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Regulating Architectural Heritage in a Himalayan Tourist Town Syracuse University SURFACE Dissertations - ALL SURFACE December 2014 ACCOMMODATING CONSERVATION: REGULATING ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE IN A HIMALAYAN TOURIST TOWN Jamie Kathleen Johnson Syracuse University Follow this and additional works at: https://surface.syr.edu/etd Part of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Johnson, Jamie Kathleen, "ACCOMMODATING CONSERVATION: REGULATING ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE IN A HIMALAYAN TOURIST TOWN" (2014). Dissertations - ALL. 176. https://surface.syr.edu/etd/176 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the SURFACE at SURFACE. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations - ALL by an authorized administrator of SURFACE. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ABSTRACT This dissertation discusses the construction of socio-spatial landscapes in Leh, Ladakh and elucidates the relationships between stakeholders in the tourism arena, conservation profession, regional and state government, and local civil society. It explains processes of urban regulation, juxtaposing the (re)production and representation of Ladakhi architectural heritage both during the conservation of historical buildings and during the construction of new tourist accommodations. Qualitative ethnographic research and spatial studies were conducted to investigate how competing discourses on Ladakhi heritage generated by state-based tourism industries and by non-governmental organizations are shaping building traditions, residence patterns, and livelihoods for resident Ladakhis. Leh’s built environment is a product of numerous contestations and negotiations between residents, NGOs and the state in places I call heritage construction sites: architectural conservation projects and new guest-house construction projects, respectively. In this study, I pinpoint how Ladakhis identify with or contest the transformation of their urban landscape, answering the question “whose heritage is it?” ACCOMMODATING CONSERVATION: REGULATING ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE IN A HIMALAYAN TOURIST TOWN by Jamie K. Johnson B.A., The University of North Texas, 2001 M.A., Syracuse University, 2007 DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology in the Graduate School of Syracuse University. December 2014 Approved: _____________________________________ Professor Deborah Pellow Date: _________________________________________ Copyright © Jamie K. Johnson, 2014 All Rights Reserved TABLE OF CONTENTS iv This dissertation is dedicated to my parents (all four of them) whose tireless love and encouragement motivated me to achieve my goals and whose support I could not have done without, to my doctoral advisor Dr. Deborah Pellow, who pushed hard enough to frighten me but not hard enough to frighten me away, to my closest companions, whose fun-loving distractions were always perfectly timed, and especially to my Ladakhi families and friends who so graciously shared their homes and their lives. Last but not least, this dissertation is dedicated to the late Andre Alexander, president of the Tibet Heritage Fund, who dedicated his life to conserving old buildings. I will miss our conversations. iv v INTRODUCTION: PROJECT OVERVIEW 1 CH. I: A MILLENIUM IN THE MAKING: THE SOCIAL AND MATERIAL CULTURAL 16 SETTING CH. II: LEH TOWN: LITTLE TIBET ON THE ROOF OF THE WORLD 46 CH. III: DWELLING ON HERITAGE CONSTRUCTION SITES 74 CH. IV: SEASONAL METHODOLOGIES 107 PART 1: THE VERNACULAR SPRING 108 PART 2: SUMMER CROWDS 129 PART 3: THE “OFF-SEASON” 139 PART 4: MIXED RESULTS 151 PART 5: A FALL FINALE 160 CH. V: REGULATING HERITAGE: A COMPARATIVE DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF 173 LOCAL, NGO, AND STATE INVOLVEMENT CH. VI: CONVERGING AND DIVERGING CONSTRUCTS: SOCIO-SPATIAL ANALYSIS 198 OF ARCHITECUTRAL HERITAGE AT SACRED, VERNACULAR, AND COMMERICAL CONSTRUCTION SITES CH. VII: IF CONSERVATION IS THE NEW TOURISM, WHOSE HERITAGE IS IT? 250 REFERENCES 263 GLOSSARY 273 INDEX OF MAPS AND FIGURES 275 APPENDIX 277 v 1 INTRODUCTION Project Overview This dissertation explores how cultural tourism and the heritage industry impact the construction of socio-spatial landscapes in the autonomous territory of Ladakh, India.1 Ethnographic research was conducted in the political and economic capital of Leh to determine how competing discourses on Ladakhi heritage generated by the tourism industry and by non-governmental organizations are shaping building traditions, residence patterns, and notions of place held by various local and global actors. This investigation is couched within a larger attempt to understand identity formation and culture change as expressed in the transformation of an urban landscape. When I designed this project, I did not anticipate the complexity and variety between each individual case I would encounter. I now understand Leh’s built environment as a product of numerous contestations and negotiations between residents, the state, and civil society in places I call heritage construction sites: architectural conservation projects and new guest-house construction projects. It is my thesis that cultural conservation experts’ and tourism industry specialists’ continuous emphasis on Ladakh's Tibetan heritage shapes notions of place, cultural tradition and identity for Buddhist and Muslim (and Christian) resident Ladakhis. Feeding into this thesis are questions of what structural, aesthetic and cultural components constitute traditional architecture in Ladakh, who decides which features are essential for conserving that built heritage, and how those parameters are enforced. Do Ladakhi travel agents and hoteliers reproduce or reject NGO-driven discourses on place? Do they welcome, deny or remain indifferent to constructions and perceptions of Ladakh as “Little Tibet"? 1 With all due respect to the International National Trusts Organization (INTO), I have chosen the phrase “heritage industry” over “heritage sector” to acknowledge the role of heritage conservation in cultural production, as opposed to merely a sociological or economic subdivision of cultural conservation. Recognizing that industries and sectors are both products of a bureaucratic, post-industrial world, labeling heritage conservation as an industry, or a group that provides a particular product or service – in this case conserving buildings, allows me to point out its relationship to tourism. Henceforth, and will all due respect to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), I also understand tourism as an industry, collectively a category of groups – namely businesses – that provide valuable services to tourists with the added incentive of economic competition in a global marketplace. 2 Further, how do Leh residents experience the transformation of their built environment? Faced with the increasing availability and popularity of industrial materials, to what extent are they adapting their personal living quarters and how does that change notions of place? These questions may be addressed amidst several tensions: the essentialism of cultural identity in a historically diverse population and the assumption that such a monolithic culture remains timeless and unchanging despite recent and enduring metamorphoses. Focusing on the scholarly reification of Ladakh’s historical relationships to Tibetan Buddhist culture and of modern stereotypes about “Little Tibet” limits one’s gaze to a certain type of architectural tradition which presumably originated from Lhasa and traveled west into Jammu and Kashmir. However convenient or useful a static and essentialized model of cultural authenticity may be for conservationists and tourism industry officials, for seasoned travelers, skeptical social scientists and indeed for locals who are questioning the practicality of their own customs, that gaze is too narrow.2 Additional travel and research reveals that Ladakhi structures represent a pan-Himalayan vernacular, or prototype, that transcends the present territorial boundaries of India, Pakistan, China, Nepal, and Bhutan (Oliver 1998). Although the building traditions and forms and to some extent dwelling patterns are consistent throughout this mountainous region, ornamentation is culture-specific and exhibits Mediterranean, Islamic, Indian, and indeed Tibetan aesthetics which diffused via centuries of overland trade. Context 2 It should also be emphasized that, in Jammu and Kashmir, where the Line of Control is a constant reminder of Indian territorial tensions with Pakistan and Tibetans-in-exile are an enduring symbolism of neighboring Chinese aggressions, essentializing Buddhism against stereotypical monolithic representations of Islam and Communist China are perhaps instrumental for containing Ladakh within Indian nationalist narratives (Aggarval 2004; Bishop 1989; Brasted 1997; Handler 1985; Herzfeld 2005; Van Beek 2000; for inventing traditions and imagining communities to define nationalist narratives see Hobsbawn and Ranger 1983 and Anderson 1983, 2006; for a discussion of territoriality and the built environment, see Ingold 1998; for problematizing notions of authenticity broadly construed see Theodossopoulos 2013). 3 In the first two chapters I help readers visualize this ethnographic fieldsite by describing its environmental landscape and cultural setting. The examination of human geography buttresses an ensuing discussion of traditional settlements and dwelling places which are designed first and foremost as adaptations to the Himalayan Mountains’ specific environmental challenges, and second,
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