2.02 1.74 1.62 2.36 2.29 3.04 2.39 1.82 2.14 Gastritis 1.95 1.67 1.47 2.76 2.32 2.18 2.70 2.31 1.51 Ear infection 1.40 1.37 1.41 1.42 1.42 1.37 1.57 1.24 1.53 Chronic Bronchitis 1.06 0.89 0.81 1.48 1.37 1.02 1.33 1.19 0.90 Abdominal pain 0.96 0.83 0.76 1.07 1.41 1.14 1.36 1.00 0.86 Sore eye and 0.93 0.80 0.80 1.07 1.15 1.18 1.71 1.06 0.70 complains I I I

Table 3.11: Top ten reasons for hospitalization ICD code Causes Percent 080 Single spontaneous delivery 25.56 A09 Diarrhea and gastroenteritis 6.01 R69 Unknown causes 3.38 AOI Typhoid and para typhoid fevers 3.32 J44 Other chronic obstructive pulmonary 3.27 J18 Pneumonia, orfanism unspecified 2.29 T14 Injury of unspecified body region 2.24 006 Unspecified abortion 2.12 J22 Unspecified acute lower respiratory 1.63 R50 Fever of unknown origin 1.61 All other causes 48.57 Total 100

-31 - CHAPTER IV

GUIDING POLICIES, REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS

4.1 World Bank's EA requirements

The World Bank Operational Manual (OP 4.01, January 1999) describes the Bank's operational policies for Environment Assessment (EA) of proposed projects. The objective of carrying out EA of projects proposed for Bank's financing is to help ensure that they are environmentally sound and sustainable and thus to improve decision making.

As per the Bank's policy and requirement, EA is initiated as early as possible in project processing and is integrated closely with the economic, financial, institutional, social and technical analysis of a proposed project. The borrower is responsible for carrying out the EA. The Bank reviews the findings and recommendation of the EA to determine whether they provide and adequate basis for processing the project for Bank financing.

Depending on the project, a range of instruments can be used to satisfy the Bank's EA requirement: environmental impact assessment (EIA), regional or sectoral EA, environmental audit, hazard or risk assessment and environmental management plan (EMP). EA applies one or more of these instruments or elements of them as appropriate.

To determine the extent and type of EA, environmental screening of each proposed project is carried out. Depending upon the type, location, sensitivity, and scale of the project and nature and magnitude of its potential environmental impacts, the projects are classified in to four categories.

Category A projects are likely to have significant adverse environmental impacts that are sensitive, diverse, or unprecedented. These impacts may affect an area broader than the sites or facilities subject to physical works.

A project is classified in Category B if its potential adverse environmental impacts on human populations or environmentally sensitive areas- including wetlands, forests, grasslands and other natural habitats- are less adverse than those of Category A projects. The impacts associated with B type projects may be site specific, few if any of them are irreversible and in most cases mitigation measures can be designed more readily than for Category A projects. The scope of EA for a Category B project may vary from project to project, but it is narrower than that of Category A EA.

Category C projects likely to have minimal or no adverse environmental impacts. Beyond screening, no further EA action is required for a Category C project.

Category F-I projects involve investment of Bank funds through a financial intermediary, in subprojects that may result in adverse environmental impacts.

For all Category A and B projects proposed for IDA financing during EA process, the borrower consults project-affected groups and NGOs about the projects environmental aspects and takes their views into account.

- 32 - For meaningful consultation between the borrower and project-affected groups and local NGOs on all Category A and B projects proposed for IDA financing, the borrower provides relevant material in a timely manner prior to consultation and in a formn and language that are understandable and accessible to the groups being consulted. Public availability in borrowing country and official receipt by the Bank of the EA report are prerequisites to Banks appraisal of these projects.

During the project implementation, the borrower reports on (a) compliance with measures agreed with the Bank on the basis of the findings and results of EA, including implementation of any EMP, as set out in the project documents; (b) the status of mitigatory measures and (c) the findings of monitoring programs. The Bank bases supervision of the project's environniental aspects on the findings and recommendations of the EA, including measures set ouLt in the legal agreements, any EMP, and other project documents.

The proposed project RWSSP 11, is expected to have a net positive impact on human population and the environment. In fact and in a broad sense, the objective of RWSSP II is to enhance the environmental quality by reducing the traditional environmental risks. In case of any adverse impact on environmentally important areas such as wetlands, forests, grasslands and other natural habitats, the mitigation measures can be designed and incorporate easily so as to improve the environmental performance. Thus as per these characteristics, RWSSP 11 has been classified as Category B project. The projects falling under this category require a limited environmental review to determine potential negative impacts, identify the appropriate mitigation measures and recognize the identification of opportunities for environmental assessment.

4.2 National EA requiirements

His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMG/N) has enacted the Environment Protection Act, 2053 (1997) (EPA) and the Environment Protection Rules, 2053 (1997) (EPR). The EPA requires that an EA either in the form of an Initial Environmental Assessment (IEE) or an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) shall be carried out for all proposed projects which meet the criteria listed in Schedules 1 and 2 in the EPR. While EIA has been described as a detailed study or evaluation of the adverse environmental impacts, IEE has been mentioned as a report on analytical study or evaluation. The EPA clearly outlines the concerned agency or the Ministry approval of the proposal as a prerequisites for the implementation of a project. The provisions are made such that a proponent must submit a project proposal accompanied by either IEE or EIA studies for the approval.

The EA process in Nepal as described in the EPA and EPR is illustrated in Figure 3.1. The EA process should be an integral part of the project cycle. The EA can be conducted either as an integral part of the project identification and feasibility study, or as a separate study. In either case the EA should be carried out in close coordination with the feasibility study, the social assessment, the engineering design work and construction activities. The EA will assist in determining the scope of the project, mitigation measures and implementation arrangements which should be incorporated into the project design and implementation plan.

- 33 - . =Environmental Environmental screening to designate project type ~~~~~EPRProtection Rules 2054 (EPRdr(Sehednul Schedules 1 and 2) 6254

NofurtherEAw lEEA REEe Project requiresign requd (Schedule 1_ (Schedule 2(

d a y m d Prepare scope and TOR Prepare TOR (c ofe IAl ) Inpute (Schedule 3) (Rule 5) 1 (Schedule4(l

out IEEMCarry c nvntand TOR l )(Rue 5)

Prepare IEE Report Carry out EIA ]41Pbil (Schedule 5) (Rule 7) Input Approved ~ amnotApoed25

s r , | ~~~~~~~~Preparedraft EIA Report| Submit to concerned (Schedule 6) (Rule7) agency for approva e (Rule 10) - g

Approved Not Approved Concerned agency reviews report and | . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~submitsto MOPE for + n r ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~approval(Rule 11)

Approved by Deision that EIA is | concerned agency needed I |MOPE makes EIA report Public (Rule 11) (Rule 6) ||available for public review Inu l l ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(Rule11) l I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~om iee

I | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~MOPEreviews and l | | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~approvesEIA Report| l l ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(Rule11) l

| ~~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~Approved| Not Approved

|Implement project in compliance| | wlth IEE/EIA Report ll Project Redesign l |(Rule 12)lllI

|Concerned agency monitors and|ll | evaluates implementation | Resubmit l (Rule 13)lll

|MOPE carries out environmental| i audit after 2 years l | (Rule 14)l

Fig. 4.1 Environmrental Assessment Process in Nepal

- 34 - EPR made a clear specification on the project proposals requiring either IEE or ELA.

In drinking water sector the following activities need an IEE. - Collection of rain-water in an area of not more than 200 hectares, and use of water sources (springs and wet-lands) located within the same area.

- Surface water sources with not more than I cubic ft. per sec safe yield, and supply of not more than 50 percent of the water during the dry season. - Processing of water at the rate of 10 to 25 liters per second.

- Recharging up to 50 percent of the total aquifer for the development of underground water sources.

- Construction of not more than one kilometer long tunnels for carrying water. - Displacement of not more than 100 persons for operating a water supply scheme. - Settlement of not more than 500 persons on the upper reaches of water sources.

- Supply of drinking water to a population ranging between 2,000 and 20,000.

- Supply of drinking water to a population ranging between 10,000 and 100,000, and connection of new sources.

- Installation of more than 20 kilometers long electricity transmission lines for pumping or processing water, and consumption of more than one MW of electricity.

- River training and diversion activities over an area of more than one kilometer. Similarly in waste management sector the following activity need an LEE.

- Waste management activities to be undertaken with the objective of providing services to a population ranging between 2,000 and 10,000.

- Following activities relating to waste emitted from houses and residential areas: Filling of land with 100 to 1000 tons of waste a year.

Activities relating to transfer stations and resource recovery areas spread over not more than 3 hectares.

Selecting, picking, disposing, and recycling waste through chemical, mechanical or biological techniques in an area of not more than 2 hectares. Activities relating to compost plants in an area ranging between 1 and 5 hectares.

The development projects which have either a larger population coverage, size or capacity than those listed above for IEE category are subjected to have EIA study. Thus as per national EA requirements, the schemes under RWSSP II neither need IEE nor EIA studies.

- 35 - 4.3 National legislation on water resources management

Water Resources Act 2049 (1992) (WRA) has been implemented to make arrangements for the rational utlization, conservation, management and development of the water resources that are available in the Kingdom of Nepal in the forn of surface water, underground water or in whlatsoever form, and for deterrnining beneficial uses of water resources, preventing environmental and other hazardous effects there of and also for keeping water resources free from pollution.

WRA outlines the following provisions. - Ownership of water resources The ownership of the water resources available in the Kingdom of Nepal shall be vested in the kingdom of Nepal.

- Utilization of water resources No person shall be entitled to utilize the water resources without obtaining a license under this Act. However, no license shall be required for the following uses of water resources. For one's own drinking and other domestic use on an individual or collective basis; for the irrigation of one's own land on an individual or collective basis; for the purpose of running water-mill or water grinder as cottage industry; for the use of boat on personal basis for local transportation; for the use, as prescribed, of the water resources confined to a land by the owner of such land.

A person or a corporate body making use water resources shall make its beneficial use without causing damage to other.

- Formation of Water Users Association: Persons willing to make use of water resources for collective benefits on an institutional basis may fonn a water Users Association as prescribed. The Water Users Association, constituted shotuld be registered by the prescribed officer or authority.

- Priority Order on the Utilization of Water Resources: While utilizing water resources following priority order shall, in general, be followed

Drinking water and domestic uses; Irrigation; Agricultural Uses such as animal husbandry and Fisheries; Hydroelectricity; Cottage Industry, industrial enterprises and mining uses, Navigation; Recreational uses; Other use.

- Provisions of License: A person or a corporate body, who desires to conduct survey or to utilize water resources, shall be required to submit an application to the prescribed officer or authority along with the economic, technical and environmental study report and with other prescribed particulars.

- Authority to fix the terms and conditions of the use of service and to levy the Service Charge:

- 36 - The licensee may make available services generated out of the use of water resources developed on its own to any other person on the basis of mutual terms and conditions and realize the charge in consideration of such services rendered to them. In case where, the services generated out of the use of water resources developed by His Majesty's Government is made available to any other person, the service charge may be fixed as prescribed, and may be realized in consideration of services rendered to them.

- Utilization and acquisition of other's land and house: If it is required that the land or house of any person be used or acquired for the purpose of performing any of the following function, the licensee may submit an application to His Majesty's Government :- for the construction of a dam or barrage; for the construction of a canal, ditch or tunnel, for the construction of a water tank on the surface or underground or for laying pipe, for the construction of ponds or installation of a water distributing center, for performing any other necessary work related to the development of water resources.

- Fixing of quality standard of water resources: His Majesty's Government may, by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette, fix the necessary quality standard of water resources for various uses. While making use of water resources, the quality standard as prescribed shall be maintained.

- Water resources not to be polluted: His majesty's Government may, by a notification published in the Nepal Gazette, prescribed the pollution tolerance limit for water resources. No one shall pollute water resources by way of using or putting any litter, industrial wastes, poison, chemical or toxicant to the effect that the pollution tolerance limit of the water resources as prescribed is exceeded.

- Not to cause substantial adverse effect on environment: While utilizing water resources, it shall be done so in such a manner that no substantial adverse effect be made on environment by way of soil erosion, flood, landslide or similar other cause.

4.4 Other relevant legislations

Local Self-Governance Act, 2055 (1999) (LSGA) aims at having institutional development of local bodies capable of bearing responsibility, by providing such responsibility and power at the local level as is necessary to formulate and carry out plans, and to constitute local bodies for the development of the local self governance system in a manner that they are able to make decisions on the matters affecting the day to date needs and lives of the people, by developing local leadership. In relation to the rural water supply and sanitation projects, LSGA has the following elements. Functions, duities and authority of Village Development Committee (VDC): - Relating to rural drinking water: To prepare drinking water projects for the supply of drinking water required within the village development area and to implement and operate the same, and to arrange for their maintenance. To construct, maintain and repair wells, deep water, ponds, taps etc. within the village development area. To preserve the sources of water within the village development area.

- 37 - - Relating to irrigation and soil erosion and river Control: To prepare projects of irrigation, dams, canals, water channel, water bank (Pani ghat) etc. required within the village development area and to implement the same. To prepare programmes on soil erosion and river control that affects the village development area and to implement the same. To generate and distribute electricity.

- Relating to physical development: To build community buildings, rest houses and public toilets. To prepare criteria for houses, buildings, roads and other physical infrastructures etc. to be constructed within the village development area, and to grant approval as prescribed for the construction of them. To formulate land utilization plans of the village and to implement the same. To make arrangements for necessary sewerage and drainage in settlement areas.

- Relating to forests and environment: To afforest or have afforestation in barren land, hills, steppe and steep land and in public land. To prepare programmes in respect of forests, vegetation, biological diversity and soil conservation and to carry out the same. To make variouLs programmes on environment protection and to carry out the same. Functions, Duties and Powers of the District Development Committee : In addition to implement the decisions and directions of the District Council, the functions and duties of the District Development Committee shall be as follows: - Relating to rural drinking and Habitation Development: To formulate and implement drinking water plans as are to benefit the people in more than one village development area in rural areas of the district development area. To formulate plans on habitation and market development in rural areas of the district development area, and implement them.

- Relating to Forest Environment: To prepare plans on forests, vegetation, biological diversity and soil conservation, and implement the same. To protect and promote, and cause to be protected and promoted, the environment. - Relating to Irrigation and Soil-erosion and River Control: To formulate, implement, operate and maintain and repair programmes on irrigation, ditch, embankment and small ditch providing facility to more than one village development area in the district development area. To formulate plans on prevention of soil erosion, river cutting etc. in the areas affected from such acts, and implement the same.

In addition to the foregoing acts and regulations, some other Acts as shown in Table 4.1 are also related to water use, water pollution and environmental aspects of the development activities.

- 38 - Table 4.1 Policies related water and environment in some contemporary acts Acts Relevant Provisions

Local Self-Goveniance Act, 1998 Specific environmental scope of work for DDC, VDC and TDC comprising local level environmental planning; forest and biodiversity conservation, land-use management, pollution control, public sanitation, etc.

Environment Protection Act, 1996 Maintain clean and healthy environment and contribute to sustainable development

Forest Act, 1992 Conserve and manage forest and biodiversity

Water Resources Act, 1992 Promote environment assessment, water quality standard, and avoid significant impacts on local environment in the course of water use

Pesticide Act, 1991 Regulate the use, production and distribution of pesticide

Solid Waste (Management and Ensure solid waste management through the collection, Resource Mobilisation) Act, 1986 transportation, recycling, disposal, and the classification of hazardous wastes

Soil and Water Conservation Act, Ensure soil conservation through land use regulation 1982

King Mahendra Trust for Nature Generate fund and manage the nature with people's Conservation Act, 1982 participation

Tourism Act, 1978 Minimise environmental pollution during mountaineering activities

National Parks and Wildlife Declare and manage national parks, wildlife reserves and Conservation Act, 1973 conservation areas

4.5 Standards

Article 7 of Environment Protection Act 2053 (1997) has made the following provisions regarding the Environmental Standards. (1) Nobody shall create pollution in such a manner as to cause significant adverse impacts on the environment or likely to be hazardous to public life and people's health, or dispose or cause to be disposed sound, heat radioactive rays and wastes from any mechanical devices, industrial enterprises, or other places contrary to the prescribed standards. (2) If it appears that anyone has carried out any act contrary to sub-section (1) and caused significant adverse impacts on the environment, the concerned agency may prescribed necessary terms in regard thereto or may prohibit the carrying out of such an act. (3) If it appears that the use of any types of substance, fuel tools or device has caused or is likely to cause significant adverse impacts on the environment, the Ministry may, by a

- 39 - notification in the Nepal Gazette, forbid the use of such substance, fuel, tools or device.

(4) Other provision relating to the prevention and control of pollution shall be as prescribed.

Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE) has so far published the following Standards and Regulations ( MOPEa, 2002).

* Nepal Vehicle Mass Emission Standard (2056) * Nepal Vehicle Mass Emission Standard (For Gas Operated Vehicles) (2056) * Industry Specific Effluent Standards (2058) * Ozone Depleting Substances Regulations (2057)

MOPE is also in a process to establish the Ambient Standards on air quality, water quality and noise quality and organized a stakeholder's meeting on environmental standards recently (MOPEb, 2002).

A study made by NESS for DWSS has pointed the followings regarding the drinking water quality standards (NESS, 2001). * In Nepal, morbidity and mortality rates from water borne diseases are considered high particularly among children below the age of five. Various national surveys indicated that the types of water sources and the sanitation affecting the quality of water consumed are primarily responsible for increased or decreased diarrhea incidences among children * There are still many unserved areas with water supply and sanitation facilities * The quantity of water used is not indicated. The meaning of safe drinking water has been limited to accessibility of water at home / or at nearby place, from piped supply lines or boreholes and hand pumps. Dug-holes (Kuwas) and river waters have not been considered as 'safe' for drinking purposes * Vast majority of households is reported to use water for drinking without any further treatment ( ex-boiling) whatever may be the source of supply * The surface water quality data indicated that the sources where human activities are less prominent are found to be of chemically good quality and fit for direct drinking except bacteria, suspended solids, and in some cases iron have to be removed effectively

This indicates that the major water quality problems are related to fecal contamination and seasonal attributes (turbidity in rainy season). In the past the water quality issues have been addressed by 'source selection principle'. The tenth plan has a strategy of developing the national water quality guideline. WHO guidelines are to be followed till national standards on drinking water quality will be finalized.

4.6 Policies

Ninth plan (1997 - 2002) had a target of lowering the percentage of people living below the poverty line from 42 % to 32% . However, by the end of three fiscal years this figure has been estimated as 38 % only. The tenth plan ( 2002 - 2007) has a target of lowering the poverty figure to 30% (NPC, 2002). In order to archive this goal, the targets for the various soco- economic indicators have been set as shown in Table 4.2.

- 40 - The water supply and sanitation sector would contribute to the national goal of poverty alleviation by providing basic social service to people and infrastructure for economic development. MHPP/MOPPW (2002) has identified the following issues and challenges in water supply and sanitation sector. * No match between the target and the amount of resources available for the development of the sector * Large number of rural water supply schemes in implementation / lack of potential will and commitment Lack of co-ordination between the various organizations involved in the sector * Urban water supply system run on operational subsidies, but rural schemes are maintained and sustained by users * Unavailability of perennial water sources in the proximity * Principle of cost recovery in urban areas has not been effective. Promotion of Private sector participation needs to be given due attention * Information management system in the sector is poor. A sound coordinating mechanism is lacking Need for increased awareness on health, hygiene and sanitation * Need for redefinition and delineation of appropriate roles and responsibilities * Need for a strong regulatory body to monitor the performance of both the public and private sector

Table 4.2 Major socio-economic goals (NPC, 2002) Indicators Ninth plan (2001/2002) Tenth plan ( final year) status hIfant mortality ( per 1000) 64 45

Maternal mortality ( per 100000) 439 300

Life expectancy (years) 57.6 62

Literacy rate (above 15 years), % 52.7 70

Water supply coverage 69 86.6

Sanitationl coverage 25 50

Population growth 2.27 2.1

Population living below poverty line 38 30

Human development index (HDI) 0.466 0.517

Human poverty index (HPI) 39.2 34.0

Realizing these issues and challenges recent policy reforms have been made in the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional reforms included the dissolution of the district level offices of department of water supply and sewerage and creation of division and subdivision offices to implement medium and big water supply schemes. Provisions for private sector involvement in urban water supply management have also been made. A

- 41 - national Sanitation policy has been formulated by the government and is in process of cabinet approval (MHPP/MOPPW, 2002). The policy deals with both urban and rural sanitation in the country and clearly specifies the priorities and technical options.

The objectives of the sector in Tenth Plan are as follows (MHPP/MOPPW, 2002): To provide basic water supply service to 85% of rural and 95% of urban population of the country by the end of plan period so that the total population served by the water supply will reach 86.6 %. * To provide basic sanitation facilities to 50% of population * To upgrade water supply service levels * To promote private sector involvement in management of urban water systems * To assist women by providing opportunities for social and personality development

The above objectives will be achieved through activities of three categories: * Existing coverage sustaining activities (rehabilitation, 0 & M management, leakage control) * Coverage expansion activities (new schemes in unserved areas) * Service upgrading activities (quality and quantity improvement)

In order to achieve the objectives outlined above the following strategy will be adopted. * Demand driven approach will be used in rural water supply schemes by mobilizing NGOs, CBOs and private sector * Priority will be given to appropriate technology such as rainwater harvesting, solar pumps and hydrams where sources are not available * Effective and sustainable development shall be achieved * Priority will be given to rehabilitation of old or incomplete schemes * A policy for development and conservation of water sources within the watershed area by using conjunctive use of surface and groundwater * National quality guideline shall be prepared * Emphasis will be given to capacity building * Sewerage system in dense areas and on site sanitation in other areas will be promoted * Watcr supply schemes shall be operated on cost recovery basis. * Water supply services will be developed and expanded . Monitoring of private sector operated water supply service shall be done by independent regulatory body

The agencies involved in water supply and sanitation sector are: * Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) in rural areas and small urban centers * Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) in major urban areas • Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB) in rural areas * Melamchi Water Supply Development Board (MWSDB) in Kathmandu Valley * INGOs, NGOs and CBOs * Local government agencies (VDC and DDC) * Users Committees

- 42 - 4.7 International obligations

The following is a list of the multilateral agreements related to the water and environment of which Nepal is a signatory (MOPEc, 2002).

* United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Experiencing Serious Drought and / or Desertification Particularly in Africa. (CCD): 13 January 1997

* United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) : 31 July 1994

* United Nations Convention on Bio-diversity: 21 February 1994

* Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal: 13 January 1997

* Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer: 4 October 1994

* Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): 16 September 1975

* Convention on Wetlands on International importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat ( Ramsar): 17 April 1988

* Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage: 20 September 1978

* Agreement on the Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia and the Pacific: 4 Jan1990

* Plant Protection Agreement For The South East Asia and Pacific Region: 12 Aug1965

* International Tropical Timber Agreement : 3 July 1990

4.8 Existing environmental code of practice of other agencies

The policies and guidelines related to rural water supply and sanitation schemes implemented by Dcpartment of Water Supply and Sanitation which are relevant to this study are described below (DWSS, 1998). - if gravity flow is not feasible, alternative provision such as rain water harvesting and improvement of point source (spring ) must be investigated. - scope of treatment in rural water supply is limited, therefore, due consideration is given to selection of source to avoid the need of treatment - the conventional design approach has some limitations ex. assumption of population growth for 15-20 years may not be accurate, the daily water demand among different users is not representative and the demand patterns have seasonal and yearly variations - if alternatives are available, then the spring intake site should be located above populated or farming areas, foot path, cattle watering and washing places - the following points are worth noting while locating the stream intake site: good vegetation cover, upstream of populated or farming or areas where chemical fertilizers are used,

- 43 - upstream of a foot path, bridge, cattle watering and washing places, the site should withstand floods and facilitate easy removal of sediment - infiltration wells or galleries are appropriate only along the foothills. - the design of tapstand post should conform closely to the social and cultural aspirations of the community - the drainage from the standpost should be taken away from it and safely disposed. - when it is not possible to easily drain away waste water, appropriate soakage pit provided. - as it may be difficult to forecast the expansion pattern of the settlement, a few extra standposts may have to be build to cater to the new demand created by the opening of a road or other development activities later on - the provision of 45 Ipcd is considered to include allowances for drinking and cooking, personal washing, wastage and leakages and some portion of the domestic animals demand - in rural village a per capita demand of 45 Ipcd and in bazaar area a per capita demand of 60 lpcd should be adopted - when yield is limited demand as low as 230 Ipcd for a family of 8-10 have been considered in the past -if source yield is not adequate the system may supply 45 1pcd except in dry season when the supplied water may be reduced. In such circumstances, other options such as improvement, protection and use of traditional spring sources and rain water harvesting should also be investigated as supplementary supply sources - Institutional water demand will be: 10 I per student is school, 1000 I per day in health post without sanitary facility and 3000 1per day with sanitation facility, 500 1 per bed in health center - livestock demand may be included if the source yield is enough to meet the domestic demand but it should not exceed 20% of the design demand - maintenance and repair should not be limited only to the fixing of damage incurred in a scheme but also the possible improvements to bring it up to new standards to insure water quality and durability - the repair activities are categorized into four groups: minor repair, small repair, major repair and rehabilitation, the minor repairs are done by the community but the latter three need the support and guidance from higher authorities - user committee is responsible for protecting the scheme from social and environmental damage - contaminated water may result as of surface water entering in the water system containing human and animal waste and soil - reforestation and planting of grass and bushes directly above the source area should be encouraged - the catchment area should be declared a non-cutting and no grazing area by Village Development Committee - the VDCs in the northern belt of Terai along the Bhabar where the depth is greater than 7.5 m shall not be generally selected for suction hand pump. Stone or gravel are also likely to be encountered in these regions where local drilling method may not be applicable - the site for tube well must be selected in areas which are less likely to be affected even during the nornal flooding and where proper drainage can be provided - the tube well must be located sufficiently away (at least 15 m but preferably 30 m) from any likely pollution sources: latrines, ponds, drains, soakage pits and garbage site - the tube well will be located as close as possible to an existing public dug well to discourage its use

- 44 - CIIAPTER V

IMPACT IDENTIFICATION AND MITIGATION MEASURES

5.1 Introduction

The project under consideration, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project Phase II(RWSSP II), is expected to cover all 75 districts of Nepal located in three major geographical regions. As described in Chapter III, the environmental conditions and as well as the socio-economic status are drastically different for the communities located in different parts of the country. The sources of water supply schemes located in the mountain districts could be of a snow-fed stream where as the same for projects in Terai could be groundwater. Similarly, one can easily find the differences in the settlement pattern and the priorities of the communities. This setting clearly dictates diverse nature of environmental issues in various would-be schemes. The project components can yield varying environmental impacts and may require different mitigation strategy across the country. On the other hand, as the nature of RWSSP II is of demand-responsive type, the specific details of the proposed intervention are not known at this stage. Therefore, description of the project interventions and the environmental assessment provided in this study are not site specific. As described earlier, the focus of this study is to identify the major impacts illustrated by the completed or on-going schemes under RWSSP I, predict the impacts for RWSSP II assuming the similar situation with RWSSP I and develop a mitigation plan for the identified impacts. Thus the environmental impacts identified and listed on this chapter are not specific but of general in nature.

In a broad sense and comparison of the RWSSP II with the projects undertaken in other sectors, the impacts could be put in two categories. The first category includes the potential impacts caused by the proposed project (the water supply and sanitation schemes) to the bio- physical environment and socio-economy. In other sectors, Environment Assessment in the form of EIA or IEE is carried to identify these impacts. On the other hand, the second category includes the potential impacts caused on the facilities and services developed by the proposed project particularly due to the accidental circumstances or unintentional actions during the operation phase.

5.2 Impacts caused by the proposed project

Although the project size is big in terms of coverage, the individual activities proposed under RWSSP II are of very small scale. Proposed individual interventions are targeted to cover only a few hundred households. The project components will disturb only a small portion of land (less than a hectare in total per scheme). This is also distributed in a distances of a few kilometers. Therefore, no major environmental impacts are expected due to this project primarily due to small scale intervention. No human re-settlement or property damage is expected under this project. It will not be essential to relocate the infrastructures (such as roads, electricity lines, or public buildings) already in place. There won't be any adverse impact to the forests, wetlands, grasslands and other natural habitat. The diversion of water from the surface sources (majority of the schemes tap less than one liter per seconds of the discharge), is not expected to cause significant damage to the water course habitat downstream. However, there might be some minor impacts to the surroundings for example construction disturbances, erosion and landslides, ponding of water at the drainage areas and pollution due to wastewater produced. These impacts will be described in the following sections.

- 45 - The project will impose net positive impact or benefits to the communities or surrounding areas as already mentioned in chapter 2 under project objectives section. The water supply and sanitation projects will reduce the traditional environmental risks due particularly to reduced bacterial contamination (i.e as of controlled disposal of human wastes). There will be more quantity of water available for bathing, washing and cleaning. The health conditions will be improved. Significant impact will be made on the personal health and hygiene status and sanitary conditions of the households. Time and energy of the women and children required to fetch the water will be saved. The project will have a positive and synergistic effect to the other community based efforts such as community forestry and micro-credit schemes. These all benefits will help improving the quality of life of the people.

5.3 Impacts caused on the services provided by the proposed project

It is also essential to analyze the environmental impacts caused by various exogenous factors which will impair the sustainability of the project and intended services will not available effectively and efficiently. In fact, in case of rural water supply and sanitation projects, these impacts dominate the first category of the impacts outlined above in terms of severity and potential risks. The impacts include the supply deficit, deterioration of water quality and problems created by improper use of the built facilities. These impacts are also described below in details.

5.4 Analysis of the environmental impacts

Based on the general characteristics of the area, field observations, review of the RWSSP I and interactions made with various stakeholders, the environmental impacts both caused by the projects to the surroundings and caused by the exogenous factors on the services delivered through the project are listed in Table 5.1 and described below. For easy presentation and understanding, the impacts are categorized on the following headings: water quantity, water quality, environmental sanitation, and tradition and culture. Although these impacts cover all stages of the schemes under RWSSP II, but the majority of them are related to the operational period. Specific impacts related to the planning and construction phases are also described.

5.5 Water quantity related impacts

Significant reduction of the source discharge for the piped gravity flow system particularly during the dry season is a major concern regarding the issues on water quantity. This fact is clearly mentioned in the various reports of the either completed or ongoing schemes of RWSSP I and as well corroborated by the respondents during the questionnaire survey under this study. RWSSP I has already addressed this issue and, therefore, a safety factor while estimating the design yield is used. However, it is recommended that an assessment be made if the dry yield is enough to meet the demand variation which emerge during the life time of the project. While selecting the sources emphasis must be given to select the one which has a higher safe yield (dry yield) to measured yield ratio. This must be done even if the project costs are increased significantly. If found necessary, use of alternative sources such as rainwater harvesting, recycling of gray water could be considered as a mitigation measure.

In Terai area where groundwater sources are used for either the hand pump or dug well schemes, seasonal depletion of groundwater table during the dry season or permnanent depletion due to excessive extraction is the major issue. As the water supply schemes under RWSSP II will take only a minimal amount of water from the groundwater sources compared

- 46 - to the irrigation and town water supply projects, there may not be a significant threat from this activity. However, in case of eccentric situation, special considerations should be given and a communication be made with the nearby irrigation and town water supply authorities.

The issue of considering the animal demand might develop more pressure in RWSSP II as of the mirco-credit schemes and expansion of community forestry activities. It is recommended to make specific analysis if animal demands need to be considered in the proposed schemes. For the schemes located on the road side (example Patichaur Scheme) and the one where animal use is declining (example Taranagar Scheme), it may not be essential to consider this factor. However, for the more remote and rural areas where animal use is extensive, additional demand is a must.

Expansion of rural infrastructures (for example roads, water supply, sanitation, telecommunication, health centers and schools) lead to enhance the quality of life of rural people. This will encourage the people to construct their own latrines and bathrooms. Water use will be made more easy and readily accessible for example by installing the water tanks at individual households (Example - Paudurkot and Patichaur WSSS). This is an obvious fact, however, a system intervention is essential to regulate and standardize the practice. A demand forecasting must be made based on the experiences of RWSSP I. To keep the good sanitary conditions in the latrines, it is essential to flush with every defecation. Assuming a pour-flush toilet needs 2-3 L of water for every flush, a person would need 12- 18 L of water everyday (Feachem et al., 1983 and Khatiwada et al., 2002). If added to this the water essential for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing (dishes and cloths) and house cleaning, the per capita water essential might be far greater than 45 Ipcd. Therefore, the present criteria of a minimum of 25 lpcd and an average of 45 lpcd must be reviewed.

5.6 Water quality related impacts

During the field visits, the study team was told by the users from the completed schemes that there were incidents of occasional contamination from leaves, minute organic matters, insects, leech, algae, tadpole, small fish, Balu, Rato Juka and snail. This biological contamination could be due to the excessive growth of plants on the premises of scheme components (for example: intake site of Halede WSSS), malfunctioning of the screen used to filter the water, faulty slab covers (example collection chamber at Halede WSSS), extensive natural activities in the catchment area and excessive dampness. The mitigation measures for this problem have been identified as: periodic clearance of the premises and buffer zones, periodic cleaning of the screen, ensure no faults or gaps during the slab construction and positioning. It is essential to monitor these activities frequently and special attention should be given to the time of severe contamination and problems of snail which is the carrier and host of the disease schistosomiasis (Feachem et al. 1983).

Anthropogenic and natural activities may create chemical contamination (possibly ammonia, nitrate, fluoride, arsenic, iron, manganese, pesticide). In RWSSP II, we are only dealing with the small-scale rural water supplies away from industrial areas, so chemical pollution due to industrial activities may not be possible. However, there are specific problems such as Arsenic in Terai area. Another possibility could be due to pesticides or chemical fertilizer used in the agricultural fields. Similarly, contamination due to suspended solids specially during the rainy season (also on sources which either originate or pass through the bed of colloidal soil particles which create all the season turbidity) is also of serious concern. The first flush of the catchment area due to rainfall brings fecal matter dispersed due to open defecation and animal

- 47 - grazing. This might have severe consequences, for example the typhoid epidemic spread during June 2002 in Chitawan district of Nepal.

Due to very small size of water supply schemes, financial limitations and operational constraints, it is not considered possible to provide comprehensive water treatment under RWSSP II. The conventional approach of 'safe source selection' applied in Nepal could still be the best alternative. Precautionary measures such as: avoiding the first flush water, water boiling for drinking, restricting open defecation at upstream areas could be employed. However, in special situations (no viable alternative available than using the contaminated source), low-cost treatment options such as slow sand filter, roughing filters (Wegelin, 1996) and disinfecting with sodium hypochlorite (Sharma and Adhikari, 2002) could be employed.

There are contamination issues related to water collection and use. The rope tied with a container which is used to collect the water from the dug well is frequently kept on the soil surface or floor. This transfers the contaminants from the soil to the rope and when it is used next time the contaminants get transferred to the well water. Similarly, improper handling of collected water ( keeping in a dirty container, easy access to fly and cockroach, using without washing hands) also contaminate the water. For the dug well, either the pulley system or integrated well-hand pump systems are recommended. Awareness is the key measures for the latter part.

5.7 Environmental sanitation related impacts

The disposal of wastewater is the main issue. The sources of different wastewater types are listed below: * used water - originating from the tap plateform / drainpipe * stormwater - house premises, surroundings of tap plateform * gray water - bathroom ( if any), dish washing, vegetable washing, cloth washing * blackwater (effluent) - septic tank side wall and bottom, soak pit (if any) * blackwater (septage) - septic tank

The existing practice for the disposal of wastewater originating from these sources is to dispose in the nearby areas and let it take the natural course. The problems due to non- engineered disposal is ponding, promoting mosquito breeding and contamination of downstream sources or groundwater. In Terai area, where the shallow groundwater is extensively used, there is a possibility of contamination from the disposed blackwater (effluent) or gray water. Proposed intervention to provide end disposal to the wastewaters include: recycling in the kitchen garden, paddy fields and end disposal at soak pit. In Terai area, if there is not enough clearance between the point of disposal of effluent and the groundwater table or where the water table is very high, other options such as use of natural treatment systems ex. overland flow, constructed wetlands and ponds (Kadlec and Knight, 1996; Polprasert and Khatiwada, 1999) could be useful.

Other environmental sanitation issues include development of facilities such as pavement and side walls in village walkways and place for animals to drink and bath. The problems created by unpaved roads are: difficulty in maintaining the smooth flow of traffic, difficulties from the muddy and dirty portions in the walkways, creation of water patches, erosion of the base and physical burden to refill the eroded portion. The mitigation measures include stepping stone soling stems and establishment of dry stone side walls in the hilly areas and gravelling

- 48 - of the inner walkways in the Terai region. Similarly, engineered facilities must be suggested to the users to take care of the animals.

RWSSP I has made some interventions regarding the use of composting pit, disposal of animal wastes, separation and disposal of solid wastes from the household premises. Efforts are essential to make these activities more comprehensive not only during the project implementation period but also during life-span of the project. Similarly, it is essential to disseminate the informnation about good practices, scientific methods of household management, kitchen management, animal keeping and disposing the wastes. Audio video, poster, brochures and radio program may help to carry out these activities. There must an effective and sustainable awareness campaign for school children specially to disseminate the informnation of : maintaining a sanitary system in schools, maintaining the containers for keeping anal cleansing water and transporting water from the tap, proper ways of sitting on the squat pan and ways of keeping the toilet clean.

5.8 Impacts related to the tradition and culture

Similar to the other infrastructure projects, water supply schemes replace the old system with a more efficient and productive system. In Nepal, the traditional concepts in using the natural resources are interlinked with many festivals, rituals and group activities. In water resources people carry out these activities as they consider water to be a valuable resource without which the life and existence would be impossible. The belief behind such activities is to ensure the sustainability of the source, protection of health and well being, the invitation to rain. They consider the water sources as holy places which are protected, trees are planted and people have ethical, morale and spiritual obligations to not damage the resources. Thus the negative impacts of the new project could be: * possibility of discontinuation of traditional rituals and festivals (such as Nag Puja, Devi Puja, Jhakri Puja, Chhatha Puja,Bali Puja, and SansariMai Puja)

* possibility of discontinuation of the old values and beliefs of considering the water sources as places of spiritual importance

* possibility of discontinuation of practices of conserving the source and catchment area by plantation etc.

* possibility of discontinuation of the practices of not polluting (defecating, washing etc) the sources of water considered as holy places

* possibility of discontinuation of the beliefs that no one should damage or destroy the resources around holy places

The mitigation measures for these impacts could be: * assessment of such practices during project plan * protection of old system (spout, stone tap etc. and other resources of archaeological and environmental importance around the system) * develop facilities for doing such rituals in new schemes

- 49- * develop a strategy that the proposed project provides a recognition and respect to the old practices, * encouraging thle users to continue such rituals and festivals either at the protected old sources or at the appropriate locations of the new schemes * encouraging the users to consider the new system only as more efficient and productive than the old one and they should keep on their practices

5.9 Impacts related to planning and construction phase

Planning phase impacts include the conflicts of water supply rights and priority. Similarly the problems may also arise during the land acquisition. The conflicts must be resolved prior to the project implementation by developing a consensus based on the existing legislation. Compensatory measures must be adopted for the land acquired.

Another concern is related to the selection of technology for water supply and sanitation. To avoid the effects of technological lock-in, strategies must be made to select the technologies which are adaptive, resilient and based on holistic principles (Khatiwada et al., 2002).

Construction phase impacts include damage to the vegetation, pollution due to construction wastes, loss of stability at the stone collection center and health risks to the porters. These impacts are site specific and pose only short term implications. Still, the impacts could be minimized by confining the construction activities onsite and along the designated pipeline routs. The constniction wastes are not expected to have significant impact on land and ground or surface water sources. However, attention should be paid to ensure the proper disposal.

5.10 Other impacts

Construction of project components in the community forestry areas might create disturbances to the forest users and forestry resources. It is recommended that a mutual understanding be developed with the user groups of the forest and impacts are minimized.

Laying of the pipeline (example - Simle Kusunde WSSS) in the lake water might cause disturbances to the lake water users. As the lake serves a major means of transportation and recreation, proper means (let the pipe be submerged and put at the considerable depth) be applied to mitigate the impact.

5.11 Cumulative environmental impact

While an environmental impact produced by a single activity may not be significant, a series of impacts created by more than one project, or by the combined effects of several impacts from the same project, may be significant. Consequently, an ecosystem may be dramatically affected through cumulative impacts. It is necessary to consider the cumulative impact of all projects that share mutual resources or affect the same area (HMG and IJCN, 1998). Canter (1996) described that the cumulative impacts result from the incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions regardless of what agency or person undertake such other actions. Cumulative impacts can result from individually minor, but collectively significant actions taking place over a period of time.

Thus the system may come under situations when or where small perturbation cause large

- 50 - impacts as of complex situation or 'butterfly effects'. It is not straightforward to measure such impacts in case of water supply and sanitation schemes which are isolated and have minute impacts to the environment. Impacts such as loss of vegetation or disposal of excavated materials may not have the cumulative effects because of small scale intervention and easily manageable situations. As the schemes under RWSSP II are located in rural areas where ample natural environment is available, small perturbations of pollution are easily nullified by the natural assimilation processes. However, there are activities which may have cumulative impacts: inter-basin water transfer and groundwater extraction. If there are many schemes diverting the water from a single catchment or many wells extracting water from the groundwater sources, it may be essential to evaluate the cumulative impacts. Since, as of the small scale of water supply and sanitation schemes, such situations may arise if they are accompanied by larger projects either spatially or temporally. In such a context, in depth research studies are to be recommended for the identification of impact and estimating the mitigation measures.

- 51 - Table 5.1: Matrix of environmental impacts and mitigation measures

Activity | Potential impact [Impact_features] Mitigation measures Water quantity Source discharge reduction Reduced supply P, MD, LT Pre-assessment of dry yield, use alternative sources, recycling of greywater

Construction of latrines and Increased water demand P, MD, LT Review the existing basic requirements of 20 and 45 bathrooms (human consumption) lpcd, forecast demand pattern, make provisions for ______dem andeased_demand * ______.______.______increased Installation of water tanks (plastic Increased water demand P, MD, LT Ensure same quantity of water is used by installing (human consumption) t i tanks, drums etc.) in households' . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~theindividual tanks, regulate the action, ifjustified make provisions for additional demand

Expansion of rural infrastructures Improvement in quality of life, P, MD, LT Forecast a demand pattern, make provisions for (water supply, sanitation, roads, thereby, increased water increased demand electricity, telecommunication, demand (human consumption) health centers and schools) Micro-credit schemes providing Increased water demand P, MN, LT Forecast a demand pattern, include animal demand funds for animal raising '(animal consumption) __ in the project design Establishment of new community Increased water demand 'P, MN, LT Forecast a demand pattern, include animal demand forestry areas and enhancement of (animal consumption) in the project design the efficiency of existing one

Type: physical - P; chemical -C; biological -B; socio-economic - S; cultural - T Magnitude: adverse - AD; moderate - MD; minor - MN Duration : long term impact ( >10 years)- LT, medium termn impact ( 2- 10 years) - MT, short term impact (less than 2 years)-ST Table 5.1: Matrix of environmental impacts and mitigation measures

_ ____ Activilty Potentialaimpact ImpactpaJ features Mitigation measures Water quality Growth of plants in the premises of biological water pollution due B, MD to MN, periodic clearance of the premises and buffer zones, project components, malfunctioning to leaves, insects, leech, algae, LT periodic cleaning of the screen, ensure no gaps of the screen, faulty slab covers, tadpole, Balu, Rato Juka atd during the slab covering, monitoring natural activities in the catchment, snail excessive dampness

Anthropogenic and natural chemical pollution: Arsenic, C, AD to MN, STT pre - analysis of the source water, locating facilities activities triggering the generation ammonia, nitrate, iron, to LT in areas where there is less risks, periodic water of chemicals manganese, organic matter, quality monitoring, special attention if the users find changes in the water quality Upstream activities, open mud and turbidity P, B, AD to MN, avoid locating sources in the settlement areas, avoid defecation, rainfall, poor natural deteriorating aesthetic quality, ST first flush,- drink boil water if there are indications of assimilation fecal matters causing diseases fecal pollution, restrict open defection in upstream (ex. typhoid epidemic) areas, treatment or disinfection, awareness to the

______users ;___ Natural activities, accidents well water pollution with P, MN, ST cover the wells, ensure the pulley system or leaves, buckets with rope, integrated well-hand pump system, awareness, sleepers, plastic materials periodic cleaning Keeping the rope used for fetching well water pollution S, MN, ST ensure pulley system or integrated well-hand pump water in the floor, soil _ system, awareness Lnproper handling of water during contamination of water during P, B, MN, ST Inplement proper water handling ways using the use use __ local and traditional resources, awareness Type: physical - P; chemical -C; biological -B; socio-economic - S; cultural - T Magnitude: adverse - AD; moderate - MD; minor - MN Duration: long term impact ( >10 years)- LT, medium term impact ( 2- 10 years) - MT, short term impact (less than 2 years)-ST

- 53 - Table 5.1: Matrix of environmental impacts and mitigation measures

Activity Potential impact Impact Mitigation measures ______-- __ _|features ______f.--- ___ __r Environimental Sanitation . problems due to generation and MD to MIN, : re-using the wastewater in kitchen garden, paddy Tap and drain pipe in disposal of wastewater LT fields, end disposal in soak pits, constructed operation wetlands, road side drain or natural courses Rainfall in the house problems due to generation and MD to MN, ST end disposal in soak pits, constructed wetlands premises disposal of stormwater

Bath, dish washing, vegetable problems due to generation of MD to MN, ST end disposal in soak pits, constructed wetlands washing, cloth washing gryater greywt road side drain, or natural courses Latrine / septic tank in use problems due to generation of MD to MN, ST effluent disposal in soak pits, safe disposal of septage septic tank effluent and septage septic_tankandseptageeffluent______special arrangements essential if water table ishgh Use of unpaved village problems due to mud, dust, dirt, S, MN, LT pave and protect the village streets and tracks in the streets/walkways ponding and erosion, refilling hilly areas, develop graveled walkways in Terai essential periodic maintenance and repair of the paved ways Use of village streets/tracks traffic flow not-smooth, unstable without side wall (s) in the structure, possibility of encroachment hilly area ______Providing water to animals in contamination of water during use MN, ST Reconmnend facilities which are scientific and improper facility unsanitary conditions in the house suitable to specific locations, awareness Washing the animals in a presmises improper* facility :_!_ _ _ _ _ Type: physical - P; chemical -C; biological -B; socio-economic - S; cultural - T Magnitude: adverse - AD; moderate - MID; minor - MN Duration: long term impact ( >10 years)- LT, medium term impact ( 2- 10 years) - MT, short term impact (less than 2 years)-ST

- 54- Table 5.1: Matrix of environmental impacts and mitigation measures

Activity .Ct . . Potential im_ JImpact features__ Mitigation measures Environmental Sanitation Disposal of animal waste unsanitary conditions MN, ST Use proper composting pit

Disposal of kitchen waste unsanitary conditions MN, ST separate the waste, organic waste may be composted, (vegetable, food residue), used other wastes dispose in proper pits batteries, plastic materials, old cloths, containers Cooking with the fuelwood in indoor air pollution AD, LT collaborate with other sectoral activities (ex. traditional stove ______community forestry), use improved stove Improper use of latrine in school unsanitary conditions MN, ST maintain a sanitary system in schools, maintain the containers for keeping the anal cleansing water and transporting water from the tap educate children how to use toilet, proper ways of anal cleansing, ways of keeping toilet clean, ______awareness Waste disposal in School unsanitary conditions MN, ST develop a proper waste disposal system i______.______.______provide environmental education to children Waste disposal and improper unsanitary conditions MN, ST construct latrines, develop a waste disposal system use of latrine facility in public places Type: physical - P; chemical -C; biological -B; socio-economic - S; cultural - T Magnitude: adverse - AD; moderate - MD; minor - MN Duration : long term impact ( >10 years)- LT, medium term impact ( 2- 10 years) - MT, short terrn impact (less than 2 years)-ST

- 55 - Table 5.1: Matrix of environmental impacts and mitigation measures

Activity Potential impact Impact Mitigation measures

. .. .. __ _ft ______. _ __. _ _ ....._ _ _ _ . ______features s __ Tradition and culture Replacing the traditional possibility of discontinuation of traditional T, AD, LT assessment of such practices during project water supply system with rituals and festivals (such as Nag Puja, Devi plan, a new one Puja, Jhakri Puja, Chhatha Puja, Bali Puja, D' ' . . ' ' protectl~~~~~~~~on of old system (spout, stoneta and Sansari Mai Puja)-- etc. and other resources of archaeological possibility of discontinuation of the old values and environmental importance around the and beliefs of considering the water sources as system) places of spin'tual importance... develop facilities for doing such rituals in possibility of discontinuation of practices of new schemes conserving the source and catchment area by , . . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~developa strategy that the proposed proj'ect plantation etc. provides a recognition and respect to the old practices, possibility of discontinuation of the practices encouraging the users to continue such of not polluting (defecating, washing etc) the rituals and festivals either at the protected sources of water considered as holy places old sources or at the appropriate locations of possibility of discontinuation of the beliefs the new schemes that no one should damage or destroy the encouraging the users to consider the new resources around holy places system only as more efficient and productive than the old one and they should keep on i______their practices Type: physical - P; chemical -C; biological -B; socio-economic - S; cultural - T Magnitude: adverse - AD; moderate - MD; minor - MN Duration: long term impact ( >10 years)- LT, medium term impact ( 2- 10 years) - MT, short term impact (less than 2 years)-ST

- 56 - Table 5.1: Matrix of environmental impacts and mitigation measures

Activity Potential impact Impact Mitigation measures ______]_ features |___ _ _ l Planningphase

Identification of project / site Source use conflicts S, MN, ST Register the source, develop consensus selection for components based on the existing legislation

Land acquisition Compensation / financial burden S, MN, ST Consensus based compensation (Voluntary basis is preferred)

Diversion of water from the damage to the downstream water course P, B, MD, LT assess impact of proposed diversion surface source / extraction of (could be surrounding forest also) groundwater habitat, reduction of groundwater table acves, mnt the extraction activities, monitor the extraction Selection of technology for Inappropriate selection of technology as S, MD, LT Selection of appropnrate technologies which water supply and sanitation of technological lock-in are adaptive, resilient, and based on holistic components i principles Constructionphase damage to the forest, crops MN, ST confine the construction onsite Excavation of the sites pollution due to construction wastes avoid seasonal mismatch dispose the construction wastes properly Transportation of pipes, sand, loss of stability at the quarry MN, ST Take withdrawal permits gravel and cementi a health risks to the porters Apply protective measures Construction activities impairment to the valuable time of users MN, ST Avoid seasonal mismatch Type: physical - P; chemical -C; biological -B; socio-economic - S; cultural - T Magnitude: adverse - AD; moderate - MD; minor - MN Duration: long term impact ( >10 years)- LT, medium term impact ( 2- 10 years) - MT, short term impact (less than 2 years)-ST

- 57 - Table 5.1 : Matrix of environmental impacts and mitigation measures Activity Potential impact Impact features Mitigation measures Impairment of other activities construction of project disturbances to the forest users S, MN, LT Develop a mutual understanding components in community forestry areas

Pipe laying at the lake disturbances to the lake water users S, MN, LT Develop means which will put the ______pipe at the lake bottom

Type : physical - P; chemical -C; biological -B; socio-economic - S; cultural - T Magnitude: adverse - AD; moderate - MD; minor - MN Duration: long term impact ( >0 years)- LT, medium term impact ( 2- 10 years) - MT, short term impact (less than 2 years)-ST

- 58 - CHAPTER VI

ALTERNATIVE ANALYSIS

6.1 Introduction

It is desirable to select a best alternative which maximizes the benefits and minimizes the environmental impacts. There are two levels of alternative analysis. The first is to evaluate the options available at the project level. It is desirable to analyse the options ranging from 'no action or no project' to implementation of the alternative which maximizes the benefits at the same time have worse level of impacts. Considering the damage caused by the project to the surroundings and in terms of risk values, 'no action' option will add zero level of risk, however, the full fledged project may induce highest level of risks. However, the mitigation measures are expected to lower the risks generated to an acceptable range. The concept of analysis of risks reduction and bringing the risks to acceptable range is applicable when the impacts caused by the project to the surrounding environment and socio-economy are of adverse in nature.

In case of present study, as the water supply and sanitation projects are aimed to reduce the traditional environmental risks, the alternative analysis would be done based on the concept of 'contaminant remediation projects'. 'No action' or 'no project' means there won't be any intervention meaning that there won't be any change on the level of prevailing environmental risks. However, the best alternative action (or the project providing desirable services) will bring the risk level to an acceptable one. As pointed out earlier, in RWSSP II the potential damage caused by the projects are of least significant compared to the potential damage caused by the exogenous factors to the facility or services delivered by the project. Therefore, in this chapter, an attempt is made to systematically compare the three alternatives: 'no project', 'project without considering the environmental elements' and 'project incorporating the environmental attributes'.

The second level of alternative analysis would be at the component levels of the project or intended facility (HMG and rUCN, 1998). In the context of RWSSP 1I, this is applicable in selecting the best alternative from available options for the project components such as: intake, reservoir, pipeline, tap stand post in the gravity flow scheme and hand pump head, pipe, screen and plateform in the hand pump scheme using the groundwater source.

6.2 No project

As shown in Table 4.2, the socio-economic indicators such as infant mortality rates and life expectancy rate indicate that more interventions are essential to improve the quality of life of the people. As shown in Table 3.4 - 3.8 and Fig. 3.2, these indicators reflect a relatively worse situation of health and sanitation and as well the socio-economy in the rural areas. Among different regions, the mountains of mid-western and far-western regions form the bottom level of the facilities and services. Water supply and sanitation facilities are directly linked to the health conditions in particular and socio-economy in general. Although considerable investment hias been made in the water supply and sanitation sector in the past, the outputs never met the targets (Table 3.5 and Table 3.8). It has already been mentioned in chapter 4, section 4.6 that the tenth plan has identified the Fund Development Board as a major implementing agency for the rural water supply and sanitation projects. If the program under discussion, RWSSP II will not be implemented and the anticipated schemes under RWSSP II

- 59 - will not be undertaken, then the prevailing traditional environmental risks in rural areas will be continued till DWSS or any other agency will address the issue and make similar interventions. In conclusions, the 'no project' scenario will only maintain the status-quo.

6.3 Project without considering the environmental elements

In the past, the concepts in which the establishment of rural water supply and sanitation schemes has been based are: bringing the remotely located water to communities in order to meet the their hardship and the prevention of water borne diseases. In fact, providing a minimal amount of water just to meet the basic water requirements have been practiced in the past. The projects did not completely address the environmental issues of ecological integrity of the natural watershed and sources including flora and fauna and the link of water use to the sanitation and personal hygiene issues. Little focus on the environmental sanitation meant increased chances of contamination to the imported water. The unsanitary conditions and the increased volume of wastewater undermined the intended benefits from the water supply interventions. Similarly, the mobilization of community strength and not transferring the ownership of the projects to the users were other issues which lacked the attention in the conventional approach. These issues are critical and without addressing them it is difficult to meet the objective of the sustainability of the schemes.

Thus, the development without addressing the associated environmental issues may reduce the traditional risks for a certain duration but it will be difficult to maintain a stable risks level as shown in Fig. 6.1 (a). The positive benefits of projects falling in this category may be undermined with the adverse environmental implications.

6.4 Project addressing the environmental issues and incorporating the mitigation measures

The third scenario of implementing the projects addressing the environmental issues will be able to reduce the risks as desirable by the project objectives. The development with such projects will reduce the risks and maintain them at a minimum level. This scenario is depicted in Fig. 6.1(b). With the address of environmental issues both quantity and quality of the delivered services are ensured. The project takes care of the emerging future demands. Holistic approach which address the water supply, sanitation and environmental issues together is followed.

The proposed project, RWSSP II is a demand-driven project based on integrated approach ( incorporate water supply and sanitation together) and address the environmental issues as well. The positive benefits are fully ensured by taking care of the environmental impacts with the development incorporating the mitigation measures. Strong participation from the community and the support organizations during project planning and implementation will not create the problems related to the ownership and responsibility of operation and maintenance of the schemes. Thus it is expected that RWSSP II will achieve greater health and economic benefits to the target communities.

- 60- I | 'Ioradition:Ier radtoa

Cu

Development * Development - Poor management of risks Well management of risks

Fig. 6.1 (a) Development with projects not incorporating the environmental issues (b) Development with projects which address the environmental issues and incorporate mitigation measures (modified from WHO, 1997)

6.5 Alternative for project components

The components of a typical piped gravity flow schemes include: intake, collection chamber, transmission main, reservoir, break pressure tank, distribution line and tap stand posts. Similarly, the scheme also consists of other related components such as: catchment protection work, valve chamber, air valve and the buffer areas covered by fencing. The engineering components in the sanitation part include latrine, collection chamber, soak pit and compost pit. For the schemes taping groundwater sources, the project component include, hand pump and dug wells. There could be a number of alternatives available for these components. These include the technology (example: stone masonary, ferrocement or reinforced concrete), size of the structure (example: numbers of small size reservoirs vs. a big size), design type (example: different design of tap stand posts), raw materials (sand, gravel and cement type), location of the structures (near village vs. on the forests), time schedule (construction phase during rain season vs. winter season). The criteria for the selection of best altemative from these choices depends mainly on the local situation and suitability. However, the requirement from the environmental sustainability perspective is to ensure that the environmental impacts and technological lock-in effects are minimized.

- 61 - CHAPTER VII

MITIGATION PLAN AND MONITORING

7.1 Environmental management plan (EMP)

Environmental Management Plan (EMP) aims to develop a framework for incorporating the mitigation measures in the project cycle and monitoring of the environmental perfonnance. As pointed ouLt earlier, the impacts identified and mitigation measures suggested in this study are of general in nature. The EMP is expected to not only reduce the negative environmental impacts both due to the project components and caused by exogenous factors on the services delivered by the project, but will also help to enhance the environmental benefits of the project.

Based on the identified impacts and mitigation measures as shown in Table 5.1, the review of RWSSP I, scheme cycle and responsibility of the stakeholders of the schemes, the Environmental Management Plan (EMP) is prepared. A summary of the activities described in the EMP is given on Table 7.1. RWSSP II strategy includes strengthening the environmental components of RWSSP I by making them more comprehensive and focused. This is indicated by the term 'extensive' in column three of Table 7.1 and given in details in updated forms (section 7.3). The details of the EMP elements are given on Table 7.2. The EMP includes the phase in which specific mitigation measures will be implemented and the responsible authorities for doing that. Table 7.1 also points out that if the specific activity has been addressed by RWSSP I.

The major responsibility for implementing the policy related activities fall under the juLrisdiction of the FuLnd Board. Where as the WUC has to play a major role in implementing the schenme specific activities. It is the SO which need to take the lead for the training and capacity building activities.

As the specific scheme under consideration may not have all the impacts listed in Table 5.1, Therefore, it will be essential to sort out from the list, the specific activities to be carried in a specific scheme under RWSSP II. It is recommended to develop a scheme specific Environnmental Management Action Plan (EMAP) during the pre-development stage. The EMAP should be developed primarily with the purpose of:

* Identification of key environmental issues ( refer Tables 5.1) likely to arise from the implementation of the water supply and sanitation scheme under consideration.

* Identification of the corresponding environmental mitigation measures (Refer Table 7.2) to be integrated in the project design in order to minimise the impacts.

* Development of monitoring and evaluation schedules (Refer Table 7.3) to be implemented during project construction and operation.

* Estimation of tentative costs that are required for implementing mitigation measures.

The EMAP should provide guidelines to the construction and operation activities and the cost outlined in EMAP should be included in the Engineering Cost Estimate document.

- 62 - Table 7.1: Summary of activities described by EMP Activity RWSSP I RWSSP 11 Position Strategy Policy c-and( Technical gutideline related activities Reviewing the existing guideline of supply ( 25 and 45 lpcd) None Include Developing a strategy for incorporating the animal demand Limited Extensive Developing a methodology for forecasting the demand pattern None Include Introduction and selection of water quality monitoring kits Limited Extensive Developing surrogate water quality monitoring parameters Limited Extensive Developing type design of slow sand filter or roughing filter None Include Engineering design of soak pits, constructed wetlands and paved Limited Extensive walkways Engineering design of rehabilitation and protection of traditional Limited Extensive soLurces Selection of adaptive, resilient and holistic principle based Yes Extensive technologies Developing appropriate means to collect the water from dug well Limited Extensive

Schemiie specific acctivities Water source related conflicts resolution Yes Extensive Developing a consensus on voluntary contribution of land Yes Yes Disposing construction related wastes Yes Extensive Periodic cleaning of the vegetation in the component premises Limited Extensive Periodic cleaning of the physical infrastnuctures Yes Yes Monitoring biological water pollution Limited Extensive Training anid capacity btuildling related activities Dissemiinatinig the information of appropriate sanitary practices to Yes Extensive tisers and school clhildreni Disseminiatinig the information of the proper use of thle water supply Yes Extensive and sanitary components Ways to provide water and bath to animals Limited Extensive Using the toilets, keeping good sanitary conditions in the kitchen Yes Extensive and house premises Encouraging the users to continue traditional rituals and festivals at None Include the water sources

7.2 Environmental performance indicators

Various indicators could be used to monitor the environmental performance of the water supply and sanitation projects. The three types of the indicators are described below.

Baseline inonitoring: This includes the parameters which indicate the changes in basic environmental parameters during the project construction or after the completion and operation. The significant performance indicators of this category in water supply and sanitation include water quantity related parameters such as discharge of the source and per capita water availability and physical and biological parameters at the points of major constructioni.

- 63 - Impact monitoring: The biophysical and socio-economic (including public health) parameters within the project area should be measured during the project construction and operational phases in order to detect environmental changes, which may have occurred as a result of project implementation. This category of the perfornance indicators includes the parameters related to health and sanitation, socio-economic, and tradition and culture.

Compliance monitoring: This form of monitoring employs periodic sampling or continuous recording of specific environmental quality indicators or pollution levels to ensure project compliance with recommended environmental protection standards. Monitoring should be regular and performed over a long period. Interruptions in monitoring may result in generating insufficient data to draw accurate conclusions concerning project impact.

- 64 - Table 7.2 Environmental Management Plan A. PRE-DEVELOPMENT STAGE Potential impact _ Mitigation measures Responsibilit Reduced supply Pre-assessment of dry yield, use alternative sources, (recycling SO, FB of greywater) Increased water demand (human Review the criteria of 25 and 45 Ipcd, forecast demand FB in consultation with consumption) _ __pattern, make provisions for increased demand .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... Increased water demand (animal Forecast a demand pattern, include animal demand in the FB in consultation with consumption) _ project design .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ...... ----...-- other agencies Chemical pollution: ex- Arsenic, ammonia, Pre - analysis of the source water, locating facilities in areas FB, SO, WUG nitrate, iron, manganese, organic matter, where there is less n'sks ____ Mud and turbidity deteriorating aesthetic Avoid locating sources in the settlement areas SO, WUG, WUG quality, fecal matters causing diseases (ex. typhoid epidemic) Problems due to generation and disposal of Re-using the wastewater in kitchen garden, paddy fields, end SO, FB, WIJG platefonn drained wastewater disposal in soak pits, constructed wetlands, road side drain and natural courses ______Problems due to generation and disposal of End disposal in soak pits, constructed wetlands SO, FB, WUG stormwater road side drain and natural courses -- Problems due to generation of greywater End disposal in soak pits, constructed wetlands SO, FB, WUG road side drain and natural courses Problems due to generation of septic tank Effluent disposal in soak pits, safe disposal of septage, special SO, FB, WUG .effluent and setage arrangements essential if water table is high ______SO- Support Organisation, FB - The Fund Board, WLUG -Water User Group, WUC- Water User Committee,

- 65 - Table 7.2 Environmental Management Plan A. PRE-DEVELOPMENT STAGE Potential impact | Mitigation measures | Res onsibjily l! Problems due to mud, dust, dirt, ponding and Pave and protect the village streets and tracks in the hilly SO, FB, WUG erosion in the walkways - areas, develop graveled walkways in Terai Unsanitary condition due to waste disposal Develop a plan to construct latrines, develop a waste disposal SO, FB, WUG and and improper use of latrine facility in public system places WUC in co-operation with other agencies Possibility of discontinuation of traditional Assessment of such practices during project plan, SO, FB in cooperation rituals and festivals Develop a strategy that the proposed project provides a with other agencies Possibility of discontinuation of the old recognition and respect to the old practices, .values and beliefs Developing a plan to encourage the users to continue such Possibility of discontinuation of practices of rituals and festivals either at the protected old sources or at the conserving the source and catchment area by appropriate locations of the new schemes plantation etc.. - Developing a plan to encourage the users to consider the new Possibility of discontinuation of the practices system only as more efficient and productive than the old one of not polluting (defecating, washing etc) the and they should keep on their practices - sources of water considered as holy places Possibility of discontinuation of the beliefs that no one should damnage or destroy the resources around holy places ______SO- Support Organisation, FB - The Fund Board, WUG -Water User Group, WJUC- Water User Committee,

-66) - Table 7.2 Environmental Mlanagement Plan A. PRE-DEVELOPMENT STAGE Potential impact j- Mitigation measures Responsibilit_ Source use conflicts Develop consensus based on the existing, legislation SO, WIJG

Compensation /financial burden Mutual agreement within the community in voluntary SO, WUIG cotrbution of the land essenitial for the scheme components

Damage to the downstream water Assess impact of proposed diversion SO, WLJG, FB course (could be surrounding forest also) habitat, reduction of groundwater Assess the recharge and other extraction activities, monitor table the extraction Ilnappropriate selection of technology as Selection of appropriate technologies which are adaptive, FB of technological lock-in resilient, and based on holistic principles

Impairment to the valuable time of users Avoid seasonal mismatch FB

Disturbances to the lake water users Develop means which will put the pipe at the lake bottom FB, WTJq

SO- Support Organisation, FB - The Fund Board, WUG -Water User Group, WTJC- Water User Committee,

-67 - Table 7.2: Environmental Management Plan B. DEVELOPMENT STAGE

_ Potential impact Mitigation measures- Responsibility1 Source use conflicts Register the sources WIJC

Well water pollution with leaves, buckets with rope, Awareness on periodic cleaning and proper use FB, WUC, WUG sleepers, plastic materials Contamination of water during use Training and capacity building on proper water handling PB, WVUG, WNUC ways using the local and traditional resources Unsanitary conditions in the house premises Awareness on facilities which are scientific and suitable PB, SO, W`UG to_specific locations /situations Unsanitary conditions due to animal wastes and Awareness to use proper composting pit, separate the i~FB, WTUG kitchen waste waste, organic waste may be composted, other wastes

-______- - ~dispose in proper pitsP _ _ __ Unsanitary condition due to improper use of latrine Awareness for maintaining a sanitary system in schools, FB, WTUG, WYUC in in school and waste disposal manan the containers for keeping the anal cleansing cooperation with water and transporting water from the tap. Educate school children how to use toilet, proper ways of anal

______cleansing, ways of keeping toilet clean, awareness Possibility of discontinuation of traditional rituals Encouraging the users to continue such rituals and SO, FB in cooperation and festivals festivals either at the protected old sources or at the with other agencies: Possibility of discontinuation of the old values and aporaelctoso h e cee beliefs Encouraging the users to consider the new system only Possbiliy ofdisontiuatino pratice ofas more efficient and productive than the old one and conserving the source and catchment area bythysolkepnteiprccs plantation etc. Possibility of discontinuation of the practices of not polluting (defecating, washing etc) and not damaging, water sources considered as holy places_ -__ SO- Support Organisation, FB - The Fund Board, WUG -Water User Group, WTUC- Water User Committee,

- 68 - Table 7.2 Environmental Management Plan C. IMPLEMENTATION STAGE Potential imp __ Lt Mitigation measures _ _ __I Responsibility Biological water pollution due to leaves, Ensure no gaps during the slab covering SO, WUG, WUC insects, leech, algae, tadpole, Balu, Rato Juka and snail

Well water pollution with leaves, buckets with Develop the pulley system or integrated well-hand pump FB, WUC, WUG rope, sleepers, plastic materials _ system

Contamination of water during use Implement proper water handling ways using the local and FB, WUG, WUC traditional resources Po'blncms due to imiud, dust, dirt, ponding and Pave and protect the village streets and tracks in the hilly SO, FB, WUG erosion in the walkways areas, develop graveled walkways in Terai

Unsanitary condition due to waste disposal and Construct latrines, develop a waste disposal system SO, FB, WUG and improper use of latrine facility in public places WUC in co-operation with other agencies Possibility of discontinuation of traditional Protection of old system (spout, stone tap etc. and other SO, FB in cooperation rituals and festivals resources of archaeological and environmental importance with other agencies Possibility of discontinuation of the old values around the system) and beliefs Develop facilities for doing such rituals in new schemes Possibility of discontinuation of practices of Develop a strategy that the proposed project provides a conserving the source and catchment area by recognition and respect to the old practices, plantation etc. Possibility of discontinuation of the practices of not polluting (defecating, washing etc) and not damaging water sources considered as holy places ______SO- Support Organisation, FB - The Fund Board, WUG -Water User Group, WUC- Water User Committee,

- 69 - Table 7.2 Environmental Management Plan C. IMPLEMIENTATION STAGE Potential impact Mitig!ation measures Responsibilitv Damage to the forest, crops Confine the construction onsit O WC U

Pollution due to construction wastes Avoid seasonal mismatch

Dispose the construction wastes properly

Loss of stability at the quarry Take withdrawal permits from concerned authority WUC, WUG Health risks to the porters Apply protective measures

Disturbances to the forest users Develop a mutual understanding WUC, WUG

Disturbances to the lake water users Use of the facilities to put the pipe at the lake bottom SO, WUC, WUG SO- Support Organisation, FB - The Fund Board, WTUG -Water User Group, WTUC- Water User Committee,

-70 - Table 7.2 Environmental Management Plan D. OPERATIONAL STAGE Potential impact Mitigation measures | Responsibilitv Biological water pollution due to leaves, Monitoring the conditions of project component insects, premises and buffer WIJG, WUC leech, algae, tadpole, Balu, Rato zones, periodic cleaning of the screen Juka and snail

Chemical pollution: ex- Arsenic, Periodic water quality monitoring, special attention if the users find WIJG, WUC ammonia, nitrate, iron, manganese, changes in the water quality organic matter, Mud and turbidity deteriorating aesthetic Avoid first flush, make boiling mandatory if there are indications of quality, fecal matters causing WUG, WUC diseases ( fecal pollution, restrict open defection in upstream areas ex. typhoid epidemic) Well water pollution with leaves, buckets Cover the wells, periodic cleaning WUG, with rope, sleepers,plastic materials W[JC Problems due to generation and disposal Re-using the wastewater in kitchen garden, paddy of wastewater fields, end disposal WUG, HH in soak pits, constructed wetlands, road side drain and sewerage lines if any Problems due to generation and disposal End disposal in soak pits, constructed wetlands, road side drain and WUG, HH of storrnwater natural water course Problems due to generation of gray water End disposal in soak pits, constructed wetlands, road side drain and WTUG, HH natural water course Problems due to generation of septic tank Effluent disposal in soak pits, safe disposal of septage, special effluent and septage WUG, HH arrangements essential if water table is high HH-Households, WUG -Water User Group, WUC- Water User Committee,

- 71 - Table 7.2: Environmental Management Plan D. OPERATIONAL STAGE Potential_.--p-- ctMitig-ation measures Responsibilit Contamination of water during use Use of scientific means and proper hygiene practices WUG, -HH unsanitary conditions in the house premises Unsanitary conditions due to animal Use of proper composting pit, separation of the waste, organic waste *wastes and kitchen WUG, HH waste may be composted, other wastes dispose in proper pits Indoor a4TpoluinUeo tvs- HH- Unsanitary condition due to improper use Maintain a sanitary system in schools, maintain the containers for WUG, WUC in of latrine in school and waste disposal keeping the anal cleansing water and transporting water from the tap cooperation with school Unsanitary condition due to waste Construct latrines, develop a waste disposal system WUG and WUC disposal and improper use of latrine in co-operation facility in public places with -_ HH-Households, *other agencies FB - The Fund Board, V;UG -Water User Group, W~UC- Water User Committee,

- 72 - Table 7.3 Environmental perfonnance indicators Type Description Performance Indicator Monitoring Monitoring schedule Agency Baseline Water quantity Source discharge PD, AC, ED SO*, WUC monlitoring Groundwater table PD, AC, ED WUC

Per capita water availability AC, EY FB

Impact Health and Number of diarrhea cases in PD, AC, EY FB monitoring Sanitation children below 5 years of age

Other water borne diseases PD, AC, EY FB

House cleanliness PD, AC, EY FB

Drainage conditions AC, EY FB

No. of latrines added every year EY FB

Condition of the latrine in school AC, EY FB

Socio- Per capita income EY FB economic Savings from micro-credit EY FB schlemes

No. of children attending school EY WUC

Cultural Rituals and festivals carried out EY WUC, FB at water sources Compliance Water quantity Per capita water use AC, EY FB monitorinig Water quality Incidence of contamination with Reported FB insects, leech, tadpole etc. cases

Microbiological parameter PD, AC, EY FB

Physical chemical parameters PD, AC, EY FB (turbidity, pH, iron, fluoride, manganese, ammonia/nitrate, arsenic, residual chlorine) I'D - pre development phase, AC - After project completion, ED - Every dry season, EY - Every year * Only in PD phase

- 73 - 7.3 Modifications and additions suggested to the existing RWSSFDB Formats

Pre-f(i?sibilityfoirmn

Article 17 - Situation of existing sources in hill Proposed addition : Festivals and rituals practiced at the existing sources

Article 18 - Situation of existing sources in Terai Proposed addition: Festivals and rituals practiced at the existing sources

Article 19 - Sanitation situation in the community Proposed addition: Existing anal cleansing practices; use of water in latrine (amount and quiality)

Article 21 - Proposecd addition - disposal of gray water

Article 27 - Adequacy of the proposed source ( qTalrtr trr41tqt turPmdu) Proposed addition - upstream ( .... km) and downstream (....km ) use

Pre-feasibilitysite appraisalform Table 5: Existing drinking water system ( gravity) Proposed addition : Festivals and rituals practices at the existing sources

Water consumption data ( foot note) Existing - drinking, cooking and washing dishes (components of domestic use) Proposed addition : Bathing, washing cloths, anal cleansing, latrine flushing, household cleaning ( ex: IT

Technical site appraisal form : Environmental Assessment of water quality at source : Present LIsc of the source Proposed addition : upstreanm (....km) and downstream (....km) uses

Technical site appraisal form : Environmental Assessment of water quality at source

Proposed addition : description of nearest sensitive areas (national parks, wildlife reserves, conservation areas, wetland areas, world heritage sites, religious sites and places of archiological importance)

Technical site appraisal form : Source adequacy Proposed addition - Date of source discharge measurement , expected dry season yield if the above measurement is not done in the dry season

Technlical site appraisal form : Source reliability: present use Proposed addition - Is the source being used by wild animals?

Technical site appraisal form : Source reliability: location and ownership

- 74 - Proposed addition : Is the source located in sensitive areas (national parks, wildlife reserves, conservation areas, wetland areas, world heritage sites, religious sites and places of archeological importance) ?

A section on EMAP as outlined in Chapter VII, Section 7.1 has been added to the Pre- feasibility site (ippr-aisalformiiand given in Appendix E.

Development phase proposcl Should incorporate the training and capacity building activities as outlined in Section 7.1 and given on Table 7. 1, column 3 under the heading 'Development'. Community Action Plan (CAP) Training should focus on the issues highlighted on Table 7.1 ( ex: maintaining the containers for anal cleansing in school latrines, proper ways of uising the toilet ) Project Implementation Proposal(NfTV^)

Design estimates slhould include the activities outlined in EMAP for example: - catclhment protection : mention the area of plantation, type of plants / trees, strategy of cropping pattern in the buffer zones - disposal facility for the tap, well and hand pump plateforms drained water ( soak pit or drain canal upto natural drainage point, stream or river) - gravelling the walkways in Terai - stone soling for pavements (steps for up/down walkways and flat soling for horizonatal walkways) , side wall to the walkways in hill - constructed wetlands in Terai if the water table is high.

7.4 Tentative cost-estimates

Table 7.4 Tentative cost-estimates based on selected district rates (The amounts are given in Nepali Rupees) Componienits Remote hill Accessible by district roads ( both in Terai and Hill) Soak pit consisting of 30 cm thick circular dry stone wall covered with a R.C.C. slab having a manhole; diameter = 2 m, depth = 3m, - boulder mixed soil 19700 11800 - silty clay 39400 23600 Drain (30 cm by 30 cm size, stone masonary, 1:4 4800 1430 cement mortar) per I m Stone solinlg in the walkways (I m width, 20 cm thick) 1900 1900 per 10 m Dry stone wall (2 m tall, 30 cm tlhick) per 10 m 4800 4800 Gravelling in the walkways (1 m wide, 0.10 cm thick) - 2200 per 10 m Constructed wetland (clay lining = 20 cm, gravel filling - 1820 = 50 cm, sand filling = 20 cm) per population equivalent P.E. area of 1 m2

- 75 - REFERENCES

Canter, L. W. (1996) Environmental Impact Assessment, McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York

CBS (1998) A Compendium on Environment Statistics 1998, Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission Secretariat, HMG of Nepal, Kathmandu

CBS (1 999) Statistical Yearbook of Nepal 1999, Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission Secretariat, HMG of Nepal, Kathmandu

CBSa (2002) Nepal in figures 2001, Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission Secretariat, HMG of Nepal, Kathmandu

CBSb (2002) Statistical Yearbook of Nepal 2001, Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission Secretariat, HMG of Nepal, Kathmnandu

CBSc (2002) National population census 2001: Summary sheet, Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission Secretariat, HMG of Nepal, Kathmandu

DOH (2001) Annual Report 2057/2058 (2000/2001), Department of Health Services, His Majesty's Government, Ministry of Health, Kathmandu

DWSS (1998) Design guidelines for community based gravity flow: rural water supply schlemes, Vol. I - Vol. XI, His Majesty's Government, Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning, Department of Water Supply and Sewerage, Panipokhari, Kathmandu.

FDBa (2002) Project information, Official Web Site of the Fund Development Board http://\vww.rxvss.org/.

FDBb (2002) Project description, official document of the Fund Development Board, supplied to the consultant

FDBc (2002) Terms of Reference for Environment Assessment, official document of the Fund Development Board, supplied to the consultant FDBd (2002) Generic environmental assessment / Analysis checklist, official document of the Fund Development Board, supplied to the consultant FDBe(2002) Annual Report, 2000/2001(2057/2058), Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board, Kathmandu

Feacheni, R. G., Bradley, D.J., Garelick, H., Mara, D.D. (1983) Sanitation and Disease: Healtlh Aspects of Excreta and Wastewater Management, World Bank Studies in Water Supply and Sanitation 3, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester HMG and IUCN (1998) EIA Guidelines for Industry Sector 1995, His Majesty's Government and The World Conservation Union, Nepal. Kadlec R. H. and Knight R. L. (1996). Treatnent Wetlanids. Lewis Publishers, New York.

KESL (1986) Land System and Geology reports, Land Resourccd Mapping Project (LRMP), Kenting Earth Sciences Limited / HMG Nepal / Government of Canada

- 76 - Khatiwada, N. R., Takizawa, S., and Tran, T. V. N. (2002) Holistic Approach for Urban Water Management in Developing Countries, TWA World Water Congress, April 7-12, 2002, Melbourne, AuLstralia

Khatiwada, N.R., Manandhar, D., Shrestha, H.R. and Pradhan, U. M. (2002a) Setting, Drinlking Water Quality Standards in Nepal, Workshop on Drinking Water Quality Standards in Nepal, July 29, 2002, Organised by Infornation Dissemination Initiatives (IDI), Kathmandu MHPP / MOPPW (2002) Policy paper on Water Supply and Sanitation Development of His Majesty's Government of Nepal, Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning, HMG Nepal.

MOH (1992) Nepal Family Health Survey 1991. Kathmandu: Family Health Division, Ministry of Health, Kathmandu.

MOH (1997).Health Information Bulletin. Kathmandu: Planning, Foreign Aid and MonitoringJ Division, Ministry of Health, Kathmandu.

MoH, New ERA and ORC Macro (2002) Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2001, Family Health Division, Ministry of Health, New ERA and ORC Macro, Calverten, Maryland, USA.

MOPE (2001): State of the Environment Nepal: Agriculture and Forestry 2001, Ministry of Population and Environment, Kathmandu

MOPEa (2002) Environmental Standards and Regulations, Ministry of Population and Environment, Kathmandu, http://www.mope. gov.np/frame.php3

MOPEb(2002) Stakeholder's Meeting on National Ambient Environmental Standards on Air QLuality, Water Quality and Noise Quality, May 27-28, 2002, Ministry of Population and Environment, Kathmandu

MOPEc(2002) Statuis of Environmental Conventions Ministry of Population and Environment, Kathmandu, http:H/www.mope.gov.np/frame.php3 NESS (2002) Final report on establishing national drinking water standards and programs for water quality monitoring and surveillance, Nepal , prepared for DWSS

NPC(2002) Tenth plan approach paper, National Planning Commission, HMG Nepal, documents available at http:/Hwww. npc.gov.np:8080/plan/tenth_plan/index.jsp

NPC-UNICEF (1997). Diarrhoea, Water and Sanitation: NMIS Third Cycle Report. Kathmandu.

NSASC(2000) Nepal State of Sanitation Report 1999/2000, National Sanitation Action Steering Committee, Kathmandu

- 77 - Polprasert, C. and Khatiwada, N. R. (1999), Performance Evaluation and Design Procedure for Natural Wastewater Treatment Systems in Tropical Developing Countries, Proceedings of 4"'h Sepcialised IA WQ Conference on Small Wastewater Treatment Plants, 18 - 21 April 1999, Stratford

RWSSFDB (2002) A Final Report on Water Quality Testing for Batch III and Batch IV Schemes Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project, Rural Water Supply and Fund Development Board, Study carried out by Nepal Environmental and Scientific Services (P) Ltd., Kathmandu.

RWSSFDB (2002a) Groundwater / Hydrogeological Part, Schemewise report and Guildeline / Mannual for Survey, Development, Installation and Operation and Maintenance of TLube Well / Dug Well Schemes, prepared by Keshab K. C., Groundwater specialist Sharrna, R. and Adhikari, S. (2002) Household based Water Treatment with Sodium Hypochlorite Solution, Seminar on Water Quality Management, August 16, 2002, Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) / Society of Public Health Engineers (SOPHEN) / World Health Organization (WHO), Kathmandu Shrestha, R. R., Shrestlia, M.P., Upadhyay, N.P., Pradhan, R. P., Khadka, R., Maskey, Arinita, Tuladhar, S., Dahal, B.M., Shrestha, S. and Shrestha, K.B. (2002) Groundwater arsenic contamination in Nepal: a new challenge for water supply sector, Conference Proceedings, PSandiago Conference on Arsenic

TandLikar, N. and Neku, A. (2002) An overview of Arsenic Contamination and its Mitigation in Groundwater of Nepal, Seminar on Water Quality Management, August 16, 2002, Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) / Society of Public Healtl Enginecrs (SOPHEN) / World Health Organization (WHO), Kathmandu UNDP(2002) Nepal Human Development Report 2001 : Poverty Reduction and Governance, United Nations Development Program, Kathmandu

UNEP (2001) State of the Environment Nepal 2001, United Nations Environment Programme Wegelin, M. (1996) Surface water treatment by roughing filters. Department of Water and Sanitation for Developing Countries (SANDEC), Swiss Federal Institute of Science and Technology (EWAG), Rep. No. 2/96, Intermediate Technology Publications, London WHO(l 997) Health and Environment in Sustainable Development: Five Years after the Earth Summit: Executive Summary, World Health Organisation, Zeneva

- 78 - APPENDIX A

FIELD VISIT REPORT

A-I Schemes visited

The schemes visited by the study team during June 06, 2002 - June 15, 2002 are listed in Table AP-1. The Fund Board staff provided the basic information regarding the schemes. Subsequently Support Organisations (SOs) were contacted who provided assistance and information during the project site visit and helped organizing interaction program with the users. Table AP-1: List of the schemes visited Scheme SO Type of scheme Scheme status Batch Halede, Kavre NRCS-KAV Piped gravity flow Completed I Patichaur, Parbat DCRDC Piped gravity flow Completed III Paudurkot, Kaski NRCS-KAS Piped gravity flow Completed I Simle Kusunde, Kaski NRCS-KAS Piped gravity flow Ongoing IV Badera, Nawalparasi NESCOR Piped gravity flow Completed III Dharapani, Chitawan GYC Piped gravity flow Completed III Taranagar, Nawalparasi GYC Piped gravity flow Completed II Baikunthanagar, VDRC Piped gravity flow Ongoing IV Nawalparasi

Saraswotinagar, VDRC Piped gravity flow Ongoing rv Nawalparasi

Shantanagar, Siraha SBYCB Hand Pump Completed III Musaharnia, Siraha SBYCB Dug Well Completed III

Baldara, Siraha SBYCB Dug Well Ongoing IV

Chiyabari, Siraha SBYCB Dug well Completed III

Kholaghari Mugu, PN Piped gravity flow Completed II Morang

A-2 List of personnel contacted during the visit

Nepal Red Cross Society - Kavre (NRCS-KAV) - Som Prasad Humagain - Chairman - Users of Halede Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme

Dhaulagiri Community Resource Development Center (DCRDC)

-A l - - Som Prasad Humagain - Chairmnan - Bal Dev Rai - Community Technician - Users of Patichaur Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme

Nepal Red Cross Society (NRCS-KAS) - Gehendrashowr Koirala- Chainnan - Khem Raj Sapkota - Section Officer - Users of the Paudurkot Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme - Users of the Simle Kusunde Water Supply Scheme

Women's Self Reliance and Development Center (NESCOR) - Users of the Badera Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme

Gaidakot Yuba Club (GYC) - Puma Narayan Pradhan (President) - Bhumeshowr Pradhan - Tanka Raj Dhakal - Users of the Dharapani Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme - Users of the Taranagar Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme

Vijaya Development Resource Center (VDRC) - Indra Jyoti Poudel - Biswo Sapkota (Field Co-ordinator) - Piush Shrestha (Overseer) - Users of the Baikunthanagar Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme - Users of the Saraswotinagar Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme Shree Bhawani Yuba Club (SBYCB) - Dipesh Kumar Choudhary (President) - Gobardhan Choudhari (Secretary) - Govinda Prasad Choudhari (Field Co-ordinator) - Users of the Shantanagar Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme - Users of the Chiyabari Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme - Users of the Musahamia Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme Center for Community Development Services (CCDSB) renamed as Prayas Nepal (PN) - Devi Prasad Bhandari ( Secretary / Director of Programmes) - Bhuwan Neupane (Batch IV Field Coordinator) - Users of the Kholaghaghari Mugu Water Supply and Sanitation Scheme A-3 List of environmental impacts identified during the fleld observation The impacts identified during the field observation which are related to water quantity, water quality, environmental sanitation and tradition and culture are listed below. Water quantity I - Reduction of source discharge particularly during the dry season K - Water supplied is not enough to meet the demand and this is critical during season the dry

-A 2 - Water quality - Biological water pollution due to worms, snail, tadpoles; organic matter (leaves) and insects - Turbidity problems due to suspended solids particularly during rainy season - Water borne diseases - Well water pollution due to natural, accidental or deliberate (by children) intrusion of materials in the well ( leaves, buckets with rope, sleepers, plastic materials etc.) Environmental sanitation - No engineered system for the disposal of wastewater from the tap stand post plateform - No engineered system for the management of storm water - Disposal of greywater - Disposal of effluent from the septic tank / soak pit / dry wall chamber - Disposal of septage from septic tank / soak pit / dry wall chamber - Village roads pavement - No engineered system for the animals to drink the water Tradition and culture - Impairment to the traditional and culture

Impacts during the construction phase

Intake / reservoirs - land acquisition - the scheme raises the frequency of people visiting protected forest areas Pipe laying - damage to the crops - disturbance to the lake water users Construction materials - impact at the sand / gravel collection site - impact during transportation and storage Seasonal mismatch - damage to the crops - impairement to the paddy and other crops plantation - disturbance to the users to raise their crops

A-4 Selected photographs from the field ( Continued on the following page)

-A 3 - Fig. AP-1 Intake collection chamber of Halede WSSSP

. -

0

Fig. AP-2 Snail identified at the reservoir in Paudurkot WSSS

-A 4,- Fig. AP-3 Tapstand post and village pavement ( Paudurkot WSSS)

-. r,

*~ -'r

* * d

Fig. AP-4 Traditional stone spout ( Paudurkot WSSS)

-A 5 - - ~~~-

Fig. AP-5 Tap stand post (Patichaur WSSS)

Fig. AP-6 Transmission main in the Begnas Lake (Simle Kusunde WSSS)

-A 6 - Fig. AP-7 A tapstand post of Taranagar WSSS

Fig. AP-8 Reservoirs under construction (Baikunthanagar! Saraswotinagar WSSS)

-A7- ^ - ~a -

Fig. AP-9 Tubewell in use (Shantanagar WSSS)

_ .S, _ a_,

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- Dsg

Fig. AP-10 Dug well in Chiyabari WSSS -A 8- - .-

s~ ~ # - A

_ ~ 4 *

Fig. AP-1 I Backyard of the house in Chiyabari WSSS

Fig. AP-12 Latrine and a bathroom (Musaharnia WSSS)

-A 9 - A-5 CHECKLIST FOR COLLECTING FIELD INFORMATION

A. Technical information related to facility

a. General Information Name of Scheme: Location: District: Climate: Terrain: Soil type: Population served: Livestock population: b. Project description Source type: Major Components: Intake: Transmission main: Reservoirs: Distribution line: Air valve/BPTs: Tap stand posts: c. Source information Type(s): Name of source(s): Measured discharge (Ips): Estimated safe yield (ips): Per capita water availability (lpcd) Present use of source: Vegetation around the source: Source dispute, if any: Soil type in the catchment: Soil type in the source area: Nearest pollution source (toilet etc.): Intake location (stable site/unstable site): Ownership of land at the site (private / public): d. Pipe line Length (Transmission): Length (Distribution): Proposed pipe material: Description of the specific routes: Rock (m): Dense forest (m): Landslide (m): Stream crossing (1-6m): Suspension (>7m): Soil type in the transmission area: Soil type in the distribution line: e. Reservoir

-A ll - Number and size: Material of construction (RCC, Ferro-cement, brick masonary): Occupying land (private/public): Distance from the nearest settlement: f. Public Stand Posts No: Material: Nearest and longest distance from households: 7. BPTs and Air Valves: No: Material: Location of these facilities: B. Environmental Attributes 1. Water allocation Present use and anticipated alternatives to meet the present use of the source: Upstream and downstream uses: Priority tier: Future activities related to this source: 2. Water quantity Dry yield (dry water table): Per capita (Ipcd): Alternative sources to meet the demand, if any: 3. Water quality Parameters related to primary standards: (arsenic, mercury, pesticides etc.) Parameters related to secondary standards: (fluoride, nitrate, ammonia, calcium etc.) Non point sources of pollution in catchment area: Monitoring plan of water quality: Fecal pollution indicator (status and plan): Water treatment options (status and plan): Washing/bathing activities at sources or other water points:

4. Source Protection Distance to pollution sources: Natural pollutants: Land use pattern in the catchment: Durability of the structure:

5. Sanitation Anal cleansing: Toilet fltushing: Mode of defecation: Quality of facilities: Effluent / septage disposal practice: Internal village roads: Potential of erosion or landslide due to flooding: Solid waste /garbage /animal waste disposal system:

Wastewater treatment and disposal:

-A 12- Water supply and toilet facility at school and other public places: Drainage /stormwater collection /disposal system: 6. Hygiene Education Attitude and habits related to environmental health: Status of health and hygiene education: Awareness (status and need): State latrine coverage program: g. Water reuse Technologies (in practice and having potential): Standards for water reuse: h. Traditions and Culture Festivals /rituals practiced at existing water sources: No. of people gathered at one occasion: Propose (myth) of gathering: Public gathering with non-religious objectives taking place at water sources: Social activities carried out during water collection: i. Environmental health Prevalence of major diseases (Dysentery, Diarrhea, Cholera, Typhoid, Malaria, Jaundice, Scabies, Wonn infection, Evil spirit, others): Health institution (Hospital, Primary health care center, Health post, Sub-health post) j. Community participation Other community activities (forestry, micro finance, micro hydro etc.) Capacity building (status and plan): Information exchange with other group: Ownership and accountability of services: k. Safeguard activities /Security measures Vulnerable components: Location of facilities, if in protected, sensitive areas: Effects of water withdrawals on water availability (i.e. ground water): Awareness and commitment to the security of facilities:

-A 13- in Morang and Tin Dovani WSSS in Morang. B-2 Results and discussion A brief report of the results obtained from the respondents is given in Table B-2. It has to be noted here that the purpose of the questionnaire is only to get the information on the pertaining issues in the field. The figures mentioned in B-2 are not representative of neither the particular scheme nor the representative area of the schemes. The figures are only indicative of the particular issue. The results and a discussion on the significance of the results in relation to the objectives of the study are provided in the following paragraphs. Users Responding to the first inquiry of source depletion during the dry season, 61% users of the completed schemes reported that there is a significant reduction on the discharge of the source. This was mentioned as regular phenomena and anticipated during the project design. None of the respondents reported that the reduction of source discharge beyond the design value. When asked about the feasibility of an alternative source in case the source under consideration dries up, only 58 % of the respondents of the completed schemes replied that there would be a possibility of similar source within the nearby areas. Answering the same question, all of the users of the ongoing schemes agreed that there is a possibility of other similar sources. Only 42% of the respondents mentioned that the water available through the project was enough for meeting the overall demand while 30% of the users felt that the available water could meet the demand for drinking, cooking, bathing and washing and not the other uses such as meeting the demand of domestic animals. 18% of the users felt that water was not enough to meet their demands and this was critical during the dry seasons. Responding to the question of the alternative supply to meet the deficit, the users mentioned that they use either nearby stream or river or old sources. The users of the ongoing schemes mentioned that the sources selected for the candidate schemes were either unused (48%) or used (52%) for irrigation purpose. 65 % of the users from the completed schemes mentioned that neither the respondent nor their family members were affected by water borne diseases during the past one year period. The percentage of the users from the ongoing schemes for this query has remained to be 40 %. However, others mentioned that there has been frequent problems of common diseases such as diarrhea, dysentery, scabies, itching (Chilaune), vomiting, lesion or sore (Khatira, Janai Khatira, iRimira), typhoid and ringworm (dad). Regarding the use of chemical fertilizer, 80 % of the users from both category mentioned that they use chemical fertilizer namely urea, phosphorus, potash, DAP, complexal, Sagarmatha, Chini Mal and Kerau Mal. They also mentioned that organic fertilizer (manure from the animal yard, biogas plant and composted pit) is also used either separately or in combination with chemical fertilizer. The next query described if the users have come across the instances of the water contamination due to the entry of animals or unauthorized individuals. In response, 84 % of the users of the completed schemes stated that they had not noticed any such instances. In order to provide the drinking water for frequent visitors at the source, some of the schemes have taken proactive measures by providing a tap at the source area. This provision has minimized the intentional pipe cuts by either the cattle grazers, trespassers and fodder/firewood collectors at the forest area. However, there were a few instances in which intentional pipe cuts or damages were reported.

- B 2 - When asked if there has been any reported / recorded / observed cases of pollution of water, 40 % of the respondent answered positively. Only 30 % of them reported no cases of pollution encountered so far. It was interesting to note the following contaminants which the respondent often observed: dirt, mud, insects, leaves, rotten leaves, algae, small leech, dead leech, earthworm, tadpole, Balu (wormn like a long thread probably tapeworm) and Rato Juka (small rod shape leech). In wet areas ( reservoirs, tapstand post platform, water storage tanks), snail is also one of the cause of the pollution. The users described that, particularly, during the rainy season the turbidity deteriorates and often muddy and dirty water comes out of the tap. Responding to the first question of the reuse of the wastewater originating from the platform of the tapstand post, 56 % of the users from the completed and operating schemes described that the wastewater is being used in the kitchen gardens and crop fields. 21 % mentioned that the wastewater follows its course in the surroundings without being used further. When asked if they use the latrines for excreta disposal, 88% mentioned that they use the latrine built in their premises. Majority of latrines were found to have a dry wall structure with a porous bottom. The effluent from the collection chamber seeps to the soil and there has been no facilities or plan for the disposal of septage. Most of the facilities were constructed very recently and there were no incidence of the emptying of the filled chamber and disposing the septage. The users were found to practice many disposal methods for kitchen wastes. The green leftovers or the cooked food residues are supplied to the animals as feed. The wastes which can not be re-used as animal feed are either incinerated or dumped into a pit. The organic fraction is often also disposed with the manure or composted separately. Animal waste is collected just a few feet away from the places where the animals are kept (Gothl). In some cases a pit is prepared at the collection sites but most of the collection areas are just the undisturbed ground surface. In Terai area animal waste is re-used for the biogas generation. The slurry coming out of the biogas plant is also used as organic fertilizer. The greywater originating from the dish washing activity is just let it seep in to the ground. Usually a place made with wooden planks is used for this activity. Only a few households have their bathrooms for taking a bath or washing the clothes. The users normally take bath in the tap stand posts itself. Whatever may be the source of wasted water it is normally disposed at the origin itself. The stormwater collected in the house premises is guided by the temporary (seasonal) drains to nearby areas where it takes its own course and flows naturally. The survey results showed that 47 % of the users from completed schemes use paved village roads for internal transportation. However, 44 % mentioned that they do not have such facility. The difficulties with un-paved roads / ways were mentioned as: dusty in winter / dry season, becomes dirty, muddy in rainy season, ponding of rainwater, difficulty to walk, and loss of soil by erosion, creation of a ditches, frequent filling of the ditches to maintain the levels. 70 % of the respondents from the completed schemes mentioned that they keep animals and birds and, therefore, need water for them to drink, to prepare food for them and to wash them. Regarding the means for the animals to drink water, the 42% of the users mentioned that the mode being manual hauling. The final query was related to the tradition and culture. Users were asked to describe the traditional activities being organized at the water sources, any adverse impact made by the scheme under consideration in organizing and continuing these activities and possible means

- B 3 - which could help to continue the activities. Only 42% of the respondent believed that there has been no adverse cultural impact due to the establishment of the project. Table B-2 Summary of the response from the users Surface water sources Query Completed Schemes Ongoing Schemes Water quantity - Source depletion none: 14 % none: 48 % slight: 14 % slight: 20 % significant: 61 % * significant: 32 % *

-Alternative source none: 9 % none: other similar : 58 % other sirnilar: 1 00%

- Prior use of the source Irrigation: 52% none: 46% -Water availability enough: 42 % limited use: 30 % not enough: 18 %

- Alternative supply nearby stream old sources

Water quality -water borne diseases none: 65 % none: 40 % - Use chemical fertilizer yes: 81 % yes: 80 % -Animal/ unauthorized entry none : 84 %

- observed pollution yes: 40 %; none: 30 % yes: 40 %; none: 30 % - probable pollution causes worms / flood / suspended solids / mud / leaves Environmental Sanitation Reuse tap drained water Field / Kitchen garden: 56 % Field / Kitchen garden: 60 % wasted: 21 % none: 20 % have latrine yes : 88 % yes: 70 % effluent disposal percolated to soil percolated to soil septage disposal facility none none kitchen waste animal /pit / manure animal /pit / manure animal waste biogas /manure biogas /manure greywater / stormwater left to soil left to soil stone paving / gravel in yes: 47% yes: 20% village roads none: 44% means for the animals to hauling manually: 42% hauling manually: 60% drink bring them to stream /river: 20% Tradition and Culture - group activities done at the Devi Puja water sources Nag Puja Jhakri Puja Chhatha Pija Bali Puja Sim Puja Sansari Mai Puja

* This does not mean that the reduction is beyond the design value

- B 4 - However, they agreed that they used to practice (still continuing in most of the areas) many activities either individually from a household or together at the water sources. The users mentioned that the various kinds of festivals and rituals such as Nag Puja ,Devi Puja, Sim Ptqa, Jhakri Puja, Chhatha Puja and Bali Puja, Sansari Mai Puja are practiced. The users considered the water sources to be an integral part of their life and existence. Therefore, they frequently organized these activities to pray for the sustainability of the source, protection of their health and well being and invitation to the rainwater. In doing these they managed to protect the catchment by plantation activities. Trees around the source were protected as the site is designated as a holy place. The major issues identified in the response from the users of the schemes using groundwater sources are: - The groundwater table reduction in dry season is 5- 10 ft compared to the rainy or winter season - The alternatives if the current source dries up are the old wells and the nearby streams - The water available from the project is enough for specific human consumption but for animals, washing the dishes and cloths they go to nearby stream or conventional ponds and artificial reservoirs - There were mixed answers for the question of whether the demand was enough for their needs. Some of them responded that the supply was enough but some responded that it was not enough - There were mixed answers for the question of water borne diseases - The sources of pollution in dug wells were identified that the dust, leaves and the remains of the plastic rope - In occasions of Marriage ceremony or Bratabandhaceremony the well water gets polluted as of large gatherings - The wastewater from the well premises is used in the crop fields - There were mixed answers for the latrine issue. Those who do not own one, they go for open defecation in the nearby areas - There were mixed answers for the question of village paved roads. Respondents not having the pavements in their communities mentioned that they experienced difficulty without such facility - Hauling manually and feeding the animals in Kathauti and Karahi are in commonplace - The rituals and festivals practiced are: Kamala Mai kopuja, Sombar & Mangalbarko pjija, Mahadev, Indra Bhagawan ko pieja, Surya Dev ko puja

Technicians The response from the technicians is summarized as below. - The dry yield is 7-15 % less than the average yield - There are no possibilities that the dry yield is further reduced - Alternative sources are available but at further distances - No recorded pollution problems in the water from the source under consideration - Pit latrine and pour flushed latrine as common mode of defecation - Mixed answers for the common diseases issue - There were mixed answers for the question of water bome diseases - Earthen ponds (A/hal) are common place for the animals to drink water. Hauling manually and feeding them in 'Taulo' is also common practice - Degradable wastes are dumped in the compost pit and non degradable are burnt out - There were mixed answers for the question of village paved roads. The villagers not having the pavements in their communities face difficulty without such facility - B 5 - APPENDIX C

WHO WATER QUALITY GUIDELINE

Summary tables extracted from Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 2nd ed. Vol. 2 Health criteria and other supporting infonnation, 1996 (pp. 940-949) and Addendum to Vol. 2. 1998 (pp. 281-283), Geneva, World Health Organization.

Table 1. Bacteriological quality of drinking-watera

Organisms Guideline value

All water intended for drinking

E. coli or therTmotolerant colifonn bacteriabc i Must not be detectable in any Il00-ml sample

Treated water entering the distribution system

E. coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteriab Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample Total coliform bacteria Must not be detectable in any 100-mi sample

Treated water in the distribution system

E. coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteriab Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample Total coliform bacteria Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample. In the case of large supplies, where sufficient samples are examined, must not be present in 95% of samples taken throughout any 12- month period a Innediate investigative action must be taken if either E. coli or total coliform bacteria are detected. The minimal action in the case of total coliform bacteria is repeat sampling; if these bacteria are detected in the repeat sample, the cause must be determined by inmmediate further investigation. b Although E. coli is the more precise indicator of faecal pollution, the count of thermotolerant coliform bacteria is an acceptable alternative. If necessary, proper confirmnatory tests must be carried out. Total coliform bacteria are not acceptable indicators of the sanitary quality of rural water supplies, particularly in tropical areas where many bacteria of no sanitary significance occur in almost all untreated supplies.

' It is recognized that, in the great majority of rural water supplies in developing countries, faecal contamination is widespread. Under these conditions, the national surveillance agency should set medium-term targets for the progressive improvement of water supplies, as recommnended in Volume 3 of GCidelinesfor drinking-water quality.

-C 1- Table 2. Chemicals of health significance in drinking-water

A. Inorganic constitients Guideline value Remarks

______(m g/litre) antimony o0.005 (Pa arsenic 0.01 (p) For excess skin cancer risk of 6 x 1- barium 0.7 berylliumn NADC boron 0.5 (P) cadmilim 0.003 chronlium 0.05 (P) copper 22_ P Based on acute gastrointestinal effects cyaIiide 0.07 fluoride 1.5 Climatic conditions, volume of water consumed, and intake from other sources should be considered when setting national standards lea(d 0.01 It is recognized that not all water will meet the guideline value immediately; meanwhile, all other recommended measures to reduce the total exposure ______to lead should be implemented ananaese 0.5 (P) ATOd merciy (total) 0.001 molybdenum 0.07 nickel 0.02 (P) _ nitrate (as N03 )1 50 acute nitrite (as NO2 ) 3 (acute) 0.2 P chronic) seleniumn 0.01 uraniilm 0.002 (P) a (P) - Provisional guideline value. This term is used for constituents for which there is some evidence of a potential hazard but where the available infornation on health effects is limited; or where an uncertainty factor greater than 1000 has been used in the derivation of the tolerable daily intake (TDI). Provisional guideline values are also recommended: (1) for substances for which the calculated guideline value would be below the practical quantification level, or below the level that can be achieved through practical treatment methods; or (2) where disinfection is likely to result in the guideline value being exceeded. b For substances that are considered to be carcinogenic, the guideline value is the concentration in drinking-water associated with an excess lifetime cancer risk of l0-5 (one additional cancer per 100 000 of the population ngesting drinking-water containing the substance at the guideline value for 70 years). Concentrations associated with estimated excess lifetime cancer risks of 10-4 and 10-6 can be calculated by multiplying and dividing, respectively, the guideline value by 10. In cases in whiclh the concentration associated with an excess lifetime cancer risk of 10-5 is not feasible as a result of inadequate analytical or treatment technology, a provisional guideline value is recommended at a practicable level and the estimated associated excess lifetime cancer risk presented.. c NAD - No adequate data to permit recommendation of a health-based guideline value.

dATO - Concentrations of the substance at or below the health-based guideline value may affect the appearance, taste, or odour of the water.

- C 2 - APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNARE SURVEY

B-1 Questionnaire survey Objectives and scope: In order to get the information on the perception of users and the technicians regarding the environmental aspects of the projects, a questionnaire survey was conducted in the selected schemes. The selection of schemes was done basically to obtain a fairly accurate representative response. Both completed and ongoing schemes, schemes using the surface water sources vs. the groundwater sources and the geographic locations of hills, inner Terai and Terai regions were included in the survey. The questionnaire was designed to cover the following aspects: water quantity, water quality, environmental sanitation and tradition and culture. Sample copies of the questionnaire are given below. To familiarize the respondent with the objectives and scope of the survey, an introductory paragraph was given on the top of each questionnaire. Nepali-translated version of the questionnaire was distributed to the users during the field visits. Users were assisted by the study team to fill up the questionnaire sheets. SOs and readily available Technicians were contacted personally and clarifications were made regarding the survey. For the technicians who were not available during the visit, the questionnaire were left with SOs who forwarded them later to the study team through the mail. The distribution of the number of the respondents is given B-I. Table B- I : Distribution of the respondents Name of the project Total number of the users Technicians Halede, Kavre 7 ...... -...... I...... Patichaur, Parbat 10 1 "..I...... I...... 1-.1...... -...... -...... Paudurkot, Kaski 7 Simle Kusunde, Kaski 8 1

Badera,I...... Nawalparasi...... I...... -...... S...... 9 -.-.....-- ---

...... Dharapani, ...... 1...... -...... Chitawan...... I...... 109 ......

Baikunthanagar, Nawalparasi 8 1 Saraswotinagar, Nawalparasi I ...... "...... --...... Shantinagar, Siraha 6 1 ...... I...... --...... I ...... -.. -...... Musahamia, Siraha 6 l ...... I...... -. ..I...... I...... Baldara, Siraha 6 1 Chiyabari, Siraha 5 1 ...... -.-...... -...... Kholaghari Mugu, Morang 6 1

In addition to this the questionnaire for the technicians was obtained from the following projects too: Simle Chaur WSSS in Kaski (Batch III), Bhangra Sitheni WSSS in Kaski (Batch 11), Rato Danda WSSS in Nawalparasi, Archale Gadyara WSSS in Morang, Jalakanya WSSS

-B I - B. Organic constituents Guideline value (pg/litre) Remarks Chlorinatedalkanes_ carbon tetraclhloride 2 dichlorornetliane 20 1 I -dichloroetliane NAD 1,2-dichloroethane 30 For excess risk of 10-, I1 . I-triclhloroethane 2000 (P) Chilorinatedethenes vinyl chloride 5_ For excess risk of 10' 1.I -dichloroethene 30 1 2-dichloroethene 50 trichloroethene 70 (P) tetrachloroethene 40 Aromatic hiydrocarbons benizene ______b______For excess risk of 10- tolLiene 700 ATO xylencs 500 ATO ethylbenzene 300 ATO styreele 20 ATO benzo[alpyrene 0.7 For excess risk of 10- Cl7lorinated benzenes monochlorobenzene 300 ATO 1,2-dichlorobenzene 1000 ATO 1,3-dichlorobenzene NAD 1,4-dichlorobenzene 300 ATO trichlorobenzenes (total) 20 ATO Miscellaneois ______di(2-ethylhexyI)adipate 80 di(2-ethylhexyl0phthalate 8 acrylamide 0.5b For excess risk of 10- epichlorohydrin 0.4 (P) hexachlorobutadiene 0.6 edetic acid (EDTA) 600 Aplies to the free acid nitrilotriacetic acid 200 dialkyltins NAD tributyltiii oxide 2 microcystin-l-R 1 (P) Applies to total microcystin- LR (free plus cell-bound) a (P) - Provisional guideline value. This term is used for constituents for which there is some evidence of a potential hazard but where the available information on health effects is limited; or where an uncertainty factor greater than 1000 has been used in the derivation of the tolerable daily intake (TDI). Provisional guideline values are also recommended: (1) for substances for which the calculated guideline value would be below the practical quantification level, or below the level that can be achieved through practical treatment methods; or (2) where disinfection is likely to result in the guideline value being exceeded. b For substances that are considered to be carcinogenic, the guideline value is the concentration in drinking-water associated with an excess lifetime cancer risk of 10-5 (one additional cancer per 100 000 of the population ingesting drinking-water containing the substance at the guideline value for 70 years). Concentrations associated

- C 3 - with estimated excess lifetime cancer risks of 10-4 and 1o06 can be calculated by multiplying and dividing, respectively, the guideline value by 10.

In cases in which the concentration associated with an excess lifetime cancer risk of 10-5 is of inadequate analytical not feasible as a result or treatment technology, a provisional guideline value level is reconumended at a practicable and the estimated associated excess lifetime cancer risk presented. It should be emphasized that the guideline values for carcinogenic substances have been computed from hypothetical mathematical models that cannot be verified experimentally and that the values should be interpreted differently from TDI-based values because of the lack of precision of the models. At best, these values must be regarded as rough estimates of cancer risk. However, the models used are conservative and probably err side of caution. Moderate short-term on the exposure to levels exceeding the guideline value for carcinogens significantly affect the risk. does not

cNAD - No adequate data to permit recommnendation of a health-based guideline value. dATO -Concentrations of the substance at or below the health-based guideline value may affect the appearance, taste, or odour of the water. C. Pesticides Guideline value (pg/litre) Remarks alachilor 2X For excess risk of IO- aldicarb 10 aldrin/dieldrin 0.03 atrazine 2 bentazonie 300 carbofuraii 7 clhlordane 0.2 chlorotoluiron 30 cyaniazine 0.6 DDT 2 1,2-dibromno-3-chloropropane lb For excess risk of 10-5 ,2-dibrornoethane 0 .4- 15 b (P) For excess risk of 10- 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic 30 acid (2,4-D! 1,2-dichloropropane (1.2- 40 (P) DCP) ______.... I 3-dichloropropane NAD 1,3-dichloropropene 20b For excess risk of I0' diguat 10 (P) heptachlor and heptachior 0.03 epox i(IC ______s_ hexachilorobeinzene Ilb__ For excess risk of 10- isoprotuiron 9 lindane 2 MCPA 2 nmethoxychlor 20 inctolachlor 10 molinate 6 . pendimethalin 20 pentachlorophenol s 9b (P) For excess risk of 10- permethrin 20

-C 4 - propanil, 20 pyridate 100 simnazinc 2 terbuthylazine (TBA) 7 triflLuralin 20 Chlorophenoxy herbicides other than 2,4-D and MCPA 2,4-DB 90 dichlorprop 100 fenoprop 9 MCPB NAD iliecop rop 10 _24,5-T 9 _ (P) - Provisional guideline value. This term is used for constituents for which there is some evidence potential hazard but where the of a available information on health effects is limnited; or where an uncertainty greater than 1000 has been used factor in the derivation of the tolerable daily intake (TDI). Provisional guideline are also recommended: (1) for substances values for which the calculated guideline value would be below the practical quantification level, or below the level that can be achieved through practical treatment methods; or (2) where disinfection is likely to result in the guideline value being exceeded. b For substances that are considered to be carcinogenic, the guideline value is the concentration in drinking-water associated with an excess lifetime cancer risk of I 0' (one additional cancer per 100 000 of the population ingesting drinking-water containing the substance at the guideline value for 70 years). Concentrations associated with estimated excess lifetime cancer risks of 10-4 and 10-6 can be calculated by multiplying and dividing, respectively, the guideline value by 10. In cases in which the concentration associated with an excess lifetime cancer risk of l0-5 is not feasible of inadequate analytical or treatment as a result technology, a provisional guideline value is recommended at a practicable level and the estimated associated excess lifetime cancer risk presented. not significantly affect the risk. c NAD - No adequate data to permit recommendation of a health-based guideline value. d ATO - Concentrations of the substance at or below the health-based guideline value may affect the appearance, taste, or odour of the water.

-C 5 - Table 5. Substances and parameters in drinking-water that may give rise to complaints from consumers Levels Reasons for consumer complaints likely to give rise to consumer complaintsa Phlysical parameters colourl 15 TCUb appearance taste and odour - should be acceptable temperature - should be acceptable tLurbidity 5 NTU" appearance; for effective tenninal disinfection, median turbidity =1 aluminiunm NTU, single sample =5 NTU 0.2 mg/I depositions, discoloration ammonia 1.5 mg/l odour and taste clhloride 250 mg/l taste, corrosion copper 1 mg/l staining of laundry and sanitary ware (health-based provisional guideline hardness value 2 mg/litre) high hardness: scale deposition, scum formation low hardness: possible corrosion hydrogeii sulfide 0.05 mg/l odour and taste Iron__ 0.3 mg/I staining of laundry manganese and sanitary ware 0.1 mg/l staining of laundry and sanitary ware (health-based ______guideline value 0.5 mg/litre) dissolved oxygen - indirect effects pH:A _ low pH: corrosion high pH: taste, soapy feel preferably <8.0 for effective disinfection with chlorine sodium 200 mg/I taste sulfate 250 mg/i taste, corrosion total dissolved solids 1000 m/l taste zilc 3 mg/l appearance, taste Organic constituents toluene 24-170 pg/l odour, taste (health-based guideline xylene value 700 pg/1) 20-1800 odour, taste (health-based guideline value 500 jig/l) ethylbenzene 2-200 pg/l odour, taste (health-based guideline value 300 ug/l) .4-2600pg/ odour, taste (health-based monochlorobenzene guideline value 20 Ito) 10-120 pg/l odour, taste (health-based 1,2-dichlorobenzene guideline value 300 ug/1) 1-10 pg/I odour, taste (health-based guideline value 1000 pg/1) 1,4-dichlorobenzene 0.3-30 plg/l odour, taste (health-based guideline value trichlorobenzenes (total) 5-50 300 pg/l) 1t/l odour, taste (health-based guideline synthetic detergents value 20 ug/l) - _ foaming, taste, odour

- C 6 - Disinfectants and disinfectant byproducts chlorine 600-1000 taste and odour (health-based guideline value 5 _g/l _Pg/I) chlorophenols 2-chlorophenol 0.1-10 pg/l taste, odour 2,4-dichlorophenol 0.3-40 rg/I taste, odour 2,4,6-trichlorophenol 2-300 gg/I taste, odour chlorine (health-based guideline value 200 Pg/1) 600-1000 taste and odour (health-based guideline value 5 ______/,__ _ _ _g_l) 2-chlorophenol 0.1-10 pg/l taste, odour 2,4-dichlorophenol 0.3-40 jig/l taste, odour 'The levels indicated are not precise numbers. Problems may according to local occur at lower or higher values circumstances. A range of taste and odour threshold for organic constituents. concentrations is given

b TCU, true colour unit.

c NTU, nephelometric turbidity unit.

-C 7 - APPENDIX D

1. Questionnaire for the users of completed and surface water schemes (In Nepali)

2. Questionnaire for the users of ongoing and surface water schemes (In Nepali) 3. Questionnaire for the users of completed and groundwater schemes (In Nepali)

4. Questionnaire for the users of ongoing and ground water schemes (In Nepali) 5. Questionnaire for the Technicians (In English)

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,~~au2 * 14,A wj ta~ ;)IRwA t0@lhIILhDD (6 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ENVIRONMENT ASSESSMENT OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROJECT II (RWSSP II) (To be answered by Technicians) This is a questionnaire concerning the environment assessment of rural water supply sanitation and project. These projects are aimed to provide safe drinking water, improve conditions health and empower the communities. How over, there are some key environmental concems such as catchments protection, drainage problems and fecal pollution. this The aim of study is to identify the key environmental impacts and suggest possible mitigation measures. Therefore, the information provided by you will be important in insuring the sustainability of the project The outcome of this project will be used by Fund Board in making the decisions regarding the construction and operation of the project.

1. PROJECT DESCRIPTION

Name of the Project: Location:

District: No. of taps

Population served__

Major Project components:

Source type_

Reservoir size_

Transmission main_

Distribution lines_

2. WATER QUATITY ISSUES:

(1)Average yield of the sources safe yield

(2) Are there any possibilities that the dry yield mentioned in (1) will be further reduced future? in

(3) What is the possibility of alternative source?

-D 10- 3. WATER QAULITY ISSUES

(1) Is there any recorded pollution problem in the water from the source under consideration ?

(2) What are the possible sources (present and future ) of pollution problem in the area? catchment

(3) Nearest contamination source from major structures - (latrine, cattle pen, refuse pits, soak pits, sewage disposal, cesspools, landfill, grave):

(4) What are the existing activities in the upstream side of the source?

4. ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION

(1) What is the common means of defecation (open defecation, pit latrine, pour flush toilet, modem toilet)?

(2) Common disease prevailing (Malaria, stomach ailments, diarrhea, scabies, fever)

(3) Are there any facilities proposed / constructed for animals to drink water?

(4) What are existing practice of solid waste /garbage /animal waste / septage disposal systems in the project area?

(5) Are the village roads paved (with stones / slates) ? If not, what difficulties are faced by the villagers in the absence of the paved roads?

Thank you very much for your kind co-operation

-D 11 - APPENDIX E

(The modifications suggested on the RWSSFDB Formats are given with underlined upper case words if the format is in English and underlined words if the format is in Nepali) 1. Pre-feasibility study form (Hill / Terai) (In Nepali) 2. Pre-feasibility site appraisal report (In English) 3. Implementation phase proposal (In Nepali)

4. Community action planning orientation training to Team Leaders, Field Co- ordinators and Software Supervisors ( In English)

5. 11ealth Education and Sanitation Training to School Teachers and Students (In Nepali)

6. Training Program to be given to Users Committee after the completion of construction works (In Nepali)

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FMrT, MTT 1F 2tlf4ftfi 7TP PRE-FEASIBILITY SITE APPRAISAL REPORT

SO Name ...... Batch .... Scheme Code. Scheme Name .... Name of Community/ies. Ward no ...... VDC .... District . Site appraisal SA Team Members

A. GENERAL INFORMATION OF THE PROPOSED SCHEME AREA 1. Background for Scheme / Site Selection

The Support Organization selected the schemes sites because of the following reasons: / a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

The Community Understanding of RWSSFDB (Refer community decision made during the PF study)

BreHitr of the SO - Comm,unity Relationship

C W-.aRaj\kfid-b..,dIFS NAL\FORMISSp,.-{ -..rJoc. 1( I) 10Ot27t2002 2. Sources of Income

The Major source of income to most households of the village/ through community for subsistence is . Around household families limited to this primary source only. To supplement are the subsistence, the Secondary source of income to most household families is through 3. Labor and Wage Rate Type of labor Unit Actual Wage Rate in District Wage Remarks the community Rate ( rs) (Nhrs) Male Female Male Skilled Labor Female

Unskilled labor Portage charge Agricultural labor

D. EXISTING DRINKING WATER SYSTEM

1. Existing Improved Drinking Water System (Gravity) The existing Drinking Water system in the community / village is an improved Water system. ______Name of the Schemes NO. Description 1. Name of source 2 System built in the year: 3. Name of agency supporting the system being built 4. No. of Tapstands built: 5. Nos. of pipe outlets (without tapstand) 6. Community contribution cash : Rs.( if any) 7. Pipe line length : meter: 8. Pipe size used 9. Number of structure built: Intake/Reservoir Tank: (Please list) 10. Is scheme operating : (Yes/No) 11. User committee Yes/No 12. O&M system operated by whom: . - 13. VMW: Yes/No Name: 14. Cash collected for O&M: 15. FESTIVALS AND RITUALS PRACTICED AT THE SOURCES Water Consumption Data Primary sources used mainly for domestic purposes for more than 6 Other mths/yr (P) seasonal sources (S) for domestic ______Cluster No. ~~~~use - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 No. of trips (total) per day per household. I X I No. of Trips per day per household for domestic use No. of trips per day per household for animal consumption5 (Average no. of large animals (buffalo) per household ...... ) No. of liters per trip6 Iy I- Total no. of liter/hh/day

Z* Hll

Total

( CC ) / (Total H1 ) Average household

water consumption 7 _.______...... Note 1: Provide a sketch map _ _ __ _ showing clusters of households, existing sources Sketch Map and round-tnp time to support the table - See

Note 2: The cluster no. and information in this table should relate to that of the sketch map. The clusters of households, existing sources and round-trip time is in the Sketch Map 1 at the following page. 3. Existing Drinking Water System (Gravity)

At present, the village/community has sources are water sources. The Name of these as follows: (The source include any type of water community such points which is being used by the as Kuwa, Spring, Stream, River, Tube wells, dugwell, tapstand etc.) Dhungedhara, pipe outlets,

f) g) h) i) = i)

Detailed Description of the existing Gravity Water System as in Table 5.

4 Includes drinking, cooking and washing dishes, BATHING, WASHING CLOTHS. ANAL CLEANSING. LATRINE FLUSHING, HOUSEHOLD CLEANINNG (1 i 5Select 3Tfl ) household with average number of animals 6 Based on capacity of gagrot vessel used. 7. Use Table 14 to calculate average household water consumption for the community: I . Multiply households (H1) and no. of liters/hh (Z) for each source. i.e. fill row Z * H1 2. Add results of all sources. i.e. CC 3. Divide 2 by total no. of households. i.e. CC / Total IllI TECHNICAL SITE APPRAISAL FORM

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY AT SOURCE

(It may require using nos. of sheets for additional sources and alternating sources)

Source name and Location

Source Type

Source Located Area (forest/ field/ community/ rocky area / permeable area etc.)

(# Please include the photograph of source and its catchement upstream; # Please include the sketch map of source and its catchement upstream containing eg. Topography, Land Use, Drainages, Canals, Landslide and Erosion, Settlement etc.)

Vegetation around the source and its catchemnt: Water Quality (by observation ):

Present Use of Source (UPSTREAM ..... Km) DOWNSTREAM (...... Km)

Sanitary Condition surrounding the source:

Human settlements upstream and in surrounding area: DESCRIPTION OF NEARESET SENSITIVE AREAS f NATIONAL PARKS, WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AREAS, RESERVES, WETLAND AREAS, WORLD HERITAGE SITES, RELIGIOUS OF ARCHEOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE SITES. PLACES

Possible Contamination by Human intrusion and cattle grazing

Possible Contamination by Surface Drainage runoff and floods:

Possible Environmental Threats and contamination due to Landslide and erosion: TECHNICAL SITE APPRAISAL FORM SOURCE ADEQUACY

(It may require to use nos. of sheets for additional sources and alternate sources) SOURCE MEASUREMENT

DATE OF MEASUREMENT - EXPECTED DRY SEASON YIELD - Bucket Watch Method 1 2 3 4 Vessel Capacity (letre) Time to fill the vessel (sec.) Yield of Source (lit./sec.)

Measured Yield of Source (lit./sec.) (Average of yields) L Estimated Safe Yield of the source (lit./sec.) i

Other Method (Please Specify)

Method used for Source Measurement

1 2 3 4 Yield of source (lit./sec.)

Measure Yield of source (lit./sec.) (Average of yields) I Estimated Safe Yield of Source (lit./sec.) l (Please attach details of source measurement and calculations in a separate sheet) SOURCE ADEQUACY

Design Populati n No. of Present Growth rate Design Design Household Population Perod Population .______.Years _

Institutional Demand No. of No. of Demand School Students Per School Other Total student litre Ipd lpd Ipd

Daily Water Supply from Source (lit./day)

Daily Water Supply available for Domestic Demand (lit./day) (deducting the institutional demand)

Available Per Capita Water Demand (Ipcd) Conclusion on Source Adequacy TECHNICAL SITE APPRAISAL FORM SOURCE RELIABILITY

(It may require to use nos. of sheets for additional sources and alternate sources)

Location and ownership Is the source located in other VDC Yes No Is the source located in other community Yes No Is the source located in private land Yes No Is there an agreement to use the source by the owner

Is there any possibility of source dispute by present source owners, please comment.

Present Use Is the source presently used for Irrigation Yes No Is the source presently used for other W/s system Yes No Is the source being used by tresspassers Yes No Is the source being used for cattle feeding Yes No IS THE SOURCE EXTENSIVELY USED BY WILD ANIMANLS ? Yes No IS THE SOURCE LOCATED IN SENSITIVE AREAS (NATIONAL PARKS, WILDLIFE RESERVES. CONSERVATION AREAS, WETLAND AREAS, WORLD HERITAGE SITES, RELIGIOUS SITES AND PLACES OF ARCHEOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE)? For what other purposes the source is currently being used

Who are the present users of the source - same community and/or other communities pls. Specify.

Is there an agreement to use the source by present users.

Is there any possibility of dispute by present source users, please comment.

Sustainability (Please also refer Environmental Assessment of Water Quality at source) Is the source perennial Is safe yield of source or collected safe yield of sources in > 0.1 I/s Is there any other point source just above the present source which might be the true source Is there any possibility of landslide which might threaten the source Is there any possibility of upstream diversion of source Is there any other threatens for source reliability

Conclusion on source reliability (Possibility of source dispute and Source depletion ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ACTION PLAN (EMAP)

( DESCRIBE THE IDENTIFIED ISSUES AND MITIGATION MEASURES) (U!SE ADDITIONAL SHEETS IF ESSENTIAL) WATER QUANTITY

WATER QUALITY

ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION

TRADITION AND CULTURE Annex: d Community Action Planning Orientation Training to Team Leaders, Field Co- ordinates and Software Supervisors

Session Plan Date Activities Purpose Methodology / Process Output Dayl1 8: 45 to Registration - Registration of participants and 9:00 handed over the stationary to the participants 9:00-9.30 Introduction of participants - To introduced participants each - Ice break exercise by using - Participants will introduced and familiar other Pear introduction' each other 9.30-9.45 Pre training Test - to know that how far the - Questionnaire pre test form - Trainer will able to determine the level of participants are familiar with participants and knowledge about FB. FB activities 9:45 to Opening of the program - to clarify the purpose of - Speech delivery to clarify the 10.15 - Introduction training details purpose of training details - Welcome to the 1. Program Co-ordinator participants - Opening remarks 2. RWSSFDB Staff 10:15 Tea break 10:30 10:30- Expectation collection of the - To know the participants - Participants will be asked to - Better understanding of overall objectives 11:00 participants expectation and clarify the write their expectation from the of the training, agreed on logistics and Highlights on training purpose of the training orientation training briefing on schedules. program: objectives process the objectives, process and out and outputs put of the training 11:00- Introduction of the Fund - Participants will know the - Short lecture on the subject, - Familiar with Fund Board, its objectives, 12:00 Board objectives, working procedure overhead projector will be organizational structure and working - Objectives, organization and organization structure of the used to show the facts and procedure. structure and Working RWSSFDB. figure of RWSSFDB procedure - Brochure, newspaper 12:00-1:00 Lunch Break 1:00-2:00 Scheme cycle with - Participants will be familiar - Explain the activities need to - At the end of this session participants will emphasis of development with RWSSFDB scheme be carried out during familiar with the scheme cycle of the phase activity cycle and activities carried development phase in an scheme: out in the development sequential order - pre development phase phase. - development phase and - Implementation phase - as we as will be more clear the detail activities carried out during development phase work. 2:00-2:15 Warm up exercise - Name memory game '2:15-2:30 Tea Break 2:30-5.30 Role and responsibility of - Participants will be familiar - Brefing on role and - At the end of this session participants will SO on RWSSFDB activities with the role of SO in the responsibility of the SO on FB clearly understand the role and and Development phase different scheme cycle and activities with CAP processing responsibility of the SO on RWSSFDB TOR terms of references of (Al to A14 plans).and other activities as well as terms of references of Development phase activities to be carried out in the different staff. development phase. 8:15-8:45 Video, Tapping the source - Video show - Day2 8:30-9:00 Review of previous day - Participants will be clearer - Presentation on previous - participants will be remember and session on 1st day session. sessions (what happen, strong Summarize hole activities of the previous points and pints need to be day. improved) from the leader of group 'A'. After presentation 10 minuets are given to the group 'B' to add and comment if they have any. If the participants need more clarity on the previous session the facilitator will help them to rnake it clear. 9.00-10.00 Demand driven approach - participants will be familiar - Briefing on the concept of - To make more familiar with FB objectives and community managed on the concept of demand demand driven approach and and willingness of the community in water water supply scherne, driven approach and community managed water supply and sanitation schemes. design process interaction community managed water supply scheme, design with community on service supply scheme, design process interaction with level, technical optional and process interaction with community on service level community contribution community on service level and community contribution technical option and using overhead projector. community contribution SARAR tools will be used ENVIRONMENTAL during the discussion on ISSUES, MITIGATION technical option. Question and MEASURES, answer will be encouraged to ENVIRONMENTAL make clear on the points. MANAGEMENT ACTION PLAN

10:00- HSE, SRLE, NFE, WTSS, - Participants will familiar with - Briefing on the concept of soft - to make familiar with the software 12:00 Gender and other software software components ware components(HSE, SRLF, activities carried out by the RWSSFDB. activities. conducting by FB. NFE, WTSS, Gender and - At the end of the session participants will other) using overhead familiar with: projector - HSE, SRLF, MCH, School hygiene - Distribution of reference program, personal household and materials environment sanitation. - concept policy and guideline of NFE, I______I______I______I__ W T S S 12:00-1:00 I Lunch Break (- I- - TE f

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1. Table F 1: Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Draft Report

2. Table F 2: Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Final Draft Report Table F 1: Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Draft Report

Comment Response Location of revision / addition in the text

Check list of environmental parameters A checklist of environmental parameters is given Table 7.2 A, Section A-5. '______-~- Appendix Environmental issues addressed by the Included Page 74, Section 7.3 existing formats and description of the improvements essential

Environmental activities to be carried Included Page 65, Table 7.2 out in each project cycle Post - construction Environmental Included under heading 'Operation'. The compliance Page 71, Table 7.2 Monitoring Program monitoring parameters are outlined. Page 73, Table 7.3

Recommendations and outcomes of the Included. A qualifying statement for the source Appendix B, Page B2, line 12 round table discussion discharge reduction is given as: This was mentioned as regular phenomena and also anticipated during the design period. None of the respondent reported that the source reduction was beyond the design value. This is also given as a foot note in Table B-2.

-F 1 - Table F 1: Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Draft Report

Comment Response Location of revision/ addition ______j______in the text _ Chapter V should be divided into two To better reflect the content of the report, chapter V chapters is not divided into two chapters. Source I Catchment Protection Some catchment protection measures are already measures should be addressed in details addressed by RWSSFDB formats Additional measures such as defining the plantation area and plant species are suggested ____ Reference of the Design parameters Available References are given. The reference for 25 such as 25 and 45 lpcd and 45 lpcd are FDBc (2002) and FDBa (2002). The and Pour flush volume of 2-3 L and 12- reference for 2-3 L is Feachem et al. (1983), 18 lpcd Khatiwada et al.( 2002) Data base to justify the issues such as A summary of the water quality parameters from the iChapter II, Section 2.9 arsenic j schemes of RWSSP I is given Nationally accepted standard Followed as far as applicable abbreviations to be used Cumulative impacts should be A section on cumulative impacts is added Chapter V, Section 5.11 addressed ______..._._.___._ Mitigation measures to be introduced in A concept of Environmental Management Action Chapter VII, Section 7.1 planning Plan (EMAP) for each scheme is proposed

-F 2 - Table F 1: Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Draft Report

Comment Response Location of revision/ addition ______in the text If the EA study needs MOPE approval It is clear from the ED's clarification that the study is _just a requirement of the project and IDA _ _ - Differentiating the impacts and The schemes under RWSSP II are differentiated as Chapter V, Table 5.1 considering EMPs as per the ecological gravity flow piped schemes and wells drawing zones groundwater. Therefore, the impacts and mitigation measures are also mentioned in these two categories _ Pointed out the two aspects of the study In general, the environmental impacts associated with Chapter V, Section 5.5 - 5.9 Water Supply aspect and Sanitation RWSSP II have been categorized under four headings aspect water quantity, water quality, environmental sanitation, tradition and culture. However, planning and construction phase impacts have also been described distinctly.

Depletion of source yield The existing RWSSFDB formats deal this issue. Page 73, Section 7.3 However, some improvements have been suggested: describing the plantation area and plant types in the catchment

Loss of vegetation, forest land and These impacts have been addressed Chapter 5, Table 5.1 aquatic life _

-F 3 - Table F 1: Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Draft Report

Comment Response location of revision I addition in the text

Inclusion of the term NGOs , Page v, line 8 ~~~~~~Included Concerns over the statement" The reasons to include this statement: TOR of EA Appendix B, Page B-2, line 12 Significant reduction of the source Study, issue of concern found during the field visit and the.duning dry season" Page xi , the consultant feels that this could be the major issue line 3-4 affecting the sustainability of the scheme as the demand increases unexpectedly. However, a qualifying statement

______~~~~hasbeen added to avoid the confusion. ______Wastewater instead of gray water The terminology 'gray water' is used to distinguish it Gray water has been used

Page10 xi , line ~~from black water. World Bank Guideline and Standard throughout the text Text on Environmental Engineering and Wastewater

______-______Engineering widely use this term ninolo g ~ ______Criteria of 20 Ipcd is replaced by 25 20 lpcd has been mentioned in World Banks Guideline lpcd Annex 4.2 (FDBa, 2002), 25 lpcd is mentioned in I Page xi, line 19RWSD fomt Treatment using Sodium Hypo- Included with a reference to Sharma and Adhikari chlorite Solution (2002)

:P age xi P ara 6_ _ _ _ _ - ______Availability of head for gravity flow Maintaining gravity flow in Terai Region could be a ,in Terai for wetland problem not only to wetland but any other system.

Page xi, Para 8 ______Stepping Stone soling in rural hill included

road pavement Pagexi Para 9______

-F 4 - Table F 1: SumnmarY of the response to the feedback provided on the Draft Report

Comment Response [location of revision addition in the text_ Issues related to deprived gzroup of society. It is expected that the 'Social Impact Assessment'wxill

Page xii, Para 2 ___cater such issues Inclusion of'Introduction' Included Policy and Technical guidelines bulleted text no.4,Pgxi Inclusion of'lnclusion of To make the line parallel with the previous line, the Policy and Technical guidelines bulleted text orgnlvsinsreaed no. 8, Page xiv ______Addition of 'infiltration gallery' It is expected that the statement" Selection of adaptive, j Page xiv res~~~~~~~~ilientand holistic principle based technologies" in

______bulleted text no. 7 will addlress all such technologies ______Addition of 'Impact on downstream flora and The mitigation measures addressing the effect to lower Page 52, Table 5.1 fauna and lower riparian users' riparian users is to be included in EMP and also Schemespeciicacivitis, Pae xivexpected to be addressed while registering the source at district authorit The statement under sec'ond bullet is modified as" ______-.compensating the acquired land and lost vegetation" ______Add 'Monitoring Schedule and Cost Estimates' Last two bulleted texts already describe the 'Monitoring in EMAP, Page xv Schedule and Cost Estimates' ______Considering 5-15 age groups for the Impact 1The reason of choosing <5 year group is as they consists monitoring of most vulnerable gups of the population______Add Thysical and Biological related Added under baseline and compliance monitoring Page 73, Under baseline monitoring parameters', Page xv, ______monitoring______

-F 5 - Table F 1: Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Draft Report

Comment Response location of revision

Table 2.4, Data discrepancy, Page 10 Verified and Updated Confusion on the type of latrines , Page 11 Clarified If the deterioration of the water quality is due During the operational phase, water quality may deteriorate either to the implementation of the project, Page 39, due to poor management, natural disturbances or anthropogenic section 5.3, line 5 actions __ _ Reference to 2-3 L water for pour flush; 12-18 Feachem et al. (1983), Khatiwada et al.( 2002) L lpcd The criteria must be reviewed: domestic water demand must Criteria of 45 lpcd, or 25 lpcd include water essential for drinking, cooking, bathing, Page 40, line 18 !maintaining personal hygiene and latrine cleanliness. It is unfair to provide less than half amount of what their urban counterparts l are enjoying (equity ?). Urban residents use 45 lpcd only for flushing purpose. Delete 'the sand', Page 43, Section 5.9, line 15 Deleted Matrix format, Page 44 The original format is retained. Based on ToR and Bank's guideline recommendation on impacts category Low cost elevated Reservoir on earthen I Excellent ideas but may not be appropriate to include in the embankment, In situ RCC tanks, Page 53, report as per the non availability of published empirical Section 6.5 evidences l Role of other agencies in monitoring, Page 56, | Other agencies may play voluntary role unless addressed by Table 7.2 proper legislation and authority. But it is the FB which has an obligatory role ! Reporting of 18% of users, Page 77, line 20 A qualifying statement has been added Elaborate the questionnaire, Page 98 Questionnare were only for questionnare survey |

-F 6 - Report Table F 2: Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Final Draft

| Location of revision / Comment f Response |______addition in the text I______l______I: lessons Chapter 2, section 2.1 0 Lessons leamed from RWSSP I - A section titled 'Enviromnmental aspects of RWSSP added in the final jbe more explicit and systematic learned and issues of major concern' has been draft report.

survey is Appendix A, Appendix B Include more details on site visits, Field visit report and a summary of questionnaire survey, consultations with users given. project Chapter 6, Sections 6.1- 6.5 Analysis of alternative. Design A discussion on both project alternatives and simple decision making framework, component alternative is given. to be used when discussing with communities from Section 4.8, page 43 Design of environmental code of A section on existing environmental code of practice practices (use existing materials, DWSS is given. work by FB and other agencies) I schemes Chapter 2, Section 2.9, page 11 I Water quality - findings of FB A section on water quality assessment of RWSSP related to study and what to do? has been given. The impacts and mitigation measures water quality are given in chapter 5, section 5.6, page 47.

basis i.e. pre- I Clarify institutional structure for Table 7.2 has now been given on phase wise operational I EMP. List responsibilities/roles of , development, development, implementation and each actor phases.

-F 7 - Table F 2: Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Final Draft Report

Comment Response Location of revision/ l l | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~additionin the text Screening mechanism with check This is discussed in section 7. 1. list leading to site specific measures (e. g. arsenic) Add results of water quality Additional information on arsenic is given. Section 2.9, page 11 mapping by DWSS (hnplication for RWSSP II?) i Linkage EA, technical guideline I National policies on EA are given on sections 4.2-4.6. policy and RWSS national policy How to deal with Indoor Air Mitigation measures are suggested. Pollution? I Some components of EMP missing Estimated costs are given. Section 7.4, page 74 (as per TOR) budget, training, capacity building. Issues raised in Consultation Process. _ __ Groundwater Policy? A section on groundwater issues and policies is added. Chapter 2, Section 2.1 1, page

.. ______15 Environmental Sanitation, What This is discussed in details. Chapter V should the project include in addition to WSS (sullage / , drainage, paving, LAP, ______)______, _|

-F 8 - Table F 2 Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Final Draft Report

Comment Response Location of revision/ addition in thetext ______I ______Data on water-borne diseases A section on water bome diseases has been added. Section 3.10, page 31 Integration WS - micro irrigation Irrigation by drained wastewaters is discussed. List what is there in the FB in terms of Modifications and additions to the existing RWSSFDB Section 7.3, pp 73. manuals, softwatere formats. Lessons Formats are given. learned and proposed changes , ! Issues of growing demand depends on The emerging water demand issues are discussed type of service provided, socio- economic factors etc., Transition village, small town. Maybe address this in analysis of alternatives l Review ToR thoroughly: some elements are missing or incomplete 1, | Monitoring indicators, Who is doing Table 7.3 what - realistic? _ M and E - evaluation done by whom? Table 7.3 Protocal for hotspots ( e. g. arsenic) at Arsenic issue has been addressed siting, design, implementation and operation ! !,

-F 9 - Table F 2 Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Final Draft Report

Comment Response location of revision/ ______] addition in the_text Address how gaps will be fulfilled in A discussion is given in detail in Chapter VII Section 7.1 - 7.3 RWSSP II ( A matrix could be helpful)

State the general environmental issues Issues related to rural water supply and sanitation schemes impact of RWSSP I are discussed in Table 5.1.

Clearly state how RWSSP I has The gaps are discussed Section 2.10 and Sections addressed these issues, identify if there 5.1- 5.8 are any gaps?

How would the FB determnine at the Pre- EMAP has been suggested. development phase whether a scheme has adverse environmental impact?

Suggest that the pre-development intake Proposed additions to the existing formats are given form design, take this into consideration

Suggest separate urban (large) project A discussion is included. Section 5.2 impacts and niral water impacts

Recommendations for RWSSP II be Discussed in EMP Chapter VII made more specific

-F 10- Table F 2: Summary of the response to the feedback provided on the Final Draft Report Comment Response location of revision / ______| addition in the text * What are the adverse environmental impacts of Ahals? ICould be mosquito breeding. Are you suggesting that at each standpost a place of worship Discussed under 'Tradition and Section 5.8 and Ahal be made? Should the community not decide this? Culture' The adverse impacts - not clear if these are general or specific They are of general in nature. to RWSSP I

To make sound environmental in a house, sanitary units such as garbage pit, compost pit, washing plateform, improved cook . . . . . ~~~~~~~~~Thishas stove, drainage and soakage pit are required to include in been addressed RWSSP II.

Drainage construction should be included effectively especially in groundwater system for the sound 0 , . environment in rural Terai C w Comnmunity ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Constructedwetlands are proposed a

I Environment assessment should broadly look for existing disease pattern and aim for disease reduction particularly in A s o w . . . <. ~~~~~~~~iA section on water b rural supplies where both water bome and water washed attached borne diseases is diseases are more common _ Please add ' the possibility of channel fonnation along the Suggested mitigation is 'create pipeline route in steeply sloping areas which ultimately may be obstruction at regular intervals along the reason I for soil erosion and pipe-line wash-away. the pipeline route by using stones/bamboos/wood etc. or re-align I !the pipeline route in such ! circumstance_

-F 11 - Environmental Management Plan

Fund Board conducted an Environmental Assessment of completed schemes to improve the environmental quality of the water supply and sanitation schemes in RWSSFDB II. According to the Environment Assessment conducted by Dr. Nawa Raj Khatiwada for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board schemes and his recommendation, the cost for the EMP has been workout by Technical Division, which will be applied for the coming batches of the schemes. Summary of the EMP cost with detailed cost breakdown is attached herewith. Pre-development Phase per capta Cost analysis for EMP Batch Gravit Schemes Communities Population EMP cost for Water quality Total cost for Average per capita prefeasibility @30% of testing @Rs 2000 EMP cost for EMP of PF cost (Rs 10000) per scheme Gravity V 294 176,400 882,000 588,000 1,470,000 8 VI 360 216,000 1,080,000 720,000 1,800,000 8 VIl 359 215,400 1,077,000 718,000 1,795,000 8 Total 1013 607800 3039000 2026000 5,065,000.00

Batch Shallow Tube Wells _ Communities Population EMP cost for Water quality Total cost for Average per capita prefeasibility @30% of testing @Rs 2000 EMP cost for EMP of PF cost (Rs 10000) per scheme Gravity V 36 21,600 108,000 72,000 180,000 8 VI 44 26,400 132,000 88,000 220,000 8 VIl 44 26,400 132,000 88,000 220,000 8 Total 124 74400 372000 248000 620,000.001

Batch Dug Wells Communities Population Emp cost for Water quality Total cost for Average per capita prefeasibility @30% of testing @Rs 2000 EMP cost for EMP of PF cost (Rs 10000) per scheme Gravity

V 18 10800 54,000 36,000 90,000 8 VI 22 13200 66,000 44,000 110,000 8 VIl 22 13200 66,000 44,000 110,000 8 Total 62 37200 186000 124000 310,000.001

Batch Rainwater Harvesting Schemes Communities Population Emp cost for Water quality Total cost for Average per capita prefeasibility @30% of testing @Rs 2000 EMP cost for EMP of PF cost (Rs 10000) per scheme Gravity V 9 5400 27,000 18,000 45,000 8 VI 11 6600 33,000 22,000 55,000 8 VIl 11 6600 33,000 22,000 55,000 8 Total 31 18600 93000 62000 155,000.00,

Batch Source Improvement Schemes l Communities Population EMP cost for Water quality Total cost for Average per capita prefeasibility @30% of testing @Rs 2000 EMP cost for EMP of PF cost (Rs 10000) per scheme Gravity

V 3 1800 9,000 6,000 15,000 8 VI 3 1800 9,000 6,000 15,000 8 VII 4 2400 12,000 8,000 20,000 8 Total 10° 6000| 30000- 20000 50,000.00 _

Batch Total EMP Cost for Pre-development Phase Communities Population Emp cost for Water quality Total cost for Average per capita prefeasibility @30% of testing @Rs 2000 EMP cost for EMP of all PF cost (Rs 10000) per scheme type of schemes V 360 216000 1080000 720,000 1,800,000 8 VI 440 264000 1320000 880,000 2,200,000 8 VII 440 264000 1320000 880,000 2,200,000 8 -Total 1240 744000 3720000 2480000 6,200,000.00 l Development Phase Per Capita Cost Analyisis for EMP

Batch Gravity Schemes Commun Population Cost for Remunerati Cost for Water quality testing Total cost for Average per ities SRLF on for Staff Training and monitoring @Rs EMP capita cost for 10000 per scheme EMP of Gravity

V 294 176,400 8,820,000 3,880,800 352,800 2,940,000 15,993,600 91 VI 360 216,000 10,800,000 4,752,000 432,000 3,600,000 19,584,000 91 VIl 359 215,400 10,770,000 4,738,800 430,800 3,590,000 19,529,600 91 Total 1013 607800 30390000 13371600 1215600 10,130,000.00 55,107,200.00 1

Batch Shallow Tube Wells Commun Population Cost for Remunerati Cost for Water quality testing Total cost for Average per ities SRLF on for Staff Training and monitoring @Rs EMP capita cost for 10000 per scheme EMP of Gravity

145 V 36 21,600 2,520,000 237,600 21,600 360,000 3,139,200 145 VI 44 26,400 3,080,000 290,400 26,400 440,000 3,836,800 VIl 44 26,400 3,080,000 290,400 26,400 440,000 3,836,800 145 Total 124 74400 8680000 818400 74400 1,240,000.00 10,812,800.00

Batch Dug Wells Commun Population Cost for Remunerati Cost for Water quality testing Total cost for Average per ities SRLF on for Staff Training and monitoring @Rs EMP capita cost for 10000 per scheme EMP of Gravity

V 18 10800 1,260,000 151,200 10,800 180,000 1,602,000 148 148 VI 22 13200 1,540,000 184,800 13,200 220,000 1,958,000 148 VIl 22 13200 1,540,000 184,800 13,200 220,000 1,958,000 Total 62 37200 4340000 520800 37200 620,000.00 5,518,000.00

Batch Rainwater Harvesting Schemes Commun Population Cost for Remunerati Cost for Water quality testing Total cost for Average per ities SRLF on for Staff Training and monitoring @Rs EMP capita cost for per scheme EMP of Gravity I . 10000 79 V 9 5400 270,000 59,400 5,400 90,000 424,800 79 VI 11 6600 330,000 72,600 6,600 110,000 519,200 791 VIl 11 6600 330,000 72,600 6,600 110,000 519,200 l Total 31 18600 930000 204600 18600 310,000 1,463,200

Batch Source Improvement Schemes Commun Population Cost for Remunerati Cost for Water quality testing Total cost for Average per ities SRLF on for Staff Training and monitoring @Rs EMP capita cost for 10000 per scheme EMP of Gravity

91 V 3 1800 90,000 39,600 3,600 30,000 163,200 VI 3 1800 90,000 39,600 3,600 30,000 163,200 91 VII 4 2400 120,000 52,800 4,800 40,000 217,600 91 .Total 10| 6000. 300000. 132000| 12000| 100,000.001 544,000.00l

Batch Total EMP Cost for Development Phase _ Commun Population Cost for Remunerati Cost for Water quality testing Total cost for Average per ities SRLF on for Staff Training and monitoring @Rs EMP capita cost for 10000 per scheme EMP of all type of schemes 99 V 360 216000 12960000 4368600 394200 3,600,000.00 21,322,800 VI 440 264000 15840000 5339400 481800 4,400,000.00 26,061,200 99 99 VII 440 264000 15840000 5339400 481800 4,400,000.00 26,061,200 l -Total 1240- 744000. 44640000. 15047400| 1357800 12,400,000.00 73,445,200.00 Cost for Environmental Management Plan in Implementation Phase

Gravity Schemes Cost for different components Proposed source Drainage Traditional Source improvement Water Quality Latrine Cost Batch Communi D Improvement (Catchment improvement ties Population protection) WQ Testing WQ imp. Hardware Software Total and Grad Tta

Hardware Software Hardware Software! Hardware Software Moion WoOrOks@ Institutional SRLF Toa FB(0) CI(2mu)i oa u ndiBGr omndtGondTtala v ~~~27116,0 4,100,136 0 1,355000 0 1,355000 0 2,710000 5,420000 23,244,176 5,880,000 35,474,31228,379,45 7,094,862 8,5900 696,5 7,094,862 44,064,312 VI 327 19,2 4,938,120 0 1,635000 0 1,635000 0 3,270000 6,540,000 28,047,401 7,200000 42,795,521 34,236417 8,559,10 10470,00 44,706,4178,559,104, 53,265,521 VIl 326 195,60 4,938,1201 0 1,630,000 0 1,630,000 0 3,260,000 6,520,000 27,961,629 7,180,000 42,679,749 34,143,799 8,535,95 10,440,000 44,583,799 8,535,950 53,119,749 Total 924 554400 13976376 0 4620000 0 4620000 0 9240000 18480000 79253206.25 20260000 120,949,582 96,759,666 24,189,9161 29,500,00t 126,259,666 24,189,91 150,449,58 Per Capita Cost: 218.16 174.53 43.63 53.21 227.74 43.63 271.37

Tubewells Cost for different components Traditional Source Proposed source Water Quality Cost Drainage Improvement improvement improvement Latrine Batch tiesmmuni Population (Catchment WQ Testg | Hardware Software Total ties WQ Testi~~~~~~~~~~~~~ndWorks @ Hardware Software Hardware Software Hardware Software and 20000.00 Institutional SRLF Community Communit Grand Total Monitoring incl.Arsenic Total FB (80%) 20) Total Fund Board @10000.010 mitiaiatin (2%I V 32 19,200 1,197,120 0 160,000 0 0 0 320,00 640,000 2,506,009 1,008,000 4,503,129 3,602,50 900,626 1328,000 4,930,503 900,626 5,831,129 VI 40 24,000 1,496,400| l 200,000 0 0 0 400,00 800,000 3,132,511 1,232,00 5,628,911 4,503,12 125,78 1,632,00 6,135,129, 1,125,782, 7,260,911 VIl 40 24,00 1,496,40| 0 200,000 0 0 0 400,000 800,00 3,132,511 1,232,000 5,628,9111 4,503,129 1,125,782| 1,632,000 6,135,1291 1,125,782 7,260,911 Total 112 67200 4189920 0 560000 0 0 0 1120000 2240000 8771030.489 34720001 13,520,9501 10,816,7601 2,704,19 4,592,000 17,200,7601 3,152,19 20,352,9 Per Capita Cost: 201.201 160.961 40.24 68.331 255.961 46.91 302.87

______Dug Well Cost for different components _ Traditional Source Proposed source Water Quality Cost Drainage Improvement improvement improvement Latrine Batch Communi o mprovee (Catchment i i I I ties WPopulationW Testing WQ imp. Hardware Software Total andI Hardware Software Hardware Software Hardware Software Works @MonitoringInstitutional SRLF Total FB(80%) Community Total FundBoardCommunit GrandTotal ______~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~10000.00 200_0I00_ _ (20%) _ _y v 16 9,600| 299,280 0 80 000 0 0 0 , 160,000 320,000 2,013,757 504,00 2,713,037 2,170,430 542,607 664,000| 2,834,430 542,607 3,377,037 VI 20 12,00 374,10 0 100|00 0 0 0, 200,000 400,00 2,517,196 616,000 3,391,296 2,713,037 678,259 816,000 3,529,037 678,259 4,207,296 VIl 20 12,00 374100 100,00 0 0 0 200,000 400,000 2,517,196| 616,00 3,391,296 2,713,037 678,259 816,00 3,529,037 678,2591 4,207,296 Total 56 33600 1047480 0 2800001 0 0 0 5600001 1120000 7048149.51 17360001 8,375,6301 6,700,504 1,675126 2296,000 9,892,504 1,899,1261 11,791,63 Per Capita Cost: 249.271 199.421 49.85 68.331 294.421 56.521 350.941

-3902354 Cost for Environmental Management Plan in Implementation Phase

Rain Water Harvesting Cost for different components Proposed source Drainage Traditional Source improvement Water Quality Latrine Cost Batch Communi Improvement (Catchment improvement ties Population protection)

WQ Testing WQ imp. Hardware Software Total Hardware Software Hardware Software Hardware Software Monitoring Works2000000 Institutional SRLF Total FB (80%) Community Total Fund Board Communit Grand Total

V E 4,800 0 40,000 0 0 oC 80,00C 0l 805,503 180,000 845,50< 676,402 169,101 260,00( 936,4021 169,101 1,105,503 VI 1C 6,00C 0 0 50,000 0 0 0- 100,000 0 1,006,879 220,000- 1,056,879 845,503 211,376 320,000 1,165,503 211,376 1,376,879 VIl 10 6,00 0 0 50,000 0 0 0 100,000 0 1,006,879 220,000 211,37 320,00 1,165,503 211,376 1,376,879 Total 28 16800 0 0 140000 0 0 C0 280000 0 < 2819259.8 620000 2,959,2601 2,367,4081 591,852 900,00 3,267,4081 591,852 3,859,26 T______Per Capita Cost : 176.15 140.92 3523 53.57 194.491 35.23 229.72

Source Improvement Schemes Cost for different components Proposed source Drainage Traditional Source improvement Water Quality Latrine Cost Batch Communi D Improvement (Catchment improvement ties Population protection) ______WQ Testing WQ imp. Hardware Software Total_ _ _ _ and Hardware Grand_Total Software Hardware Software Hardware Software and Works @ Institutional SRLF . ,ommun Monitoring 20000.00 1 Total FB (80%) |CommuntyoTotal Fund Board d t V 3 1,80C 18,70 0 0 0 0 0 30,000 60,000 362,064. 60,000 440,769 352,61 88,154 90,000 442,615 88,154. 530,769 VI 3 1,80C 18,705 0 0 0 0 30,000 60,000 362,064 60,000 440,769 352,61 88,1 90,000 442,615 88,154 530,769 VIl 4 2,400 24,940 0 0 0 0 0C 40,000 80,000 482,7511 80,00 587,691 470,153 117,538 120,000 590,153 117,538 707,691 Total 10 6000 62350 0 0 0 0 0 100000 200000 1206878.51 200000 1,269,229| 1,015,3831 253,846 300 000 1,475,383 293,846 1,769 229 Per Capita Cost 211.541 169.231 42.31 50.00 245.90 48.97 294.87

Total EMP Cost for Implementation Phase Cost for different components iProposed source Drainage Traditional Source improvement Water Quality i Cost Batch Icommunil | Drainage Improvement (Catchment improvement Latrine ties Population orotetion | WQ Testing WQ imp. Hardware TSoftware Total Hardware Software Hardware Software Hardware Software Monitoring Works Institutional SRLF Total FB(8%) Total FundBoardComm. Grand Total I Monitoring~~~~~~~~~~01000020000.00 I oal F (0) 2 oa0Fn%Bad om V 330 198,000 5,615,241 l0 1,635000 0 1,355,00 o 3,300,00 6,44 28,931,508 7,632,00 43976749 35181399 8,795,350 10,932,00 46,113,399 8,795,350 54,908,749 VI 400 240,00 6,827,325 0 1095,000_ 0 1,635,00 0 4,000,00 8 35,066,050 9,328,00 5331337 42650700 10,662,67 13,328,00 55,978,700 10,662,67 66,641,37 VIl 400 240,00 6,833,5601 0 1,980,000 0 1,630,0001 0 4000,0001 , 00 35,100,966 9,328,000 53,344,526 42675621 10,668,90 13,328,000 56,003,621 10,668,90 66,672,526 Total 1130 678000 192761261 0 56000001 01 46200001 0 11300000 22040000 99098524.54 262880001 128,594,651 102,875,7201 25,718930 37,588,000 158,095,720 30,126,930 188,222,651 1 Per Capita Cost 189.671 151.731 37.93 55.441 233.181 44.44 277.61

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