M.A. (HISTORY) PART-II PAPER-I (SEMESTER IV) HISTORY OF PUNJAB FROM (1849-1947)

UNIT NO. 1 & 2

LESSON NO :

SECTION-A

n o i 1.1 : Nature and Development of British

t Administration in the Punjab

a a

c 1.2 : Punjab and the Rising of 1857

l

u a

i 1.3 : Kuka Movement

d

t

)

E

d a

1.4 : Singh Sabha Movement

e

P

v

e r

1.5 : Arya Samaj Movement in the

,

e

c s

y Punjab

e

t

n

R

i

s a

e SECTION-B

r

r

t

a

s

e

i s

t v

h 2.1 : Agrarian Policy of the British Government

i

D

g

i

r n

f 2.2 : Canal Irrigation and Colonisation

y

p U

o 2.3 : Rural Indebtedness & Punjab Alienation

o

i t

C of Land Act, 1900

l

l

b n

A 2.4 : Growth of National Consciousness and

(

a e

j Freedom Movement, Agrarian Unrest n

m of 1907 and Ghadar Movement

t u

r 2.5 : Gurudwara Reform Movement(1920-1925) P

a 2.6 : The Babbar Akali Movement

p 2.7 : The Circumstances Leading to the Partition

e of Punjab (1947) D

Note : Students can download the syllabus from the departments website www.dccpbi.com M.A. (HISTORY) PART II PAPER I Sem IV (HISTORY OF PUNJAB FROM (1849–1947)

LESSON NO. 1.1

NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH ADMINISTRATION IN THE PUNJAB (a) Board of Administration, its formation and working (b) Sir John Lawrence as an Administrator After the Second Anglo-Sikh War, a Durbar was held at Lahore on March 29, 1849 by Sir Henry Eliot, the Foreign Secretary, under the order of Lord Dalhousie, the Governor General of the East India Company. Amidst deep silence, the proclamation of the annexation of the Punjab was read out and immediately thereafter the paper was signed by the young Maharaja Dalip Singh. The Punjab ceased to be an independent kingdom and new arrangement for its administration was made. Non-Regulations Pattern of Board of Administration In the words of Mohammad Latif, “To ensure substantial justice, the protection of the law was extended to the people without its tedious formalities and intricate niceties and if the system inaugurated was lax, compared with the strict procedure of the regulation province, it was thoroughly adopted to the condition of the people.” Thus, it was proposed that immediately after its annexation, the Punjab be administered under ‘Non-Regulation System’, which according to Aitchison means that ‘the administration should be conducted to the principles and spirit of the Regulation, but not fettered by the letter and that justice, equity and conscience should speak when the law is silent”. According to Aitchison three principles were involved in this system. First, the country was mapped out into districts, so small in respect of area, population and revenue that it was possible for the civil officers to gain a complete knowledge of them and to become personally acquainted with all the men of mark and influence. Secondly, every civil functionary from the lowest in due order of subordination was vested with judicial, fiscal and magisterial powers, so as to secure concentration of authority and undivided responsibility. Thirdly, the law and procedure introduced were of the simplest kind and were based as far might be on native customs and institutions. Board of Administration A Board of Administration consisting of three persons Sir Henry Lawrence, John Lawrence and Charles Mansel was constituted. Dalhousie did not like Henry Lawrence who had already once clashed with him and who was opposed to the policy of the annexation of the Punjab. But the Governor-General could not ignore Henry Lawrence as in the words of Gough, “there was no other man 1 M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 2 Paper-I already so effectively and so widely won the personal admiration and confidence of the natives. Next to him stood his brother, John, harder of head, convincing to the western minds but less appreciated by the orientals. Henry’s integrity and his knack of handling people and reconciling adverse spirits proclaimed him to be only man who could heal the wounds of the Sikhs caused by the Anglo-Sikh War. He was a great moderating influence between the conqueror and the conquered. Despite the fact that Henry was appointed as President of the Board of Administration, Dalhousie would not like to leave the entire executive authority in his hands whom the Governor-General believed “that the opinion of Henry were wholly averse to the intended policy of the Government.” John’s opinions were more agreeable to the Governor General. Thus the brothers were certain to pull in different directions. So, Dalhousie appointed the third man Charles Mansel to secure the needed harmony. The differences on political matters between the two brothers were unbridgeable. Thus, from the very outset the Board did not possess the unity of purpose, a set procedure and concentration of power, vital for the pacification and consolidation of a new province. Nevertheless the Board, as we shall see, acquained itself creditably and produced enduring results. To each member of the Board was given the task suited to his aptitude and liking. Henry Lawrence received the charge of political and military affairs. His duties included the disarming of the state, and the defence of the frontier. He was to apply the balm and heal the wounds of those who deeply felt the loss of their former powers. John Lawrence was to head the departments of finance and land settlement. Charles Mansel who was thoughtful, contemplative and pacific and very conciliatory had a legal and technical turn of mind. So he was given the charge of Judicial Department. He was not on the Board for long and was replaced by Robert Montgomery in 1851. The system in the words of Kaye was “of divided labour and common responsibility.” Each was answerable for the acts of the other two. All official papers were circulated to three members of the Board and each member recorded his opinion on every matter that came before him. The matter was then discussed by the Board and a decision was taken collectively. The Board had wide powers over the matters relating to the Punjab. The new system did not have many regulations or tedious rules, which were beyond the understanding of the people. Dalhousie placed the services of the most talented band of British officers at the disposal of the Board. Work of the Board of Administration At the time of constituting the Board Dalhousie said, “by prosecuting these projects of employment and directing the energies of these people to new sources of interest and excitement we may gradually win them from those M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 3 Paper-I schemes of agitation and violence and it may be our happiness before long to see our efforts crowned by the conversion of a martial and hostile population into industrious subjects cultivating the arts of peace and cultivation.” It was enjoined upon the Board to bring about peace and prosperity in the Punjab. Henry Lawrence wanted of his subordinates to be kind and considerate to the people. (a) Military and Police Measures After the debacle of the Khalsa army at the hands of the British the Sikh soldiers were in a very dejected frame of mind. The British Government not only planned to disarm them but also to divert them to careers of peace and plenty. It was considered necessary to disarm the people of Punjab because they were stupefied by the military disasters. Any delay could result in formenting trouble in the ranks of the Sikh army. Through a proclamation, the people were asked to surrender their arms and pull down all private fortification. The Khalsa army without any protest gave up their arms. They were paid up their arrears and discharged from service to retire to their homes to take up the profession of agriculture. In the process of disarming the people the cooperation of the headmen of the villages was sought. The district officials had been instructed not to issue search warrants or resort to any drastic measure but the village headmen were held responsible for their respective areas. Unexpectedly most of the people came forward to surrender their arms. The Board feared some resistance from the landed aristocracy and the Sikhs because a short time back they had fought very severe battles for their faith and motherland. But they showed humility and voluntarily surrendered. Organisation of Punjab Frontier Force In order to create some opportunities for the daring among the people some new regiments were raised. This formed the nucleus of the Punjab forces. To check uprising in the 800 miles long north west frontier of the Punjab and to keep the frontier tribes under restraint a force called the Punjab Frontier Force was raised. This force became the finest body of native troops ever arrayed under British banners in India, equally excellent in its cavalry and infantry. Irregular columns called the Punjab Force were raised to defend the plains from the depredations of the hilly people who attacked the plains and escaped to the hills with the booty. The irregular army was mobile and swift and was under the civil officers. Some of the disbanded Sikh soldier who did not want to adopt any other profession joined the Punjab Frontier force. This force helped by the Guide corps and the military police looked after the borders. Organisation of Police Force M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 4 Paper-I

An efficient force of 8,100 men was created to deal with dacoits and thugs who were disturbing the peace of the country side. With the help of the police the Board removed these anti-social elements from the Punjab before it could do anything positive to ameliorate the condition of the people. One feature of the police organisation was that Tehsildar or native revenue collectors had police powers within their jurisdiction. It is recorded in the first of Punjab Administration Report that the police are subordinate to him (Tehsildar) but he is not to supersede them. He is to animate them when negligent to overawe them when corrupt he is responsible that they are faithful to the state and unoppressive to its subjects. He is to infuse vigour and honesty into their functions without usurping them in due course of time the police gained a high reputation for effectively dealing with the dacoits, thieves and rogues of the society. Civil Administration They kept a vigilant eye on the people of questionable reputation. The leaders of the clans were made responsible for the peace in their respective areas. Besides the stern measures against the unruly people administration tried to win over the tribal chiefs. The Afridis who were a very belicose tribe were allowed to graze their cattle rent free. The district officers were asked to cultivate friendly relations with the inhabitants of the border areas. The new government constructed a number of cantonments along the frontier and many roads were spread their to make the governing of the area easy. Plans were also made to construct the Grand Trunk Road connecting Peshawar with Lahore. Henry Lawrence was creating a strong and stable frontier. John Lawrence was paying attention to place the economic structure of the Punjab on sound foundation. Mansel was devoting himself to judicial arrangements. (i) Judicial System The judicial system as introduced by the Board was simple and vigorous and it met the needs of the people. The procedure of the courts was simple and bereft of the intricacies of legal proceedings, the exclusion of pleaders and the recognition of the village panchayats suited to the requirements of the inhabitants of the Punjab. The people needed speedy justice rather than a prolonged one. The judicial system of the Board was based on the native customs. The Board did not suspend the native institutions like Panchayat rather they promoted them and made them popular. The Board framed a detailed code or rules to regulate the proceedings of the Panches and districts officers were asked to supervise the working of the Panchayat. The law code prepared by the Board provided that custom was to prevail over the ordinary Hindu Mohammedan law in respect of such matters as inheritance, property of women, marriage, divorce, adoption etc. The simple M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 5 Paper-I code ‘suited to the time when it was framed’. It saved the province from the intricate Hindu and Mohammedan laws and it also proved as a check against the vexatious English laws. In the words of Aitchison this uncumbersome system of the Board “compelled the legislature to provide in its future laws for local and provincial usages.” (ii) Agararian Reforms The disbanding of the Lahore Durbar army resulted in a large scale unemployment. There was no other way except going back to the land. The peasants cried for the reduction of land tax. The land settlement officers were asked by the Government to keep the economic condition of the cultivators before them and also their habits & customs. To meet the demands of the peasants the land tax was reduced considerably and the right of the holders were recorded. Despite the reduction in land tax the conditions of the peasantry could not improve. Under the new system the peasants were required to pay their dues not in kind but in cash as against the old practice. The transition from the grain payment to money payment affected the agricultural community adversely. After the annexation of the Punjab the production of land increased very fast and consequently the prices of the grain fell. It became difficult for the peasant to pay the government shares or dues. The cultivators could not export the grains to places from where it could bring more money. The cultivators attributed their misery to the system of payment in money. They made a demand for the reversion to the old system of paying the state share in kind. John Lawrence who was incharge of the department refused to relax the system. Henry, of course, wanted to suspend this new system though temporarily to alleviate the hardship of the tillers of the land. But John firmly opposed it. Over this issue the first serious cleavage took place between the two brothers. Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General, always gave a warm support to John Lawrence’s point of view and cold shouldered the stand taken by Henry Lawrence. Since agriculture was the main source of income to the government from the province, the government thought it proper to make use of rivers and rivulets for canal irrigation. To free the cultivators from the fear of famines or droughts, the Board made arrangements for improving methods of irrigation, Shahinahar and Bari Doab Canal were enlarged. Henry wanted to dig more canals but his brother John wanted to keep all the schemes within the financial means of the Board. In order to lighten the burden of taxes, house tax was abolished, though octroi duties were imposed in towns and big villages. The Board also encouraged tea cultivation in Kangra hills. The expenses on the defence of the frontier were met by the Board from the resources of the province. Still there was M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 6 Paper-I surplus of 52, 64 and 70 lakhs of rupees during the first three years of the administration of the Board. (iii) Treatment with old Jagirdars The question of the treatment to be given to the old Jagirdars came up for discussion before the Board in 1852. This problem assumed so serious differences between the two Lawrence brothers that ultimately it resulted in the dissolution of Board and the departure of Henry from the Punjab. Maharaja Ranjit Singh had assigned jagirs to many chiefs for performing military and civil services. A part of Ranjit Singh’s cavalry consisted of the Jagirdari contingents. It was a practice with the Lahore Durbar even to pay the salaries of the ministers and many of state servants in shape of jagirs in land. The grant of pensions, donations, etc. were also mostly paid in the form of land assignments. The question arose as to what extent these rent free jagirs were to be maintained. Henry looked at this problem from the point of political expediency than from financial aspect of it. He believed that by dealing generously with the Jagirdars and chiefs of the Lahore Durbar they could strengthen the foundations of British power. He believed that it was easy to control the people with the help of the Jagirdar. He therefore recommended that former Jagirs should be allowed to continue. But John Lawrence viewed the whole matter from different angle. He had no soft feelings for the jagirdar. He felt that they were useless people living on the blood of the honest peasants and also they put a strain on the state treasury. They stood between the people and the ‘benevolent British Government’. John Lawrence was of the opinion that the jagirdars should not be left with more than a mere subsistence and lesser the power they exercised the better. John’s views prevailed and it resulted in the ruin of the Sikh aristocracy which Henry so anxiously wished to preserve and help. On the eve of his departure from the Punjab Henry wrote his last letter to his brother John Lawrence wherein he requested the latter to be kind to the jagirdars. “It seems to me that you took on almost all questions affecting Jageerdars (Jagirdars), mafeedars in a different light from all others, in fact you consider them as nuisance and as enemies. If anything like this be your feeling, how can expect to do them justice as between man and man? I am sure if you put it to yourself in this light, you will be more disposed to take up questions affecting them in a kindly spirit. I think we are bound to treat them kindly because they are down because they and their hangers have still some influence as affecting the public peace and contentment. I would simply do them as I would be done by.” The difference over the treatment to be given to Jagirdar was very bitter M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 7 Paper-I between the two brothers. The situation deteriorated further and the third member of the Board, Montogemmery feared that these word fights of the two brothers could lead to blows. Dissolution of the Board Henry complained that John’s great error is excessive reliance on his own judgement and denial or doubt on the labours of others. He complained of unsatisfactory treatment at Dalhousie’s hands and he told that as member of the Board for all these years he slept on the bed of throns. By May, 1852 the situation became unbearable and both the brothers offered their resignation and asked for the vacant Hyderabad Residency. Henry was shifted from the Punjab and sent to inferior Residency of Rajputana and John was asked to continue in the Punjab as its Chief Commissioner with Judicial & Revenue Commissioner under him. Henry was sent away from the Punjab on the plea that he was not “a thoroughly trained and experienced civil officer” to govern the Punjab. It was an insulting remarks for Henry who had been in or around Punjab for nearly a quarter of a century and had been performing his duties on civil and political posts excellently. His only fault was that he was duly considerate to the Punjab and Lahore Durbar over whom he had come to extend the British rule. Even from Rajputana he wrote to Charles Raikes, “Any kindness you can show to any old Durbar people will be accepted as a kindness to myself.” After Henry’s exit from the Punjab a Lahore Chronicle wrote, “Sir Henry Lawrence’s successor can never be to the Punjab what Sir Henry was.” Assessment of Board’s Work Sir Charles Napier wrote, “Boards rarely have any talent and Punjab offers no exception to the rule.” After studying the achievements of the Board it appears that it was too sweeping a statement. According to Sir Richard Temple, the Board’s operations were masterly in conception, through in foundation and business like in details. Sir Charles Raikes wrote about the administrative results achieved by Board. The Punjab system of government is so simple, so entirely developed to the genius of the people that it must like truth, prevail sooner or later over the entire peninsula. “The Board’s work is marked for its comprehensiveness. It disbanded thousands of the Lahore Durbar soldiers without any untoward incident. The North West Frontier was properly looked after. The judicial, financial and revenue systems were reorganised. A network of roads was built and canals were dug out and the produce of the land increased. To crown all, everything was done in a short period of four years. The Board showed the reforming spirit from the very outset and it continued till the end of the tenure. The Board always kept before it the M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 8 Paper-I existing institutions. It assimilated the best that was to be found in he prevalent customs and traditions. The Board was selective in its approach in respect of the various reforms and institutions it introduced. It avoided to frame lengthy codes of law on the principle of western system. Henry always sought the cooperation of the people in order to have tangible results of their works. Some social ills like the female infanticide were also brought within the law. In the light of the various reforms discussed above we may conclude that the pioneers of British rule in the Punjab showed great care and consideration to the needs of the people and gained their goodwill. Though the people of the Punjab lost their own government, but the new government through their concerted efforts won their confidence. Regulation Pattern—Rule of Law (1853-58) The period of the Board of Administration was the period of transition from the Sikh to the British Rule. While the dissolution of the Board a new chapter starts in the history of the Punjab. The disbanded soldiers of Lahore Durbar cast their, ‘swords into ploughshares.’ John Lawrence was now to build on the ground-work already prepared. He had no new and complicated problems to grapple with. No new policy had to be initiated. Almost in every field start had already been taken. John had only to take things and consolidate the structure already mapped out. John Lawrence had all the powers which the Board had enjoyed. His control over the various departments was absolute. There was nothing vague in respect of the plans and policies to be followed by the new government. Therefore, John’s period was a period of ‘Regulation pattern’. The government knew as to what they planned to do and the people knew as to what was being done by the government. Thus everything was clear before the people and the government began to be run according to the regulations now duly understood and recognised by the people. Though John had two Commissioners to look after the departments of Finance and Justice, the responsibility was undivided and the delegation of power went down in an unbroken chain of subordination. The ultimate authority lay in the hand of the Chief Commissioner. The whole province of the Punjab was divided into seven divisions which were further subdivided into small districts. The district officers were instructed to have personal contracts with the people and efforts were to be made “to banish all sense of strangeness from their minds and to make them feel at home under the British rule.” The district officers had to perform multifarious duties and thus they had a lot of power in their hands. They Deputy Commissioners worked as judges, revenue collectors & sometimes as sergeant and chaplains, all in one. Although these officers had wide powers, M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 9 Paper-I they enjoyed confidence of the people and were sympathetically disposed towards them. In the words of Aitchison these officers “had a respect for native ways and customs and did not consider a thing bad because it was not English. They put themselves in the people’s place and made the interests and care of the people their own, striving to identify them with the government and create a family feeling.” This intimate relationship bore fruit during the mutiny of 1857. John Lawrence and the Jagirdars of Lahore Durbar As discussed under the administration of the Board, Henry Lawrence was strongly disposed in favour of continuing the Jagirs of the Lahore Durbar aristocracy. But Dalhousie and John Lawrence were in favour of abolishing the jagirdari system. But on assuming an independent charge of Punjab John moderated his previous stand in respect of the jagirdars. He preferred money payments to the nobles and direct recruitment of troops. He did not consider worthwhile to retain the jagirdari contingent. He took away their land and granted them liberal and lavish pensions. Their hereditary claims were recognised and the government officer were instructed to give them the respect due to them. The pensions were renewed annually; as such the old nobles could not afford to be disloyal to the new administration. Treatment with the Peasants In order to win over the peasantry to his side John reduced the assessment of land revenue. Efforts were to make more land cultivable. Reduction in the land revenue was allowed on the condition that the peasants dug wells for irrigation of land and brought more land under cultivation. He appointed honest persons to work as revenue collectors. Fresh measurement of land was undertaken and the Patwaris or village accountants were given proper training in respect of their duties. John was in favour of light assessment of land revenue. He wanted that the government demand should not exceed one-fifth of the gross value of the produce in rich areas and one-sixth to one-eighth or even less in poor tracts. Tacavi loans were advanced to the peasants, Agrihorticultural society also made some experiments with new varieties of cotton, sugarcane, flax and tobacco in various districts of the Punjab. To take to the new crops the government offered handsome rewards to those peasants who tried their hands at them. The new government knowing fully well that the peasantry was the backbone of the country’s economy, gave encouragements and facility to them to promote land produce. Development Plans A scheme was framed to have a new work of railways in the province. Multan was proposed to be linked with Karachi and Amritsar. Because of the lack of transport facilities, the surplus wheat of the Punjab could not be M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 10 Paper-I exported. To give the best dividends to the hard working peasants of the Punjab the transport facilities were absolutely essential. Besides the development of agriculture and industry the imperial interest of the British also made them pay the due attention to the easy means of communication. The administration would need the rapid means of communication for the mobilisation of the resources, material and the military. John also paid attention to the navigation of the river Indus. Boats were improved and the steamers of the Indus Flotilla began to run between Karachi and Multan. During the Mutiny of 1857 the Indus Flotilla was very usefully pressed into military service. According to the Fourth Punjab Administration Report. “The Flotilla brought up our reinforcement of troops, military stores and our treasure. They conveyed the greatest part of three Regiments of European Infantry and one of Cavalry, some fifty lakhs of treasure and vast quantity of baggage and ammunition.” Electric telegraph was also introduced in the Punjab in 1856 which proved very useful for the administration. Road building started earlier was pushed further. Upto May 1854 some 2251 miles of roads were constructed. The military cantonments at Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Multan, Sialkot, Mianmir and Kohat were completed. The Bari Doab carnal was also completed. From 1849 about three crores of rupees had been spent on the public works. Some improvements were also made in the police organization. A river police was organised to check the marauders who traversed river on inflated skins. Necessary measures were adopted to decrease the crimes and the culprits were immediately brought to book. The new administration did a lot to bring about peace and prosperity in the province thus reconciling the people to foreign domination. Promotion of Education Western learning and science was introduced in the Punjab in 1856, Education was not a new thing for the people of the province. Educational institutions also existed in the pre-British days in the Punjab. According to Arnold who was appointed Director of Public Instruction of Punjab in January 1856, “education always held its place among the Sikhs.” There were institutions even for female education where lady teachers imparted instruction. In order to make education popular, John Lawrence fixed vernacular as the medium of instruction, to start with. The introduction of English in the early stages would have made educational system unpopular. Wood’s Despatch of 1854, has been described as the Magna Carta of English Education in India. In pursuance of Wood’s Despatch, the Punjab Education Department was instituted in January 1856. A Director with two inspector, ten Deputy Inspector and sixty Sub-Deputy Inspectors were appointed. New schools for the training of teachers were also opened. One Central College was started at M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 11 Paper-I

Lahore. In due course of time the change to western system of education was effected. Justice It was improved by means of the small cause courts started throughout the province. There were in all 104 such courts besides 11 regular courts. About two third judicial business was conducted in these courts. These courts had been established to carry justice to the doors of the peasants. These courts were so situated as to eliminate long distances over 14 miles so that the people could return home in the evening after attending the courts. Efforts were made for the quick disposal of the cases. In 1854 the average duration of a case was twentyeight days and in 1855 it was reduced to twenty-three days. No fee was charged by the court for professional advice given to the people. The engagement of pladers was discouraged so that the people might not take the new system of justice to be expensive. An Estimate John Lawrence devoted four years preceeding the Mutiny to the building of a stable structure of government in the Punjab on the well planned foundations laid by the Board of Administration. John’s singleness of purpose and promptitude of action greatly contributed to his success as Chief Commissioner of the Punjab. He always aimed to make the people of the Punjab contended. It was certainly to the credit of John that he was able to win the Sikhs to his side to such an extent that they fought on the side of the British in the revolt of 1857. His administration of the Punjab ranked him among the prominent administrators of the 19th Century. His grasp of all the departments of his government was deep and thorough. He was gifted with knowledge, political sagacity and energy of mind. These qualities made him master of situation. He also handled the tribes of the north western frontier very successfully. Regarding the tribal areas there were two different schools of thought. One, the forward school of thought, advocated for the trans-Khyber conquests and the second advocated the non-intervention in tribal affairs. John belonged to the second school of thought but at the same time wanted to tell them that if they indulged in armed incursions in the areas under the British government they would not be able to go away without paying its price. Despite his very deep interest in the promotion of Christianity John followed a very liberal religious policy towards the Sikhs and Mohammadans and their priestly classes. The prominent holy places of the Sikhs such as Anandpur, Amritsar, Tarn Taran etc. were permitted to retain their endowment. The Gurdwaras and other religious places attached to the villages were also permitted to keep their grants of land. And thus John won the co-operation of the priestly classes of these religions. M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 12 Paper-I

For all the good that John delivered to the Punjab the British received unstinted support from the majority of the people of this province in the hour of their difficulty in 1857. BOOKS FOR FURTHER READINGS 1. N.M. Khilnani : The Punjab under the Lawrence 2. Charles Aitchison : Lord Lawrence 3. Bosworth Smith : Life of Lord Lawrence 4. Edwin Arnold : Dalhousie’s Administration of British India 5. Richard Temple : Lord Lawrence 6. Richard Temple : Punjab Administration Report 7. Richard Temple : Men and Events of My Times in India. M.A. (HISTORY) PART II PAPER I Sem IV (HISTORY OF PUNJAB FROM (1849–1947)

LESSON NO. 1.2 AUTHOR : DR. S. K. BAJAJ

PUNJAB AND THE RISING OF 1857 The revolt of 1857 has been variously described as the ‘Great Mutiny’; the Indian War of Independence, civil rebellion etc. It convulsed the whole of north India. In certain regions the tremors of the uprising were felt rather severely, while in others it remained dorment. But it can be said with certainty that the British were so alarmed that they mobilised all resources men and material to face this grave challenge. There has been a general agreement among historians that the Punjab stood aloof from the rebels and helped the English to re-establish their rule in India. In fact some times the loyalty of the Punjab is often put forth as an argument to disapprove the view that the uprising was a show of popular disaffection against the company’s government. The arguments which were offered by British historians and administrators are, to enumerate a few, popularity of their rule, prosperity of peasantry and money leading classes, well protected from internal revolts and external attacks, hatred of the Poorbias and immediate and quick measures taken by John Lawrence. Khushwant Singh has attributed absence of revolt to three major factors, namely, absence of Sikh leadership, contentment of peasantry as the harvest had been good and establishment of peace after decade of bloodshed and war. But these arguments do not explain the whole truth. The comparative calm in Punjab was not so much due to loyalty of the people to the British as it was to their greater diversity and host of other reasons which need to be studied in details. Between the annexation of Punjab in 1849 and the revolt of 1857 the period is so short that it is impossible to expect the Punjabis to develop sense of loyalty towards the foreign rule. After having fought the bloodiest battles and consequently disarmed, the common man in Punjab could never think that after eight years the new rulers would have to defend themselves with full military might against an overwhelming outburst in India. The annexation of the Punjab in fact, raised new problems which viewed in terms of values and institutions was a clash between traditionalism and westernism. This was a sort of primitivist response to the Western threat. Removal of ban on cow slaughter, free movement of the Christian missionaries and social reforms introduced by the government prepared the ground for such a clash of cultures and sentiments of people. The Kuka movement amply demonstrated this fact. As regards the Sikhs of the Central Punjab M.A. Rahim (Lord Dalhousie’s Administration of Conquered and Annexed States pp. 47-48) rightly remarks, 13 M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 14 Paper-I

“Disarmament of people, dismantling of fortification, disbanding of the Khalsa Army, suppression of the Sikh gentry, stationing of large army and police in the Punjab and various other measures were taken to cow down the brave, military and turbulant Sikh nation into humble submission so that the Khalsa may not be allowed to recover its prestige and reconstitute its army.” Evans Bell believes that the Khalsa was bound to feel discomfited for their leaders had been discredited their union was dissolved. The Sikh aristocracy was dispossessed, denigraded and suppressed. Disbanding of the Khalsa army and contraction of employment opportunities led to a greater burden on land and steep fall in prices made things worse for the cultivators for they were asked to pay land revenue in cash. Thus, the so called reduction of revenue demand was completely neutralised. With such rapid economic, political and social changes taking place, it was impossible for the Punjabis to adjust themselves with and appreciate the British rule. As a matter of fact, on the eve of the revolt there was widespread discontent. European officers apprehended the rise of a general revolt in Punjab. John Lawrence telegraphed to the Government in Calcutta, “Every European soldier will be required to save the country.” Sepoy mutiny all around the Punjab, caused great anxiety for the European officers for reaction as well as response of the Punjabis to the call of revolt was uncertain. Revolt of the Native Army The mutiny broke out in Meerut on May 10, 1857. Next day this news was received by John Lawrence in Rawalpindi. At that time Punjab was garrisoned by 59,656 troops. It was the largest concentration of the British army in India to defend the frontier. Among whom there were 10,326 Europeans. Of the total Indian army, 35,900 revolted. It is estimated that about 13,430 were Punjabis belongs to all classes and castes. The rest of the army belonged to different parts of India. It was the same army, more or less, which had participated in the Anglo-Sikh Wars called ‘poorbia’ regiments. The main cantonments were Ambala, Mian Mir, Ferozepur, Gobindgarh, Phillaur, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Multan, Kangra, Sialkot, Peshawar, Kalabagh, Jutogh, Sabattu, Degshai and Kasauli. Since uprising was not planned, the troops stationed in Punjab did not know anything about it. As there was deep suspicion about the loyalty, the government acted swiftly and disarmed the Indian sepoys. Starting from Mian Mir on 13th May, all regiments one after another were disarmed and the sepoys were rendered harmless. At the same time the forts of Phillaur, Gobindgarh, Kangra, Attock and Multan were taken over. A close watch was kept on the homeward movement of the sepoys. Disarming and disbanding of the Indian army was bound to cause trouble. In the North West Frontier outbreaks occurred which alarmed the M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 15 Paper-I authorities. In Peshawar it was suspected that the sepoys would strike on vital festival. At Mardan 500 sepoys safely escaped to Swat. Seyoys at Jhelum resorted to violence and escaped to Jammu. Sepoys at Sialkot after killing some of their officers left for Delhi. Similarly in Lahore ‘Poorbia’ sepoys were disarmed and they made to escape northward along the Ravi. Some of them were killed in an encounter, the rest were captured and put to death mercilessly at Ajnala. It is important to note that at Ajnala civil population helped the authorities. It indicated attitude of the general population in Punjab towards the sepoys who had fought against the Punjabis and thus had helped the British to annex Punjab. Moreover most of the civil servants employed by the British in Punjab belonged to different parts of India. They had established contact with the people. As it was feared that the disarming of the suspected regiments and escape of mutineers would adversely affect the already surcharged atmosphere of Punjab, John Lawrence ordered the seal of Punjab. In the North-west troops concentration was maintained to prevent the Pathan tribes and uncertain ally Dost Mohammad, the Amir of Afghanistan, to descend on the plains. On the Delhi side forces were posted to prevent mutineers from entering into Punjab and to apprehend those fleeing from the province towards Delhi. In Punjab mobile columns of Europeans and trustworthy Punjabis were ordered to round up deserters. On all passage by road or rivers guards were posted. Those who were apprehended were dealt with severely. It has been generally alleged that the Sikh soldiers helped the British during the revolt. It is not wholly true. Despite their small number, the Sikh troops did participate in the revolt. The Ludhiana regiment of the Sikhs mutinied at Banaras on 5th June 1857. Ninety Sikhs of the 23rd Regiment who mutinied at Mhow were arrested at Agra but they escaped on 4th July, 1857 after they had sworn on the Adi Garanth to obey orders of the European officers. When the Sikh soldiers in Allahabad heard about the mutiny of Banaras, they planned to rise in revolt. But their officer Lieutenant Brayser gathered all the Sikh soldiers about half a battalion, and surrounded them by gun powder trains and threatened. He got them swear by their religion. These soldiers being few in numbers and far away from their homes obeyed Brayser. The sentiment of distrust continued even after the revolt. The Punjabis of the 12th Regiment of Native Infantry at Jhansi mutinied, twenty one of them were hanged. In July 1858, the Sikh soldiers belonging to Malwa region mutinied in Dera Ismail Khan. Before 1857 none of the British officer had any confidence in the Sikh soldiers and never recommended them for their recruitment not even the loyal Sikh princes of the Patiala, Jind and Kapurthala suggested so. M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 16 Paper-I

Role of Princes and Landed Aristocracy Being the leader of the society, the ruling princes and landed aristocracy could spearhead the revolt. But Gulab Singh of Kashmir was cajoled into active allegiance. Dost Mohammed of Afghanistan was subsidized into quiesence. The Nawab of Bahawalpur was intimidated into neurtrality. In the north-west, the Muslim chieftains and the tribal Sheikhs dominated. Due to their animosity and tribal character, the government apprehended serious troubles. In this region immediately moveable columns were formed, batches of troops were sent into the interior whenever there was fear of revolt. In Hazara, the chief Jahada remained peaceful while Afridis of Khyber who had been severely punished recently for murdering the British officer Lieutenant Hond, a large number of them sought the British pardon and consequently joined the British troops against the rebels. Afridis of Kohat remained peaceful. The Wazirs of Kheyl and Bozdars of Perajal were hostile to the government. Swat presented one of the most difficult situation. In the Central Punjab, the aristocracy had been brow beaten and rendered inert by the British. It was almost unthinkable to expect them to lead a popular revolt. In the southern strip i.e. the cis-sutlej, the Sikh chieftains of Phulkian line ruled. They provided the most substantial support of the Government. The Patiala prince took upon himself the responsibility of guarding outstations, furnishing escorts, for convoys of stores, protection of the country, and even in recovering districts which had fallen into the hands of the rebels. The conduct of the Patiala rulers on the advice of Raja of Jind influenced the attitude of minor Sikh Chiefs of Nabha, Kapurthala, Faridkot and Muslim state of Malerkotla. The attitude of the petty chiefs was far from favourable. Surrounded by hill tracts, to some extent invulnerable,, these faltered in their loyalty to the British authority. The chief of Nalagarh was suspected as he prevented the reaching of the British authority to Simla. Perhaps he had a desire to extend his authority over troubled Ropar. Even in the deep interior the Kulu valley, Pratap Singh and Bir Singh, the local chieftains conspired to raise a standard of rebellion on account of its leakage led them to gallows. The other chiefs, both the Hindus and the Sikhs, of Kylore, Sirmoor and Keonthal except that of Bushir, helped the British. The region between Ambala and Delhi was completely out of British control. All the chiefs including the Khan of Jhajjar, Nawab of Bahadurgarh, Rao Tula Ram of Rewari, Raja of Ballabgarh, Nawab of Faruknagar, Ranea and the leaders of the tribes like Meos, Jats and Rawats revolted. But some of the chiefs like Nawab of Kunjpur and Bhais of Arnoli remained loyal while Nawab of Laharu remained neutral and that of Pataudi was suspected. M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 17 Paper-I

Between the Sutlej and Delhi, the region now known as Haryana revolt was both extensive and intensive. It was a spontaneous universal upsurg of people and the British authority disappeared. Following were the major factors responsible for the sudden collapse of the government machinery. (i) Haryana’s proximity to Delhi, the nerve centre of the revolt made possible for the chiefs and people to respond to the call of the Mughal emperor for revolt. (ii) The feudatory chiefs like Nawab of Jhajjar, revolted when the central authority fell under the pressure of general revolt. (iii) The government had no major cantonment except Ambala, the terror stricken officials deserted their posts without offering much of resistance. The nature and character ranged from fierce inter-community feuds to the support of the Mughal Emperor. Hansi, Sirsa, Panipat, Rewari, Karnal, Thanesar and Ambala were in the grip of rebels. The massacres of the Europeans, looting and arson was rampant. The Ranghars in Hissar and Hansi, Bhattis in Sirsa, Jats and Rajputs in Rohtak and Ahirs, Meos, Rawats and Pathans in the proximity of Delhi valiantly fought against the British. The Ranghars in Thanesar, Jats in Panipat and Gujjars clustered at the high ways and hindered the movements of troops. In the city of Panipat sedition was openly preached with main centre at the shrine of Bauli Qalandar. In Ambala where large number of fires took place even before the revolt, now under the able supervision of Barnes, people sympathised with insurgents. At Ropar, revolt was suppressed with a heavy hand and three rebels including their leader Mohur Singh were tried, condemned and executed within just two hours. In the hill districts of Simla and Kangra, the people were harbouring resentment against the British. It was feared that English would not remain alive to north of Ambala. The native troops at Simla, Kasauli and Jutogh revolted, paralysing the local administration. People’s sympathies in cities were clearly with the mutineers. With the help of laws prohibiting wandering of people and availability of European soldiers at hills resorts, the government with great difficulty could maintain its hold in the region. As regards Ludhiana, the atmosphere of the district at the time of revolt can best be explained in the words of Ricketts, the officer incharge. “I observed all classes were restless. No class was exempt from sharing in outrage and out break.” A large number of armament were recovered, Twenty two persons were hanged; the whole city was fined; all the houses in the vicinity of Ludhiana fort were demolished. In the district of Ferozepur, a Fakir named Sham Das gathered 4,000 followers to create an uprising. His plan to attack Jaito was M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 18 Paper-I pre-maturely exposed. Many of his followers were killed in a fight while he escaped to Nabha where he was seized in June 1857 and killed. The region between Lahore and Multan i.e. district of Gugiara inhabited by the Mohammedan tribes rose under their leader Ahmad Kharal. They fought pitched battles. Their leader was killed in action in November 1857. Village were plundered and burnt; leaders were executed or transported; a fine of Rs. 5,50,000 was realized. In Sialkot where villagers and landlords of the surrounding villages plundered official buildings, twenty four persons were shot dead six lambardars were hanged and a fine of Rs. 75,000 was collected. In Rawalpindi, 300 men of Dond tribe made an abortive attack on Murri on 2nd September. Here fifteen persons were sentenced to death and seventeen villages burnt. Most of the tribes in Jhung, Derajat, Dera Ismail Khan and Peshawar felt restless and caused disturbances. Except for Afridis rest of them maintained the attitude of doubtful neutrality. From the above narrative, it would be clear that the condition of Punjab in 1857 was very precarious. The major portion of the Indian sepoys stationed here mutinied, the whole southern Punjab (the present Haryana) was up in revolt. The tribal inhabitants fought pitched battles with the British troops; the central Punjab was disposed to disturbances; sporadic rising took place in Kulu. Major cities like Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Ferozepur, Lahore, Sialkot, Rawalpindi and Peshawar certainly showed no sign of active loyalty; on the contrary there was simmering discontent in these cities, yet there was no general revolt in the Punjab. The government was able to maintain semblance of authority and could secure support of chiefs and the Punjab troops by and large. The government could not only disarm the troops but could also in the end send reinforcements to Delhi. This takes us to the study of measure to prevent spreading of revolt in the Punjab. John Lawrence took immediate measures. Besides disarming the Indian troops, he introduced censorship of mail, control over press, restrictions on travels, inspection of ferries, disarming and terrorisation of civil population. No trust in profession of loyalty, no mercy for signs of disaffection “where the guiding principles of the government. The punishment meted out to civil and military rebels was so severe that it set an example of atrocities which shook the nerves of people. Hundred of sepoys, tied together, helpless panic-stricken famished with hunger were executed in public. While explaining the failure of Sikhs to rise in revolt, Khushwant Singh ascribes two reasons, he says. “The Sikhs who might well have gambled with the chance of recovering power, were leaderless. Maharaja Dalip Singh had renounced Sikhism and was assiduous trying to convert himself from a Punjabi prince into an English country gentleman. Sher Singh Atariwala was M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 19 Paper-I living under survielance at Calcutta on a pension granted by the British. Bhai Maharaj Singh and Raja Dina Nath were dead. Bedi Bikram Singh whom the Sikhs looked for guidance as descendent of Guru Nanak was interned in Amritsar.” The only other persons who could provide leadership was the Maharaja of Patiala, but he had from the beginning joined the camp of the British. Both Jind and Patiala soldiers not only cleared the Grand Trunk Road, a vital link with Delhi, but also protected it from insurgents. The geographical situation of the Phulkian States particularly that of Patiala played a great role in shaping the outcome of the revolt. The territories of Patiala created a wedge between central and southern Punjab. The unflinching support of the Phulkian states had a very wholesome effect on the landed aristocracy and the general population. This was one great factor which shaped the course of events in Punjab. But Khushwant Singh unnecessarily has exaggerated the satisfaction of the people of Punjab with the British rule for it basically was not different from what it was in other parts of the country. As a matter of fact the harsh treatment meted out to the Khalsa army, confiscation of estates of powerful nobles, prohibition of manufacture and sale of arms and imprisonment of 8,000 persons in the very first year of the British administration took the heart of the Sikh nation out and in the absence of a leader it was difficult for them to think of another trial of strength. In Punjab there was large concentration of European army, twelve European regiments for an estimated population of thirteen million heterogenous people. Sir John Lawrence also had a galaxy of splended soldier administrators and empire builders like John Nicholson, Robert Montgomery, Herbert Edwards, Donald Mcleod, General Reed, Sir Sidney Cotton. Nevilla Chamberlain, Frederick Henry Cooper, Arthur Roberts, George Ricketts, Douglous George Barness etc. They acted in harmony and efficiently. Robert Montgomery and John Lawrence in Lahore were fortunate to have received the news of mutiny at Meerut well in time and could take action much before the sepoys were prepared for it. The disarming of sepoys took the sting out of a dangerous situation in the province. The officials had no illusions about the loyalty of the Punjabis. They were certain that if given an opportunity the civil population would join the mutineers in large numbers. John Lawrence shrewdly called all those who had suffered in 1848-49 and assured rehabilitation. When they responded, he pushed them with their chiefs against the walls of Delhi. Thus they deprived the Sikh nation from possible leaders. The government also created and then exploited the bitterness between the Sikh and Muslims. They fabricated a prophecy attributed to Guru Tegh Bahadur that the white people would come from the west could avenge his martyrdom. In order to please the Sikhs, Colonel Hodson killed the Mughal M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 20 Paper-I princes and proclaimed to have avenged the death of the Guru. The corpses of princes were taken to Chandni Chowk and displayed in front of Gurudwara Sis Ganj where Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed by the orders of Aurangzeb. To what extent it influenced the Sikhs is difficult to gauge. But it certainly serves as an instance to explain how the British created differences among Sikhs and the Muslims. It was genuinely felt by the officials that situation in Punjab was explosive beneath the so called quiet surface. It could explode at any moment. Fall of Delhi was felt to be of imminent necessity. With passage of time it was becoming difficult for John Lawrence to maintain under control the shaky confidence of the staggering elements of Punjab. The situation seems to have becomes so desperate that he gave 20th September as a warning date for reducing Delhi, failing that he cautioned that he would not be able to hold Punjab. Captain Hodson observed, “if we fail here at Delhi not a soul in Punjab or upper provinces would be safe for a day.” Fortunately for the British, just at that time, Delhi fell which changed the whole trend of events in Punjab. In pre-modern societies cohesion has always been for less than in the modern societies because in the rural economies the role of economy exchange was very limited. The links were not very much real between what people actually experienced as economy, polity and society and the wider economic, political and social framework within which society as a group operated. The aristocracy, interrelated and having rudimentary class consciousness operated at two levels; first they functioned in parts through their relationship to institutions which symbolised society as a whole; second, by their legal status and privileges, they had special relations with the central political authority–native or foreign. As far as peasantry was concerned the units of their organised action was either the community or the tribe. But in all cases in the hierarchical stratified society, initiative rested at the top i.e. aristocracy. In Punjab aristocracy did not provide leadership to the Revolt. The revolt of the ‘Poorbias’ took place for there was an agrarian based military elite. Disaffection of the classes and castes to which they belonged had percolated in the army, where organised action in the form of revolt could evolve. The number of Punjabis in the army was very limited and also of recent recruitment. Moreover seven years period was too short for any political issue to get ripe in society and then reach the ranks of military. Since the Sikhs were new entrants, the high caste Brahmins did not welcome them for they believed that they had exclusive claims to these jobs. Under these circumstances there could have been no chance of serious collaboration. Nevertheless, about the Sikh soldiers Brandrath, officiating Secretary to John Lawrence remarked that they were often carried away with mutineers but they M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 21 Paper-I did not rise in an organised revolt, “partly in consequence in small number, but mainly perhaps because in no cases they had any native officer of their own race in the regiment round whom they could rally.” In conclusion, we may say that the people of Punjab were disposed to disturbances. Their response to the general revolt was different at different places. Whenever and wherever possible, the people defied the authority and rose in revolt. In other places situation remained dormant reflecting lack of coordination and leadership. It was a peculiar situation. On the one hand Punjab supplied men, money and material and on the other, there was general restlessness, a situation which could have developed into a general uprising if given the required leadership. SUGGESTED READINGS 1. Khushwant Singh : A History of the Sikhs, Vol. II. 2. N.M. Khilnani : The Punjab Under the Lawrence. 3. Cave Browne : The Punjab and Delhi in 1857. M. A. (HISTORY) PART II PAPER I Sem IV (HISTORY OF PUNJAB FROM (1849–1947)

LESSON NO. 1.3 AUTHOR : PROF. FAUJA SINGH

KUKA MOVEMENT Kukas were the people who organized and led a movement of great strength and popularity, named after them, first of its kind to appear in British occupied Punjab. Their actual name was Sant Khalsa, but the term Kuka, derived from the frenzied shouts or loud cries emitted by them at religious congregations, gained greater currency on account of the great popular appeal that it possessed. The founder of the Kuka movement was Baba Ram Singh, a man of great personal charm and deep religious faith, hailing from a lower middle class family of carpenters of village Bhaini Arayan, district Ludhiana. Born (A.D. 1816) and brought up in his native place, he joined the Khalsa Army as an ordinary soldier. During his service, while posted on the north-west frontier, he met a pious and saintly man at Hazro (district Campbellpur), Baba Balak Singh immediately fell under the spell of his magnetic personality. The latter’s (A.D. 1799-1857) deep concern over progressive decline in the private and public conduct of Sikhs, particularly those of the upper class under the influence of the new-won wealth and power and his moving appeal for a life of simplicity and spirituality, made a deep impact upon his young and sensitive mind and after a few years he resigned his military service with a view to devoting himself to worship and social service. In 1857 Baba Balak Singh died after nominating him his successor. Conscious of the new responsibility thrust upon him, he decided to launch vigorously the movement which subsequently acquired the popular appellation of Kuka. For this purpose a comprehensive programme was chalked out which had as its basis the administaring of amrit or Pahul (baptism in the two edged sword). The baptised person were distinguished from the rest by the tie of turban, use of woollen rosary. White dress and the watchword of Sat Sri Akal Purkh’. A strict code of conduct was enjoined upon all members of the new fraternity. They were forbidden to visit devidwaras, shivdwaras, mandirs, marhis, khankhas (Muslim monasteries). Kabars (graves) mazar (muslim tomb) and smadhs (Hindu tombs), or to worship Sodhis, Mahants and Brahmins, and were required to have faith in one God only and to accept only one scripture i.e. the Holy Granth Sahib. The importance of leading a life of regular prayer and meditation and noble actions such as abstinence from evils of stealing, adultery, falsehood, backbitting, smoking and use of liquor, hemp and opium was underscored. Cow protection was a cardinal principle of the Kuka’s social ethics. Beggary 22 M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 23 Paper-I and parasitism were condemned as evils and industry and charity were upheld. Regard for personal hygiene, formed an essential ingredient of the Kuka code. No distinction was made between high and low castes, all people, being the creation of the same Supreme Being were regarded as brothers, equal in all respects. The same applied to the relation between men and women. Like men, women were also freely admitted into the ranks of the brotherhood and were allowed to participate in the functions of the community. Seclusion, female infanticide, enforced widowhood, dowry system and marriage by sale were all forbidden strictly. Only simple and inexpensive marriages performed in the Sikh manner were permitted. The intention was not to create any order of saints. Baba Ram Singh wanted his followers to be heroes and emphasized the cultivation of qualities of physical strength and martial spirit. With this end in view the Kukas were urged upon to rear cows and buffaloes, to make extensive use of milk products and to toughen their muscles by industry and endurance. They were further told to take to breeding of horses, learning of horsemanship, carrying of heavy lathis (staffs), practising of gatka play and swordsmanship. (In this programme of inculcation of martial habits was also included chandi da path (recitation of Guru Gobind Singh’s famous epic in Punjabi depicting the allegorical fight between Goddess Durga and demons) accompanied by a havan ceremony. For the success of new programme an elaborate organization consisting of Subas, Naib Subas, Jathedars and local sangats was set up. These functionaries operated in more or less well defined territorial units and maintained with the centre at Bhaini Sahib, as also with one another, regular communication by means of a secret postal service. The movement once get going made steady, albeit quiet progress. From the very inception it was dominated by ex-soldiers of the erstwhile Khalsa Army, which in fact lent an element of militancy to it, for when it first attracted the notice of the Government in 1863, the Kukas were already a large group of saints-cum-soldiers armed with lathis and practising drill secretly at night. A serious view of this new development was taken and Baba Ram Singh and his lieutenants were interrogated during their visit to Amritsar in April 1863. The result was a sharp reaction on the part of Kukas who in the militant background of their minds, had all along been cherishings feelings of hostility towards the foreign rulers, called Farangis by them. Loss of political power was not the only factor troubling their minds; cultural invasion that followed in the wake of political domination in the form of religious conversions, slaughter-houses etc. was even a greater menace. Realizing that the trouble must be nipped in the bud government lost no time to place the Kuka organization under strict police surveillance with the leader being interned in M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 24 Paper-I his village, Bhaini. The restrictions thus imposed had the opposite result of what Government had hoped for indeed a blessing in disguise for Kukas. There was now much greater halo around the personality of Baba Ram Singh. The urge to make a pilgrim’s visit to Bhaini was intensified. In 1863 Kukas were in thousands, a few years after their number rose to lakhs. The official explanation for this tremendous boost was two fold : (i) Charm of mystery and esoteric magnetizing the Kuka leader’s personality, (ii) Efficiency of Kuka organisation. Encouraged by their rapidly growing strength, Kukas revived their activities. Their anger was particularly aroused against tombs, graves and smadhs and with more or less missionary zeal a vigorous and often aggressive campaign was launched against all such subjects of worship, though after a time for fear of earning a bad name from the community it was discontinued under orders from Baba Ram Singh. The increasing progress of the Kukas compelled the government to have second thoughts on their attitude towards them. A careful reappraisal of the situation convinced them of the failure of their policy and they decided to withdraw all restrictions. Once again their calculations proved wrong. Instead of petering out, as was expected by officialdom, the Kuka activities gained stimulus. Two new dimenstions made their appearance known : (i) establishing of contact with native states; (ii) unleashing of murderous attacks on butchers. Among the native states Jammu Kashmir and Nepal were given top priority. In the former a regular Kuka company was raised under the command of Suba Hira Singh of Sadhaura, while a high powered Kuka mission consisting of two senior Subas was sent to Nepal with presents, for its ruler, Rana Jang Bahadur to ascertain if their was any opening for their people in the Gurkha army. The mission had many secret meetings with the Rana who at the time of their departure gave the Kuka leaders a hearty send off and some valuable presents for Baba Ram Singh. The efforts to have inimate contracts with both of these native states, however, failed to bear the fruit they were expected to do, largely because the rulers could not afford to earn the displeasure of the British. The second dimension that of war against kine killers, was even more significant. The issue was not of saving delicate religious susceptabilites from being injured but also of encountering a dangerous challenge to their very way of living; still more, it was a question whether they were to be ruled by the ruthless foreigners determined to destroy their culture or they were to end their sway and restore the rule of the Khalsa which had banned killing of cows completely. M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 25 Paper-I

In their war on butchers, Kukas chose to make their first attack on a slaughter house in the sacred city of Amritsar. The attack was made on the night of 15th June, 1871 between twelve and one by a band of 10 people. Four butchers were killed outright and three seriously wounded. The assailants remained untraced until one of the Kukas captured later turned approver and gave the names of his accomplishs. Soon after, seven of them were apprehended out of whom five were executed and two transported for life. Exactly a month after the Amritsar incident, a similar attack was made on the slaughter house of Rai Kot (district Ludhiana) situated not far away from the historic gurdwara of Guru Gobind Singh. In this onslaught three butchers were killed outright and nine wounded, four seriously. The assailants were tracked down and captured and after a summary trial, six of them were hanged. The above executions greatly agitated the minds of Kukas who now decided to come out in the open and abandon their former strategy of secret attacks. For this purpose a band of prospective martyrs was organised under the leadership of Hira Singh and Lehna Singh of village Sakraudhi. It was this band of desperadoes which later organised assaults on Malodh and Malerkotla. The attack of Malodh, on the night of 13/14 January, 1871 was incidental to the main attack on Malerkotla and was motivated to capture by force some of the horses and weapons in the possession of the chief of Malodh, Sardar Badan Singh. The attack on Malerkotla came the following day, 15th January, at about 7 A.M. Approximately 125 Kukas scaled a damaged part of the city wall and entered the palace of the ruler with the object of getting hold of money, arms and horses. But before they could lay their hands upon any of these desired objects a body of policemen and soldiers arrived on the scene. This led to a pitched battle in which both sides suffered grieveous losses eight killed two dangerously wounded, two seriously wounded and nine lightly wounded on the Malerkotla side as against seven killed, one dangerously wounded, one seriously and thirty slightly wounded on the side of Kukas. The battle over, the assailants retired to a near by village Rur, while resting they were taken by surprise and apprehended, 68 in all. Barring two ladies who were handed over to the commandant of the Patiala troops summoned to Malerkotla, all of them were put, to death in two batches after a mockey of trial-65 of them being blown off by cannon and one hacked to pieces. The choice of Malerkotla as their first major target by Kukas was dictated by the fact that it was notoriously weak and misgoverned. It was believed that there would not be much difficulty in getting hold of money, arms and horses from there, all necessary elements in the success of their plans. Government had the information that the attack on Malerkotla, if successful was to be followed by attack on Nabha, Jind and Patiala leading to general uprising of Kukas on all sides. But the summary executions of Malerkotla rendered abortive whatever plans they had. Baba Ram Singh and all his Subas were immediately arrested M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 26 Paper-I and detained under Regulation 111 of 1818. Ram Singh was removed to Rangoon. No trial was held in his case. The Government feared that in case the trial failed, consequences would be unfavourable for preservation of public peace. Similarly reasons held good in case of the Subas who were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment and in some cases even reported without any trial whatsoever. Bhaini Sahib the Kuka headquarters, was subjected to a close cordon and a through search for arms and record. The local Gurdwara was locked and all people found in it were expelled and dispersed, and then a permanent police post, one sub-inspector with twenty constables, was set up to keep continuous watch on the movements of members of Baba Ram Singh’s family. The Police post continued to exist till 1922. Likewise the Kuka organization was placed under a complete system of survellance. Local government functionaries. Zaildars and Namberdars, were ordered to report under penalty of deprivation of office or other punishment the movements of all Kukas within their respective areas. The assembly of more than five of them was forbidden throughout the province as also the carrying of axes, iron-bound sticks and other weapons in public place was strictly prohibited. The states of Patiala, Nabha and Malerkotla did not lag behind the Punjab Government in anti-Kuka measures. Despite the severity of all these repressive measures Kukaism did not lost its charm and appeal in the eyes of the common people. The void of leadership created by Baba Ram Singh’s detention was ably filled in by his younger brother Budh Singh who functioned under the assumed name of Hari Singh. New Subas were appointed to take up the work left by those who had been apprehended. Baba Ram Singh too did not allow his deportation to snap the links between him and his people. A regular line of communication was maintained with the help of devoted messengers, which went a long way in boiostering up the moral of Kukas. A supplementary but extremely effective factor was the wide circulation of prophesies assuring an early termination of foreign rule in India. The hopes thus raised were encouraged by the negotiations between the Russian authorities in central Asia and the Kuka leadership conducted in mediacy of one Sabha Gurcharan Singh who made for this purpose quite a few trips across the borders. The decade beginning from 1879 was a period of great expectations of Kukas. From 1882 to 1885 all eyes were riveted on Russia and the activities therein of Suba Bishan Singh. In the heat of their enthusiasm, they even refused to accept the news of their Guru Ram Singh’s death in Burma in 1885. In 1886 Maharaja Daleep Singh decided to return to India. This thrilled them and a delegation of four Kukas left for Bombay to receive him. When the Maharaja’s return to India was disallowed, he made a stealthy trip to Moscow, which fact raised Kukas’s expectation skyhigh. In great excitement a party of them left for Russia via Iran. They were detected by the British while passing through Meshed. But the Maharaja’s departure from Russia in 1889 proved a great damper for the M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 27 Paper-I spirit of Kukas. There was however a change in their basic attitude towards the government. Towards the end of the century there were again reports of excitement among the community but this phase too did not last long. From the dawn of the present century, the fervour of Kukaism gradually subsided but their commitment to the cause of freedom left its deep impact on the future course of the country’s struggle for independence. In boycotting courts, services–postal and telegraphic arrangements, and educational institutions of the Government Kukas have been accepted as torch bearers since the use of non- cooperation and boycott as political weapons as demonstrated by them as employed on a much larger scale by latter national leader. In Punjab particularly the Ghadar movement; one of the greatest national upsurges of early twentieth century, owed a deep debt of gratitude to the Kuka movement. In religious and social spheres of life of the Sikh community as well, the Kuka movement made deep impact despite its limitations. It paved the way for the subsequent Singh Sabha Movement. The latter carried forward the work began by Kukas without their open clash with the Government, giving in the process a new interpretation to the Sikh doctrine in the light of Western influence. Over the decades certain new developments have over taken Kukaism. One is the replacement of the term Kuka with the new name Namdhari, which is the present widely used nomenclature of the community as well a individual members. Secondly, the fraternity, at first only a reformist group of the Sikhs has gradually branched off and developed into a separate sect with its own line of personal Gurus based on the hereditary principle of succession and believing that the line of Sikh Gurus did not end with Gobind Singh but is a continuing process. As a corollary from this, the Sikhs scripture which is recognized as Guru by the main body of the Sikhs, is only respected as a sacred book by Namdharis. The difference being of a fundamental nature has naturally pulled the two sides apart from each other. At present, the Namdharis are closely knit little fraternity headed by Baba Jagjit Singh who took over his office of responsibility after his father Baba Partap Singh’s death in 1961. The latter inherited this exalted office from Baba Hari Singh, younger brother and successor of Baba Ram Singh. The total strength of the fraternity is not known exactly but according to Namdharis themselves, they number anything between 5 and 10 lakhs; consisting largely of Jats. Ramgarhias, Aroras and Mazhbi Sikhs. They are concentrated in the districts of Hissar, Amritsar and Ludhiana and have their on gurudwaras and only on rare occasions, join on other Sikh religious congregation. They do not intermarry with other Sikhs unless, the party concerned agrees to enter into their religious fold. Nevertheless they strictly abide by the teachings of the ten Sikh Gurus although their Ardas (prayer) invokes not ten but fifteen Gurus including the five Gurus of their own, Balak Singh to Jagjit Singh, commonly addressed by them as Satgurus. Their M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 28 Paper-I religious places are not ostentatious. They led austere lives, wear simple clothes and observe a rigid code of conduct. They are very particular about attending religious services in their Gurdwaras and observing taboos of food and drink, particularly those pertaining to meat eating and alcoholism. Marriage among Namdharis are inexpensive and simple and are usually performed in group, on special occasions like Holla Mohalla. Further the community has firm and persistent belief that Baba Ram Singh is still alive. Bhaini Sahib (district Ludhiana) and Jiwan Nagar (district Hissar) are the two principle centres of the Namdaharis. We may stand in need of some knowledge about the background of Kuka Movement so we may be able to make some decisions about its authentic information. Historians and writers differ with regard to the details of the Kuka or Namdhari Movement. Some believe that the main aim or purpose of this Movement was to eradicates the social and religious evils of the times. It goes without saying that we may not be doing justice with those martyrs who sacrified their lives for the sake of the country and became immortals. Some thinkers hold that this movement of public welfare turned over a new leaf and became political on account of the strict measures and non-confidence of the Britishers against Indians. In fact Kukas received political awakening and consciousness because of the policy of barbarous attitude of British government against Indians. Consequently this consciousness came in the shape and form of struggle for freedom after some years. In fact the very axis of the policy of Baba Ram Singh was to reform the work and conduct of the people of Punjab with regard to various aspects and to mold the strength of the people towards the achievement of freedom. Religious and political condition of Punjab was degraded after the demise of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The economic affairs also began to witness a horrible shape. The Punjab which was well known for its business with Afghaninstan, Iran, Central Asia and Tibet etc. during the times of Maharaja witnessed downfall after his demise. The prices of the Land were reduced and the farmers faced difficulty in paying revenue in cash. Gradually the practice of the involvement in grip of moneylanders and landlords began. The British compenced interfering in the religious affairs of ths sikhs. The Christians became a great danger to the sikhs. It became a great danger to the sikhs. It became difficult for the sikhs to safeguard their identity. The christians wanted to spread christianity in the Punjab. Its chief reason was that the Punjabi had commenced accepting christian influence to some extent. The British were using many sources and methods to transform them into the Christian faith schools and Govt. official played significant role in spreading Christian influence stress was laid in studying Bibal. Infact, it became very difficult for the people to bear the attacks made on the people by Govt. agencies and preachers. The faith of the Punjabis particularly that of the Sikhs faced a serious blow on the eve of the annexation of Punjab in 1849. The interest M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 29 Paper-I of the sikh in their own religion suffered a great deal. The religious people who were to motivate the people towards Guru Nanak’s injunctions adapted Bible. It was a very unfortunate for the Sikhs to sagrigate themselves from the prescribed sikh way of living. John Melcom writes that the sikhs had become disinterested in their religion as compared to their elders. Giani Gian Singh has written in this connection that the number and strength of the religious men decreased because of lack of interest in their religion and the sikh religion became just an ordinary faith. On the annexatio of the Punjab with the British rule in 1849, two types of thinking figured. On the one end there were people who wanted to favour the government on account of their selfish interest. But on the other hand there were people who hated slavary and were worshipper of freedom. These were the state of affairs in which Baba Ram Singh guided the people and taking significant steps to restrain the downfall in their character, he attracted them towards the building of Nation. The political environment of the country was such that the Kukas had to function in disguise. They preffered sources for transport and postal services. The messages to be sent were never given the shape and form of writing due to fear of the government action. Seperate passages were used leaving the thorough roadways and railways. It became very essential to give non-cooperation to the government. It was also essential to motivate the people religiously while adopting political methods by adopted the Kukas. By way of conclusion we may say that Kuka Movement remained successful to great extent. The Kukas established a great tradition of freedom inspite of much opposition. Never the less, Kukas will be regarded with great honour in the history of Indian freedom struggle. The struggle of the Kukas will ever be written in golden words in the social, political and religious spheres. BOOKS FOR FURTHER READINGS 1. F.S. Bajwa : Kuka Movement, Delhi 1965. 2. M.M. Ahluwalia : Kuka The Freedom Fighters of the Punjab, Delhi 1965. 3. Ganda Singh : Kukiyan di Vithiya (Punjabi), Amritsar, 1946. 4. Nahar Singh : Namdhari Itihas (Pbi.) Delhi. 5. Inder Singh : Kukiyan Bare (Pbi.), 1957. Chakarvarti M.A. (HISTORY) PART II PAPER I Sem IV (HISTORY OF PUNJAB FROM (1849–1947)

LESSON NO. 1.4 AUTHOR : DR. G. S. DHILLON

SINGH SABHA MOVEMENT The Singh Sabha Movement, which enjoyed the leadership of Sikhs for nearly half a century (1873-1920), will go down in the history of the modern Punjab as the greatest Socio-religious reform movement of the Sikhs. It came as a great awakening force at a time when Sikhism was in danger of losing its very existence. There were fears that Sikh religion might disappear altogether “Sikhism is a waning religion that will soon belong to History” wrote Dr. Trumpp. Factors leading to the Singh Sabha Movement The annexation of Punjab by the British in 1849, had left a demoralising effect on the Sikhs. Besides the loss of political power, there was also religious and cultural decline. The Sikh population, too began to show a gradual decline. The spread of western education culture and science posed a serious challenge to age old customs, beliefs and tradition. The materialism of the west had begun to clash with the spiritualism of the East. There were fears that the British were trying to strike at the root of Indian culture. Another big challenge came from the Christian missionaries who had increased their activities in the Punjab after annexation. The historic conversions of Maharaja Dalip Singh and Raja Harnam Singh of Kapurthala came as a rude shock to the Sikhs. The low caste Sikhs were easily attracted towards the new faith due to the lure of employment opportunities and better social status. The Sikh youth who studied in the Missionary Schools, also came under Christian influence and did not like to observe the religious formalities such as keeping of hair and wearing of turban. The attacks of the Arya Samaj on Sikh religion also alarmed the Sikhs. In his attempt to establish the supremacy of Hinduism and the Vedas, Swami Dayananda under estimated all other religions. He wrote a book ‘Satyarath Parkash’ in which he made derogatory reference to Sikh Gurus. This was intolerable for the Sikhs. The British government also followed a policy of divide and rule. Sharda Ram Phillauri a British agent delivered a series of lectures at Jallianwala Bagh Amritsar and also at Darbar Sahib in which he made contemptuous remarks against the Sikh Gurus. He also published a book ‘Sikhan de raj di Vithya’ in which he misinterpreted the teachings of Sikh Gurus. This added fuel to the fire. There were several other incidents which led the Sikhs to form an 30 M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 31 Paper-I organisation to safeguard their social and religious interests. In 1873, four Sikh students, studying at the Mission High School Amritsar, under the influence of Christian missionaries, offered themselves to be converted to Christianity. They publically shaved their beards and hair. There were protest meetings all over the province and the prominent Sikh leaders persuaded the boys not to abandon their faith. But the incident came as an eye opener for the Sikhs. In July 1873, Thakur Singh Sandhawalia convened a meeting of leading Sikh chiefs. Sardars, Gianis, Mahants and Pujaris of Sikh Gurdwaras at the Darbar Sahib Amritsar. It was decided to form an association of the Sikhs which should effectively unite the community and guide it on the right path. The new association which came into being on July 28, 1873, was given the name of Sri Guru Singh Sabha Amritsar. Thus was born the Singh Sabha Movement. The Aims and Objective of the Movement The Singh Sabha Movement was mainly concerned with the social religious, moral and educational uplift of the Sikhs. It sought to protect the rights of the Sikh community by accuring an independent religious status for the Sikhs. The objectives, as laid down before the Singh Sabha, were : (i) To restore Sikhism to its former purity by checking all outside influence. (ii) To edit and publish historical and religious books. (iii) To propagate current knowledge, using Punjabi as medium and to start magazines and newspapers in Punjabi. (iv) To remove social evils which hinder the progress of the Sikh community. (v) To give a true interpretation of the teachings of Sikh Gurus and define the principles of Sikh religion and demolish false doctrines. (vi) To reform and bring back into the Sikh fold those who had been misled from the right path due to ignorance. (vii) To secure the association of the highly placed Englishmen with the education programme of the Singh Sabha. (viii) To cultivate loyalty to the British Crown. Various phases of the movement With a short span of few years, a large number of Singh Sabhas cropped up all over the Punjab and elsewhere. The most prominent was the Lahore Singh Sabha, founded in 1879, six years after the birth of the Amritsar Singh Sabha. While some of the Singh Sabhas got their inspiration from the Amritsar Sabha, others were more influenced by the Lahore Sabha. The Lahore and the Amritsar parties had ideological difference over many issues. The Amritsar Singh Sabha extended its membership even to the Sahjdhari Sikhs. On the M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 32 Paper-I other hand, the Lahore Singh Sabha laid great stress on the code of conduct (five K’s of religious symbols) prescribed by Guru Gobind Singh. It did not allow Sahjdhari Sikhs to enrole as members of the Sabha. However, in some respects, the Lahore leaders proved more radical. They converted a large number of Muslims to the Sikh faith. The Amritsar party was opposed to the conversion of Muslims to the Sikh faith on the plea that the Sikhs having originated from the Hindus, had nothing to do with Islam. The priests of Sikh Gurdwaras, who mostly came from the Udasi Nirmala Sects, also sided with the Amritsar Singh Sabha. The rivalry between the Amritsar and the Lahore parties led to attacks and counter attacks and the work of reform suffered. The number of Singh Sabhass was also increasing. Some public spirited leaders felt that all Singh Sabha must join under a common platform so that pace of reform may not be affected. This led to the formation of the Khalsa Diwan Amritsar in 1883. At the time of its inception the Khalsa Diwan had 37 Singh Sabha, affiliated to it. The Diwan under-took to control and guide the activities of various Singh Sabhas. But the new body did not make a good beginning. No definite rules and regulations were laid down for the conduct of its business. The Amritsar leaders came forward with a proposal that the names of all Singh Sabhas be changed to Sikh Singh Sabha. The purpose was to include Sahijdhari (Non- baptised Sikhs) Sikhs into the fold of the Singh Sabha. But the proposal was not acceptable to the Lahore party which enjoyed the support of a large number of Singh Sabha. Baba Khem Singh Bedi, a leader of the Amritsar Sabha wanted to have complete control over the Khalsa Diwan. Being in the line of Guru Nanak, he desired to be worshipped like a Guru. He wanted a well-furnished seat (Gudela) for himself in the presence of the Holy Granth. All this was resented by the Lahore leaders who wanted equal treatment for all. The Amritsar leaders, who mostly came from the rich and aristocratic section of the Sikh community were not ready to give up prejudice against the low caste Sikhs. The Lahore leaders were more democratic in out-look and temperament. They were strongly opposed to the non-Sikh practices of Gurudom and untouchability. Now the questions arose whether the Amritsar or Lahore Singh Sabha was greater. None of the parties was willing to yield before the other. The gulf between the two parties continued to be widened and ultimately culminated in the formation of an independent, Khalsa Diwan at Lahore in 1886. There were as many as 30 Singh Sabha which separated themselves from the Khalsa Diwan Amritsar and joined the Khalsa Diwan Lahore in 1886. The Khalsa Diwan Amritsar, thus received a big setback with only 7 Singh Sabhas at its back. It almost became defunct in a few years and was left with only three M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 33 Paper-I

Singh Sabhas of Amritsar, Faridkot and Rawalpindi. The old rivalry between the two Khalsa Diwan of Lahore and Amritsar lead to bad taste and bitterness. This lack of unity gave a big setback of the Singh Sabha movement. Once again, efforts were made to bring unity. These efforts took a practical shape with the founding of the Chief Khalsa Diwan at Amritsar on Nov. 30, 1902. With the establishment of the Khalsa Diwan, the Singh Sabha movement entered upon a new phase, Sunder Singh Majithia, Harbans Singh Atari and Bhai Arjan Singh Bagrain were, some of the guiding forces, of his Diwan. They represented the progressive and enlightened section of this Sikh Community. Unlike the leaders of the Khalsa Diwan Amritsar, they were more democratic in outlook. They stood for social equality, removal of caste distinctions, abolition of Gurudom and observance of religious discipline (the five K’s) prescribed by the tenth Sikh Guru. The Diwan also undertook to organise Sikhs. It is no longer stood aloof from politics. Hence forward, the Chief Khalsa Diwan became the guiding force of the Singh Sabha movement. It assumed the undisputed leadership of the Sikh community and won great popularity. The new leadership was liked by both the Amritsar and the Lahore parties as it was neither too conservative nor too radical in its approach. It found a via-media between the two extremes and was moderate in tone and temper. It continued to have absolute control over the Sikh affairs until the leadership of the community passed into the hands of the Akalis in 1920. Achievements The Singh Sabha movement played a vital role in the socio-religious reconstruction of the Sikh Community. It made the Sikhs aware of their great spiritual and cultural background, of being the Khalsa the ‘pure’. It released them from the religious and social domination of the Brahmans. It removed all doubts regarding the future independent community bound together by the teachings of their Guru’s, distinct social laws, customs and language. Religious Reforms In the religious sphere, the Singh Sabha leaders aimed at restoring the purity of Sikh faith by giving a fresh interpretation of Sikh theology and history. As enjoined by the Sikh Gurus they preached the worship of one ‘God’. They launched a crusade against the worship of various gods and goddesses which was fundamentally opposed to the tenets of Sikh religion. They laid emphasis on simplicity of worship and disapproved Hindu mode of prayer which was costly and elaborate. The Sikh mode of prayer, which enjoins direct communion with God and rejects all formal observances like the performance of Arti and visits to places of pilgrimage as meaningless, was revived. M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 34 Paper-I

For the attainment of God’s grace, the Singh Sabha leaders laid stress on the inculcation of such virtues like love of God, service of one’s fellow beings, purity of living, charitableness and truthfulness. They made it clear that the way to one’s moral and spiritual uplift lay through good deeds and not through miracles, mysteries and mantras. A misguided notion current at the time was that Sikhism was a sect of Hinduism. Singh Sabha leaders asserted that Sikhism was an independent religion. In the words of Giani Ditt Singh, a leader of the Lahore Singh Sabha, “Having sprung from and brotherly to the Hindus, the Sikhs are a separate community, clearly distinguished from them in outward religious and social outlook, conception of God and Gurus, mode of worship, language of the Scriptures and their ideas regarding caste, pilgrimage and the priesthood.” Singh Sabha affirmed its faith in the religious discipline (the five k’s) enjoined by the tenth Guru, thousands of apostates were brought back to the Sikh faith and a large number of Sahijdharis were persuaded to become the Khalsa. The Singh Sabha sent preachers and missionary teams not only to the different parts of the country but also to Malaya, Burma and Singapore. A committee was constituted to scrutinise the religious books of the Sikhs and prepare the authentic biographies of Sikh Gurus and also to prevent the publication of inferior editions of the Granth Sahib. Many biographies of the Sikh Gurus and handy and cheap reprints of the Sikh scriptures were brought out at this time with a view to projecting the true image of Sikhism. Macauliffe’s monumental work on ‘Sikh Religion’ written in 6 volumes, was also produced at the initiative of Singh Sabha aimed at the moral and spiritual uplift of the community. However, the task of religious reform was vast and limitless. It could not be completed without reform of Sikh Gurdwaras which were in the hands of corrupt priests who enjoyed the support of the Mahants. Despite its best efforts the Singh Sabha failed to release the Gurdwaras from the control of these priests who were opposed to the spirit of reform. It was left to the Akali movement to take up the matter of freedom of Gurdwaras. Social Reforms The Singh Sabha also did commendable work in the field of social reforms. It directed its reformatory activity against many social abuses like untouchability, child marriage, polygamy and female infanticide. With stress on the equality of sexes, female education and widow-remarriage, the Singh Sabha leaders succeeded in moulding public opinion in favour of emanicipation of women. They also launched a campaign for the removal of ‘purdah’ system which did not have the sanction of Sikh scriptures. The Lahore Singh Sabha carried a resolute struggle to secure better M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 35 Paper-I social status for the low caste Sikhs. They viewed with concern the proselytising activities of the Christian missionaries who were trying to gain converts from the low caste Sikhs by assuring them of a better social and economic status. The Lahore Shuddhi Sabha was set up to counteract the conversion of low-caste Sikhs to other faiths. It was successful in reclaiming hundreds of converts, who had gone over to Hinduism, Islam and Christianity. Despite opposition from the conservative Sikhs and the orthodox Mahants and Pujaris of Sikh Gurdwaras, the Singh Sabha reforms fought valiantly for the removal of caste prejudices. The Singh Sabha leaders strove to build a new social order with distinct social laws, customs and ceremonies for the Sikhs. They had a tough time in bringing about a change in the social outlook of the Sikhs, who till then, were too much under the influence of Brahman priests. They urged the Sikhs to simplify the complicated and expensive social ceremonies and stressed the need for simplicity, austerity and purity in rituals and ceremonies as directed by the Sikh Gurus. As in the field of religion the Sikhs were made aware of their independent social status. The passing of the Anand Marriage Act, in 1909, legalising the Sikh form of marriage, was a significant achievement of the Singh Sabha. As in the sphere of religion; so in the sphere of social reforms, it was a grim-battle to restore the purity of Sikh faith. Education The Singh Sabha reforms evinced keen interest in the spreading of education among the Sikhs. Their educational programme aimed at combining religious instruction with secular education. They spread a net work of educational institutions which sought to provide such opportunities to the Sikhs as would help them in acquiring modern education combined with the advantage of instruction in the Sikh religion, Sikh history, literature and also Gurmukhi script. The Khalsa Schools, opened by the Singh Sabha thoughout the length and breadth of provinces, helped the Sikhs in competing with other communities in the field of educational advancement. Not only this, these schools helped the Sikhs in preserving their religious and cultural traditions. In the words of Prof. Teja Singh, “The Sikh schools were not only dispensers of education but they also served as stronghold of Sikhism, wherever they were established.” Female education also received due attention from the Singh Sabha reformers. Bhai Takht Singh a great champion of this case devoted his whole life towards this end. In 1892, he founded the well known Kanya Maha Vidiala at Ferozepur. The precedent set by Bhai Takht Singh was followed by many other Singh Sabha and Khalsa schools were opened at various places like Lahore, Sialkot, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala and many other places. Gurmat Kahnya Pathshala Amritsar founded in 1898 was a school of its own kind, which M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 36 Paper-I trained Sikh girls, for Gurmat Parchar. The Singh Sabhas workers struggled hard to mould public opinion in favour of female education at a time when strong prejudice prevailed against the education of girls. The establishment of the Khalsa College at Amritsar, in 1892, was another noteworthy achievement of the Singh Sabha. There was also a plan to develop this into a Sikh University on the pattern of Benaras Hindu University and Aligarh Muslim University but it could not be established for want of funds. The Sikh educational conferences were organised every year and left a school or a college at the place where held. Within a brief span of a few decades the percentage of literacy of the Sikhs considerably increased the number of schools and colleges multiplied at an astonishing speed. Singh Sabha sought the cooperation of highly placed Englishmen in their educational campaign. Punjabi Language and Literature The Singh Sabha movement made a valuable contribution towards the enrichment of Punjabi language and literature. It gave rise to an unprecedented literary activity in respect of both volume and variety. Bhai Vir Singh who dominated Punjabi literature for half a century was a product of this movement. Some of the other prominent writers of this period were Bhai Mohan Singh Vaid, Bhai Kahan Singh, Giani Ditt Singh and Giani Gian Singh. Most of the literature of this period aimed at the moral and spiritual regeneration of the Sikhs. The Khalsa Tract Society Amritsar founded in 1894, contributed a lot towards the enrichment of Punjabi prose. The journalistic output of the Singh Sabha was also quite remarkable over a dozen Punjabi newspapers like Khalsa Samachar, Khalsa Akhbar, Punjabi Darpan, Dukh Nivaran, Khalsa Sewak, Singh Sabha Gazetter and Punjabi Bhain were brought out. Apart from being the vehicle of reform, they enriched language which was capable of giving expression to up-to date socio-religious themes and political thoughts. Thus the Punjabi language was renovated and modernised to suit the literary requirements of a generation which had borne the full impact of Western learning. The Singh Sabha conferred upon the Punjabi language a new literary status and gave it a form and finish. Although Punjabi could not get official recognition yet it emerged as a popular language and began to be owned by the Sikhs as a part of their culture. Politics : In the beginning, the Singh Sabha leaders deliberately chose, to remain aloof from politics as their main concern was socio-religious reforms. But in the beginning of the twentieth century, the rising tide of political consciousness prompted the leaders to play their role in the political life of the province. The Chief Khalsa Diwan did pledge to remain loyal to the Government but it took it upon itself to protect rights of Sikhs. In their political outlook, the Singh Sabha leaders were moderates, M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 37 Paper-I believing in the efficacy of constitutional methods. They shunned violence and took care to avoid clash with the government. Like the moderate wing of the Congress of that period, they adopted the method of prayers, petitions, representations and deputations in order to impress upon the government on such issues affecting the Sikhs as the development of Punjabi, distribution of patronage and representation of Sikhs in civil services. They also endeavoured to secure political concession for the Sikhs. The Minto-Morely Reforms of 1909 granted the right of separate electorate to the Muslims, whereas the claim of the Sikhs for a similar concession was ignored. The Singh Sabha leaders sent petitions to the government demanding similar concession for the Sikhs. The Montford Reforms of 1919, conceded their demand. Although concession given to the Sikhs was not commensurate with their political importance yet it acknowledged, in principal the right of the Sikhs, to be regarded as a separate political entity. Nature and Character of the Movement The Singh Sabha invested the Sikhs with a modern outlook. It infused a new spirit among them to revive their sacred traditions to seek fresh impulse and to strive for progress in all spheres of life-religious, social cultural and educational. The Nirankari and the Namdhari movements were known for their reliance purely on the traditional sources of inspiration. The Singh Sabha, under the guidance of the Sikh intelligentsia, studied the problem of reform in the light of western influences thankfully acknowledged the advantages offered to them by the British civilisation and urged the Sikhs to join their countrymen in seeking to assimilate the merits of western thought and scholarship. They rightly felt that prejudice against western ideas had stood in the new way of the progress of the community in the past. The Namdharies had gone to the extent of boycotting not only the modern education but also posts and telegraph. In fact any attempt of the English to introduce reform or innovation was regarded by all orthodox Indians as an attempt to Europeanise them. The Singh Sabha movement was a part of the great Indian renaissance of the mid nineteenth century whose leaders come to believe that the values of the East and West, instead of coming into clash, should make a happy and harmonious blending. The enlightened leaders of the Singh Sabha movement extolled the merits of the British rule for bringing about many innovations. They realised the necessity of adopting all that was best in the Western thought. In keeping with this, the Singh Sabha opened schools and colleges where secular and religious instruction were combined. The Sabha leaders always changed their thoughts and policies in the context of changed circumstances. The previous reform movements of the Sikhs, the Nirankaris and the M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 38 Paper-I

Namdharis had, no doubt, done the spade work of reform but they never rose to such dimensions to affect the entire Sikh Community. Both came to have a line of gurus, which was contrary to the tenets of the Sikh faith. Both these movements acquired a sectarian character because of their failure to do away with institution of Gurudom. This resulted in confusion and further divided the community into different sections, each claiming to be superior to others. In this welter of confusion the vital question agitating the mind of the Sikhs was, what is meant by Sikhism? Despite their best efforts the Nirankaris and the Namdharis had failed to give any definite answer to this questions. The Sikhs were mainly divided into two sections one regarded Sikhism as a distinct faith, while the other thought it to be a off shoot or branch of Hinduism. It was at this crucial juncture that the Singh Sabha assumed the leadership of community, saved it from going astray. The Singh Sabha movement like the Arya Samaj and the Ramakrishna among the Hindus, and the Wahabi and the Ahmedia among the Muslims, derived their inspiration from their respective founders. In each case the individual leader was the sole guiding authority and his word was the law. All these movements, though aimed at uniting the divergent elements of the faith, were ultimately reduced to pretty cults and sects. As noted earlier, the same had been the case with the Nirankari and the Namdhari movements among the Sikhs. It goes to the credit of the Singh Sabha movement that it remained democratic and non-sectarian in letter and spirit till the very end. Unlike the other movements, the Singh Sabha was not founded by one single individual. It was a mass upsurge and was free from the drawback of personality cult. The Singh Sabha leaders aimed at restoring the purity of Sikh faith without propounding any philosophy of their own. Any Sikh, who adhered to the teachings of the ten Gurus and was ready to serve the community could be admitted to the Singh Sabha. There was no ceremony to be gone through for this purpose nor there was any distinctive dress, badge or mark to be worn. The movement retained its democratic character despite the efforts of some of its leaders to style themselves as Gurus and wield absolute control over its affairs. Decline of the Movement The tide of popularity of Singh Sabha movement, however, ebbed with the rise of new English educated middle class among the Sikhs. This new class had strong political ambitions and was militant in its approach. The common zeal for reform which had united the Sikhs to work under the leadership of the Singh Sabha disappeared with a growing feeling among the new generation of the Sikhs that the movement had failed to satisfy the political aspiration of the Sikhs. The Chief Khalsa Diwan had no doubt, taken it upon itself to protect the political rights. As the whole of India was awakening to a new political consciousness, this class of the Sikhs which came to be known as Akalis, came into an open clash M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 39 Paper-I with the government, first for the liberation of their shrines and then for the liberation of their land. SUGGESTED READINGS Khushwant Singh, History of the Sikhs - Vol. II. Gurdarshan Singh Dhillon, Ph. D. Thesis, Character and Impact of the Singh SabhaMovement (Punjabi University, Patiala, 1973). Ganda Singh, A History of Khalsa College, Amritsar. Teja Singh, Essays in Sikhism. Bhagat Lakhshman Singh Autobiography, edited by Dr. Ganda Singh. SUGGESTED QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the impact of the Singh Sabha movement on the Sikh thought and way of life ? 2. Briefly describe the various phases in the development of the Singh Sabha movement ? 3. Assess the nature and character of the Singh Sabha movement ? 4. Discuss the role of the Singh Sabha movement as a reform movement ? M.A. (HISTORY) PART II PAPER I Sem IV (HISTORY OF PUNJAB FROM (1849–1947)

LESSON NO. 1.5 AUTHOR : DR. V. S. SURI

ARYA SAMAJ MOVEMENT IN THE PUNJAB The peaceful development of the Punjab under the British Administration produced a new awakening among the upper classes in the province. The Western system of education introduced in pursuance of the new policy of the British rulers produced a new generation of Punjabis who had been greatly influenced by the new civilisation introduced under the British administration. British rule in the Punjab brought in its wake a new force in the form of Christianity which resulted in considerable religious ferment as a result of its powerful impact on the thinking of educated Punjabis. Under the first flash some of the upper class people showed considerable inclination towards Christianity because it promised closer contact with the rulers and quicker advancement in life. The new ideas were a challenge to the older form of religions as prevailed in the newly annexed province. Hinduism during the long period of Muslim rule had hardened into a rigid and conservative society. The missionaries took full advantages of the age long superstitious, dogmas of the Hindus. They tried to create aversion among the western educated Hindus towards the traditional form of Hinduism. The newly educated elite felt so much over-whelmed by the Western civilisation and rationalist Protestant Christianity that either they developed distinctly disinclination towards Hinduism or laboured under strong self pity. Though Muslims were the conquerors but Hinduism never felt impressed by their culture and civilisation for the obvious reason that the Hindus thought that they had nothing to learn from Muslim culture. Things were different under the British. The western civilisation and Protestant Christianity made them feel inferior. Protestantism as a product of reformation had given rise to a new spirit of scientific rationalism. Later on, it was responsible for the industrial revolution which changed the entire outlook of society in Western countries. Indian society was backward in comparison to western countries. The Christian missionaries who came for the purpose of proselytising would never miss an opportunity to tell Indians that if they also wished to be as advanced as their masters they should adopt the religion of their masters. Even the caste Hindus found caste restrictions oppressive. The British system of administration and the industrial economy introduced new avenues of advancement which were against the spirit of the caste norms. When a Bhalla Khatri in Lahore opened a shoe shop there was such indignation that his castemen staged a “siyapa” outside his shop for doing a business fit for the caste 40 M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 41 Paper-I of Chamars. Trade and industrial ventures involved sea voyage, inter-dining but the caste rules prohibited them. The situation in the mid nineteenth century was that either, Hindu society refused to change and disintegrate of reform or consolidate itself. To meet the challenge there arose a number of movements. Of them, the prominent were the Brahmo Samaj in Bengal, the Prarthana Samaj in Bombay and the Arya Samaj in north west India. The most effective was the Arya Samaj which was founded by Swami Dayanand Sarasvati. He was born in Gujrat although the major part of his public life was spent in the north. The Arya Samaj was thus a direct result of the proselytising zeal of the missionaries on the one hand and the campaign of conversion launched by Islam on the other. The new movement had a two fold purpose, viz. (i) purification of Hinduism and (ii) its protection against the inroads of Islam and Christianity. In its essential character the Arya Samaj represented an earnest attempt at revival of Hindu religion and a reaction to the activities of foreign religions. The Founder The founder of Arya Samaj was Dayanand Saraswati. Mul Shanker, as he was named by his parents, was born in 1824 at Tankara, in Morwi State, Gujrat, Kathiawar in an orthodox Brahmin family. Though desired by his father to become devout Shaivite like himself, Mul Shankar felt disillusioned with the traditional religion and set out in search of truth. For 15 years he wandered in search of a guru who could given him the knowledge to overcome death. He went wherever he was told there lived yogis who had overcome death. But he met none who could satisfy him. He would accept nothing that would not appeals to reason. But these fifteen years were fruitful in another way. He saw popular Hinduism at close quarters and fathomed the depths of its decline. One question assailed his mind was : what he saw true religion? If not what was? Since the yogis and gurus had failed him, he decided to go to the ancient scriptures. The Mentor The mentor of Mul Shankar was Virja Nand, a sanyasi, of Mathura. His fame as a teacher of Shanskrit grammar had spread far and wide. Mul Shankar went to him to learn grammar. Virja Nand was born in a village near Kartarpur in Jalandhar district (where recently a Samarak has been built). He was blind having lost his sight after an attack of smallpox. He had left home while he was a boy because of the ill treatment of his brother’s wife after his parents death. He had acquired a perfect account of Sanskrit. The special thing about him was that he taught only ‘Arsha’ works on Sanskrit grammar. The Vedas fall in the ‘Arsha’ category while the Puranas and Tantras fall in the ‘Anarsha’ category. An ancient rule is that whenever there is conflict between ‘arsha’ and ‘anarsh’ the M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 42 Paper-I

‘arsha’ shall prevail ‘Arsha’ encourages free and rational thinking. In the Upnishads when a student goes to his teacher on the completion of his education, the teacher’s final advice is : “Follow what is good in me, but not what is not good in me.” The guru does not demand his shishya’s blind adherence. Even Yudhister in the Mahabharat asks Bhishma : “What is Dharma”? His reply was that what could be tested on the touchstone of reasoning is “Dharma”. On the other hand ‘Anarsha’ scriptures demand complete surrender of reason. The guru is always right, he should be obeyed blindly. The core of Dayanand’s teaching is rationalism. There is no contradiction between reason and ‘Arsha’ scriptures. They are identical. His studies led him to believe that all the evils in Hinduism were supported by the ‘anarsha’ scriptures. Starting from this point of view, Dayanand rejected all irrational customs and institutions are ‘anarsh’ innovations. Three year’s rigorous studies in the traditional way gave Dayananda proper understanding of the Vedas. Thereafter he was launched by his Guru to dedicate his life in the form of ‘Dakshina’ to the preaching of the Vedas which in his opinion, “had long ceased to be thought in Bharat Varsha”. He was further enjoined to “teach true shastras, and dispel by their light, the darkness which the false deeds had given birth too.” Social Uplift The one institution that has kept Hindu society under its strange hold is the caste system. It had immobilised society and caused stagnation. Each caste is to a particular occupation and had a fixed status in the social hierarchy. Caste is based on kinship that is the bond of blood. Varana has two connotations one is colour, the other is choice. There are four varanas-brahman, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra. There functions are demarcated. But long ago varna was turned into a status symbol. It lost its original meaning. Under the common designation of Brahmin there are numerous castes which have no social interchange between themselves. The same is true of other varnas. Dayananda rejected caste as ‘anarsha’ institution, but he accepted varna because it is an ‘arsha’ institution. He said the ‘varnas’ were determined not by birth but by profession. A Brahman is not born. A Brahman is who performs the duties of Brahman, whatever, his origin. The same applies to other varnas. A man could rise to any position by dint of merit. The varna by merit opened the Hindu fold even to those not born Hindu. In a caste society there is no chance for a non Hindu to become Hindu because all relations are on the basis of caster. But in a varna society there is no such rule. This was a most revolutionary step for Hinduism. Hinduism had never accepted non-Hindus in its fold but now it could. Dayananda wanted to bring about such radical changes in Hinduism because unlike other reformers he sought support from Hindu scriptures. Others were dubbed as preachers of Westernism, but M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 43 Paper-I

Dayananda was a hundred percent product of ancient Hindu heritage. Since the caste system was also responsible for the degradation of women, rejection of caste also proved the movement of liberation for woman. Women’s freedom had been sacrificed at the alter of caste. Since it was woman who could cause inter-mixture of caste, Hinduism put all sorts of curbs on her. She was married off early so that she might have no say in marriage and when her parents would chose a bridegroom he would be from within the caste. To avoid contact with men of different caste, she was kept in seculsion. She was kept illiterate so that education should not give her ideas to rise in protest. In north-west India the Arya Samaj was the first among non-Christians to start girl’s education. Unlike others who thought that girls needed only elementary educations. Its founder advocated higher education for women. In this region the first girls schools was the Kanya Mahavidyalaya of Jalandhar started in the last decade of the last century. There was stiff opposition to girls education. Whenever castemen found anyone sending daughter to the school they threatened him that if he did not withdraw his daughter from school no one would marry her. Dayananda felt that a programme of social reform would not make much progress unless it was backed by a philosophy. The traditional Hindu outlook is that this world is full of sorrow. It is a temporary halt for the-soul in its long journey from one birth to another. The only way to be free from sorrow is to escape from this world. With such an out-look there could be no zest for life and no zeal for improvement of society. Why one should do any thing to improve this world if one is here for a while. Since the time of the Budha the leaders of Hindu thought have preached a life of word negation philosophy. Dharma and Moksha have been the main preoccupation. Dayanand gave a life affirming philosophy. He resurrected the ancient fourhold aim of ‘dharma’, ‘artha, ‘kama’ and ‘moksha’. The ‘Anarsha’ religion had dropped ‘artha’ and ‘Kama’ that is wealth and enjoyment. Dayananda said the fulfilment of life lay in the adoption of the four aims. A man should live a life of virtue, make wealth, enjoy himself and than seek liberation. New Mission Fired by his new zeal Dayanand Saraswati embarked upon his new mission of religious and social reform of Hindu Society. Having visited some important religious centres like Hardwar, Benaras and Allahabad, and having met some leaders of the newly started Brahmo Samaj at Calcutta, he came to Bombay and founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. His fame and teachings spread far and wide in Northern India. He happened to visit Delhi during the celebrations of the proclamation of Queen Victoria as the Empress of India in 1877 as the guest of one of the native princes. There Swami Dayananda met M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 44 Paper-I some prominent Hindus and visited Ludhiana and Lahore. His success at the capital city of the Punjab was so great the Arya Samaj founded there soon eclipsed the society organised in Bombay. Lahore became the headquarters of the new movement in 1877. At Lahore the Arya Samaj took its final shape. The principles were revised for the last time, the constitution was re-framed and finally settled. The remaining years of his life from 1877-83 were spent by the Swami in preaching, teachings and writing books and in organising Arya Samajees. The Arya Samaj movement made rapid progress in the Punjab and a net work was established before the death of the founder. By 1928 the Punjab could boast of no less than 500 Arya Samajees, the largest number in the country. Aims and Objects The aims and objects of the Arya Samaj, as embodined in the ten principles, which formed the basis of the organisation were the social and religious regeneration of the Hinduism as prepounded in the Vedas, which were to form the fundamental basis of the new Samaj. The Vedas, were sheet anchor of Swami Dayananda’s teaching and he wanted the new Samaj to conform to their teachings. His slogan was “Back to the Vedas”. For guidance of the followers the views of Swami Dayanand were elaborated in his book Satyarth Parkash, which had come to be treated as the correct exposition of the social and religious creed of the Samaj. Organisation Every Arya Samaj became a unit in itself. Generally one Samaj was set up in every city or town which came under its influence; but in some cities there were more than one, either on account of the followers, or on account of some differences in principles. The affairs of every Samaj were governed by an executive committee consisting of five elected office bearers, who were elected annually by effective members. The Provincial assembly consisted of the representatives of the Arya Samajes, according to the size of the respective Samajes. Every Samaj contributed 10% of its gross income to the provincial assembly. The general assembly was elected every year. At the head of the whole organisation was the All India body formed by the representatives of the various provincial assemblies. Closely connected with the Samajes of the adults there are Kumar Sabhas or Youngman’s Arya Samajes which served as the recruiting centre of the main body. Every Arya Samaj has a meeting place where the members meet every week in the principle cities all over India, except in the South. The Arya Samaj possesses splendid buildings consisting of lecture halls and committee rooms etc. In some places the premises are used for daily prayers and club purposes. The Split in the Arya Samaj M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 45 Paper-I

For some years a great controversy raged in the Arya Samaj as to how the opinions expressed by Swami Dayananda were binding on the Arya Samaj as a body. The difference were more acute on points regarding individuals right of private judgement in matters not covered by the main principles. In 1892 the Arya Samaj split into two sections ostensibly as a result of difference of opinion (i) as to the ‘righteousness of met diet’ and (ii) the lines on which the Dayananda Anglo-Vedic College founded in the memory of Swami in 1886, was to the run. Thereafter the two sections become distinct as the Gurukula and D.A.V. college branches and set up their separate Samajes throughout Punjab. The former known as the Mahatma party headed by Shri Munshi Ram, who later came to be christened as Swami Sharda Nand, favoured ancient Hindu education, vegetarianism and religion. The College or cultured group stands for modern education, freedom of diet and declared that Arya Samaj is the one universal religion. The efforts of both the sections were mainly directed towards education. D.A.V. College branch started and developed the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic College at Lahore, which soon became the centre of its activities. Starting with a school in 1886, under Lala Hans Raj as its first Honorary Headmaster the institution became popular and grew into a big college. Lala Hans Raj was largely responsible for its rapid growth and zealously served it free of any change for eight years. The D.A.V. College, Lahore became the biggest institution in Northern India. A net work of colleges, secondary and primary schools soon grew up around the college throughout the Punjab. Untill the partition of the province in 1947 the D.A.V. College in Lahore remained the premier institution of the Samaj in the state. Subsequently the D.A.V. College Jalandhar, has assumed the importance of the parent institution. The Mahatma group organised a similar college at Hardwar under the leadership of Lala Munshi Ram in 1907. The Guru Kula Kangri as it came to be called, was devoted to the spread of Vedic education according to the ideas of ancient Hinduism. The new system of education laid great stress on character building as well as the mind of the pupils in the company of their teachers. While spread of education was the main plank of the Arya Samaj, it attended to a number of other social cultural and philfanthropic activities. Outside Christian circles the Arya Samaj was the first to organise orphanages and widow homes. The first Hindus Orphange was established at Ferozepur with attached schools and workship for boys and girls. There are a number of other colleges controlled and managed by Arya Samaj. The Arya Samaj did commendable work during the famines of 1897-98 and 1899-1900. The Arya Samaj organised relief on a non-official bases during the period of distress through orphan relief movement and saved them from coversion to christianity. The Arya Samaj also rendered valuable social service at the time of the M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 46 Paper-I great Kangra earthquake of 1904. The Arya Samaj was the pioneer in starting social service in an organised form in Northern India. Reclamation and Conversion As a missionary church Arya Samaj included in its programme the reclamation of those who had left the Hindu society and converted those who where prepared to accept its teachings. It aimed at checking the spread of Islam and Christianity. Alongside it attempted to raise the social status of the depressed classes and their retention in the Hindu fold. ‘Shuddhi’ or recoversion was launched by Swami Shardhanand who provoked the retaliation of the Muslims and suffered death at the hands of Muslim fanatic in 1926, the movement also caused riots, disturbances and murders and atmosphere become surcharged with hated and hostility among the members of the Hindu and Muslim communities. “Shuddhi” and “Tablig” set one against the other. The greatest work of the Arya Samaj lay in the so called backward classes. Side by side with conversion and recoversion their amelioration was taken up. Many schools and social service centres were started for the uplift of the depressed classes. Numerous institutions were started for the removal of untouchability, dissemination of education and social, moral and economic uplift. The Samaj thus proved to be the precursor of the great Harijan uplift movement started by Mahatma Gandhi and supported by certain orthodox leaders like Madan Mohan Malsiya. Through the pioneering efforts of the Arya Samaj untouchability has been outlawed in our Constitution. Arya Samaj and Politics Sinces its inception, the Arya Samaj movement was looked upon with suspicion by the foreign rulers. Its independent tone and the national outlook inculated through social and religious reforms and above all the spirit of self help and self reliance made it on eye sore for the alien rulers. The movement, though avowedly religious in character was believed to contain the seeds of sedition. Swami Dayananda was looked upon by some Britishers as a political schemes. Some influential of the Muslim and Christian communities tried to discredit him in the eyes of the authorities. The association of some prominent Arya Samajists, including Lala Lajpat Rai and Bhai Permanand, was believed to be the proof of the anti-British propaganda carried on by the Arya Samaj. In the famous Patiala sedition case no less than 76 Arya Samajists were defendants. From the participation of a large number of Arya Samajists in the early nationalist movement in the Punjab the Samaj was held as a whole to be hotbed of sedition. The Arya Samajists were placed under strict surveillance and many of them suffered deportations, prosecutions and dismissals on one charge or other. The misunderstanding of the aims and objects of the Arya Samaj persisted for a long time. For some time (1907-1910) Arya Samaj was the object of singular persecution by the British authorities. The Arya Samajists in M.A.(History) Part-II (Semester-IV) 47 Paper-I

Government employ were dismissed for being members of the movement and many were coerced to sever their connection with the Samaj. The Government tried to influence the policies and programme of the Samaj in many overt and covert ways and by indirect means. At one time the loyal Samajists disowned many of its notable members, who had incurred the wrath of the Government. While the D.A.V. College section veered round to pro-British ideology and established itself in the confidence of the government, the Gurukul party continued to follow an independent policy. Many of its leaders like Swami Shardahand, were in the forefront of the non-co-coperation movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi. Despite the political vicissitudes Arya Samaj in the Punjab has done useful work by its testimony to monotheism, opposition to idolatry and other educational and social work. Its polemic against cast, child marriage, priestcraft and untouchability placed it in the front rank of reform movements in the country. Since the advent of independence and the role of welfare state assumed by the national Government much of the work earlier carried on by the Arya Samaj has passed in the hands of official agencies. Its field of work has correspondingly been greatly restricted and its resources largely drawn from public contributions have been greatly diminished. Under the secular state its former militant spirit against other religions appears to have been mellowed. The great idea of the Hindu revival seems to have been contained in the large and broader national resurgence which aims at the uplift of the country as a whole instead of a single community. In the prophetic words of Lala Lajpat Rai : “The Arya Samaj has to remember that the India of today is not exclusively Hindu. Its property and future depends upon the reconciliation of Hinduism with the greater Indian Nationalism which alone can secure for India its rightful place in the comity of nations.” The present day Hindu society presents a spectacle entirely different from what it was before the 19th century. In the words of Shri J.M. Sharma, former News Editor of the Tribune : “The confidence with which a Hindu preaches his religion in West is in sharp contrast to his lack of confidence in the 19th century when his religion was challenged by Western Protestant civilisation. Now Hinduism has changed since then. Some of the values it has accepted as its goals are negation of the ones our forefathers had cherished.” The seeds of this radical change in the outlook of Hindus were sown by Swami Dayananda in the 19th century. Under the impact of Arya Samaj stagnant Hindism has been transformed into a resurgent religion.