The Behavior Analyst 2011, 34, 245–266 No. 2 (Fall) In Response Can We Consume Our Way Out of Climate Change? ACallforAnalysis Lyle K. Grant Athabasca University

The problem of climate change is analyzed as a manifestation of economic growth, and the steady-state economy of is proposed as a system-wide solution. Four classes of more specific solutions are described. In the absence of analysis, cultural inertia will bias solutions in favor of green consumption as a generalized solution strategy. By itself, green consumption is a flawed solution to climate change because it perpetuates or even accelerates economic growth that is incompatible with a sustainable culture. Addressing climate change requires an integration of regulatory, energy efficiency, skill-based, and dissemination solutions. Behavioral scientists are encouraged to work with others in ecological economics and other social sciences who recognize cultural reinvention as a means of achieving . Key words: global warming, climate change, sustainability, steady-state economy, economic growth, consumption, consumerism

The Behavior Analyst published a way that facilitates solutions. Numer- special section in its Fall 2010 issue in ous analyses have led to the conclu- which the editors took the initiative sion that excessive and growing to seek solutions to the problem of consumption, exacerbated by an ex- climate change. Invited contributors panding world , contrib- were instructed to avoid analyzing utes to global climate change and the nature of the problem and instead other problems of sustainability (Leg- provide concise 1,000-word solutions gett, 2005; McKibben, 2007, 2010; (Heward & Chance, 2010). Placing a Nevin, 2005; Schor, 2010; Skinner, priority on solutions rather than 1987; Swim et al., 2010). Recognizing analysis reflects a sincere impulse to the underlying problem as one of solve a recognized problem without has several conse- further delay, as well as recognition quences including the realization that that behavior analysis has historically climate change is driven by larger been a rich source of solutions to cultural factors or metacontingencies environmental problems. However, (Glenn, 1986, 1991) that elevate this relative priority might imply that economic growth over the longer analysis serves only to delay solutions term well-being of the planet and its rather than to inspire them. Dis- inhabitants. Nevin (2005) analyzed counting the value of analysis is also this larger cultural issue from a a point of departure from the con- behavioral perspective and concluded temporary practice in behavior anal- that the rich reinforcement of affluent ysis of conducting a functional anal- societies has made their consumption ysis to identify existing functional resistant to change, leaving us with a relations prior to treatment selection. problem that has self-perpetuating Much of the value of analysis is to features. understand and define problems in a Although the contributors to the special section offered many imagi- native solutions, the solutions were Address correspondence to Lyle K. Grant, Centre for Psychology, Athabasca University, disproportionately focused on reduc- Athabasca, Alberta, Canada (e-mail: lyle@ ing carbon emissions through green athabascau.ca). consumption and were mainly con-

245 246 LYLE K. GRANT cerned with making energy use more regulatory, and dissemination solu- efficient. The notion that green con- tions. In the absence of analysis, sumption is an unambiguous and consumption-based solutions will be singularly effective solution to cli- favored because they entail business- mate change is in some respects more as-usual behavior patterns that are of a manifestation of the problem of strongly propelled by the inertia of cultural inertia than it is a solution. affluence (Nevin, 2005). The disad- As a unitary solution, green buying vantages of an exclusive reliance on has been critically analyzed as an consumption-based solutions are de- approach that (a) is a weak and scribed. Culture-based solutions are convenient business-as-usual method desirable because they offer possibil- designed more to maintain - ities for an improved quality of life intensive economic growth than to during and after a transition to a solve environmental problems (Rog- sustainable steady-state economy of ers, 2010; Yanarella, Levine, & Lan- less material consumption. It is con- caster, 2009); (b) ignores the longer cluded that climate change must be term rebound effects of energy effi- addressed through all four types of ciency improvements in increasing solutions and that the behavioral energy use (Grant, 2010; Owen, sciences have a crucial role to play 2010; Sorrell, 2007); (c) fosters the in solving the problem because of the illusion that buyers have done their psychological nature of neglected part to solve climate change merely culture-based solutions. through purchases (Begley, 2010); (d) reflects a dogma of sover- THE NEED FOR ANALYSIS eignty that shifts responsibility for environmental problems to individu- Behavior analysts have come to als who act in a free market rather rely on analyses, both experimental than to corporate interests that mo- and conceptual, as a means of tivate consumption and profit from it understanding and solving behavior (Maniates, 2002); (e) neglects oppor- problems (e.g., Skinner, 1953). For tunities to cease endless economic larger scale societal problems, the growth and make a transition to a analyses are normally conceptual sustainable steady-state economy due to the difficulties in conducting with a more equitable distribution experiments that isolate the effects of of wealth (Daly, 1996); and (f) specific factors at those levels. The overlooks possibilities for cultural size and complexity of modern devel- reinvention based on a transition oped economies, for example, do not from an economic age to a cultural permit precise experimental analysis, age (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Grant, but when they work with larger scale 2010; Mill, 1848; Schafer, 2008; problems, behavior analysts have Scitovsky, 1989; Skinner, 1976). used plausible conceptual analysis as The purpose of the present article is a basis for generating and selecting to analyze the cultural basis for the solutions (e.g., Skinner, 1953, 1976, problems of climate change and 1987). Analyzing causal influences sustainability. The need for analysis prior to proposing solutions is also as a prerequisite to formulating solu- a cardinal recommendation in orga- tions is described. Climate change is nizational behavior management framed as one manifestation of a (OBM), a field accustomed to solving culture-wide problem of rapacious larger scale problems, as seen in economic growth, a solution to which Gilbert’s (2007) performance audits is the steady-state economy of eco- and Brethower’s (2007) use of pre- logical economics. Four classes of intervention systems analyses. more specific solutions are described: Conceptual analyses are strength- consumption-based, culture-based, ened by making use of all forms of CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE 247 data, including correlational data evidence that multiple limits for safe when experimental findings are lack- planetary operation are being exceed- ing. The issue is paralleled in climate- ed (Rockstro¨m et al., 2009). I recently change science: Experimental evi- summarized these problems (Grant, dence cannot be obtained to prove 2010) and will reiterate them here. that climate change is due to human Much of the world’s population has activity, so climate scientists make become dependent on oil as an use of historical correlational data to energy source, yet the worldwide make plausible inferences that cli- discoveries of oil peaked during the mate change is due to human behav- 1960s (Energy Bulletin, 2011) and a ior (e.g., Intergovernmental Panel on production peak is likely to occur Climate Change, 2007; Thompson, within the next decade (Deffeyes, 2010). Scientific work proceeds using 2006; Farzad, 2008; Grant, 2007; an iterative process of evidence-based Leggett, 2005; Rubin, 2009). Our confirmation and disconfirmation, dependency on coal, which has con- combining this with inferential rea- tributed to climate change, has soning and peer interchanges to brought us to a point at which coal arrive at working premises and con- supply limits are in sight. Much of clusions. the cited abundant world reserves of coal are economically unrecoverable THE SYSTEM-WIDE PROBLEM (National Research Council, 2007). AND THE STEADY- Laherre`re (2007) has predicted a peak STATE SOLUTION in coal production by 2050. Limits in the food supply are looming. Worm Analysis is helpful in assessing the et al. (2006) have forecast a collapse generality of a behavior problem. in the world’s population by 2050 Climate change is often seen as a if current practices continue. Food discrete problem that can be solved production has come to depend on through piecemeal solutions such as fossil fuels for power and fertilizers carbon sequestration, consisting of (Heinberg, 2003). Fully 40% of the pumping CO2 underground and even U.S. corn is now diverted into magnetically levitating CO2 into out- ethanol production for motor vehi- er space (The Economist, 2007). It is, cles, which contributed to a 53% however, increasingly apparent that increase in corn prices during 2010 excess levels of atmospheric CO2 are (Walsh, 2011). Diversion of the food one sign of an unsustainable eco- supply to fuel motor vehicles has the nomic system that fails to recognize greatest impact on the world’s poor, that the Earth’s resources are finite because such a large percentage of (Daly, 1996; Hardin, 1993; Meadows, their income is needed to purchase Randers, & Meadows, 2004; Schu- food (Searchinger, 2011). The supply macher, 1989; Speth, 2008). Climate of many important industrial metals change represents a finite capacity of cannot be sustained at their current the Earth’s atmosphere to absorb rates of production (Bardi, 2008; CO2 and still maintain historical Bardi & Pagani, 2007). Limits in the temperature ranges, but there are supply of are being other indications of finite capacities exceeded. UNESCO (2009) has pre- that are also being exceeded. Ad- dicted that two thirds of the entire dressing climate change therefore population of the world will live requires analyzing the problem from under water-stressed conditions by a larger system-wide perspective such 2025. growth, that proposed solutions are also which has a multiplier effect on the system-wide in scope. draw on limited resources (Hardin, Even aside from the harm due to 1993), continues unabated after hav- climate change, there is considerable ing increased over 3.6 times during 248 LYLE K. GRANT the 20th century (United Nations, 1982). Because of the potential for 1999). catastrophic consequences, Hubbert In addition to the direct environ- (1981) cast the issue as the major mental consequences of excessive problem of our time: ‘‘Perhaps the consumption, depletion of nonrenew- foremost problem facing mankind at able resources (notably oil) has led to present is that of how to make the resource wars that continue to kill transition for the present exponen- and maim civilians living in oil-rich tial-growth phase to the near steady countries. Klare’s (2004) prediction state of the future in as noncatas- of a continuing series of wars over trophic a progression as possible’’ increasingly scarce oil supplies has (p. 1007). been realized in a series of armed invasions of countries with oil wealth. FOUR CLASSES OF SOLUTIONS Greenspan (2007) and Phillips (2006) Although macroeconomic system- each maintained that the 2003 inva- wide analysts such as Hubbert, Daly, sion of Iraq, for example, was moti- and other ecological economists have vated by that country’s oil reserves. advocated a steady-state economy as Seen from the broader perspective a general solution to the problem of of multiple resource limits and finite limits, more specific implementation capacities, the fundamental underly- solutions are also necessary. Analysis ing problem is an economic model of is helpful in identifying different continuous and endless growth that types of solutions, assessing their demands an ever-increasing supply of relative merits, and determining how resources (Daly, 1996; Daly & Cobb, they might work in concert to address 1994; Hubbert, 1981; McKibben, the problem. Four approaches to 2007, 2010; Schor, 2010). Ecological addressing climate change and sus- economists have proposed a solution tainability are described below. to this problem: replacing the growth economy with a steady-state econo- Consumption-Based Solutions my in which throughput, defined as ‘‘the flow of natural resources from Consumption-based solutions, em- the environment, through the econo- phasized in the special section of The my, and back to the environment as Behavior Analyst as well as in the waste’’ (Daly & Farley, 2004, p. 6), is solutions section of the American held at a constant level that can be Psychological Association (APA) cli- maintained across future generations. mate change report (Swim et al., In behavioral terms, a steady-state 2010, Section 6), are ones that involve economy consists of a constant sup- the purchase of capital goods and ply of natural-resource reinforcer consumer products that are pre- inputs that maintain a correspond- sumed to reduce global warming. ingly constant rate of economic The idea behind consumption-based behavior (Grant, 2010). This steady- solutions is that investment in prod- state model of sustainable equilibri- ucts will pay off later in reduced use um contrasts sharply with our growth of fossil fuels. Purchases of fluores- economy in which the supply of cent lightbulbs and energy-efficient natural resources and production appliances are examples of consump- expands until the economy ceases to tion-based solutions. A large-scale function due to the exhaustion of example is a proposal to build solar natural-resource reinforcer inputs or electric generation stations on 46,000 due to exceeding the environment’s square miles of land in the south- capacities to absorb waste products. western U.S. (Zwibel, Mason, & Such a collapse has the potential to Fthenakis, 2008). According to ad- include a die-off of a large proportion vocates, by 2050 this investment of the human population (Catton, would meet all the electricity needs CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE 249 of the U.S. Other examples of con- problems. These behaviors include sumption-based solutions cited in the status (Frank, 1999), APA report include energy-efficient faulty abstractive practices (Daly, vehicles, mass transit, and low-energy 1980; Grant, in press), inappropriate buildings. James Hansen (2009), a cultural goal setting (Anielski, 2007), prominent climate scientist, has en- excessive work time (Hayden, 1999; dorsed pilot development of nuclear Hunnicutt, 1988; Schor, 2010), com- breeder reactors as a consumption- mercial advertising (Schor, 1998), and based solution. Consumption-based a lack of noneconomic reinforcers solutions can be either large-scale (Schafer, 2008) and aesthetic reinforc- investments that require institutional ers (de Botton, 2004; Scitovsky, 1977, funding or small-scale individual 1992) in people’s lives. actions (e.g., purchase of a vehicle An example of an omnibus culture- or appliance that is more efficient based solution is the work-time re- than that which it replaces). duction movement (Hayden, 1999; Reid, 1995), which seeks to reallocate Culture-Based Solutions work time to free time, trading Culture-based solutions emphasize material wealth for time wealth cultural reinvention to improve the (Schor, 2010). Work-time reduction quality of life and shift the mainte- is an omnibus solution because it nance of behavior from energy-inten- frees time to be spent on activities sive economic reinforcers to noneco- that are both challenging and plea- nomic reinforcers that are relatively surable but do not entail burning underconsumed (Grant, 2010). For fossil fuels or consuming substantial example, Scitovsky (1977) and Skin- nonrenewable resources. Work-time ner (1976) called for arts education to reductions do help to solve the create reinforcers in the literary, problem of climate change. Rosnick visual, and performing arts as a and Weisbrot (2006) found that the means of conserving natural resourc- U.S. could have met its proposed es and moving from a culture of CO2 reduction specified in the failed work-to-consume to one more cen- 1997 Kyoto agreement merely by tered on aesthetic challenges and reducing its yearly hours of work to pleasures. Local participant and spec- full-time European levels. Work-time tator sports, conversation, chess, reductions have the potential to bridge, crafts, , sailing, enable workers to engage in sustain- canoeing, hiking, and reading are able leisure-time pursuits that would also free-time activities that have improve social capital (Putnam, engaged people prior to the fossil- 2000), political participation, and fuel era and continue to be appealing the creative use of leisure time alternatives to lives of work-to-con- (Hayden, 1999; Reid, 1995; Schor, sume. Open-source computing (Fell- 2010). In his study of the Kellogg er, Fitzgerald, Hissam, & Lakhani, cereal company’s 6-hr workday from 2005) is an example of a modern use the 1930s until the 1960s, Hunnicutt of free time that likewise provides (1992, 1996) found that many of the fulfilling challenges and pleasures at Kellogg employees realized these thesametimethatitmakesit benefits. For example, the program unnecessary to work in order to was especially popular among female purchase software. employees because it enabled them to balance work and child care. Culture-based solutions have emerged out of analyses in ecological Regulatory Solutions economics and other social sciences that have related behaviorsresponsible Regulatory solutions, also high- for economic growth to environmental lighted in the APA report (Swim et 250 LYLE K. GRANT al., 2010), seek to limit carbon zens with social safety nets, therefore, emissions through carbon taxes, also contribute indirectly to a poten- cap-and-trade systems, consumption tial solution to climate change and taxes (Frank, 1999), alternative-ener- other problems of sustainability. gy tax credits, restrictive licensing of Likewise, government policies that new fossil-fuel generators, fossil-fuel impair collective bargaining rights rationing, and so on. Regulatory contribute to economic inequality solutions can be used to encourage and make it necessary for many wage the other three types of solutions or earners to work in full-time jobs to can be used alone to curtail fossil-fuel survive in an unsustainable culture. use directly, as in the case of carbon taxes or rationing. Legislation to Dissemination Solutions award tax credits for alternative energy devices and home insulation Dissemination solutions are con- are examples of regulatory solutions cerned with building support for designed to facilitate consumption- consumption-based, culture-based, based solutions. Government funding and regulatory solutions through of environmental education and laws education and persuasive communi- requiring energy-efficiency informa- cation. Three articles in the special tion stickers on appliances are exam- section addressed these (i.e., Neurin- ples of regulation in service of dis- ger & Oleson, 2010; Nevin, 2010; semination solutions. Twyman, 2010). Dissemination- Regulatory solutions sometimes based solutions are especially impor- enable culture-based solutions inad- tant because scientists and academic vertently. Policies to fund arts educa- researchers do not traditionally see tion and other forms of nonvocational large-scale public persuasion as their education, as Scitovsky (1977, 1989) job. Although education, coopera- advocated, contribute to sustainabili- tion, and coalition building are es- ty by diverting people from the sential to success, scientists and materialistic to the aesthetic. Similar- researchers have few professional ly, in 1933 the U.S. Congress came incentives to pursue dissemination close to passing legislation to mandate initiatives. a 30-hr workweek, but the rationale An important problem is that for this was to distribute available those opposed to climate-change mit- employment more widely during the igation are waging well-funded disin- depression (Hunnicutt, 1988) rather formation campaigns. Disinforma- than to reduce consumption. tion campaigns have substantially Publicly funded health care is reduced the public perception that another example of a regulatory human-caused climate change exists solution that contributes to sustain- (Jacques, Dunlap, & Freeman, 2008; ability. Health-care insurance re- Thompson, 2010). In 2009, of the moves incentives to engage in re- 2,340 Washington lobbyists who reg- source-intensive work to gain wealth istered to work in the area of climate needed to pay for expensive cata- change, 85% of these were there to strophic health care. Without govern- impede climate-change legislation ment-provided catastrophic health (McKibben, 2010). It is important care, such as that which exists in that corporate leaders, many of Canada and in most European Union whom have strong backgrounds in countries, people are compelled to science and engineering, be brought increase their incomes beyond any to understand the issues of sustain- likely future health-care expenditure ability. A single corporate initiative because of the possibility that they (e.g., Kellogg’s 6-hr day; Hunnicutt, will have to cover unlikely expenses. 1992, 1996) can have a huge impact Governments that provide their citi- as a model and tipping point for CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE 251 altering cultural practices. As it is, will not apologize for our way of life, many corporations see sustainability nor will we waver in its defense.’’ as merely a public relations issue and Corporate economic interests favor pursue only greenwashing initiatives consumption-based solutions because in which they publicize the environ- they retain a profitable work-to- mental benefits of some relatively consume culture merely by shuffling trivial business practice and fail to product lines. Redefining the prob- address environmentally harmful lem in larger terms, as ecological practices. economists have done by proposing a steady-state economy, is resisted CULTURAL INERTIA AND THE even by many mainstream environ- BIAS TOWARD CONSUMPTION- mentalists. Naomi Klein has called BASED SOLUTIONS for a deeper level of analysis: The special section of The Behavior But what I see is that the green groups, a lot of Analyst emphasized consumption- the big green groups, are also in a kind of based solutions to such an extent denial, because they want to pretend that this that none of the articles cited Skin- isn’t about politics and economics, and say, ner’s (1976) culture-based solutions ‘‘Well, you can just change your lightbulb. And no, it won’t really disrupt. You can have set forth in Walden Two. In its section green capitalism.’’ And they’re not really on solutions, the APA report on wrestling with the fact that this is about climate change (Swim et al., 2010) economic growth. This is about an economic likewise emphasized consumption- model that needs constant and infinite growth on a finite planet. So we really are talking based solutions along with regulatory about some deep transformations of our and dissemination solutions. Mani- economy if we’re going to deal with climate ates (2002) found that mainstream change. And we need to talk about it. environmentalists, as well as the (Goodman, 2011, para. 12) political left, have marginalized the voluntary simplicity movement, In her book, Green Gone Wrong, which consists of individuals who Heather Rogers (2010) makes a have independently implemented cul- similar point: ture-based solutions in their lives, creating Thoreauvian enclaves within I shop my conscience when I can afford it, and I believe that doing so can make a positive the larger culture of material excess. impact. But these consumer-based actions lack How is it that consumption-based the ability to reach the goals we’re aiming for. solutions are so predominant among Convincing ourselves that we’re solving our so many different constituencies? environmental problems when we aren’t is a catastrophic game of denial; the problems run A general problem in modern deep and so must the solutions. (p. 180) Western culture is what Nevin (2005) has described as the inertia of Consumption-based solutions offer affluence, the resistance of richly the promise of extending the con- reinforced behavior to change. The sumer society into the future and verbal behavior of U.S. leaders illus- solving environmental problems at trates this generalized recalcitrance to the same time, making them politi- abandon a culture of overconsump- cally popular and safe from any tion. In response to demands from criticism that ‘‘our way of life’’ might other nations calling for the U.S. to be in jeopardy. Secretary of Energy reduce its carbon emissions at the Steven Chu, an eminent Nobel-prize 1992 Rio Summit, former President winning scientist, has made energy- George H. W. Bush declared, ‘‘The efficient consumption solutions a American way of life is not negotia- major focus of the Obama adminis- ble’’ (quoted in Wheeler, 2004, para. tration’s climate-change policy (The 1). In his inaugural address, President White House, 2011). Advocating Obama (2009, para. 21) stated, ‘‘We increased efficiency carries few polit- 252 LYLE K. GRANT ical risks because it boosts the growth vocates of consumption-based solu- economy through additional con- tions sometimes fail to recognize this. sumption and leaves consumers with Consider the Carrot Mob initiative, good feelings that they have done which organizes local consumers to something for the planet as they shop only at the most environmen- enjoy their new efficient cars and tally conscious retailers (Chance & appliances. Energy-efficient con- Heward, 2010). An article on a sumption solutions originate in the prominent environmentalist Web physical sciences and engineering, page discussing the Carrot Mob asks, giving them a prestige derived from ‘‘But what if everything each of us a long history of modern technolog- bought helped the planet?’’ (Dunn, ical advancement. Unfortunately, 2008, para. 1). This type of question this prestige is another factor that removes our focus from the cultural serves to restrict the range of poten- problem of overconsumption and tial solutions. deceptively transforms consumption Cultural inertia is seen in the way into a generalized solution strategy. the forces of economic growth feed us a steady stream of commercial adver- SHOULD WE RELY EXCLU- tising that induces us, through be- SIVELY ON CONSUMPTION- havior-change techniques, to con- BASED SOLUTIONS? clude that the solution to each small Consumption-based solutions, es- and large problem we face in life is pecially those oriented toward energy additional consumption (Schor, efficiency, are likely to play an 1998). The use of a behavior-control important role in addressing the technology like advertising to main- problems of sustainability. Under tain fossil-fuel-intensive work-to-con- the right conditions, consumption- sume behavior patterns is an impor- based solutions can, for example, tant problem (Grant, 2010). Instead contribute to culture-based solutions of confronting this problem, many by giving us time to make a cultural psychologists have contributed to it transition. However, as just de- by lending their expertise to the scribed, an important problem with product branding, marketing, and consumption-based solutions is that advertising industries (Kreshel, 1990; we turn to them too quickly and Saletan, 2010). Critiques of the ex- easily due to cultural inertia, resulting ploitation of psychology by advertis- in the relative neglect of regulatory ers often begin and end with J. B. and culture-based solutions. Two Watson’s early contributions to ad- other problems with consumption- vertising, but contemporary applica- based solutions are that they are tions have advanced well beyond potentially compromised by rebound Watson’s work, as illustrated in effects that result from more efficient recent articles in, for example, the energy consumption; also, they raise Journal of Consumer Research. problems of relativity. Because of the way that use of fossil fuels is now built into devel- Rebound Effects oped economies through a web of interlocking practices (Glenn, 1991; According to Jevons’ paradox, Sanne, 2002), virtually all material increases in the efficiency of fossil- consumption carries a fossil-fuel fuel use act in the short term to component (Heinberg, 2003). Thus, reduce energy consumption but func- doing without products is often more tion over the long term to increase it beneficial than buying products, even (Brookes, 2000; Grant, 2010; Owen, when they carry some type of envi- 2010; Sorrell, 2007). Owen illustrated ronmental certification that elevates the problem using the example of them over competitive products. Ad- refrigeration technologies, in which CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE 253 substantial improvements in efficien- tance, whereas others claim that they cy have led to increases in electricity are difficult to measure but are use. A 28% increase in air condition- potentially significant. Sorrell (2007) ing efficiency from 1993 to 2005 was advises that rebound effects need to accompanied by a 37% increase in be reappraised, taken into account in electricity consumption in the aver- energy policy recommendations, and age U.S. household. According to ‘‘mitigated through carbon/energy Cox (2010), the current use of elec- pricing’’ (p. 93), a regulatory solution. tricity for air conditioning in the U.S. Purchasing efficient machines is a is about equal to its total electricity target behavior that has apparent consumption in 1955. In the short social validity (Wolf, 1978), but this term, supposedly green purchases of is an unusual case in which social efficient air conditioners result in validity, the opinion-poll selection of desirable energy savings, less fossil- a popular target behavior, fails us. fuel use, and reduced carbon emis- The problem is that the reinforcing sions. However, over the long term, short-term consequences of suppos- the purchases had what is called a edly green consumption are opposed rebound effect: Being able to cool by weaker longer term consequences, buildings more cheaply gives people increased risk of environmental dam- an incentive to expand their existing age through the rebound effect, the use of air conditioning and makes the relative neglect of alternative classes technology accessible to those who of solutions, and the failure to add- could not previously afford it. ress the problem on a system-wide Another way to conceive of re- basis by implementing a steady-state bound effects is in the way that economy. In this respect, temporal increases in energy efficiency support discounting (Critchfield & Kollins, higher prices, which in turn differen- 2001) works in favor of consumption- tially reinforce exploitation of high- based solutions relative to other cost energy sources. On the consumer alternatives. side, increased machine efficiency reduces the response requirement The Relativity of Consumption- per reinforcer unit, providing more Based Solutions reinforcers for the same response requirement. This makes more travel Determining what is and what is affordable to existing drivers and not a consumption-based solution makes driving possible for those depends on whether the initial invest- who could not previous afford it, ment, which typically requires fossil increasing oil demand. On the pro- fuels, really does pay off with a later duction side, the resulting increases in reduction of fossil-fuel (and other the price of gas due to increased resources) use. As previously dis- demand in turn differentially rein- cussed, this criterion can be met by force exploitation of previously un- a steady-state economy on a system- affordable hard-to-extract energy wide basis, but individual instances of sources (Vernon, 2011). This contin- consumption are often misclassified gency is especially important in the as consumption solutions. Purchase context of increasingly scarce fossil of an environmentally friendly car fuels (Grant, 2007), which creates an like a Toyota Prius is widely seen as a overall supply-and-demand bias to- consumption solution in the devel- ward higher prices. oped world because it reduces fossil- Controversy remains concerning fuel use, but in a society with little the nature and extent of the rebound history of car ownership the same effect (Brookes, 2000; Owen, 2010; purchase would increase fossil-fuel Schor, 2010). Some dismiss rebound use and could do so on a vastly larger effects as too small to be of impor- scale. The difficulty is that what 254 LYLE K. GRANT constitutes a consumption-based so- leading us to drive more efficient lution must be evaluated relative to a motor vehicles rather than to cease prior baseline of fossil-fuel consump- using them entirely, a solution that tion rather than solely on the occur- leads to the walkable and bikeable rence of the behavior itself. The Prius environments people enjoyed at the is a solution for the wealthy North beginning of the 20th century (Sova- American who is replacing an SUV, cool, 2009). Over time, wealthy soci- but is a climate-change problem for a eties have gone though a habituation Chinese or Indian family that has or habituation-like process in which never owned a car. consumption necessities have contin- Consumption-based solutions are ually expanded (Grant, 2010; Schor, relative, and the reasoning behind 1998). The percentage of U.S. resi- them has been used to institutionalize dents who considered a second car as economic inequality. The logic of a necessity nearly doubled from 20% consumption-based solutions leads in 1973 to 37% in 1996 (Schor, 1998). to reasoning that only the wealthy People who forgo motor vehicle use may employ them because only for and instead walk and bicycle are them do the expenditures pay off today depicted in trend-setting Hol- with a net reduction in fossil-fuel use. lywood films as low-status outcasts Maintaining that the Prius purchase and losers (Vanderbilt, 2010). is good or permissible only for those who already drive less efficient vehi- TURNING TO CULTURE-BASED cles is an argument that those already SOLUTIONS: TRADITIONS IN well off are permanently privileged BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS and exceptional; as a result, this type of issue has dominated the failed Many in developed nations are like climate-change summits (Roberts & Frazier, the misanthropic antihero of Parks, 2007). Because consumption Walden Two, who was paradoxically incapable of enjoying the appealing and CO2 emissions occur worldwide, it is necessary that regulatory agree- world he had created because he was ments be international in scope. not a product of it. It is difficult and The relativity of consumption- perhaps even impossible for many based solutions also enters into the who know only a materialistic world misclassification of what constitutes to even conceive of an alternative. an environmentally friendly product Making a nonmaterialistic world and an environmentally friendly ven- appealing is a matter of establishing dor. Products labeled as environmen- and maintaining the effectiveness of tally friendly may have less environ- reinforcers for behaviors that do not mental impact than competing depend on fossil fuels and other products, but this labeling deceptive- limited resources. In technical terms, ly conceals the superior alternative of this involves the use of motivating not using the products at all. Recog- operations (Laraway, Snycerski, Mi- nizing this problem, Norway has chael, & Poling, 2003) to increase the banned ads that claim that certain effectiveness of nonmaterial reinforc- green cars are environmentally ers relative to material reinforcers friendly. In supporting the ban, Bente and to do so in a way that is durable Oeverli, a government ombuds office over time. Historically, this has suc- official, stated that ‘‘Cars cannot do cessfully occurred, at least for a time, anything good for the environment within bohemian subcultures, the except less damage than others’’ voluntarily simplicity movement, (Doyle, 2007, para. 2). The superior and certain religious groups (Grant, no-consumption alternative does not 2010; Shi, 1985). Maniates (2002) carry any reinforcing sticker to certify challenged the behavioral sciences that it is environmentally friendly, by asking key questions about people CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE 255 in one of these subcultures, the setting, work-time reduction, abolish- voluntary simplicity movement: ing commercial advertising, and es- tablishing the effectiveness of cultural What (to put it bluntly) is with these people? reinforcers. What, in other words, accounts for their ability to step back and ask tough questions Goal Setting about consumption and personal satisfaction? What has inoculated them against luxury fever Societal success is currently defined and imbued them with a certain ‘‘consumptive though aggregate measures of mate- resistance’’? Are they just better people, or maybe just better off? Or has some combina- rial consumption, such as gross do- tion of cultural, political, and social forces mestic product (GDP), which orient come together in their lives to extricate them entire political, economic, and edu- from the tyranny of expectations? And could cational systems toward boosting this combination conceivably be fostered, and even recreated, for a significant portion of GDP independently of any effect this industrial and overconsuming North Amer- has on the well-being and satisfaction ica? (p. 211) that people experience in their daily lives. Increasing consumption and These issues, crucial for human sur- GDP is currently our collective goal, vival, are all matters of human be- yet doing so contributes to increasing havior. If those in the behavioral CO2 emissions, depeletion of natural sciences can rise to the challenge of resources, and climate change. answering these questions and pursu- Much of the problem is that ing the solutions that emerge, life as increasing GDP has become so cul- we know it has a fighting chance. At turally ingrained that we use it least in principle, behavior analysis without reflecting on alternative has an important role to play because goals. In Walden Two, the good life it has conceptual apparatus and a had been consciously reconsidered. technology for altering reinforcer Key goals became ceasing the institu- effectiveness, not just behavior. In tional creation of dissatisfaction as a this respect, behavior analysis stands motivational technique, providing the in sharp contrast to most economic time and opportunities to ‘‘exercise approaches and many psychological talents and abilities,’’ promoting the perspectives, which see the motivation ‘‘unnecessary and pleasurably selec- to accumulate material possessions as tive exploration of nature,’’ develop- an invariant feature of consumers and ing ‘‘intimate and satisfying personal their hard-wired brains. contacts,’’ and providing ‘‘relaxation A key overall advantage of culture- and rest’’ (Skinner, 1976, p. 148). based solutions is that they offer the Economists and other social scientists promise of an improved way of life. have taken up this same theme, Mill (1848), Thoreau (1854/1995), recognizing the deficiencies of mea- Skinner (1976), Scitovsky (1989, sures like GDP and proposing alter- 1992), and Schafer (2008) have all natives that include indicators that conceived of desirable sustainable measure, in addition to consumption, societies. Each provided attractive individual happiness, health, connect- visions rather than using appeals to edness with family and friends, per- guilt or ones that ‘‘frighten people sonal and national indebtedness, lei- rather than offer them a world to sure time, poverty levels, violent which they will turn because of the crime, economic inequality, and phys- reinforcing consequences of doing ical and mental health. The genuine so’’ (Skinner, 1978, p. 13). progress indicator (GPI; Anielski, Briefly considered here are four 2007) is one such alternative measure specific types of culture-based solu- that was developed in part to address tions, each of which was central to environmental problems such as cli- the design of Walden Two: goal mate change and . 256 LYLE K. GRANT

Work-Time Reduction sumption through censure of exces- sive material consumption and praise In a paper entitled ‘‘Economic for simple modes of living. Rosen- Possibilities for Our Grandchildren,’’ berg (2011) has described how peer John Maynard Keynes (1930) envi- pressure has led to a wide variety of sioned a 3-hr workday and a 15-hr advances in human health and well- workweek for the grandchildren of being. Peer influence is also seen in his generation. Keynes anticipated bohemian subcultures in which bour- that increases in economic productiv- geois aspirations are discouraged as ity would allow people to work less distractions from intellectual and for the same purchasing power and in artistic creation, providing an alter- turn give them more time for enjoy- native means of defining success and able leisure pursuits. Since 1930, U.S. failure (de Botton, 2004). Reinven- per capita inflation-adjusted GDP tion of our conceptions of success has increased 5.9 times (Bureau of and failure is a part of many culture- Economic Analysis, 2011), true to based solutions, including work-time Keynes’ projections, yet we are clear- reduction. ly far from realizing his leisure society. Hayden (1999) and Schor (2010) have portrayed trading leisure for There are many reasons for this work as a bad bargain for the failure, including increasing econom- environment: Both work and the ic inequality and a set of interlocking consumption that results deplete practices that give people the options nonrenewable resources and main- of full-time work, poorly paid part- tain carbon emissions at levels that time work, or unemployment (Hay- have precipitated the climate-change den, 1999; Hunnicutt, 1988; Schor, crisis. A trend toward shorter work 2010). Part of the problem is a culture hours took place during the entire of working to consume that trades 100-year period that ended with leisure time for material wealth. World War II (Hunnicutt, 1988). Status competition is an unfortunate Had that trend continued until the motivator: Instead of comparing present, fossil-fuel emissions and ourselves to the people of 1930 and resource depletion would today be having a sense of well-being that we much more manageable problems have an economic standard of living than they are now. nearly six times greater than they did, we compare ourselves to wealthier Commercial Advertising people in our current generation (Frank, 2008; Schor, 1992). Frank On the Walden Radio Network, has attributed this to the importance advertising was banned. Skinner of local context: In behavioral terms, (1976) recognized the behavior-con- people are very sensitive to social trolling potential of ads to increase reinforcers that accrue from even wasteful consumption and derail small changes in our positional status people from developing and expand- relative to peers in our local setting ing their interests in the arts, athlet- (Vukelich & Hake, 1974). Behavioral ics, social relationships, and so on. work in social comparison (e.g., The most effective forms of behav- Hake, Vukelich, & Kaplan, 1973), ior control operate largely without especially how to diminish the rein- people’s awareness or suspicion, and forcing effectiveness of social com- this is precisely what modern adver- parison, therefore assumes consider- tising does. Through nearly constant able environmental importance exposure and various conditioning (Biglan, 2009). Shi (1985) described mechanisms, advertising boosts ma- how peer pressure has been harnessed terial consumption through operant to reduce superfluous status con- and Pavlovian processes (Grant, CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE 257

2010). People misperceive these knowledge of conditioning processes methods as benign and easily de- to support banning ads, especially feated through the exercise of con- those directed at young children. scious will power (Wilson, 2002). Some evidence suggests that for very They depend on introspective per- young children, awareness of the ceptions to conclude that advertising persuasive intent of ads increases is no match for conscious will the reinforcing effectiveness of the power, a mistake caused by inherent advertised products (Rozendaal, defects in introspection as a method Buijzen, & Valkenburg, 2009). Nor- to identify functional relations way and Sweden have banned the (Skinner, 1974). broadcast of children’s ads, and the Paradoxically, the effectiveness of Canadian province of Quebec has material reinforcers in advertising is banned all ads directed at children by accomplished by differentially asso- any medium (Media Awareness Net- ciating them with nonmarket rein- work, 2010). U.S.-based groups are forcers that people seek: love, friend- seeking similar bans (e.g., Campaign ships, sensuality, joyful emotional for a Commercial-Free Childhood, experiences, family gatherings, pleas- 2011). Monbiot (2009) has called for ant music, or humor, none of which newspapers to ban ads for cars and comes with a price tag attached. air travel as a means of addressing Most advertising is therefore implic- climate change. itly deceitful, carrying the message An appealing prospect is a one- that the good things in life are for-one ad policy that would reclaim intrinsically connected to material the public ownership of the airwaves consumption (Jhally, 2002). This and require broadcasters to match mistaken connection becomes par- all ad time with an equal time tially self-fulfilling, because when for public-service announcements people are compelled to work full (PSAs) that criticize consumption time for material reinforcers, their and promote desirable alternatives. contact with nonmaterial reinforcers Adbusters’ (2011) satirical counter- is restricted, especially those that consumption ads are designed to require time to become fully effec- diminish the reinforcing effectiveness tive. In this way, people are prevent- of advertised products, for example ed from seeing their lives as rich in by differentially associating the experiential choices beyond the nar- product with unpleasant imagery or row realm of materialism (Waide, by casting passive ad viewers unflat- 1987), and often develop impover- teringly as products themselves. The ished self-concepts based on identi- Mormon Church’s (Mormon.org, fication with commercial products 2005) PSAs are designed to in- (Barber, 2007; Cushman, 1990). crease the reinforcing effectiveness As a discipline centrally concerned of wholesome and pleasurable family with the issues and implications of activities that are desirable alterna- behavior control, behavior analysis tives to material consumption. Po- is, in principle, well positioned to tential PSAs could include en- address the environmental problems couraging critical thinking about that advertising creates through re- commercial persuasion methods, search and application. For example, voting in elections, civic engagement, following up on research examining language learning, sports participa- the use of aversive contingencies in tion, healthy eating, alternatives to advertising (e.g., Richins, 1991) violence, civility, participation in the would be useful, as would research arts, and so on. These would all on reverse advertising to discourage foster desirable alternatives to the consumption (Bordwell, 2002). Be- work-to-consume behaviors encour- havior analysts can also apply their aged by advertising. 258 LYLE K. GRANT

Establishing the Effectiveness of (2008) have also argued for this Cultural Reinforcers broadened concept of culture. Economist Tibor Scitovsky (1989, Questions about the sustainable use of leisure time rise high on the 1992) described the problem of over- agenda once working-to-consume is consumption as a lack of skilled seen as a problem, yet relatively little consumption, which in technical firm data point the way. We do terms refers to a process in which encounter people who care little for aesthetic conditioned reinforcers are status consumption and are wrapped established, riveting fortunate indi- up in worlds of athletics, yoga, viduals in the pursuit of artistic, probing conversation, open-source musical, intellectual, and other cul- computing, reading, and the arts. tural reinforcers. We tend to think of The existence of these people suggests consumption as only material con- that Scitovsky and other arts advo- sumption, but Scitovsky’s skilled cates are correct that there is a higher consumption refers to the consump- plane of skill with richer and varied tion of learned aesthetic and cultural forms of novel reinforcement, but the reinforcers that do not draw substan- nature of the plane and what is tially on fossil fuels. Much of the needed to get anyone there are not effectiveness of these reinforcers is well understood. In the absence of their infinite mutability into a variety data, Scitovsky (1992) asked us to novel forms, an ‘‘endogenous source reflect on examples like kindergarten of change and novelty’’ (Bianchi, children who are entranced by art 2003, p. 204) and a central feature experiences that never become the of aesthetic appeal (Hineline, 2005; foundation of more advanced skills Scitovsky, 1992). Acquiring fluent because they are displaced by the skills is initially time consuming and teaching of behaviors useful to the can be stressful. Tasks such as growth economy. playing a musical instrument are I have suggested that Scitovsky’s difficult and challenge the learner’s consumption skills are broadly inter- abilities (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Sci- pretable as a chained schedule of tovsky, 1992). Once they are ac- reinforcement in which the initial link quired, however, artistic and intellec- has a high response requirement and tual consumption skills produce a a low reinforcement rate, but the beneficial emergent multiplier effect: terminal link has a high and long- As greater levels of fluency are lasting reinforcement rate (Grant, achieved, reinforcement rate and 2010). Bianchi (2003) suggested that magnitude progressively increase. these and similar contingencies pro- Reading is an example of this pro- duce suboptimal reinforcement due cess. Basic reading instruction opens to two behavioral processes, hyper- up a vast set of new reinforcers and, bolic discounting and melioration, as advanced literary skills are ac- that prevent people from discovering quired along with historical and the underlying reinforcers at all, let contextual knowledge, more reinforc- alone any multiplier effect. These ers are progressively forthcoming barriers to learning consumption over time. skills also exemplify Koger and Win- Although Scitovsky (1992) gener- ter’s (2010) notion of a reinforcement ally favored skilled consumption in dilemma. With lots of time and the fine arts, he acknowledged that properly designed instruction, these skilled consumption also could en- barriers can be overcome. Mill (1848) compass a larger range of activities firmly believed that consumption including the culinary arts, athletics, skills are within the reach of every- games requiring skill, politics, and one. Consumption skills might be science. Schafer (2008) and Solow widely learned but for our education- CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE 259 al system’s bias in favor of economic amples of methods to address climate production skills rather than aesthetic change. Many of these proposals reinforcement (Scitovsky, 1989). For need to be broadly recognized as Scitovsky, a tragedy of our age is that sustainability issues only coinciden- most people fail to acquire the skills tally related to their historical status that permit the emergent multiplier in traditional political ideologies, effect to kick in, condemning them to which evolved in eras in which social lives of superficial materialism, easily justice was a recognized issue but accessible forms of entertainment, sustainability was not. Dissemination and work-to-consume routines that solutions are an important key to require intensive use of fossil fuels building the coalitions necessary to and other limited resources. implement regulatory reforms, un- There are clearly many obstacles to derscoring the use of behavioral a successful transition to a cultural principles to foster cooperation and age, and Scitovsky (1989) acknowl- social collaboration (Geller, 1989; edged that it would require genera- McKenzie-Mohr, 2000; Neuringer & tions. Bianchi (2008), Glenn (1986), Oleson, 2010; Nevin, 2010) and and Linder (1970) cited modern time environmental education (Blumstein scarcity as an impeding factor, a & Saylan, 2007). problem solvable through work-time Labor unions have historically reduction initiatives. Early and con- been a key driver for both reducing tinuing arts education, local orga- work hours and economic inequality nized athletics, libraries, and educa- (Hunnicutt, 1988) and remain a force tion in open-source computing are for sustainability (Hayden, 1999). only a few examples of initiatives that Behavior analysts, who have had a may lead to cultural tipping points. significant impact in applying behav- ioral principles in the workplace on WHAT CAN BEHAVIOR the side of management, could also ANALYSTS DO? apply their expertise on the side of labor to achieve environmental ob- Behavior analysts can apply their jectives such as a reduced work hours expertise using all four types of the that become possible with gains in solutions outlined here, but the fore- real wages and income equality. going considerations heighten the There are several practical problems importance of multipronged ap- in achieving these outcomes, includ- proaches that include regulatory so- ing the inertia of affluence that has lutions and the dissemination solu- co-opted labor into work-to-consume tions that contribute to regulatory behavior patterns and the marginal- reforms. Collective action by individ- ized status of unions in represent- uals can best effect the regulatory ing an increasingly smaller group of reforms needed to challenge econom- narrowly self-interested workers. ic growth and income inequality. While recognizing these problems, Legislation and agreements that pro- Hayden (1999) nonetheless sees pos- vide guaranteed vacations; antiadver- sibilities for labor unions to resume tising, profamily, and proleisure their historical push toward work- PSAs; fair-trade practices; a 30-hr time reduction. Labor leader Andy workweek; job sharing; steeply pro- Stern (2010) has endorsed job shar- gressive income taxes; carbon and ing, a form of work-time reduction, consumption taxes; removal of road, as a remedy for the current unem- highway, and airport subsidies; part- ployment problem. time jobs that carry no benefit Behavior analysts can apply gen- penalties; comprehensive health-care eralized culture-based solutions. Gel- insurance; collective bargaining ler’s (1995) active caring for people rights; and early retirement are ex- and the environment and Biglan’s 260 LYLE K. GRANT

(2009) psychological flexibility are time reductions. Creating the alter- both generalized culture-based solu- native reinforcers, however, is a tions that are capable of strengthen- partial means of creating demand ing alternatives to material consump- for work-time reductions. Many of tion. Educational programs and these activities today go unrecog- treatment packages that provide stu- nized, even by their supporters, as dents with diverse, flexible, nonmate- environmentally significant. Arts ad- rial, and skill-based means of rede- vocates, for example, have historical- fining success and failure (de Botton, ly had problems securing a place for 2004; Grant, 2010) are also general- the arts in school curricula and have ized solutions that have the potential succeeded only by arguing that the to address longstanding problems arts contribute to economic growth with existing standards (Sandage, (Efland, 1990). Scitovsky’s (1977) 2005; Weiss, 1969). Behavior analysts suggestion that the arts save resourc- might also consider using behavioral es by creating attractive time-use assessment and validation methods alternatives to resource-intensive to better understand the impact of work is currently inadmissible even time allocation on well-being and as a debating point because it departs then using these data to construct a from the premise that arts education behavioral index of societal sustain- trains better workers and boosts ability, augmenting the work of growth. economists in this area (e.g., Anielski, Many other interventions can be 2007). aimed at shifting market consump- Specific interventions can be aimed tion to nonconsumption or nonmar- at the functional assessment and ket consumption. A few examples alteration of people’s allocation of include treatment packages to pro- time from resource-intensive work to mote car-free living (e.g., Kay, 1997), resource-light free-time activities. returning to natural landscapes Treatment packages can be aimed (Christopher, 2011), telecommuting at, for example, encouraging volun- and distance education (Roy, Potter, tary simplicity practices (e.g., Elgin, Yarrow, & Smith, 2005), sharing 1993), alternative living instead of buying (e.g., Ozanne & (Altus & Morris, 2004; Lloyd, 2010), Ballantine, 2010), open-source soft- artistic appreciation and performance ware (Feller et al., 2005), open-access (e.g., Hetland, Winner, Veenema, & publishing (Willinsky, 2006), and free Sheridan, 2007), music appreciation texts produced through distributed (e.g., Madsen, Brittin, & Capperella- collaboration (Ravid, Kalman, & Sheldon, 1993), local exercise and Rafaeli, 2008). sports programs (e.g., Ward & Bar- Behavior analysts can explore rett, 2002), games requiring con- methods of supplanting material re- sumption skills (e.g., Chess in the inforcers with nonmaterial reinforc- Schools, 2011; School Bridge League, ers. Research in reinforcer sampling 2011), reskilling (Foley, 2009), com- (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968) can ascertain munity-based activities (Luyben, how best to elevate the relative 2009; Putnam, 2000), conversation effectiveness of resource-light rein- (Miller, 2006), gardening, crafts, and forcers (e.g., McBride, 1997). Re- so on. By creating reinforcers capable search that establishes the necessary of competing with material consump- and sufficient conditions for the tion, these initiatives would facilitate emergent multiplier effect that seems a transition to a society of less to occur in aesthetic skills would resource-intensive work, but their be valuable, thus building on exist- potentially beneficial effects on sus- ing work in fluency (e.g., Binder, tainability would be fully realized 1996) and optimal experience (e.g., only when accompanied by work- Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, CONSUMPTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE 261

1988). Social processes that motivate Use of a steady-state economy is a consumption (Frank, 1999; Schor, general solution to the problem, 1992, 1998), can be better understood which insures that resource inputs and altered through work in social and waste-product outputs are main- comparison (e.g., Chao & Schor, tained at sustainable levels. In the 1998). Research in antiadvertising absence of a steady-state economy, PSAs and media literacy (e.g., Pech- cultural inertia and the associated mann & Shih, 1999; Rozendaal et al., metacontingencies that support eco- 2009; Wakefield, Flay, Nichter, & nomic growth are likely to override Giovino, 2003) might determine to the effects of any solution. Consump- what extent children and adults can tion-based solutions risk increasing learn to reject advertising appeals growth by making the economy more to consume. Research in evaluative efficient and boosting consumption conditioning (e.g., Hoffmann, De with a new mix of products decep- Houwer, Perugini, Baeyens, & Crom- tively marketed as environmentally bez, 2010; Shimp, Stuart, & Engle, desirable. 1991) might determine how to enhance Four types of solutions will help the effectiveness of PSAs that encour- make a cultural transition to a age culture-based alternatives to work sustainable economy: consumption- and material consumption. based, culture-based, regulatory, and Finally, behavior analysts can ac- dissemination solutions. Culture- quire direct experience with the na- based solutions need special attention ture and challenges of the solutions because they generally involve re- through self-experimentation (Neur- duced material consumption and are inger, 1981) and self-directed inter- therefore not supported by cultural ventions (Watson & Tharp, 2002). inertia and growth-economy meta- Direct experience and personal rein- contingencies. Culture-based solu- vention through culture-based solu- tions are distinctly psychological so- tions are prerequisites to authentic lutions that tap the expertise of those cultural reinvention. Personal appli- in the behavioral sciences, especially cation and experimentation with cul- behavior analysts who can deal with ture-based methods can provide a the fundamental problems of altering sense of individual empowerment reinforcer effectiveness and thereby over dominant and oppressive cul- make a transition from an economic tural forces. In addition, these meth- age to a cultural age (Schafer, 2008). ods yield direct personal benefits such Relatively small groups of behavioral as improved fitness, artistic and scientists cannot, however, assume musical accomplishments, intellectual that mere advocacy of either con- growth, and other recreational plea- sumption-based or culture-based so- sures. lutions will solve the problem: A broad consensus must be reached to CONCLUSION: implement regulatory solutions that INTEGRATING SOLUTIONS effectively support consumption- based and culture-based solutions Climate change is a multifaceted on a sufficiently large scale. Behavior problem (Swim et al., 2010) that analysts, a group that has tradition- strikes both broadly and deeply into ally seen external influences as either the economic and cultural fabric of distractive or corruptive, should rec- the developed world; therefore, solu- ognize the nature of the challenge as tions must be equally broad and one of political coalition building. deep. Climate change is a problem Fortunately, ecological economists of a growth economy that requires an have a growing influence, and the endless supply of resources in a world relatively well-known individuals cit- in which those resources are finite. ed herein are championing worth- 262 LYLE K. GRANT while initiatives, including Walden Biglan, A. (2009). Increasing psychological Two’s culture-based solutions. Work- flexibility to influence cultural evolution. Behavior and Social Issues, 18, 15–24. ing with these people offers the Binder, C. (1996). 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