Formation and Redox Reactions of Green Rusts Under Geochemical Conditions Found in Natural Soils and Sediments

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Formation and Redox Reactions of Green Rusts Under Geochemical Conditions Found in Natural Soils and Sediments Diss. ETH No. 15492 Formation and Redox Reactions of Green Rusts under Geochemical Conditions found in Natural Soils and Sediments A dissertation submitted to the SWISS FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY for the degree of DOCTOR OF NATURAL SCIENCES presented by MARIANNE ERBS M.Sc. in environmental chemistry born January 13, 1973 in Haderslev, Denmark Accepted on recommendation of Prof. Dr. Rene P. Schwarzenbach, examiner Prof. Dr. Stefan B. Haderlein, co-examiner Prof. Dr. Hans C.B. Hansen, co-examiner Zürich 2004 In fond memory of my mother Esther Kristine Erbs (1949-2002) who taught me how to be strong, feel joy and bear compassion. I dedicate this work to her. Without her support, care and love, I would never have been the person I am today. To dare is to lose one's footing momentarily. Not to dare is to lose oneself. Søren Kierkegaard Acknowledgements I would like to thank Stefan Haderlein, Hans Christian B. Hansen and Rene Schwarzenbach for their supervision of this work. Without the encouragement and confidence of H.C.B. Hansen and former colleagues at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University in Copenhagen, I would never have pursued a Ph.D. and without the understanding of Rene Schwarzenbach after the tragic death of my mother, I would not have had the time necessary to finish it. I thank Christian Bender Koch, Hanne Nancke-Krogh, Susanne Guldberg and Henrik T. Andersen (Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Denmark) for their valuable contribution to my work. I would also like to express my gratitude to former and present members of the Contaminant Hydrology Group from whom I have received many benefits. I mourn the loss of Denis Mavrocordatos (EAWAG), who provided technical assistance in the electron microscopy lab, and I will always keep the sunny hours in his company in fond memory. Finally, I would like to thank Kristina Straub and Bernhard Schink (University of Constance, Germany) who welcomed me in their lab for a week and taught me how to work with strict anaerobic bacteria. I gratefully acknowledge the grant which I received from the Danish Research Agency. Table of Contents Table of Contents Zusammenfassung I Summary V 1 General Introduction 1 1.1 Iron cycling in the subsurface 1 1.2 Green rusts 3 1.3 Microbial formation of green rusts 7 1.4 Redox reactions of green rusts 8 1.5 Outline of the thesis 10 References 11 2 Solid State Oxidation of Vivianite by Anaerobic Denitrifying Fe(II)-Oxidizing Bacteria 17 Abstract 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.2 Materials and methods 22 2.2.1 Microorganisms and media 22 2.2.2 Characterisation of precipitates 23 2.2.3 Biooxidation experiments 24 2.2.4 Analytical methods 25 2.3 Results and discussion 25 2.3.1 Identification of solid iron-containing phases 25 2.3.2 Factors controlling the rate and extent of Fe(II) biooxidation 34 2.3.3 Morphology of solid iron phases 37 2.4 Conclusions 38 References 39 3 Formation of Layered Iron Hydroxides by Microbial Fe(III) Reduction 43 Abstract 43 3.1 Introduction 44 3.2 Materials and methods 47 3.2.1 Preparation of iron oxide coatings 47 3.2.2 Mineral characterisation 48 3.2.3 Culture conditions and cell preparation 48 3.2.4 Bioreduction experiments 49 Table of Contents 3.2.5 Analytical methods 50 3.3 Results and discussion 50 3.3.1 Fe(II) production and suspension colour changes 50 3.3.2 Identification of solid iron phases 55 3.3.3 Factors controlling the identity of the secondary iron minerals 58 3.3.4 Factors controlling the rate and extent of Fe(III) bioreduction 59 3.4 Conclusions 60 References 61 4 Reduction of Nitroaromatic Probe Compounds by Sulphate Green Rust: The Effect of Probe Compound Charge 65 Abstract 65 4.1 Introduction 66 4.2 Materials and methods 71 4.2.1 Synthesis of GR-SO4 71 4.2.2 Mineral characterisation 72 4.2.3 Lyophilization and determination of specific surface area 72 4.2.4 Estimation of the one-electron reduction potential for 4-NPA 73 4.2.5 Kinetic experiments 74 4.2.6 Analytical methods 74 4.3 Results and discussion 75 4.3.1 Product formation and reaction kinetics 75 4.3.2 Comparison of rate constants for the different NACs 79 4.3.3 Factors influencing the reaction rate 82 4.3.4 Comparison with rate constants obtained for other Fe(II) containing mineral systems 83 4.3.5 Depletion of reactive sites 85 4.3.6 The role of external and internal reactive sites 86 4.4 Conclusions 89 References 91 5 Reductive Transformation of Trichloroacetate in Abiotic Fe(II)-Fe(III) Mineral Systems 97 Abstract 97 5.1 Introduction 98 5.2 Materials and methods 101 5.2.1 Synthesis of GRs and magnetite 102 5.2.2 Preparation of iron oxide coatings 102 5.2.3 Mineral characterisation 103 5.2.4 Kinetic experiments 103 Table of Contents 5.2.5 Analytical methods 104 5.3 Results and discussion 105 5.3.1 Product formation and reaction kinetics 105 5.3.2 Comparing rate constants obtained for the various Fe(II)-Fe(III) mineral systems 109 5.3.3 Comparing with rate constants obtained for other chlorinated aliphatic compound 112 5.3.4 Factors controlling the reactivity of surface-bound Fe(II) 114 5.3.5 Comparison with biotic and other abiotic systems 118 5.4 Conclusions 119 References 120 6 Conclusions and Outlook 125 References 128 7 Supporting Information I 7.1 Estimation of the one-electron reduction potential for 4-NPA I 7.2 The rate-limiting step IV 7.2.1 Mass transfer (diffusion) limited kinetics V 7.2.2 Surface saturation limited kinetics IX 7.3 External surface area of GR-SO4 and GR-CO3 XI 7.4 Van der Waals radii XIV 7.5 Adsorption of Fe(II) onto Fe(III) oxides XVI References XVIII Curriculum Vitae Zusammenfassung I Zusammenfassung Geschichtete Fe(II)-Fe(III)-Hydroxide (Grüner Rost) gehören zur Gruppe der Fe(II)-haltigen Mineralsysteme (z.B. Magnetit (Fe3O4), Siderit (FeCO3), Vivianit (Fe2(PO4)2⋅8H2O), Fe(II)-Sulfide sowie an die Oberfläche von Fe(III)-Oxiden und Tonmineralien gebundenes, zweiwertiges Eisen), die die Aktivität von Fe(II) in suboxischen und anoxischen Böden und Sedimenten kontrollieren. Grüner Rost Phasen (GRs) bestehen aus planaren, positiv geladenen, trioktaedrischen Fe(II)- Fe(III)-Hydroxidschichten, die durch hydratisierte Anionen in den Zwischenschichten ausgeglichen werden. Ihre generelle Zusammensetzung ist II III x+ x- [Fe (6-x)Fe x(OH)12] [(A)x/n·yH2O] , wobei x = 0.9 - 4.2 ist, A entspricht einem n- 2- – 2- valenten Anion (z.B. CO3 , Cl oder SO4 ) und y repräsentiert die Anzahl Wassermoleküle in der Zwischenschicht. GRs sind wichtige intermediäre Phasen, die durch unvollständige Oxidation von Fe(II) oder teilweise Reduktion von Fe(III) gebildet werden können. Sie können in suboxischen, nicht-sauren, eisenhaltigen natürlichen, wie auch technischen Systemen auftreten, so wie in Wasser gesättigten Böden und interstitiellen Sedimenten, Rohrleitungen in der Trinkwasserversorgung, Stahlpfosten in marinen Sedimenten, Stahlbeton, und in reaktiven durchlässigen Wänden aus nullwertigem Eisen zur in-situ Sanierung von Altlasten und Aquiferen. Aufgrund ihrer Schichtstruktur, den anionischen Zwischenschichten und der hohen spezifischen Oberflächen sind GRs reaktive Ionentauscher und Sorbentien von Anionen. Des Weiteren wurde gezeigt, dass GRs eine Reihe anorganischer und organischer Schadstoffe reduzieren können. Durch Immobilisierung und Transformation können GRs somit eine wichtige Rolle für das Abbauverhalten und den Transport solcher Schadstoffe in suboxischen Böden und Sedimenten spielen. Die Resultate dieser Dissertation tragen zum Verständnis über die Bildung und Reaktivität von Fe(II)-haltigen Mineralsystemen, wie GRs, Vivianit, Magnetit und an Goethit (α-FeOOH)- und Lepidokrozit (γ- FeOOH)-Oberflächen gebundenes Fe(II), in der Natur bei. II Zusammenfassung Um die Rolle von Bakterien bei der Bildung von GRs in natürlichen Böden und Sedimenten aufzuklären, wurden Eisenminerale untersucht die als Folge der Aktivität von eisenrespirierenden Bakterien gebildet wurden. Kapitel 2 beschreibt die Untersuchungen von eisenhaltigen Produkten, die von anaeroben, autotrophen, denitrifizierenden, Fe(II)-oxidierenden Bakterien (FeOB) gebildet wurden. Ein Bikarbonat- und Phosphat-reiches Kulturmedium bot den nitratreduzierenden FeOB optimale Bedingungen. Fe(II) lag zu Anfang der Reaktion als weisses Fe(II)-Hydroxyphosphat (Vivianit) und als gelöstes Fe(II) vor. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die denitrifizierenden FeOB amorphen Goethit via ein grünes Fe(III)- angereichertes Vivianit-Zwischenprodukt bildeten. Die Analyse mit Mössbauer Spektroskopie deutet nicht auf eine Bildung von GR hin. In Kapitel 3 werden jene Eisenmineralien beschrieben, die während der Reduktion verbreiteter Fe(III)-Oxide durch anaerobe, dissimilative, Fe(III)-reduzierende Mikroorganismen, Shewanella algae BrY, gebildet wurden. Um natürliche Zustände zu simulieren wurden Fe(III)-Oxide als Beschichtungen auf Silikatpartikel (Modellsystem für Sandböden) oder Calcitpartikel (CaCO3; Modellsystem für kalkhaltige Böden) aufgetragen, sowie synthetische Elektronencarrier und hochkonzentrierte, künstliche pH-Puffer ausgeschlossen. Die erforschten Mineralsysteme umfassten Goethit/Calcit-, Lepidokrozit/Calcit- und Ferrihydrit/Sand-Suspensionen. S. algae BrY reduzierte beachtliche Mengen des eingesetzten Fe(III), und es bildeten sich grüne und schwarze Festphasen innerhalb von 1-2 Wochen nach der Animpfung. Mössbauer Spektroskopie der grünen und schwarzen Präzipitate zeigte, dass sich diese aus GR und Vivianit zusammensetzen. Die Reaktivität synthetischer GRs gegenüber reduzierbaren organischen Schadstoffen wurde erkundet, um die potentielle Bedeutung von GR-Phasen für das Schicksal solcher Verbindungen abzuschätzen. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Nitroaromaten (NACs) und Chloracetate als Modellverbindungen benutzt, um Zusammenfassung III umweltrelevante Redoxreaktionen zu studieren. In Kapitel 4 wurde die relative Reaktivität von äusseren und inneren reaktiven Stellen in synthetischem Sulfat- Grünem Rost (GR-SO4) anhand von strukturähnlichen “reaktiven Sondenmolekülen” mit unterschiedlichen Ladungen untersucht. Als reaktive Sondenmoleküle wurden Nitrobenzen, 2-Nitrophenol, 4-Nitrotoluen, 4- Chlornitrobenzen und 4-Nitrophenylessigsäure verwendet.
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