Cultural Resources and Management in the Coastal Regions Along the Korean Tidal ﬂat

Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2014) 1e16

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Ocean & Coastal Management

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Cultural resources and management in the coastal regions along the Korean tidal ﬂat

* Hanhee Hahm a, b, Seongmi Jeong a, Myeonghun Jeong c, Soon Cheol Park d, a Department of Archeology and Cultural Anthropology, Chonbuk National University, Republic of Korea b Center for Intangible Culture in Chonbuk National University, Republic of Korea c The National Folk Museum of Korea Researcher, 37 Samcheong-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul, 110-820, Republic of Korea d Division of Electronics and Information Engineering, Chonbuk National University, P. O. Box 561-756, 567 Baekje-daero, Deokjin-gu, Jeonju-si, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea article info abstract

Article history: The Korean tidal flat (getbol) region is characterized by close relationships between regional inhabitants Available online xxx and getbol-related goods and services. To illustrate this point, we made a provisional list of cultural entities found in and around the getbol areas of the West Sea region. In the process of this inventory, we confirmed that folk culture is composed of direct representations of getbol villagers' livelihoods. This culture has increasingly become endangered and risks disappearance due to land reclamation, urbanization and industrialization. The Korean government has implemented conservation policies regarding cultural heritage in urgent need of protection, but has largely overlooked getbol folk culture. We also examined the structural relationship between designated and undesignated cultural entities in the getbol area. The core getbol culture consists of undesignated folk cultural entities. These undesignated folk cultural entities clearly have a more direct relationship with the sea and tidal flats. Designated cultural entities are more indirectly related to this environment and comprise the periphery of the getbol culture. Government entities and academics have viewed these two categories of cultural entities independently, but they are closely interrelated and interdependent. The notion of cultural landscape is far less established or reflected in getbol conservation and management policies in Korea than in those implemented in the Wadden Sea region of Europe. We further indicate the uniqueness of Korean cultural landscape developed by folk culture and warn of a direct application of the Wadden Sea's cultural landscape approach to the Korean getbol. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction should move toward the protection of the cultural landscape in which diversified living culture and heritage are extensively pro- The Korean tidal flat regions are quite unique in terms of the tected and carefully administered in line with the goals of sus- close interactions between nature and humanity. There are not tainable development. many other areas in the world where a multi-faceted area of similar Since the mid-1990s, as awareness of tidal flat conservation in scale contains such a complex web of tidal flats, human use and Korea has increased, a contrast has emerged in evaluations of tidal cultural heritage. In this paper, we present the rationale for such flat reclamation by the two interested sides, the advocates and argument by first showing the diversity of the cultural entities conservationists. The pro-reclamation advocates have insisted on located in the region of tidal flat. Second, a significant portion of the rationale and necessity for development. These advocates cultural entities found in the region of tidal flat consists of multi- consider the sea to be vacant space, any amount of which can be faceted folk culture. As a historic and current source of the vil- reclaimed at anytime to expand the land area and view reclamation lagers' livelihoods, the tidal flats should not be viewed simply as a as a key symbol of development and progress (MAF and KARICO, target of protective measures. The future management policy 2000). In contrast, conservationists have emphasized the importance of tidal flats for two main and intrinsically inseparable rea- sons: their environmental benefits and high economic value. In fl * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ82 63 270 2467; fax: þ82 63 270 2461. arguing for the conservation of tidal ats in Korea, scholars, spe- E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (S.C. Park). cialists, and practitioners have presented different perceptions and http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.07.011 0964-5691/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

2. Characteristics of Korean Getbol culture 3. Study area and data collection

A characteristic feature of getbol culture is the close association In conducting surveys for this study, we found that many village of regional inhabitants with tidal flat-related goods and services. folk cultures in Korea were not systematically recorded, whereas related to the tidal flat. The meaning of getbol was introduced in the data on designated cultural entities were officially recorded and previous chapter (Koh and Khim, in this volume). The combination kept in government bureaus and online databases. The lack of of the two syllables comprising getbol (get, muddy seacoast; bol, comprehensive surveys of cultural entities in getbol areas on the vast flat area) evokes the coastal flats that are common on the west west coast motivated the present inventory study. coast of Korea, where villagers use the term. The related term For this study, data on cultural entities along the west coast of getsalim (salim, managing household affairs) emphasizes people's Korea were collected primarily from (1) official documents pro- economic and cultural associations with the tidal flat ecosystem. vided by the Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA) and provincial Several studies have indicated that the goods and services related and local governments and (2) public and private online databases to the tidal flat ecosystem are crucial for households in fishing [e.g., government offices, the encyclopedia of intangible cultural villages (Hahm, 2004a; Kim, 2007; Koh, 2001; Park, 2003). Worm, heritage in Korea (ICHPEDIA)], as well as from academic publica- clam and octopus catches are economically important to villages tions. The CHA is the public agency responsible for coordinating and contribute large portions to household incomes (Hahm, 2004b; research on cultural entities and designating them as part of Korea's Yoon, 2004). Villagers' livelihoods depend on subsistence fishing cultural heritage. At the provincial level, Bureaus of Culture and and other getbol elements, which is reflected in the cultural entities Tourism conduct surveys and designate cultural entities (provincial located in getbol regions. Many religious rituals and festivals are cultural heritage). ICHPEDIA, based on the Wikipedia model and performed in these regions to ensure good catches and fishermen's run on the Web 2.0 platform, contains data on institutionally safety. neglected folk cultural entities (e.g., performance, arts, traditional

4. Distribution of cultural entities in the Korean tidal flat region Fig. 1. Study areas on the coast of the West Sea, Korea. Areas of tidal flats and administrative units (17 counties in four provinces) where we identified designated Table 1 shows the distributions of cultural entities by province, and undesignated cultural entities are shown. institutional designation, and culture type. Data from surveys, documents, records and publications indicated that the four prov- tourism, represent about 10% of the total sample of designated inces in the study area contained 490 designated cultural entities, entities. Very few folk cultural entities have been designated; most more than 70% of which are archeological and historical. These have been overlooked due to their perceived status as lesser forms entities include religious monuments, such as temples, shrines, and of cultural heritage. Components of folk culture such as subsistence pagodas; Confucian educational sites; war memorials; and features practices and shamanism are typically compared unfavorably to representing human occupation, such as houses, tombs, and shell elements of the elite Buddhist and Confucian cultures. mounds. Historical entities, in particular, are closely related to the Fifty-six cultural entities were assigned to the scenic views elite cultures of the Joseon (1392e1910), Goryeo (918e1392) and category, including parks, dunes, rocks, sea paths and other earlier dynasties, which have been the main sources of historical distinctive geological features. Thirty-three entities were narrative and cultural authority in Korea. In the western and assigned to the natural monuments category including flora and southern coastal areas, these entities have three distinctive char- fauna. acteristics. First, many monuments and other features commemo- Our research led to the identification of 557 undesignated cul- rate events and heroes related to a series of wars between Japan tural entities in the study area, but this sample represents only part and Korea during the Joseon and Goryeo dynasties. Second, reli- of the folk culture in the getbol area (Table 1) given the difficulty of gious institutions, including Buddhist temples and Confucian collecting such data. For the identification these entities, we shrines, and related art are relatively well preserved. Third, pre- depended on data selected from ICHPEDIA and gathered during our historic remains, such as shell mounds and ancient tombs, are also fieldwork in JLB. The sample includes 203 (36%) rituals, 147 (26%) preserved under institutional protection policies. local food, 100 (18%) oral expression, 82 (15%) cultural space, and 25 Folk cultural entities (n ¼ 52), which the CHA and provincial (5%) elements of traditional knowledge (examples are described in governments have recently begun to recognize as important assets Table 2 and the Section 5). The large number of undesignated for the enhancement of national and regional identities and

Fig. 2. Map of Gochang and Buan getbol regions, Jeollabuk-do. Circles represent designated cultural entities and rectangles indicate undesignated entities. Numbers in parentheses indicate the numbers of cultural entities in the same location. cultural entities highlights the lack of designation for the numerous designated, n ¼ 98, 18% undesignated) and CCN (n ¼ 68, 14% folk cultures in the getbol area, although designation status is designated, n ¼ 50, 9% undesignated). associated with little difference in terms of meaning and signifi- cance in villagers' lives. This situation also indicates the need to 5. Description of cultural entities by province implement protective measures for undesignated entities. Among the four provinces, JLN had the largest numbers of 5.1. Gyeonggi-do designated (n ¼ 226, 46%) and undesignated (n ¼ 289, 52%) cultural entities (Table 1). JLN is located furthest from Seoul, contains pri- The coastal zone of GG, in which Seoul is located, has long been fi marily shing and agrarian villages, and has relatively undisturbed subject to land reclamation. Typical reclamation projects in recent tidal flats. GG contained 117 (24%) designated and 120 (22%) un- years were the construction of the Incheon International Airport, a ¼ designated cultural entities, followed by JLB (n 79, 16% dumping site at Gimpo, the Shihwa industrial complex, and

Table 1 Numbers of cultural entities in the region of the Korean tidal ﬂats.

Designated cultural entities Undesignated cultural entities

Ah Fc Sv Nm Total number R F O S T Sum %

C P Sum C P Sum C P Sum C P Sum C P Sum %

GG 17 80 97 1 2 3 2 8 10 4 3 7 24 93 117 24 45 14 41 10 10 120 21 CCN 6 45 51 e 5 5 7 2 9 1 2 3 14 54 68 14 13 14 3 17 3 50 9 JLB 5 55 60 1 3 4 2 3 5 2 8 10 10 69 79 16 38 18 25 8 18 98 18 JLN 18 123 141 1 39 40 20 12 32 7 6 13 46 180 226 46 107 101 31 47 3 289 52 sum 46 303 349 3 49 52 31 25 56 14 19 33 94 396 490 203 147 100 82 25 557 % 70 11 11 7 100 36 26 18 15 5 100

Abbreviations; C(central government), P(provincial government), GG(Gyeonggi-do), CCN(Chungcheongnam-do), JLB(Jeollabuk-do), JLN(Jeollanam-do), Ah(archeological and historical entity), Fc(folk culture), Sv(scenic view), Nm(natural monument), R(rituals, festivals and customs), F(local food), O(oral expression and music), S(cultural space and marketplaces), T(traditional knowledge, skills and tools).

Table 2 Summary of main features of cultural entities selected from Table 1.

Name of cultural entities County D UD Ty Main features Reference

1) GG: Gyeonggi-do Chamseongdan Ganghwa ✓ Ah Mythology on state formation CHA Oido yujeok Siheung ✓ Ah Arch and historical sites CHA Sagot sands Ongjin ✓ Nm Natural monument CHA Jeoeosae beonsikji Ganghwa ✓ Nm Spoonbill's habitat CHA Miruji dondae Ganghwa ✓ Ah Historic guard post County Tongjin hyanggyo Gimpo ✓ Ah Old local school County Baikryeong-do paechong Ongjin ✓ Ah Shell mound remains County Bomunsa seokbul Ganghwa ✓ Ah Buddhist art in temple County Seonjae eochongye Ongjin ✓ R Fishing village cooperatives ICHPEDIA Baechigi norae Overall ✓ O Folk song of ship ICHPEDIA Bajirak catch Ongjin ✓ T Knowledge of catching clams ICHPEDIA Dolsal Ongjin ✓ T Stone fishing weir ICHPEDIA 2) CCN: Chungcheongnam-do Suyeongseong Boryeong ✓ Ah Walls of navy headquarters CHA Sinduri haean sagu Taean ✓ Nm Natural monument and dunes CHA Dongbaek namusup Seochon ✓ Nm Camellia forest and animism CHA Tomb of General Kim Boryeong ✓ Ah Monument of hero County Relics of General Cheong Seosan ✓ Ah Historical relics of hero County Ocheon suyeong gwana Boryeong ✓ Ah Offices of navy headquarters County Anseom dangje Dangjin ✓ Fc Village ritual for prosperity County Pungeoje & gulburugije Seosan ✓ R Rituals for good harvest Field survey Taean periodic market Taean ✓ S Periodic markets County Doksal Taean ✓ T Stone fishing weir ICHPEDIA 3) JLB: Jeollabuk-do Yucheon-ri doyoji Buan ✓ Ah Remains of pottery kiln 12th C. CHA Buncheong sagi toyoji Gochang ✓ Ah Remains of pottery kiln 15th C. CHA Wido ttibaet nori Buan ✓ Fc Traditional ritual Field survey Chaeseok Jeokbeok rocks Buan ✓ Sv Scenic views CHA Inchon saengga Gochang ✓ Ah Birthplace of historical figure CHA Daehang-ri paechong Buan ✓ Ah Shell mound remains County Manghae-sa Akseojeon Gimje ✓ Ah Old Buddhist temple County Ssangjo seokgan Buan ✓ Fc Object of folk belief Field survey Jayeom jejobeop Gochang ✓ T Traditional salt-making Field survey Maenson-eoeop Buan ✓ T Bare-handed fishery Field survey 4) JLN: Jeollanam-do Chungmugong yujeok Wando ✓ Ah Historical site and shrine CHA Gungok-ri paechong Haenam ✓ Ah Shell mound remains CHA Yun Du Seo goteak Haenam ✓ Ah Famous painter's house CHA Myeongryang daecheopbi Haenam ✓ Ah War monument of 16th C CHA Jindo badatgil Jindo ✓ Sv Mysterious spilt of South Sea CHA Gwangyang gim sisikji Gwangyang ✓ Ah Starting place of laver farming County Jukam-ri gobun Hampyeong ✓ Ah Tombs of 5th-6th century County Myeolchijabi norae Sinan ✓ Fc Traditional folk song County Hajeo-ri getje Gangjin ✓ R Folk ritual at getbol ICHPEDIA San nakji yori Muan ✓ F Local gastronomy ICHPEDIA Hampyeong getbol Hampyeong ✓ S Cultural landscape County Gulyangsik Gwangyang ✓ T Origins of oyster farming ICHPEDIA

Abbreviations; D(designation), UD(un-designation), C(central government), P(provincial government), Ah(archeological and historical entity), Fc(folk culture), Sv(scenic view), Nm(natural monument), R(rituals, festivals and custom), F(local food), O(oral expression and music), S(cultural space and marketplaces), T(traditional knowledge, skills and tools), the county in reference indicates the homepage of the corresponding county that can be reached by the name of county with ending of go.kr.

reclamation of agricultural land from Namyang Bay. Few fishing rooted in the fishing livelihood, taking the forms of prayers for good villages remain in this province and the central and provincial harvests and cooperative rituals. The followings are description of governments have designated only one and two folk cultural en- individual entities in an order of designated and undesignated on tities respectively. These entities are folk songs of Pyeongtaek the province by province base. Abbreviations in the descriptions (designated by central government), Seogotdul and Hwimori are: name of cultural entity is in italic and the Korean name is (designated by provincial government). Seogotdul, which has a followed by the English translation in parenthesis; L, name of slow rhythm and compliant tone, is sung by farmers when they are location; TP, type of culture and period of origin; RN, registration transplanting, weeding, and keeping birds away from rice plants. number. Then a brief description of the entity follows. Hwimori, which means beating and running, refers to a group of songs with rapid tempos, cheerful rhythms, and humorous verses. 5.1.1. Designated cultural entities In addition to these three institutionally designated folk songs, Chamseongdan (The Chamseong altar) many more popular traditional songs of farmers and fishermen in L: Hwado-myeon, Ganghwa-gun, TP: mythology on state for- GG have not received official or scholarly attention. A total of 120 mation, RN: no. 136 of state designation, historical relics. Descrip- undesignated cultural entities were identified in GG (Table 1) tion: According to a folktale, King Dangun, the mythical founder of including 41 entities in the oral expression and music category and Korea, built the altar to pay homage to the Heaven. Although the 45 in the rituals and festivals category. Most of these entities are initial builder of this alter is unknown, this construction was

Please cite this article in press as: Hahm, H., et al., Cultural resources and management in the coastal regions along the Korean tidal flat, Ocean & Coastal Management (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.07.011 6 H. Hahm et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2014) 1e16 evidently made by ancient people who were driven by religious 20 cm. Earthen wares with patterns, no pattern and stone imple- motives. The alter is currently serving as the place where the ments of hand axe were found together. The Maldung was found institution concerned holds a ceremony to pay homage to Dangun close to the above mounds. It shows a length of 15e20 m and on the occasion of National Founding Day. The altar was renovated thickness of 60e100 cm. The Maldung Shell Mound is the largest three times; 1270, 1639, and 1700 (source of description: homepage one in South Korea. Excavated together were earthen wares with of CHA, www.cha.go.kr). comb pattern and stone implements such as scraper, axe, and Oido yujeok (Historic relics of Oi Island) grinder. A kiln was also found (source of description; homepage of L: Siheung-si, Gyeonggi-do, TP: historic site preserved a 0.4 km2 Ongjin county, www.ongjin.go.kr). in dimension, RN: no 441 of state designation. Description: Oi Is- Bomunsa seokbul (Stone Buddhist image of Bomun Temple) land had been a long island 4 km off the land until 1932 when the L: Samsan-myon, Ganghwa-gun, TP: Buddhist art created in mud flat was reclaimed for salt pan and the pan connected the 1928, RN: no. 17 of provincial designation, monument, Description: Island and main land. The island completely became a part of the The temple was built by Monk Hoejeong in the period of Silla land in late of 1980's when the area was further reclaimed to build Kingdom (635). He named the temple as Bomun, which means the Sihwa industrial complex. Shell mounds of pre-historic period were endless compassion of Buddha. The stone image of Buddha with the found in several places. Excavated were residential sites from Silla height of 9.2 m and the width of 3.3 m was a sedentary figure. Two Dynasty and Ondol was found that is a traditional source of heat for famous monks carved on a great rock in Mount Nakga in 1928. house warming. Some of earthen wares, stone implements, and Within the temple there is another natural monument (RN: no. 304 weights of fishing net were excavated together (source of of state designation), a 800 year old gingko. The ginkgo tree has description: homepage of CHA). been considered a hallowed tree which guards and protects the Sagot sabin, (Sagot sands of Baikryeong Island) village, providing a rest area for the villagers. According to a folk- L: Jincheon-ri, Ongjin-gun, Incheon-si, TP: natural monument, tale, this ginkgo tree was carried away by a flood and if anyone RN: no 391 of state designation. Description: The Sagot sands would dare to set fire to any branches of that tree, he would suffer a stretches along the seashore of Yonggi Wharf. The 2 km long and disaster by the hand of God. That's why the villagers are very careful 200 m wide sand bar appears at low tide. The Sagot sands is actually to make sure that the branches are protected from harm. The vil- a quartzite ridge solid enough to let cars run. During the Korean lagers have held a ceremony to pray for the safety of the village and War, the UN troops used it for a natural airfield (source of for a big catch on the last day of the first lunar month since the description, homepage of CHA). 1950's (source of description: homepage of Gangwha, www. Mud flat and spoonbill's habitat of Ganghwa gangwha.go.kr). L: Ganghwa-gun, Incheon-si, TP: scenic site of 42 km2, RN: no. 419 of state designation. Description: The spoonbill is legally 5.1.2. Undesignated cultural entities recognized natural monument. The location is southern tidal flat of Seonjae eochongye (Fishing village cooperatives) Ganghwa Island where migratory birds arrive for rest or L: Seonjae-ri, Ongjin-gun, TP: fishing village cooperatives. food (source of description: homepage of CHA). Description: Seonjae village runs cooperatives. Traditionally most Miruji dondae (Miruji Guard post) fishing village had the cooperative organization called eochongye. L: Yocha-ri, Ganghwa-gun, TP: historic monument of Joseon Cooperatives administer the whole process of clam farming, har- Dynasty, RN: no. 40 of provincial designation. Description: The vesting and selling. Cooperatives control the culture bed, collective guard post was constructed by Yun Yije, magistrate of Ganghwa work, selling and profit sharing. The villagers are the member of the County in 1679 (King Sukjong's Reign) to guard invaders, that was cooperatives. At the harvest, each household selects one member placed under the command of Janggot Garrison. The Guard Post, a (in most cases, a woman) to work in the communal clam bed. The rectangular construction with 2.2 m in height and 128 m in a circle, cooperatives control the amount of clam catching per person. All was built by stones, has four gun platforms, all turned toward the catches are collectively sold through the cooperatives. Profits are ocean (source of description; home page of Incheon-si, www. shared by the amount of catch of each individual. The communal incheon.go.kr). clam bed is open once a day. From the late 1960's to the middle of Tongjin hyanggyo (Tongjin local school) the 1980's, aqua-cultures of clams flourished in this region. Such L: Gunha-ri, Gimpo-si, TP: historical building of Joseon Dynasty, businesses brought a change of social and economic structures of RN: no. 30 of provincial designation, materials of cultural property the fishing villages in this region. There are two types of aquacul- and managed by Hyanggyo foundation. Description: The local ture businesses in the region. One type is run by village co- school was a state-run educational institution established in many operatives and the other type is individually-based licensed counties in traditional Korea. The basic mission was to educate sons aquaculture businesses. The process to receive a license was of ruling class and to hold a ceremony for the repose of Confucius competitive and it has been acknowledged that one needed money and other Sages on a regular basis. The campus has the ethic hall for and connections in order to receive a license. Those who wanted to education and houses for boarding in the front and the Confucian run aquaculture businesses needed capital and political power. shrine in the rear. The Confucian shrine with a gable roof has the Only the wealthy and powerful were able to become owners of such memorial tablets for Confucius and other Sages inside, that is businesses. But the village cooperatives are still run by community presumed to have been constructed near the end of the 17th cen- spirit (source of description: ICHPEDIA). tury, remaining the oldest extant in the Province. The ethic hall Baechigi norae (Folk song of ship) with a grand-style roof was a teaching room, (source of description; L: Anseong-si, TP: folk song and music. Description: At the end homepage of Gimpo-si, www.gimpo.go.kr). of a fishing trip, fishermen hoist up their flags to show their Baikryeong-do paechong (Shell mounds of Baikryeong Island) abundant catch and sing and dance accompanied by instruments L: Baikryeong Island, L: Jincheon-ri, Ongjin-gun, Incheon-si, TP: on the ship. When the ship is approaching to the seashore, villagers pre-historic archeological site, RN: no. 30 of provincial designation, can see the flags indicating a good catch and hear the song of the materials of cultural property. Description: The coastal area of fishermen. They would run to the seashore and also begin to sing Jincheon-ri is famous for a cluster of shell mounds. The Yonggi and and dance. The song and dance accompanied by folk instruments is Maldung shell mounds are two distinctive ones. The Yonggi Shell quite lively and enchanting. It has other names such as spree song Mound was found in 1980 and has length of 7.5 m and thickness of and dance, good harvest song, or bongjuk song. The song is also

Please cite this article in press as: Hahm, H., et al., Cultural resources and management in the coastal regions along the Korean tidal flat, Ocean & Coastal Management (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.07.011 H. Hahm et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2014) 1e16 7 popular in the area of Hwanghae, the adjacent area to Gyeonggi so converted to farming villages and fishermen became farmers or that two coastal areas are considered as its places of origin. “We are city-dwellers. Few folk cultures remain in CCN, even in coastal beating drum, beating drum, beating drum in Yeon Pyeong sea, jeo areas. Another reason why we did not inventory cultural elements o e ehe ~~~~Put up flags at fore and aft, pull up hoods below the in fishing villages was directly related to the creation of Taean middle of pole, jeo hee hui hui~~Loyal subject, General Im, during National Marine Park, which was designated for the protection of the three kingdom period has us won the first prize while we are the ecosystem and for recreational purposes. Many unique cultures full. Ehea ehea ehea~~~Catch many in the middle sea-bed, not of the fishing villages near the park have disappeared since its lower or upper sea-beds, heiehe eee e e ehee ~~~” (source of creation. description: ICHPEDIA). As in other provinces, cultural policies in CCN follow the lead of Bajirak (Tapes philipinarum) catch the central government; the provincial government pays a great deal L: Seonjae-ri, Ongjin-gun, TP: clam farming knowledge and skill. of attention to the protection of historical items (n ¼ 45 of 54 Description: The local inhabitants at Seonjae-ri catch not only tapes designation), such as war monuments, defensive walls, coastal philippinarum (bajirak), but also cyclina sinensis (gamurak), martra administration buildings, tombs of famous historical figures and veneriformis (dongjuk) and other shells of turban shell and oyster Buddhist temples and pagodas. Historically, coastal CCN was and partly mud-crabs. The fisheries season of tapes philippinarum is vulnerable to Chinese and Japanese invaders and man guard posts, between March and October, but the catch is closed from mid-July fortresses, and official buildings were built during the Goryeo and to mid-August due to the spawning. The first round of yields from Joseon dynasties. These features are now used for historical educa- March to April is known to be a better quality due to high contents tion and tourism, and serve as representations of national and of fats before the spawning. The spats collected from their nursery regional pride. Most designated cultural entities in CCN are histor- grounds are sprayed on the mixed-sand flats in early spring from ically renowned places and natural monuments. In contrast, the February to March. The nursery needs no installations unlike other provincial government has paid little attention to folk fishing cul- cultivations with supportive piles and line nets. Clam harvesting is tures. One traditional fishing skill, called doksal, has been designated mainly dependent on women's labor. The village women only use a as an intangible cultural property but many other fishing techniques very simple rake to catch and collect clams into baskets and 20 kg have not survived. The provincial government has designated five nylon bags. Seonjae Island is surrounded by clam farming beds items for folk cultures, including a ceremony conducted on Hwang nowadays. In old days the island mudflats used to be a natural Island to ensure a good haul of fish (Hwang-do Bunggi pungoeje), a habitat of bajirak (tapes philipinarum) (source of description: farmer's song from the Gyeolseong area (Gyeolseong nongyo), and a ICHPEDIA, www.ichpedia.org). shamanic ritual conducted in Tangjin (Anseom dangje). As an over- Dolsal (Traditional fishing weir) view, several of the designated and undesignated cultural heritage L: Ongjin-gun, Incheon-si. TP: fishing tool and traditional entities from each category are described below. As in GG, most knowledge of fishery. Description: Dolsal, stone fishing weir, is a undesignated cultural entities are closely related to the traditional trap built with stones for catching fish. In the coastal area of Ongjin fishing livelihood, including religious practices to ensure a good the remains of dolsal are found in many places. Dolsal used to be an catch and cooperative rituals and economic activities. efficient method to catch fish before the advancement of fish nets. Building a blockade with stones in the seashore, fishermen wait for 5.2.1. Designated cultural entities a high tide when fish would swim into the blockade. Dolsal is Chungcheong suyeongseong (Walls of the navy headquarters, usually built in a place where there is a sharp difference between Chungcheong) tide and ebb, a fast flow of water and access to sufficient stones. The L: Eochon-myeon, Boryeong-si, TP: historical sites built in the technique of piling of stones is advanced and uses knowledge about 15thcentury, RN: no. 501 of state designation. Description: The navy tide, speed of water flow, and the strength of the wind. Otherwise, headquarters was established in early Joseon and abolished in 1896 such a structure may be destroyed by the sea water or a typhoon. under King Gojong's reign. Under the command of the headquar- The height of dolsal should be horizontal with the sea level. If the ters were 142 war ships and 8 414 sailors. The navy of Chuncheong level of stone wall is not even, fish would go back to the sea through protected transport ships passing by, repelled the Japanese pirates, the lower level of the wall. The presence of oysters in dolsal helps it and defended the coast from possible attack by Western powers' keep strong. Generally Korea experiences typhoon season between warships in the 19th century. Five catholic priests died and the navy July and September. Oysters attach themselves to the stone of dolsal headquarters also witnessed the martyrdom of five catholic priests in order to breed. Oysters' breeding season is June, just before who died nearby at the persecution of Christians of 1866 (source of typhoon season. Villagers are free to collect the oysters and fish in description: homepage of CHA). dolsal even if dolsal is privately owned. Dolsal, a traditional fishing Sinduri haean sagu (Sand dunes of Sindu village) method, has several benefits: it catches fish using nature, that is, it L: Wonbuk-myeon, Taean-gun, TP: natural monument, RN: no. is an ecological way of fishing. It also shows the traditional custom 431 of state designation. Description: The sand dunes, 3.4 km long of communal use of marine resources. It enhances the community and 0.5e1.3 km wide, stretch along the north-western shore of the spirit and ethics in living with sea (source of description: Taean peninsula, that serves as a buffer zone between the sea and ICHPEDIA). the land, presenting a beautiful scenery. The sand dunes display a variety of shapes and boast the greatest of the same dunes in Korea 5.2. Chungcheongnam-do (source of description: homepage of CHA). Dongbaek namusup (The Camellia Forest) The west coast of CCN was famous for the existence of an L: Maryang-ri, Seochon-gun, TP: 20,032 m2 of designated areas extended getbol, but much of that area was reclaimed for agricul- of forest, RN: no. 169 of state designation, natural monument. tural land or industrial plants construction during the period of Description: The forest consists of 80 and more camellia trees that economic development. The Seosan Reclamation Project, which were planted for protection against the wind. And the villagers began in the 1960s and was completed in the late 1990s, was the gathered here to hold a ceremony for a big catch in the first lunar largest development program nationally during this time. It month. The camellia forest is under national protection for their reduced the size of the getbol and impacted the region's folk culture rarity and for its geographical location of the northern limit line for as many fishing villages that were once located on the coast were growing (source of description: homepage of CHA).

Tomb of General Kim Jwajin of Chang-ri used to be a spawning location for a variety of fish, L: Jaejeong-ri, Boryeong-si, TP: monument of national hero of oysters and clams. It means that Chang-ri fishermen used to enjoy the 20th century, RN: no. 73 of provincial designation, historical fishing abundant varieties and practiced the good harvest ritual monument. Description: General Kim was a national hero who led every year. There is no historical record remaining in the village but the Korean Independence Forces in defeating the Japanese troops at its oral tradition indicates that the ritual has continued for 300 a place called Cheongsan Village in Manchuria. This victor was a years. The villagers did not even neglect the ritual during the milestone in the history of the Korean righteous troops' fight Korean War period. They actively take part in the ritual. Before the against the Japanese colonialist invaders. He was of Yangban origin ritual is held they select the head of ritual or jeju among the vil- and son of a landlord who had owned a large amount of lands and a lagers through a thorough screening process. The villagers collec- number of slaves. His father passed away when the general was a tively make sacred flags for the ritual. On the day of the ritual the boy of 15 years old. He emancipated his inherited slaves and villagers follow the head, jeju and musicians (usually villagers) in distributed his own lands among them. In 1905 he established dancing and singing. All enter the village temple and worship the Homyeong School which offered students modernized curricula. village gods who are in charge of a good harvest, peace within the After Japan annexed Korea, he tried to raise war funds for the village and fishermen's safety. Every villager prays for his/her wish. Korean Independence Forces which led to his imprisonment for In the meantime, a performance by the village musicians and their three years. He escaped to Manchuria where he joined the Korean followers is held. The ritual continues until dawn. A series of Independence Organization in 1917. He was victorious in battles worship rituals for Dragon King, Obang, Maid, General, High Official with the Japanese troops when he mobilized the Independence are held. Sacrifice food and money, food for the villagers, and music Forces from the Northern Army in 1920 (source of description: are prepared with great care. It is held on the second or third of homepage of Boryeong-si, www.boryeong.go.kr). January by the lunar month each year (source of description: the Relics of General Cheong Chung Sin authors' fieldwork). L: Jigok-myeon, Seosan-si, TP: commemoration of historical Taean jeonggi sijang (Periodic market in Taean) figure, RN: no.36 of provincial designation, historical relics. L: Taean-gun, TP: Traditional periodic market and marketplace. Description: General Cheong (1576e1636), a passer of the military Description: Taean Market is held in a five-day schedule, on the 3rd examination, was a veteran of Joseon's wars with the Japanese and and 8th day. Korea has well-developed system of periodic markets the Manchurian invasions and a politician. He was also famous for nationwide. A surplus of agricultural production, hunting, fishing and his outstanding knowledge of astronomy, geography, medicine, and manufacturing are brought to the marketplace for bartering. The divination. He was held in high esteem as a loyal subject. Several traditional style of trading in a marketplace has existed since ancient articles left by the general are designated as follows: a suit of armor, Shilla, Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. The bartering developed into an a royal gift; a flag standing for commanding general, a portrait of advanced commercial transaction. Still petty producers from rural the general dressed in an official uniform; an incense burner with areas bring their products to market places for sale. Periodic markets three legs, and an incense bowl with three legs (source of once flourished in rural areas before urbanization started in the description: homepage of Seosan-si, www.seosan.go.kr). 1970's. Taean market is famous for fish and gamtae, a kind of seaweed. Ocheon suyeong gwana (The Buildings of the headquarters of the Gamtae looks similar to the blue laver, but it is more tasty and Chungce'ong Navy, Ocheon) expensive. It is collected during the winter season. When the weather L: Soseong-ri, Boryeong-si, TP: historical sites built in the 15th gets cold, gamtae is found floating on the water, looking like a ball of century, RN: no. 136 of provincial designation, tangible cultural silk thread. Fishermen catch it and sell in Taean market which is property. Description: The headquarters were extensively used located on the west coast of CCN. The unique flavor and sweetness during Joseon Dynasty. It consisted of many buildings but only makes gamtae an excellent winter delights. Gamtae is caught only in three remain standing: (1) Officers' Hall called Janggyocheong some places on the West Coast such as Taean and Seosan (source of which was used by naval officers for administrative meetings and description: homepage of Taean county, www.taean.go.kr). discussion; (2) Alms Hall called Jinhyulcheong that offered alms to Doksal (Stone Fishing Weir or Stone Fences) the poor; (3) Official Gate called Oidongheon which led to the main L: Taean and Seocheon, TP: Traditional fishery. Description: The building of the Headquarters (source of description: homepage of use of a stone wall in the area of getbol using the tide as a way to fish Boryeong-si.go.kr). is widespread in the coastal areas of the Korean peninsula. Taean, Anseom dangje (Rite of Ansom village) Seocheon, and Boryeong are the most suitable places to build doksal L: Godae-ri, Dangjin-si, TP: Traditional village shaman ritual, due to the favorable coastal winds. Doksal is also called sokban- RN: no. 35 of provincial designation, folk culture. Description: The gryeom in Chinese characters or dokjang, and ssugidam. The fish name of village indicates that Ansom or inner island used to be an follow the tide into doksal and then become trapped within the island and it has become part of the land as a result of reclamation. wall. When the tide goes out, the fishermen can catch fish within Ansom villagers carried out the shaman ritual which was held for the wall in shallow water with a net or ttolmang (jokbaji)inFig. 4(a) both safety of the village and a big catch. The rites were held in . Mainly mullet, parrot fish, shrimp, anchovies and other small fish early January every year by the lunar calendar. One year sees a small are caught. The length of stone wall is usually less than 100 m but ceremony led by the villagers and the next year witnesses a big some extends to 300 m. The stone wall forms an oval-shaped or ceremony led by a shaman. The rite of Ansom Village best and most ‘ㄱ’-shaped and its middle part is deep in order to gather fish. Taean represents the beliefs of fishing villages of Korea's west coast area used to have more than 100 doksal densely located in the area (source of description: homepage of Dangjin-si, www.dangjin.go. of Taean getbol. However, doksal has been devastated due to diffi- kr). culties in its management and the decrease in the fish population in recent years. Most of the traditional fishery disappeared or changed 5.2.2. Undesignated cultural entities during the Japanese colonization. But doksal has a long history in Pungeoje and gulburugije (Rituals of fishing village) Korean fishing traditions and some are still used. It is one of the L: Chang-ri, Seosan-si, TP: Folk rituals for good catch and safety oldest traditions tracing back to the prehistoric period. Sinjin Island of fishermen. Description: Chang-ri's good harvest rituals, pungeoje located in Geunheung-myeon, Taean-gun has regularly held the and gulburugije (literarily, welcoming ritual for oyster), are the only shamanistic worship for gods of doksal (source description: remaining ones among the coastal areas in Seosan. The coastal area ICHPEIDA).

Fig. 3. Two cultural zones in getbol area, the core and the periphery.

Fig. 4. Photographs of cultural entities in the Korean getbol area which demonstrate close relationships with people's livelihood: (a) Doksal (Stone ﬁshing weir or stone fences), Taean-gun, Chungcheongnam-do, (b) Jayeom jejobeob (Traditional salt-making in getbol), Gochang-gun, Jeollabuk-do, (c) Maenson-eoeop (Bare-handed ﬁshery in Gyehwa village), Buan-gun, Jeollabuk-do, (d) Hajeo-ri getje (Folk ritual of Hajeo village performed at getbol), Gangjin-gun, Jeollanam-do.

5.3. Jeollabuk-do surveys related to the Saemanguem Reclamation Project, which included the construction of a dam. These features include shell Numerous archeological sites have been identiﬁed in JLB in the mounds, tombs, and many house sites. However, the local and course of mandatory and extensive pre-construction archeological central governments initiated no other historical or cultural

Please cite this article in press as: Hahm, H., et al., Cultural resources and management in the coastal regions along the Korean tidal flat, Ocean & Coastal Management (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.07.011 10 H. Hahm et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2014) 1e16 research in affected villages before or after dam construction, Chaesoek and Jeokbyeok Rocks of Buan reflecting neglect of getbol cultural entities in favor of a focus on the L: Gyeokpo-ri, Buan-gun, TP: rocks of the Paleozoic era, RN: no. success of the reclamation project. 13 of state designation, scenic view. Description: Chaesokgang and The central government has designated five archeological and its vicinity occupy the western tip of the Byeonsan peninsula, that historical entities and the provincial government has designated 50 are famous for their unusual rock formations derived from effects of such entities in the getbol area of JLB (Table 1). Most designated waves, billows and surges of the sea. The rocks standing by the cultural entities are historically significant places and natural West Sea show the natural history from Cambrian period to lower monuments. A folk ritual conducted on Wi Island (Wido ttibet nori) Cretaceous of the Mesozoic (around 70 million years ago). Granite rituals and folk music to ensure a good harvest, traditional folk and gneiss were formed as the base and many layers of deposits songs and religious items have been designated as cultural assets. view as if those were a pile of thousands of books. The rocks However a search of ICHPEDIA revealed 99 additional elements of accumulated through earlier times of geological history show folk culture from villages near the getbol area including shaman wonders of nature (source of description: homepage of CHA). rituals, religious rites and shrines (suseongdang), folk music, food, Inchon saengga (The old house of Inchon Kim Seong Su) methods of calculating tidal movements, traditional salt-making L: Bongam-ri, Boan-myeon, Gochang-gun, TP: birthplace of techniques, and fish markets. These entities are clearly related to historical figure, RN: no. 39 of provincial designation, monument. traditional ecological and fishing knowledge and skills, and reli- Description: Kim Seong Su (1891e1955) was a famous politician, gious beliefs and rituals. Of the many designated and undesignated educator, journalist and entrepreneur in the period of moderniza- cultural entities in JLB, two famous undesignated entities (women's tion in Korea. Kim Seong Su, son of a landlord in Buan, founded the clam catching and traditional salt-making) and several of desig- Gyeongseong Textile company in 1919 with capital derived from his nated entities are summarized below. property holdings and fisheries and became a leading capitalist during the Japanese colonial period. He was active in the inde- 5.3.1. Designated cultural entities pendence movement. One of the ways in which he evidenced his Yucheon-ri doyoji (The remains of pottery kiln of Yucheon village) patriotism was the founding of new educational institutions such as L: Boan-myeon, Buan-gun, TP: remains of pottery kiln of Joseon Jungang High School and Boseong College, predecessor to Korea dynasty, RN: no. 69 of state designation, historic relics. Description: University which were founded in order to educate young people in The remains scatter around the fields overlooking the Gulpo Bay. Korea. He also established Donga Daily Newspaper which was one Forty and more remains are south of the road that runs through of the two major anti-Japanese newspapers during the colonial Yucheon Village and ten and more are north of the road. The pot- rule. After liberation, he was elected as vice-president of the Re- tery kilns were established mainly during the period from the mid- public of Korea (1951e1952) (source of description: homepage of 12th century to the first half of the 13thcentury, though some in the Gochang-gun, www.gochang.go.kr). late 11th century and in the first half of the 12th century. Pieces of Daehang-ri paechong (The shell mound of Daehang village) celadon porcelain found in the #12 (excavated place number) re- L: Byeonsan-myeon, Buan-gun, TP: archeological site, RN: no. 50 mains suggest that the products over there were the best of its kind of provincial designation. Description: The sell mound located on in Yucheon Village and its vicinity. The products found in the #12 the foot of a mountain east of Hapgumi village 1 km north of the remains are only equivalent to those found in the remains of the Byeonsan Beach. The mound has length of 14 m, width of 10 m, and pottery kilns in Gangjin, Chenlanam-do (source of description: depth of 130 cm. Excavated were pieces of earthen ware with comb homepage of CHA). pattern and some stone implements (source of description: Gochang buncheong sagi doyoji (The Kiln for Blue and White homepage of Buan-gun, www.buan.go.kr). Porcelain) Manghaesa Akseojeon (The Akseo hall of Manghae temple) L: Sudong-ri, Buan-myeon, Gochang-gun, TP: remains of L: Simpo-ri, Jinbong-myeon, TP: Old Buddhist temple no. 128 of Joseon's famous pottery kiln, RN: no. 250 of state designation, provincial designation, material of cultural property. Description: historical monument, Description: The kiln was supposedly con- Manghae Temple is located at Jinbong Cape and the Akseo Hall stands structed during the period of late 15th to early 16th centuries. It is towards the West Sea. The hall was rebuilt by Monk Chinmuk during notable that the kiln produced two different types of porcelains: King Injo's reign (1623e1649) at the site of the original hall which had one was a blue porcelain that was a famous product of the Goryeo been built in the mid-8th century. The villagers near the temple would period, a former dynasty of Joseon and the other one was a white come and pray to the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy, Avalokiteshvara for porcelain, a product of the Joseon period. It indicates that the the safety of fishery at seal. The merciful Buddha is believed to take porcelain makers who worked at this kiln were the masters of both particular care of fishermen and sailors while they are working at sea. types of pottery making. The pieces of porcelain bowls, cups, dishes, In the temple, there is a stone monument for burial of juniper which and jars with lotus, fish, and flower patterns were found. Among was erected in the fall of 1999. The burial of juniper is the Buddhist the pieces of dishes found are ones bearing the seal of Naedam ritual that the villagers pray for the Maitreya to come into this world Temple, which indicates that the dishes were produced for the use by burying a juniper at the point where water of the land meets one of of the temple (source of description: homepage of CHA). the sea. The juniper is now buried in the mud 8 m deep (source of Wido ttibet nori (Play of straw boat of Wi Island) description: homepage of Gimje-si, www.gimje.go.kr). L: Wi-do, Buan-gun, TP: folk belief and traditional ritual, RN: no. Ssangjo seokgan (The stone pillar with twin birds carved on top) 82-3 of state designation, intangible cultural property. Description: L: Kyehwa-myeon, Buan-gun, TP: religious object made in 18th The play of straw boat is a ritual practice associated with century, RN: no. 17 of provincial designation, folk cultural property. shamanism. By sailing straw boats with straw mummies and Description: The Pillar, 360 cm high, stands at the entrance to the sacrificial food, the villagers pray for a big catch a year long and village that erected in 1749 under King Yongjo's reign, is considered everyday peace of the village. The ritual is practiced in Daeri village, sacred among the villagers. That is believed to bring a big catch, Wi-do in early January of lunar calendar. The play of straw Boat of prosperity, keep the villagers from getting sick, and repel the Wi Island represents best the rites for a big catch practiced along disaster. The twin birds carved on the top are believed to connect the West coast. The Play of Straw Boat attracts not only the villagers the worldly humans with god in the sky. The sacrificial rites were, concerned but also residents of other areas in its practice (source of closed to women, held solemnly on the third day of the first lunar description: homepage of CHA). month, that was followed by the ceremonies: divination rituals

Please cite this article in press as: Hahm, H., et al., Cultural resources and management in the coastal regions along the Korean tidal flat, Ocean & Coastal Management (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.07.011 H. Hahm et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2014) 1e16 11 with the use of a piece of cotton cloth were done to see the future; extensive getbol area, accounting for 41.7% of all tidal flats in Korea. wrapping the Twin Birds in the cotton cloth used was done (source Extensive fisheries and well-know fishing cultures have thus of description: homepage of Buan-gun, www.buan.go.kr). developed to exploit marine and getbol products in JLN, and the provincial government is more active than those of other provinces 5.3.2. Undesignated cultural entities in the preservation of historical and cultural heritage. Designated Jayeom jejobeob of Sadeung (Traditional salt-making in getbol) cultural entities include archeological sites, noted scenery, famous L: Wuelsan-ri, Gochang-gun, TP: traditional slat-making. cultural heritage elements and renowned place, such as a tradi- Description: Sadeung village allegedly began to produce salt during tional folk song used by anchovy fishermen on Gagoe Island, the old the three Kingdoms period (1C BCe7C AD) by Geomdan Monk who pier located on Ui Island, a religious folk monument on Amtae Is- was known to be a founder of Seonun temple, a famous Buddhist land, the old walls of Sari and Naechon villages, salt beds and temple. Hewassaidtoteach villagersto makesalt ingetbol sothat they storage features on Jeung Island, lighthouses, old thatched houses, were able to maintain a living. To commemorate the famous monk traditional fishing skills, and monuments to village gods. However, and the temple, they used to dedicate two sacks of salt twice a year. many other folk cultural entities are directly related to life in the The villagers have tried to revive the commemorative ritual in 2008 province's getbol areas. We collected more than 250 cultural items for the purpose of keeping their tradition, enhancing cultural identity from ICHPEDIA including rituals and festivals related to village and attracting tourists. Unlike other villages around the west coast, gods, religious ceremonies for good harvests and the safety of Sadeung village has developed a special method of salt-making by fishing ships, ecologically friendly traditional fishing practices, boiling sea-water in a pit that is dug in getbol. Salt produced from the myths, stories, songs and other oral traditions. JLN also features pit was called ‘jayeom’ and the method was called as ‘sotgudeongi.’ It scenic views of fishing villages with rice terraces, slat beds and produces a high quality of salt containing many minerals and is less extensive getbol areas. Such cultural landscapes, formed by a long salty than regular slat. There were more than ten salt-making pits history of interactions between people and nature, are rare in the found around the village. Kim Man Su is the only villager who can tidal flats of Western countries. produce jayeom with the traditional method shown in Fig. 4(b). Abundant marine products are brought to fish markets near the Currently he is too old to work actively. He only goes to the salt field coastal areas of JLN and sold out to other regions. Forty-seven pe- located in getbol when he receives a special order. Some villagers also riodic markets are held on a 5-day schedule and those near the know parts of the production process for jayeom (source of descrip- coast (e.g. Muan, Wando, and Jindo markets) are famous for the sale tion: Park's research paper (Park, 2008) and the authors' fieldwork). of high-quality, fresh, rare sea products. Other transactions also Maenson-eoeop (Bare-handed fishery in Gyehwa Village) occur in these markets, as do social and cultural exchanges that are L: Gyehwa-li, Buan-gun, TP: female clam-catchers’ knowledge and important in the lives of coastal residents. The regional food skill. Description: When women catch clams in Getbol, they do use tradition (namdo cuisine), which employs many varieties of fish, verysimple equipments such as‘gurae(plow-typeof tool)’ and ‘galkuri clam, and seaweed has also been famous for a long time. Featured (small rake)’ in Fig. 4(c). They don't use fishing nets but rather plow or dishes include hongoehoe and hongoejjim (raw and steamed skate dig with simple tools. This way of catching clams in Getbol is a labor dish), nakjihoe (raw octopus), and guljeon (oyster pancake). Thus, demanding job. It is thus called ‘bare-handed fishery.’ In Gyehwa, most undesignated cultural entities are related to fishermen's women catch mainly ‘daehap’ or large clam (meretrix lusoria)whose livelihood, religious practices to ensure a good harvest, and local other names are ‘saenghap’ or ‘baekhap’ in Korean. There is a high cuisine. Examples of designated and undesignated cultural entities demand for this varietyand therefore the clams are sold at high prices. from each category are described below. Village women work in mudflats according to the tide time. Some womenwork twice a day at a low tide but most village women usually 5.4.1. Designated cultural entities go to tidal flats once a day and work 4e5 h. One woman can catch Chungmugong yujeok (Relics of Admiral Yi Sun Sin) about 20e30 kgof baekhap aday.Thetidalflats are the single source of L: Myodang-do, Gogeum-myeon, Wando-gun, TP: historical site livelihood for them. It also provides them with equal opportunity as and shrine of national hero in the 16th century, RN: no.114 of state compared to men in terms of their jobs and related activities. While designation, historical relics. Description: Myodang Island is where they are catching clams and earning money, they see themselves as the Headquarters of Joseon Korea-Ming China Combined Forces contributors to the household income. The local women had long Command was located during Korea's War with Japanese in 1598. been marginalized at home and in the village. However, recent Korean Admiral Yi Sun Sin (1545e1598), a war hero, with 8 000 changes in roles at home and village society have made women personnel of navy under his command built a fortress at this island stronger and braver. “Tidal flats provide us with an equal opportunity in 1598 and then Chinese Admiral Chin Rin joined the Korean navy. regardless of age, sex, and class.”“You can see the sea and tideland as The relevant relics on the island consist of Chungmu shrine which is treasure boxes or bank deposits. The nature guarantees our liveli- built in honor of the late Admiral Yi, and Okcheon Temple which is hood.” As a result of increased opportunities for work, women are able believed to protect the soul of the Admiral Yi (source of description: to earn more money than before. Women's income has become an homepage of CHA). important partof thelivelihood of theirownhouseholdand even has a Gungok-ri paechong (Shell mound of Gungok-ri, Haenam) positive effect on the children's education because the women's L: Songji-myeon, Haenam-gun, TP: prehistoric remains, RN: earnings are stable. This increased importance of the women's in- no.449 of state designation, historical relics. Description: A shell come, however, is invisible or less noticeable to the public. No villagers mound is a mixture of garbage and shells that the prehistoric spoke up about the changes in the family's income structure. How- hunter-gatherers threw after they ate clams. The relic is located at ever, the villagers cannot ignore the fact that women's economic the southern shore of Haenam. Among the remains that were contribution to their households is significant (source of description: excavated in the relic are earthen products, iron wares, stone wares, the authors' fieldwork). bone wares, ornaments, Chinese coins, and animal bones including earthen vessels with no pattern. The mound with 200 m in width 5.4. Jeollanam-do and 300 m in length is largest in the Southern and Western shores of Korea. At the bottom of the relic are the remains of dwellings and JLN covers the southwestern Korean Peninsula, including coastal pottery kilns. The relic witnessed the period from the early Iron Age areas and many islands in the South and West seas. It has the most in the first century B.C. to the early three kingdom period in the

Please cite this article in press as: Hahm, H., et al., Cultural resources and management in the coastal regions along the Korean tidal flat, Ocean & Coastal Management (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.07.011 12 H. Hahm et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2014) 1e16 third century A.D. The excavation of this relic contributed to the among the Korean population probably since Kim Yeo Ik's inven- clarification of the society that connected the Dolmen society with tion. The name of gim has derived from his family name of Kim. Kim the Pottery Tomb society (source of description: homepage of CHA). Yeo Ik's grave and his shrine were designated as historical monu- Yun Du Seo goteak (The old house of Yun Du Seo) ments in 1987. According to ‘Marine Products of Korea’ compiled by L: Hyeonsan-myeon, Haenam-gun, TP: historical building of the the Japanese Government-General of Korea, laver was the most 17th century, RN: no. 232 of state designation, folk cultural prop- important product in Gwangyang and the best of lavers produced in erty. Description: This house is where Yun Du Seo (1668e1715), a Korea. What is characteristic of the method of farming laver used in Confucian scholar and a painter, lived. He was known to be one of Gwangyang is that they plant bamboos sought from mountains or the top three painters in Joseon dynasty. He was the great grandson reeds on the mud covered with sand for farming sea laver (source of of Yun Seon Do (1587e1671) who was a leading Confucius scholar description: homepage of Gwangyang-si, www.gwangyang.go.kr). and politician. He criticized his opponents' injustice of politics Jukam-ri gobun (The ancient tombs of Jukam Village) under the reign of King Hyojong. He was exiled to Haenam, a L: Sonbul-myeon, Hampyeong-gun, TP: tombs of 5th-6th Cen- remote location, where this house was located. He lived in Haenam tury, Baekje Kingdom, RN: no. 152 of provincial designation, his- for twenty years and wrote many beautiful poems during his stay. torical monuments. Description: The tombs are located on the low His descendants continued to live in Haenam. The house was hills at the border between Sonbul and Sinkwang townships. Each supposedly built in 1670 and renovated in 1811 (source of tomb is unique in that it has a front-squared and rear-rounded description: homepage of CHA). shape that resembles the extant tombs with front-squared and Myeongryang daecheopbi (Victory monument for the Myeon- rear-rounded shapes constructed in ancient Japan. Some archeol- gryang naval battle of 1597) ogists and historians indicate that this is clear evidence of the L: Munnae-myeon, Haenam-gun, TP: 1597's war memorial cultural transmission from Baekje Kingdom to Japan and vise versa monument, RN: no. 503 of state designation, national treasure. but this point has long been the subject of a scholarly dispute be- Description: The monument was built in 1688 to commemorate the tween the two countries' academia (source of description: home- distinguished services that Admiral Yi Sun Sin rendered in war with page of Hampyeong-gun, www.hampyeong.go.kr). the Japanese Navy in Myeongryang. The monument was erected in Myeolchijabi norae (Songs for catching anchovies of Gageo Island) one of the places where the Naval Headquarters of Right Jeolla L: Heuksan-myeon, Sinan-gun, TP: traditional folk song, RN: no. Province was set up. According the monument, Admiral Yi took up 22 of provincial designation, intangible cultural property. his command post at Byeokpa Ferry in 1597 and then he lured the Description: There are two types of songs regarding fishing: those enemy fleet into Myeongryang Strait that had a strong current songs sung while fishing and those songs sung while sailing. The where he defeated 133 Japanese battleships by mobilizing only 12 Gageo Island songs combine these two types of songs into one and battleships under his command. The strategic use of this swift features a set of stories about sailing to catch anchovies, pursuing current made a great contribution to his sweeping victory over the them, catching them, hauling up fish nets, and returning home with battle (source of description: homepage of CHA). a good catch. The Gageo Island songs deserve most notice in that Jindo badatgil (The sea path of Jindo) they sing of various aspects and process of catching anchovies L: Gogun-myeon and Uisin-myeon, Jindo-gun, TP: mysterious (source of description: homepage of Sinan-gun, www.sinan.go.kr). spilt of South Sea, RN: no.9 of state designation, scenic view. Description: The sea path between Hoidong-ri and Modo-ri of Jindo 5.4.2. Undesignated cultural entities which has been at times called mysterious is made when seawater Hajeo-ri getje (Folk ritual of Hajeo village performed at Getbol) drains completely due to the difference between the rise and fall of L: Daegu-myeon, Gangjin-gun, TP: folk ritual for dragon god the tide that is most generated by lunar gravitation coupled with held at Getbol. Description: In getje, the Dragon King God (Yong- topological effect. As the seawater drains, a path appears for an wangsin) is the center of worship. The villagers offer sacrifice to the hour recalling the miracle of Moses parting the Red Sea. In the old Dragon King God. It is unique that the Dragon King God and Jin days, the Yeongdung Festival was held on the last and fifteenth days Seobang (Mr. Jin) are considered as the same figure in Hajeo village. of the lunar month in both spring and autumn that witnessed the In fact, in other villages the two figures are considered to be two widest opening of the sea path. During the festival, people prayed different and distinct figures. In preparing for the ritual, the head of to the sea king and the mulberry woman, both guardian deities, for the ritual is chosen among the village men. The sacrifice food is a good harvest and a big catch. The Yeongdung festival of today, prepared by the village women. The women's association of the however, has been revised and broaden to include all of the tradi- village pays for the food. In recent times, the county office provided tional performing arts of Jindo: Circle Dances (no. 8 of state financial assistance amounting to ten thousands won. Getje is held designation, intangible cultural property), Exorcisms for Purifica- on the 14th day by lunar calendar at high tide. Until thirty years ago tion (no 72 of state designation, intangible cultural property), Field only village women performed the worship ritual. Twenty women Songs, Play for Comforting the Principal Mourner, Funeral Songs who were clean at the ritual time gathered and went out to getbol in and Plays with Drum (no. 18 and 19 of provincial designation, order to carry out a series of worship rites. Currently, however, intangible cultural property) (source of description: homepage of some village men, the head of rite and some village executives are CHA). in charge of the ritual. Women stay back from the ritual and merely Gwangyang gim sisikji (Starting point of laver farming, take part as observers. On the ritual day the villagers are prohibited Gwangyang) from going out to sea. It is called 'getbol is ward off ' in folk terms. L: Taein-dong, Gwangyang-si, TP: commemoration place for The participants bring a broom or rake and pretend to plow the historical figure of the 17th century, RN: no. 113 of provincial surface of mudflats. The following are some of the characteristics of designation, historical monument. Description: Kim Yeo Ik getje. First, it used to be a female-centered ritual and thus it was a (1606e1660) was the first person who had engaged himself in laver rare case shown in Fig. 4(d). Second, the ritual time is dictated by farming. He had led a group of righteous troops during Ch'ing tide schedule and the place of the ritual is the mudflats in front of China's invasion until King Injo surrendered to the invaders. the village. Third, the importance of getbol is symbolically repre- Thereafter he took residence in T'aein Island where he invented sented with prayers, music, songs and bodily expressions. This type methods to farm sea laver sometime between 1640 and 1659. Ko- of getje is also reported in Gangjin, Jangheung, and Wando areas. reans called laver haetae or gim. But gim has been more popular Fourth, the gods worshipped in the rituals are distinctive. The

Dragon King God is the main god that is worshipped but in fact, Jin prehistoric shell mounds which indicate that prehistoric people Seobang under the water (Mr. Gin) is also present within the ritual living by the sea ate a lot of oysters. Oyster farming started in more often than the main god. It is thus characterized as dokkaebi Gwangyang Bay, Jeollanam-do during late Joseon period (a.1880). (goblin) (source of description: ICHPEDIA). Thereafter, under the Japanese occupation oyster farming San nakji yori (Raw octopus cuisine) expanded to Haechang Bay in Jeollanam-do, Yeongheung Bay in L: Area of Muan Getbol and its vicinity, TP: local gastronomy. Hamgyeongnam-do, and Dasado coastal areas in Pyeonganbuk-do. Description: The Muan getbol is famous for octopus fishery and The methods of oyster farming are largely categorized into two cuisine. Fishermen catch a special species called ‘sebal nakchi,’ thin types: rock throwing method (tuseoksik) and rope installation arms of octopus, in low water of tidelands. In the early 2000's Muan method (suhasik). Fishermen install ropes or rocks in the low water fishermen could catch 40 million ‘jeop’ (1 jeop ¼ 20 octopus) of of tideland. When oysters are attached to ropes or rocks, fishermen octopus a year. More than 800 fishing boats are engaged in the harvest them at low tide. The rock throwing method is widely fishery and many villagers get octopus in the mudflats by hand- employed by small scale fishermen and village cooperatives while work. The total annual income amounted to about 160 billion won. the rope installation method is used by commercial groups (source The Muan fishermen's organization and villagers throw ‘Octopus of description: ICHPEDIA). Festival’ every autumn. Octopus cuisines are various such as raw- dish, soup-dish, steamed and dried dishes. The Muan's octopus 6. Distributional analysis of cultural entities with thin arms is eaten as raw and considered it as the best cuisine. A live octopus is sliced up and put sesame oil with hot pepper paste. We have thus far selectively examined 44 cultural entities found Also, there is a special way of eating it. The octopus arms are thin so near getbol areas in the West Sea region of Korea in the previous that they are hoisted around chopsticks and served. Autumn is the section. They are also summarized in Table 2. Regional, institutional best season for octopus dish. After eating enough prays during mid- and classificatory distributions have been determined to clarify the summer the autumn octopus is filled with nutrition and thought to characteristics of the getbol culture which are affected by the be very tasty and health food (source of description: ICHPEDIA and distinctive getbol ecosystem and political, social, and economic homepage of Muan county, www.muan.go.kr). background of each province in the study area. For instance, the Hampyeong Getbol implementation of governmental development plans during the L: Hampyeong-gun, TP: cultural landscape. Description: With industrialization era differed within the four provinces. In GG, CCN large areas of getbol on the West coast devastated due to devel- and JLB, the implementation resulted in the vigorous reclamation, opment, the Hampyeong getbol draws attention from in and out of industrialization, and urbanization of large getbol areas. In contrast, the region. It was recently considered to be a valuable heritage so in coastal JLN, located on the far southern end of the Korean that some civil organizations and environment activists began to peninsula, these processes had less impact and consequently speak up for the preservation of the getbol. Recently the local numerous fishing and agricultural villages with rich cultural heritage government has reassessed its position on the Getbol from the remain and this province contains the largest numbers of designated perspective of safeguarding it. The Hampyeong getbol still retains and undesignated cultural entities among the four provinces. its natural scenic view and in addition is extensively used by vil- As shown above, in the getbol areas two different levels of cul- lagers living in the Hampeong Bay (HB). HB is a model case of tural entities are identified: institutionally designated entities and where nature and culture can co-exist. At sunset, one can find both undesignated entities. The designated cultural entities are those a magnificent view of nature and a song of fishermen signaling to which have been selected by the state as important and valuable return home with a good harvest. From the Joseon period the historical relics and cultural objects. The enactment of the CPPL in scenery here was noted as one of eight best landscapes in Ham- 1962 empowered the CHA to selectively protect elements of cul- pyeong. Administratively, HB includes the coastal areas of Sonbul- tural heritage at greatest risk of disappearance or change due to myeon, Hyeongeong-myeon, Hampyeong-myeon, Haeje-myeon of modernization and industrialization. In the last 50 years, the Muan-gun, Yeomsan-myeon of Yeonggwang-gun. The getbol areas Korean government has played a leading role in protecting and located within HB was once endangered like other getbol on the managing cultural heritage in accordance with its own agenda. west coast of the Korean peninsula. The area was included in the Although this policy has preserved many historical and cultural reclamation development project of the HB district. However, local features, the basic principle of the CPPL centers on an elitist valu- people and NGOs continuously petitioned the central government ation of entities based on authenticity, excellence, and superior and they were successful in getting the government to withdraw quality. The application of these criteria works relatively well for the reclamation plan in August of 1998. There is a beach called archeological and historical sites, buildings, monuments, and many ‘dolmeori haesuyokjang,’ a stone-head beach, which is famous for other elements of material culture as well as nationally significant the existence of a hot bath with sea water. It has more than a 100 arts and craftsmanship. The CHA has designated 94 items in getbol year history. Fishermen in HB getbol catch rock oyster, octopus, areas as national cultural properties (Table 1). Most of these entities clam, baby eel, lugworm, mullet, shrimp, etc. and enjoy a relatively are related to national affairs and accomplishments of the ruling good income stem from such catches. Due to abundant and fresh class and famous artists, some of which are presented in the pre- fish and clams, local cuisines are famous, which contributes to the vious section and summarized in Table 2. Table 2 includes the in- promotion of tourism in HB getbol area. Locals run an education formation of name, county affiliation, status of designation, type of program which promotes learning and exposure about the lives of cultural entities, main features and references. In the reference getbol. Many students, visitors and tourists visit the areas of getbol column, the county indicates the homepage of the corresponding in HB. It functions as a field of learning and understanding of tidal county which can be reached by typing in the name of county with flats and fishermen's lives simultaneously. Its educational effect is ending of go.kr. very high (source of description: homepage of Hampyeong county, The provincial Bureaus of Culture and Tourism have designated www.hampyeong.go.kr). 396 entities as valuable cultural property to enhance local pride Gulyangsik (Oyster Farming in Gwangyang) and tourism (Tables 1 and 2) only 52 (11%) of which are elements of L: Gwangyang Bay, TP: oyster farming knowledge, skill and folk culture. Moreover, these government bodies view folk culture cultural landscape. Description: Oyster farming is one of the oldest as a single large category without recognizing the diversity of forms farming practices in Korea. Oyster shells have been found in and meanings within it.

The total number of undesignated folk culture in the four these theories. Fig. 3 indicates that undesignated folk cultural en- provinces was tabulated as 557 entities but that only represents a tities, which clearly and directly reflect people's relationships with partial count of the meaningful folk culture in getbol areas as the sea and tidal flats. Designated cultural entities have an indirect already indicated in Section 3 (Table 1). The undesignated folk or no relationship to the sea and getbol, and comprise the periphery cultural entities identified in this study directly represent the getbol of this culture. villagers' livelihood (examples are listed in Section 5 and summa- A distinct culture has developed in the getbol areas of Korea, and rized in Table 2). The statistical data is also presented in Table 1: government entities and academics have viewed the core and pe- food items comprise 26% (147), cultural spaces and marketplaces riphery of culture in this region separately, despite their interre- comprise 15% (82), and fishing skills and tools comprise 4% (25) of lationship and interdependence. For example, in Fig. 3 the cultural the list. A significant portion of undesignated folk culture items are elements of traditional salt-making in the core area and the house related to economic activities, such as production, exchange and of historic heroes in the periphery are inseparable. The old house of consumption of marine resources. Religious rituals represent 36% Inchon Kim Seong Su, a renowned politician and educator, was (203) and oral expression 18% (100) and these two categories of designated as a provincial historic monument in order to items are also directly and indirectly related to the villagers' live- commemorate Kim's patriotic activities. He was son of the landlord lihood. The latter includes the songs of fishermen and legends of who accumulated capitals through the salt-making in the getbol dragon god and certain mythical goddesses who are known to su- areas (summarized in Section 5 and Table 2 in JLB). The traditional pervise marine lives. The former are performed to address and salt-making techniques in the tidal flats of Gochang (jayeom jejo- placate gods and goddesses of the sea, getbol, villages and moun- beop) made the Gochang salt famous. Drawing upon its name, the tains and reflect villagers' aspirations and hopes for prosperity and Kim's family was successful in the salt-producing industry. Tradi- safety for themselves and their communities. This form of animism tional folk songs sung by fishermen have been widespread in the is based on a long tradition of folk belief, and has led these villagers periphery and even outside of the boundaries of the getbol, and to interact with nature in terms of negotiation and accommodation, local foods have dispersed into the periphery. Periodic market- rather than subjugation or control. This respectful and humble places have functioned as central locations for networking between attitude toward the natural world has enabled the sustainable the core and the periphery and between the getbol cultural area and utilization of marine resources. These rituals represent a world external cultures. For this reason, our discussion of cultural entities view that stands in direct contrast to that of the ruling class, as found in the getbol area has been contextualized within the concept reflected in national and regional cultural entities based on of the getbol cultural area or landscape. abstracted politico-religious doctrines, such as Confucianism, Buddhism, nationalism, and estheticism. Moreover, the process of 8. Comparison of the Korean West Sea and European Wadden institutional designation by government bodies leads to a recon- Sea regions struction of the magnificence of history and culture by emphasizing war victories, strong sovereignty, and the dignity of noble classes. Recently the term “cultural landscape” has been used widely in The Korean getbol regions have developed unique cultures which the context of nature conservation policies in Western countries have been embodied into the cultural landscape of the regions. The (World Heritage Centre, 2010). The 2005 UNESCO World Heritage cultural landscape shows a long history of fishing villages which Convention intensified the importance of this term by defining it can be traced back hundreds of years and their living cultures reveal explicitly and issuing related directives. The 2008 UNESCO Guide- how villagers have interacted with their environment. One can see lines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention old embankments, fishing weirs, salt beds, nursery beds, religious indicate the main characteristics of cultural landscape which trees and sacred stones, agricultural fields, and humble tiny fish- embrace a diversity of interactions between humans and the nat- ermen's houses standing along the coastal lines. For the sustainable ural environment. Its use in conservation policy is exemplified by conservation and management of coastal areas, it is imperative that the Wadden Sea project in Western Europe (CWSS, 2010; we understand today's cultural landscape as a product of the LancewadPlan, 2007; Vollmer et al., 2001). interaction of nature and folk culture. Since 1978, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany have collaborated to protect and conserve the Wadden Sea tidal-flat 7. Structural analysis of cultural entities region, located in the fringe of the southern shore of the North Sea, through management, monitoring, research, and political Designated and undesignated cultural entities representing policy. This region is characterized by extensive mudflats at low “great” and “little” traditions, as described by Redfield (1956) tide, tidal gullies and channels, offshore sandbanks, dune islands, among peasant communities within larger states, coexist in the tidal streams. Not only the unique natural environments but also its Korean getbol areas. Redfield (1956) noted that some elements of cultural landscape is well protected and maintained. The cultural great traditions diffused into the little traditions guiding the lives of features include remains of dwelling mounds, wells, protective ordinary people. We examined the interaction between little and dykes, drainage and melioration ditches, salt peat extraction sites, great traditions using the getbol areas of Gochang and Buan in JLB as and shipwrecks. Remnants of human settlements such as villages, examples. We drew real and conceptual maps of the two areas. The houses and farms, have been submerged. The Wadden Sea is real map (Fig. 2) allows identification of the locations of material considered as an area of major importance for biodiversity con- objects and places, but does not represent their relationships to servation, but also as a region in which people live, work and intangible cultural heritage. To create a conceptual map incorpo- engage in recreation activities. The Wadden Sea project team has rating the distribution of these cultural entities (Fig. 3), we plotted endeavored to successfully protect both ecological and cultural the locations of residences, workplaces, and meeting places of heritages in the Wadden Sea region for the long term. The three people engaging in specific cultural activities. This map reveals affected countries have worked together to develop an integrated cultural distinctions between the core and periphery of the getbol coastal management approach, which consists of two phases. The culture. The terms “core” and “periphery” were widely used by first phase is the regional collaboration among the countries to dependency and world system theorists in the 1960s and 1970s protect the Wadden Sea ecosystem at the government level. It has (Frank, 1967; Wallerstein, 1974) but we use them here to refer to a yielded the Trilateral Wadden Sea Cooperation for the establish- solely the cultural concept without the political implications of ment of the extensive and comprehensive protection and

Please cite this article in press as: Hahm, H., et al., Cultural resources and management in the coastal regions along the Korean tidal flat, Ocean & Coastal Management (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2014.07.011 H. Hahm et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management xxx (2014) 1e16 15 management arrangements of the sea and coastal region. The institutional perspective of a single getbol cultural system fails to second phase is the integration of nature and culture in the recognize the diversity of cultural entities. We believe that an in- framework of sustainable development. This perspective has tegrated approach toward research, policy making, and manage- developed through a deeper understanding of the historically ment is indispensable for improved conservation of the getbol in developed relationships between humans and nature. Thus, the Korea.; the Wadden Sea project in Western Europe is an example of Wadden Sea region is recognized not only as a natural area, but also such an approach. However, we further indicate the uniqueness of as the location of a cultural entity. While during the earlier stage of Korean cultural landscape developed by folk culture and warn of a protection and management in the Wadden Sea region, the main direct application of the Wadden Sea's cultural landscape approach focus was on environmental issues, later, the focus was widened to to the Korean getbol. take into consideration the social and economic development in the coastal zone (Enemark, 2005). The two consecutive projects, Acknowledgment the Lancewad and LancewadPlan, were accomplished in 2007 (LancewadPlan, 2008). During these projects, the inventory of the The authors are indebted to Prof. Chul-hwan Koh, Professor cultural landscape and heritage values was completed in order to Emeritus & Marine Ecologist at Seoul National University for his enhance the sustainable use of such cultural landscape and values. generous advice, support and assistance in the preparation of this The Wadden Sea conservation and management scheme is based article. In addition, special thanks are given to the reviewers of this on this integrated approach which aims to preserve natural areas as article. This research was supported both by Basic Science Research well as the cultural landscape. Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) The concept of cultural landscape is not widely used in nature funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (NRF- conservation or cultural heritage protection policies in Korea. 2013R1A1A2063572) and by the National Research Foundation of Korean getbol management and protection policies thus differ Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF- markedly from the Wadden Sea case (CWSS, 2010; World Heritage 2013S1A5B8A01072201). Centre, 2010). Moreover, although there are strong ties between inhabitants and the sea in the Wadden Sea region, the interactive References relationships between villagers and getbol areas in Korea are in fact much stronger. As indicated in Section 6, a significant portion of Brosius, J., Hitchner, S., 2010. Cultural diversity and conservation. Int. Soc. Sci. J. 61 cultural entities found in the region of getbol consists of multi- (199), 141e168. faceted folk culture. 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