BIOLOGY OF HIMALAYAN GRIFFON (GYPS HIMALAYENSIS HUME, 1869) IN AZAD KASHMIR, PAKISTAN
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA UNIVERSITY MULTAN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
ZOOLOGY
By
MUHAMMAD SIDDIQUE
(Reg. No. 2006-bzb-52)
INSTITUTE OF PURE AND APPLIED BIOLOGY (ZOOLOGY DIVISION) BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA UNIVERSITY, MULTAN PAKISTAN 2016
BIOLOGY OF HIMALAYAN GRIFFON (GYPS HIMALAYENSIS HUME, 1869) IN AZAD KASHMIR, PAKISTAN
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA UNIVERSITY MULTAN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
ZOOLOGY
By
MUHAMMAD SIDDIQUE
(Reg. No. 2006-bzb-52)
Supervisor
PROF. DR. ALEEM AHMED KHAN
INSTITUTE OF PURE AND APPLIED BIOLOGY BAHAUDDIN ZAKARIYA UNIVERSITY, MULTAN PAKISTAN 2016
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my loving Wife for her continuous support and encouragement TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER DESCRIPTION PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
ABSTRACT ii-iv
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1-16
1.1 World Distribution of Vultures 1
1.2 Distribution of Himalayan Griffon Vulture 3
1.3 Morphology 5
1.4 Breeding Biology 6
1.5 Population and Conservation Status 7
1.6 Habitat Utilization 12
1.7 Food and Feeding Biology 12
1.8 Ethno-Vulture Relationship 13
1.9 Justification of Present Study 14
1.10 Aims and Objectives 15
Chapter 2 MATERIALS AND METHODS 17-27
2.1 Study Area 17
2.1.1 Study Colonies 19
2.2 Methods 22
2.2.1 Breeding Biology 22
2.2.2 Population Status 24
2.2.3 Habitat and Food 25
2.2.4 Ethno-Vulture Relationship 27
2.2.5 Statistical Analysis 27 CHAPTER DESCRIPTION PAGE
Chapter 3 RESULTS 28-92
3.1 Breeding Biology 28
3.1.1 Nest Status 28
3.1.2 Egg Laying and Incubation 32
3.1.3 Hatching and Rearing 37
3.1.4 Fledglings 42
3.1.5 Breeding Success 47
3.1.6 Breeding Failure 50
3.1.7 Nest Occupancy (Nest Attendance) 52
3.2 Population 57
3.2.1 Population Status 57
3.2.2 Spatial Population Fluctuations 57
3.2.3 Temporal Population Fluctuations 58
3.3 Food and Feeding 61
3.3.1 Food Availability and Carrying Capacity of the Area 61
3.3.2 Carcass Availability 66
3.3.3 Foraging Behavior and Inter-Specific Relationship 68
3.4 Habitat Utilization 69
3.4.1 Geographic Variables 69
3.4.2 Anthropogenic Variables 73
3.4.3 Food Availability 76
3.4.4 Intra-Specific Relations 79
3.5 Ethno-Vulture Relationship 79 CHAPTER DESCRIPTION PAGE
PLATES 81
Chapter 4 DISCUSSION 93-110
4.1 Breeding Biology 93
4.1.1 Nest Status 93
4.1.2. Egg Laying and Incubation 95
4.1.3. Hatching and Rearing 96
4.1.4 Fledglings 97
4.1.5 Breeding Success 98
4.1.6. Nest Occupancy 99
4.2 Population Status 100
4.3 Food and Feeding 103
4.3.1 Food Availability and Carrying Capacity of the Area 103
3.3.2 Carcass Availability, Foraging Behavior and Intraspecific 105 Relation
4.4 Habitat Utilization 106
4.4.1 Geographic Variables 107
4.4.2 Anthropogenic Variables 109
4.4.3 Food Variables 110
4.4.4 Carcass Availability 110
CONCLUSION 112-113
CONSERVATION IMPLICATIONS 114-115
REFERENCES 116-131
Annexure I 132-133
Annexure II 134-135
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE DESCRIPTION PAGE
Table 3.1 Summary of Himalayan Griffons nest status (mean±SEM) 29 at four study sites.
Table 3.2 Correlation matrix of various breeding parameters of 31 Himalayan Griffons during study period.
Table 3.3 Details of number of eggs laid at each study site during 32 study period.
Table 3.4 Details of number of eggs hatched during study period. 37
Table 3.5 The number of fledglings observed at each site during 42 study period.
Table 3.6 Summary of analysis of breeding activities (mean±SEM) of 47 Himalayan Griffons documented during five years study period.
Table 3.7 The overall breeding activities of Gyps himalayensis at all 56 four study sites i.e. Sarli Sacha, Chhum, Nardajian & Talgran, during 2005, 2007-2010.
Table 3.8 Estimated mean (±SEM) population of Himalayan Griffons 57 during study period.
Table 3.9 Correlation matrix among population parameters of 60 Himalayan Griffon vulture during study period.
Table 3.10 Estimated livestock population in District Muzaffarabad 61 and Hattian during five year study period.
Table 3.11 Correlation matrix among number of livestock and 62 vulture’s population during study period.
Table 3.12 Potential Food availability for the Himalayan Griffon 63 Vulture in District Muzaffarabad and Hattian during five year study period.
Table 3.13 Correlation analysis between daily food supply and vulture 65 population during study period. TABLE DESCRIPTION PAGE
Table 3.14 Spatio-temporal availability of carcasses to Himalayan 66 Griffon vulture during study period
Table 3.15 Correlation matrix between different geographic 71 parameters within the habitat of Himalayan griffon vultures during study period.
Table 3.16 Correlation matrix between various anthropogenic 75 variables and population parameters within the habitat of Himalayan Griffon’s vulture.
Table 3.17 Correlation matrix between different food availability 78 variables and population parameters with in habitat of Himalayan Griffon’s vulture during study period.
Table 3.18 Correlation matrix among Intra-specific variables and 79 population parameters of Himalayan Griffon’s during study period.
Table 3.19 Local information regarding Ethno-Vulture Relationship at 80 four study sites during five year study period.
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE
Fig. 1.1 Worldwide Distribution of Himalayan Griffon Vulture. 4 Fig. 2.1 Map of the State of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. 18 Fig. 2.2 Location/Distribution of Himalayan Griffon Vulture 21 colonies in AJK during 2005-2010. Fig. 3.1 Overall nests’ status (mean±) of Himalayan Griffons in 29 study area. Fig. 3.2 Annual breeding activities status of Himalayan Griffons in 30 study area. Fig. 3.3 A declining trend in mean numbers of eggs laid by 33 Himalayan Griffons during study period. Fig. 3.4 Himalayan Griffons eggs’ laying density observed during 34 study period. Fig. 3.5 Breakup of Eggs laying period of Himalayan Griffons at 34 each study site. Fig. 3.6 Annual variation in eggs laying dates of Himalayan Griffon 35 Vulture during different study years. Fig. 3.7 Variation in Mean (±) Eggs laying dates of Himalayan 36 Griffons in four study sites. Fig. 3.8 Annual Variation in Mean (±) Eggs laying dates of 36 Himalayan Griffon Vulture. Fig. 3.9 Trends in mean numbers of eggs hatched by Himalayan 38 Griffons during study period. Fig. 3.10 Eggs hatching density of Himalayan Griffons during study 39 period. Fig. 3.11 Variation in hatching dates of Himalayan Griffon Vulture 39 at four study sites. Fig. 3.12 Annual variation in hatching dates of Himalayan Griffons 40 during study period. Fig. 3.13 Variation in Mean (±) hatching dates of Himalayan 41 Griffons in all study sites. Fig. 3.14 Annual variation in Mean (±) hatching dates of Himalayan 41 FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE Griffons. Fig. 3.15 Trend in fledglings of Himalayan Griffons during study 43 period. Fig. 3.16 Fledging pattern of Himalayan Griffons during study 44 period at all study sites. Fig. 3.17 Variation in fledging dates of Himalayan Griffons. 44 Fig. 3.18 Annual variation in fledgling dates of Himalayan Griffons. 45 Fig. 3.19 Variation in mean (±) fledgling dates of Himalayan 46 Griffons. Fig. 3.20 Annual variation in mean (±) fledgling dates of Himalayan 46 Griffons. Fig. 3.21 Annual variation in breeding success of Himalayan 48 Griffons at study sites during study period. Fig. 3.22 Active nest breeding success of Himalayan Griffons during 48 study period. Fig. 3.23 Annual trend in breeding success of Himalayan Griffon 49 Vulture at all study sites. Fig. 3.24 Nest status of Himalayan Griffons during study period. 50 Fig. 3.25 Status of nest failure of Himalayan Griffons during study 51 period. Fig. 3.26 Trend in nest status of Himalayan Griffons during study 52 period. Fig. 3.27 Nest occupancy status of Himalayan Griffons. 53 Fig. 3.28 Nest occupancy status of Himalayan Griffons during study 53 period. Fig. 3.29 Mean monthly variations in nest occupancy/nest attendance 54 of Himalayan Griffons. Fig. 3.30 Monthly trends in nest occupancy/nest attendance of 55 Himalayan Griffons. Fig. 3.31 Population dynamics of Himalayan Griffons. 58 Fig. 3.32 Comparison of adult individuals and active nests of 59 Himalayan Griffon Vulture during study period. Fig. 3.33 Seasonal fluctuations in Mean Transect Count population 59 at different study sites. FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE
Fig. 3.34 Annual seasonal variations in population of Himalayan 60 Griffon Vulture during different breeding cycles in different years. Fig. 3.35 Comparison among number of livestock and Himalayan 62 Griffons’ population during study period. Fig. 3.36 Percentage daily food supply by different types of livestock 64 for Himalayan Griffon Vulture (kg/day) in study area during 2005, 2007-2010. Fig. 3.37 Relationship of daily food supply (kg/day) with population 65 dynamics of Himalayan Griffon Vulture during study period. Fig. 3.38 Percentage of ungulates carcasses observed during the 67 study period. Fig. 3.39 Percentage of carcasses observed in different habitats 67 during study period. Fig. 3.40 Relationship between mean numbers of active nests and 69 nest cover in different vulture sites during study period. Fig. 3.41 Relationship between mean number of nests and cliff 70 exposure during study period. Fig. 3.42 Relationship among mean numbers of active nests, 72 vegetation cover and rocky area during study period. Fig. 3.43 Nesting trend along the cliff height (m) above the ground 73 of different vulture sites of the study area during study period. Fig. 3.44 Effects of anthropogenic factors on mean nesting site 74 population of vulture sites. Fig. 3.45 Effects of numbers of livestock and migratory ungulates on 76 mean population vulture population of different sites in the study area during study period.
LIST OF PLATES
PLATE DESCRIPTION PAGE
Plate 3.1 Overview of the nesting cliff of Sarli Sacha Vulture 81 colony. Plate 3.2 Overview of the nesting cliff of Talgran Vulture colony. 81 Plate 3.3 Overview of the nesting cliff of Chhum Vulture colony and 82 surroundings. Plate 3.4 A part of cliff inhabited by Nardajian Colony in Jhelum 82 Valley. Plate 3.5 Himalayan Griffon near an occupied nest in Nardajian 83 Colony during 2005 breeding season. Plate 3.6 Chick of Himalayan Griffon at Nardajian Colony during 83 2005 breeding season. Plate 3.7 Himalayan Griffon coming back to the nest at Nardajian 84 Colony during 2005 breeding season. Plate 3.8 A newly hatched chick in a nest of Himalayan Griffon at 84 Chhum Colony during 2009 breeding season.
Plate 3.9 A nest with a chick of Himalayan Griffon attended by a 85 single parent at Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season. Plate 3.10 A pair of Himalayan Griffon establishing breeding 85 relationship at Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season. Plate 3.11 Himalayan Griffon feeding its chick at Nardajian Colony 86 during 2005 breeding season. Plate 3.12 An injured Himalayan Griffon rescued from the local 86 community near Talgran Colony during 2010 breeding season. Plate 3.13 Himalayan Griffon released after treatment of its broken 87 wing. Plate 3.14 A newly fledged chick of Himalayan Griffon near the 87 roosting site showing the white paste at Talgran Colony during 2010 breeding season. Plate 3.15 Active nests of Himalayan Griffon in Chhum breeding 88 PLATE DESCRIPTION PAGE Colony during 2007breeding season. Plate 3.16 Active nests of Himalayan Griffon at Chhum Colony 88 during 2010 breeding season. Plate 3.17 Himalayan Griffon vulture encountered during the transect 89 survey near Chhum Colony during 2010 breeding season. Plate 3.18 An active nest of Himalayan Griffon with one parent at 89 Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season. Plate 3.19 Himalayan Griffon protecting its young chick from heat of 90 sun at Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season. Plate 3.20 White paste of fecal droppings of Himalayan Griffon 90 indicating the presence of vultures in breeding cliff at Chhum Colony during 2008 breeding season. Plate 3.21 Himalayan Griffon vulture encountered during the transect 91 survey near Nardajian Colony during 2005. Plate 3.22 Aggressive behavior of Raven with Himalayan Griffon 91 vulture observed during transect survey near Chhum Colony during 2010 breeding season. Plate 3.23 Qazinag Nullah, the source of water for Himalayan Griffon 92 vulture near Chhum Colony. Plate 3.24 Author monitoring the breeding activities of Himalayan 92 Griffon vulture at Chhum Colony during 2010 breeding season.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to pay all my praises to Almighty ALLAH, the most Merciful, the most Beneficent and the Holly Prophet HAZRAT MUHAMMAD (Peace be upon him).
I acknowledge the support of my supervisor Prof. Dr. Aleem Ahmed Khan, Zoology Division, Institute of Pure and Applied Biology (IP&AB), Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan (BZU). It was my absolute privilege and honor to work under the supervision of Prof. Khan. I am highly indebted for his ever kind behavior, professional intellectual desk and field guidance during my studies.
I am eternally thankful to Prof. Dr. Saeed Ahmed Malik, Ex. Director and Ex. Dean, Faculty of Sciences, BZU, for his kind behavior during my study. I also thank to Prof. Dr. Seema Mehmood, Director IP&AB, for her encouraging behaviour during my thesis write up stage. I am also thankful to faculty and administrative staff of the Institute for their support during my coursework.
I am highly grateful to Mr. Riaz Aziz Minhas Lecturer and Dr. Basharat Ahmad, Assistant Professor Department of Zoology, AJK University Muzaffarabad (AJKU) for their company in field visits, help in analyzing and interpreting of data, and help during the write-up stage of this manuscript. I cannot forget their kindness for valuable suggestions and sparing enough time for me especially during thesis write-up stage.
I am also thankful to Dr. Azhar Saleem, Chairman, Department of Statistics, AJKU, for helping in the statistical analysis of the data.
I would like to thank Mr. Naeem Iftikhar Dar, Deputy Director, AJK Wildlife and Fisheries Department and his field staff (Mr. Raja Nazir, Khawaja Nazir, Khadam Hussain Shah and Ch. Hameed) for their field guidance and logistic support during field work. I would like to thank to Dr. Muhammad Basharat, Assistant Professor Department of Geology, AJKU, for help in developing GIS map.
I cannot forget the company of my Ph.D. class fellows, especially Mr. Ahmed Ali and Dr. Abdul Latif during my stay at BZU Multan. Lastly I also thank to the administrative staff of Zoology Department, AJKU, for their help during my thesis write-up.
Muhammad Siddique
i
ABSTRACT
Global populations of three species of Gyps are declining in South Asia due to the use of diclofenac drug in veterinary practices. This alarming situation has highlighted the need to explore the current status of other Gyps species in the region. Breeding biology and ecology of Himalayan Griffon (HG) is little known globally. This study assessed the breeding biology, population status, feeding biology and habitat utilization of HG in Hattian and Muzaffarabad districts of Azad Jammu and Kashmir,
Pakistan. Four breeding colonies located at Sarli Sacha, Chumm, Talgran and
Nardajian were monitored fortnightly during the breeding seasons of 2005, 2007-
2010. Population was estimated by counting the vultures involved in the breeding activities at the nesting sites (nesting site population) and encountered during transect surveys (transect count population). Other biological aspects (breeding activities, habitat preferences, food and feeding biology) were monitored directly at the nesting sites. A sum total of 98 occupied nests, comprising active (n=75) and inactive (n=23) nests were recorded in four breeding colonies. An overall decline of 40% with 6.66% annual decline in active nests was recorded. An overall mean egg laying date in all study sites was March 1 (day 60.41±8.72) ranging from February 24 (day 55±9.67) to
March 6 (day 65±5.59) showed significant difference between study sites and study years. Egg laying started from February 11 and lasted till March 31 (Feb. 11- March
30). The incubation period ranged between 37 and 57 days. Overall mean egg hatching date was April 23 (day 113±7.45) which ranged from April 21 (day
111±6.46) to April 27 (day 117±10.59). Majority (n=63; 86.6%) of eggs hatched successfully. Overall mean hatching dates showed significant difference between study years (F4=6.22, p=0.000, n=63). A total of 61 (96.8% of total hatchings) fledgings were recorded with an overall 57% decline at a rate of 11% per annum
ii during the study period. Overall mean fledging date was July 23 (day 204.38±9.13) that ranged from July 19 (day 200±7.25) to July 26 (day 207.33±7.13). There was a negative correlation between number of fledglings and years (r=-0.93). A positive correlation was recorded between number of fledglings and occupied nests (r=0.84), active nests (r=0.93) and percentage of pair laying (r=0.67). Maximum breeding success was recorded in Sarli Sacha (1.00) and minimum at Nardajian (0.53). Overall breeding success of active nests declined from 0.83 in year 1 to 0.60 in year 5.
Maximum breeding failure was recorded at Nardajian in year 5. Of total (n=484) observations single and both parents were found attending during 72% and 12% of total observations, respectively, while during 16% of observations nest were found unattended.
The mean (±SEM) population of HG was estimated as 51.60±7.60 and 46±7.61 individuals on basis of nesting site and transect survey counts in all study sites, respectively. Total 80 individuals with mean colony size 20±3.48 (mean±SEM) were recorded from all nesting sites in year 1 which reduced to 50 (10.00±2.72) individuals in year 5. Although there was a slight increase in population at the end of the study, however, an overall decline of 37.50% was recorded in the nesting site population at a rate of 7.5% per annum. This declining trend is further confirmed by a negative correlation of nesting site population (r= -0.76) and transect count population (r= -
0.80) with study years. A sharp decline of livestock population was recorded in the year 2, and slightly increased during the last two study years. However, an overall decline of 75.31% in livestock population from year 1 to year 5 was recorded with annual decline of 12.5% (r= -0.79). There was a strong positive correlation (r=0.95) between livestock numbers and nesting site population. Daily food availability to vultures sharply declined from 11305 kg/day in year 1 to 2096 kg/day in year 3 of
iii study suggesting 81% decline with 13% annual decline. Strong positive correlation of daily food supply with nesting site population (r=0.95) and transect count population
(r=0.94) was recorded.
The maximum (70%) nests were placed in open rocky area in Sarli Sacha and minimum (30%) in Talgran. Most (60-98%) of the nesting cliffs were facing towards the eastern aspect, except Talgran, which showed 70% southern exposure. Overall cliffs facing east direction showed positive correlation with number of active nests (r=
0.80) and occupied nests (r= 0.69). Positive correlation was also recorded between percentage of rocky area of cliffs with mean number of active nests (r= 0.79) and occupied nests (r= 0.89) in all study sites. There was negative correlation of percentage of cultivation (r= -0.70) and rural development (r= -0.95) with mean nesting site population. Shortage of food availability and various anthropogenic pressures (human settlements, developmental activities and agricultural practices) were found as the major factors responsible for declining population of Himalayan
Griffon in the area. Moreover, the reduction in carcass detectability by vultures, and changes in agro pastoral system in the study area might also be among the contributing factors of declining vulture population. Restoration of the traditional agro pastoral system should be promoted by increasing livestock population on the open grasslands. This will not only increase the food availability to vultures but also provide healthy population of livestock to enhance the socioeconomic conditions of the local people.
iv
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Vultures are on the top of the ecological pyramid. They play an important role in the ecosystem. They perform significant ecological, aesthetic and traditional functions throughout their distribution range in Indian Subcontinent. Their functions are, however, now threatened due to sharp decline of more than 90% of their population throughout India (Prakash et al., 2003). Vultures are the most successful scavengers and they dispose of carcasses and other organic wastes, providing a free of cost and very effective sanitation services. Vultures govern cleaning services and protect the health of humans, domestic and wild animals. Without their presence, the abundance of other scavengers, including some are well established disease reservoirs, increases substantially at carcasses (Prakash et al., 2003; Pain et al., 2003, 2008). Vultures have slowest reproductive rates among birds. Their populations are particularly susceptible to high rates of mortality, whether by natural or human induced causes (Wynne-
Edwards, 1955).
1.1. World Distribution of Vultures
Vultures are generally classified as New World vultures (belong to family
Cathartidae) and Old World vultures (family Accipitridae). The New World vultures are distributed from southern Canada to Tierradel Fuego up to the Falkland Islands and the Old World vultures are distributed in Europe, Africa and Asia. Although, the
Old World Vultures strongly resemble their New World counterparts in appearance and behaviour but are not related (Chhangani et al., 2002). The Subfamily Aegypinae
1 contains 15 species of Old World vultures. Out of which 9 species are reported from the Indian subcontinent and all are known to be resident (Ali and Ripley, 1983).
White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Eurasian Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus) and Long–billed Vulture (Gyps indicus) also breed in Pakistan. The king vulture
(Sacrcogyps calvus) has become quite rare in Western and Eastern India (Samant et al., 1995). The vulture of Old and New worlds differ markedly in the range of habitats they occupy. Forests of Asia and Africa do not much support scavenging birds, while,
Cathartic vulture are distributed in the Neotropical forests; this contrast implies a difference in the scavenger food chains of these two regions (Houston, 1985).
Old World Vultures are thought to compete for several types of resources in Africa, where vulture species diversity is highest (Petrides, 1959, Mundy et al., 1992, Hertel,
1994). Old world vultures are long-lived with high adult but low juvenile survival
(Wynne-Edwards, 1955; Amadon, 1964; Piper et al., 1981) and are highly sensitive to environmental changes (Houston, 1987). The genus Gyps is comprised of eight species: G. rueppellii, G. africanis and G. coprotheres in Africa; G. indicus, G. bengalensis, G. himalayensis and G. tenuirostris in Asia; G. fulvus in Africa, Europe and Asia. Four of these, including, Long-billed Vulture (G. indicus), Oriental White- backed Vulture (G. bengalensis), Slender-billed vulture (G. tenuirostris) and the
Himalayan Griffon Vulture (G. himalayensis) are found in South Asia. The Eurasian
Griffon Vulture (G. fulvus) breeds in Eurasia but migrates to south Asia and Africa.
The geographical ranges of all these vultures, however, overlap with each other (Pain et al., 2003).
Among old world vultures eight species have been observed in Pakistan. These are
Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus), King Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), Egyptian
2 Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus), Eurasian
Griffon (Gyps fulvus), White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Bearded Vulture
(Gyps barbatus) and the Himalayan Griffon Vulture (Gyps himalayensis) (Roberts,
1991).
1.2. Distribution of Himalayan Griffon Vulture
Himalayan Griffon Vulture (G. himalayensis) is a bird of Palearctic and adjacent
Indo-Malayan islands and is found in the mountains of south and central Asia,
Himalayas in north Pakistan, Kashmir, India, Nepal and Bhutan through Tibet and north Assam into central China, Afghanistan, Russian and Chinese Turkistan
(Blandford, 1895; Baker, 1928; Bates and Lowther, 1952; Lees and Christie, 2001).
Himalayan Griffon has a large distribution range, with about 1,000,000–10,000,000 km² estimated global extent of occurrence (Fig. 1.1). This, non-migratory and very rare vulture is also found in mountains of central Asia and Kazakhstan (Flint et al.,
1984). It is abundant throughout the northwestern Himalaya, usually above the altitude of 3000-4000 feet. However, it may descends to the lower elevations only when expelled to do so in search of food (Dodsworth, 1913). Himalayan Griffon
Vulture is a typical mountain species and breeds in the upper reaches of Himalayan and Trans–Himalayan region. The young Himalayan Griffons winter in the
Himalayan foot hills and sometime as south as Kutch in Gujarat (Samant et al., 1995).
Asian vultures range from north Pakistan to East to West of Arunachal Pradesh
(Grimmett et al., 1998). Most of the vultures including Indian long billed Griffon,
Indian Griffon Vulture, Pondicherry Vulture, Egyptian Vulture, Cinereous Vulture,
3
Fig. 1.1: Worldwide Distribution of Himalayan Griffon Vulture.
4 and Himalayan Griffon Vulture are commonly found at the slaughter houses, carcass dumps, bone mills tanneries and carcass-utilization centers (Satheeson, 1999).
Himalayan Griffon Vulture is resident and relatively sedentary bird. In winter, it haunts along the main valleys, ascending in summer to highest alpine slopes, seen all over Chitral, Gilgit, Hunza, Baltistan, Kaghan valley, Neelum valley of Azad Kashmir
(Roberts, 1991). In Jhelum valley of Azad Kashmir, it is found throughout Qazinag range (Awan et al., 2004).
1.3. Morphology
In size, the Himalayan Griffon Vulture is the second largest among the Old world vultures (falling behind the Eurasian Black vultures only). It is a giant version of the
Griffon (Gyps fulvus) having covering of white down on the head and neck. The body is usually a paler streaked buffy brown and creamy colour with a bald white head, very broad wings and a short tail. As individual grows older it gets paler that varies from cream colour to pure white on the body and wing coverts with contrasting black flight feathers (Roberts, 1991). The dark flight feathers contrast with whitish body and wing coverts (Birdlife International, 2006). The iris is dull yellow, bill horny yellowish to greenish with the cere pale brown. The legs and feet are grayish white
(Roberts, 1991).
Body length ranges between 115-125 cm with wingspan of 261.6 to 306.3 cm and wing and tail length is between 75.5 to 80.5 cm, and 36.5 to 40.2 cm, respectively.
Weight ranges between 8-12 kg (Derment’iev et al., 1969).
5 1.4. Breeding Biology
Himalayan Griffon breeds from January to August, most commonly between 4000 -
8000 feet occurring up to 14000 feet in Tibet and to 10,000 feet in Gilgit (Baker,
1935). As for as breeding biology of Himalayan Griffon is concerned, large raptors generally have low breeding rates than small ones. Most of larger species produce less than one young per pair per year, most of medium sized raptors produce one to two young per year and small ones up to three or more. Within species, in the absence of human intervention, much of the variation in the breeding success is associated with variation in food supply. This is shown mainly by the large annual fluctuations in the breeding rates of the species exposed to the area with differences in prey number. In some regions, human predation is the major cause of breeding failure. Disease and parasites are generally unimportant causes of nestling deaths (Newton, 1979).
According to Roberts (1991), nesting commences early, from the 2nd week of
February, when surrounding slopes are still snow-covered. They usually nest in colonies of 4-5 pairs, however, a maximum of six nests has also been recoded, all of which were separated by each other by a distance of at least 50 feet. However, it does not mean unusual to find a single nest on a cliff. The nests are irregular quite bulky rubbish stick structures placed in cliff ledges and abandoned caves or open crevices of inaccessible cliffs. They are usually comprised of dense twigs and sticks, while the central depression is generally lined with grasses, feathers, etc. In diameter, the nest varies from 2-3 feet with about 50-150 lbs weight of the composing material used.
New nests are always built each year. However, the nest of Himalayan Griffon varies much in different characters, and even sometimes nests are not established entirely.
Sometime, old nest of Lammergeyer is used, singly or few pairs scattered on same
6 cliff face. The nesting material is carried in the beak and both males and females share in the labor of incubation (Dodsworth, 1913; Baker, 1935; Bates and Lowther, 1952;
Lees and Christie, 2001).
The whole breeding cycle of the Himalayan Griffon extends up to seven months of the year. In Himalayas, the breeding season extends from January to March. Pairing is carried out on cliffs, while during copulation extra-ordinary hoarse roaring noise is produced, which can be heard from a long distance (Dodsworth, 1913). Egg laying starts in February in Kashmir and the clutch consists of one egg. However, the earliest eggs laying date has been reported as the January 14 and the latest as March 18. The eggs are usually white, unspotted and a normal clutch is a singleton. The egg is laid with streaks and blotches of reddish brown (Roberts, 1991). The eggs vary in length from 3.52 - 4.17 inches, and 2.7 - 2.92 inches in breadth, with the average size as 3.81
2.77 inches. The shape of egg varies considerably and majority of the specimens are long pointed ovals, while other shapes may be broad ovals with slightly pointed small end.
During incubation, these vultures also soil their eggs like Gyps bengalensis
(Dodsworth, 1913). Nestlings are feathered by early July, but wings and tail are still short and fledging starts in early August (Bates and Lowther, 1952).
1.5. Population and Conservation Status
The population of Cape Griffon, an endemic species of South Africa, has been declined slowly due to the accidental poisoning, disturbance stress, collision and electrocution (Birdlife International, 2007). A large decline of vultures in West Africa was also recorded over last 35 years (Thiollay, 2006). Habitat destruction, poisoning
7 from the baits and vanishing of large ungulates due to overexploitation of bush meat and scarcity of carcasses of domesticated livestock were considered among the important factors responsible for decline of Slender-billed vultures and Oriental
White-backed. At the end of 20th century, these two species were generally abundant in Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Thailand but now only few fragmented population remained (Pain et al., 2003). Persecution is one of the minor factors responsible for declining the South Asian vultures, while the major factor is to be believed as the shortage of food (Srikosamatara and Suteethrn, 1995).
During the 20th century, the population of Gyps vultures was perhaps declining slowly in many parts of their distribution range. However, in India, Pakistan and Nepal, the populations of Long billed and Oriental White backed vultures remained stable till
1990 (Pain et al., 2008). During 1980s, these vultures were the largest common raptors and their large flocks were the main hazard to aircrafts in India (Houston,
1985; Grubh et al., 1990). The reason of their abundance was the availability of abundant food supply in the form of carcasses of domesticated livestock especially ungulates. In India the rearing of cattle for production of milk and using as beasts of burden were very common in village economy throughout the Indian Subcontinent.
Slaughtering of cows was prohibited in large parts of India, as the Hindu considered cows as secret animals, when cows die because of natural death, they were left open in villages or disposed of by placing them in rubbish damps near villages or cites. The vultures scavenge the soft parts of cows, as a result vulture populations get benefited the huge amount of food available. A group of vultures can eat the whole dead body of cow within few hours, leaving their bones left (Pain et al., 1993).
8 The period of Gyps vultures’ abundance was suddenly end in 1990 in the Sub- continent. By mid of 1990, Indian media highlighted the sharp declining of vultures in
Northern India. This decline was documented firstly by Bombay Natural History
Society (BNHS) while monitoring vultures at Keoladeo National Park of Rajasthan,
India. Between 1981-1990, Prakash et al. (1999) and Prakash (2003) also reported the declining of Gyps bengalensis and Gyps indicus in India, respectively. Afterwards, to assess the population status of vultures, detailed national wise surveys were carried out by BNHS between 1991-1993 (Samant et al., 1995). About 96% decline of G. bengalensis between 1991-1993 and 92% decline of G. indicus between 2000-2007
(Prakash, 1999). These declines remained continue at the rate of 44% for Oriental
White-backed vulture and 16% long billed vulture per year afterwards (Prakash et al.,
2003, 2007). Similar declining of G. bengalensis population was also recorded in the different areas of Nepal (Barel et al., 2004).
After the findings of the above said studies, the surveys were carried out in Punjab,
Pakistan. These surveys revealed the 50% per year decline of population of G. bengalensis in year 2003-2004 (Gilbert et al., 2004, 2006; Green et al., 2004).
Similarly, the status of G. indicus was also investigated in Sindh Province of Pakistan, and a similar decline in population was recorded with an annual rate of 25% per annum (Gilbert et al., 2004).
In 2003, studies were initiated to investigate the rapid declining of vultures.
Diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) used to decrease fever, pain and inflammation in livestock, emerged as the sole cause of rapid declining of G. bengalensis population in Punjab Pakistan (Oaks et al., 2004).
9 Due to this rapid populations decline of vultures, three species of Gyps vulture
(Oriental White-backed Vulture, Slender-billed Vulture and Long-billed Vulture) have now been considered as critically endangered by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (Birdlife International, 2001). In Pakistan and Nepal similar effects on Gyps have been studied by Peregrine Funds (Gilbert et al., 2002). During breeding seasons between the 2000/01 and 2003/04, their population declined at a rapid annual rate of 100%, 100% and 67%, at three study colonies in Pakistan, respectively (Watson et al., 2004). This rapid decline was due to high mortality rate of sub-adult and adult population.
Himalayan Griffon Vulture had a large global population estimated between 100,000–
1,000,000 individuals (Blandford, 1895). The current global population trends have not been monitored properly. However, based on the available information, it is believed that their population has not approached to the thresholds of population decline criteria of the IUCN Red List. They were also not considered as Vulnerable under range size criterion, as they do not meet the definition for this category (i.e.,
<20,000 km2 Extent of Occurrence in combination with a declining range size, severe habitat fragmentation with fragmented population in small number of locations etc.)
(IUCN, 2012). Accordingly, the species has been evaluated as the Least Concern
(BirdLife International 2012). The best known stronghold for the Himalayan Griffon
Vultures in Asia is Annapurna, having high density of this species (Baral et al., 2002).
Estimates based on road transect counts showed that 229339 Himalayan Griffons occupying the 2.5 million km2 area in Tibetan plateau (Xin Lu et al., 2009). Although, they are not globally considered as threatened or near-threatened species but their population may still be declining through much of their range and reasons for the decline are not known (Baral et al., 2002; Acharya et al., 2009; IUCN, 2012).
10 A small-scale survey of Himalayan Griffon conducted in Annapurna conservation area Nepal, for population, their resting sites and availability of carcasses of food, surprisingly estimated a low number of vultures comprising of only six individuals
(Giri and Baral, 2002). The population of Himalayan Griffons has continuously declined in the Mastang and other areas of Nepal (Green et al., 2004). Similar populations declining have also been recoded from different areas of India and
Pakistan. If these decline are replicated in other region i.e. Himalayan region, then its conservation status needs to be reassessed urgently suggesting immediate conservation measures before their population follow the same cause as other Gyps species has experienced in the South Asia (Acharya et al., 2009).
Four most important threats to vulture were categorized as poisoning, habitat loss, disturbance, lack of awareness and declining food resources. Among these the ultimate limiting factor on the vulture population is food (Armstrong, 1993). While feeding on the carcasses of livestock (dozed with the diclofenac drug shortly before death), vultures are exposed to this drug which leads to the death of these birds from kidney failure within a few days of exposure (Swan et al., 2006). Recently, it has been recorded that some other NSAIDs (other than the diclofenac) are also harmful to vultures and other scavenging birds (Cuthbert et al., 2006).
Other principle reasons for the vulture declines are: development of modern agricultural methods and intensive use of pesticides; significant decrease in food sources due to the reduction in the number of sheep and cattle, wildlife hunting, low reproductive potential, loss of habitat for nesting, contagious diseases, environmental pollution and damage to the natural environment (Leshem, 1985; Pain et al., 2003;
Prakash et al., 2003; Green et al., 2004).
11 1.6. Habitat Utilization
Himalayan Griffon Vulture is resident and relatively sedentary bird. It inhabits and breeds in temperate grassland and rocky areas between 600-4500m and soaring birds have been seen as high as 5000. In winter, non-breeding birds haunt along the main valleys as low as 175 m, ascending in summer in highest alpine slopes, where nomadic sheep and goat flocks are more likely to provide food (Roberts, 1991; Lees and Christie, 2001; Li and Kasorndorkbua, 2008).
Himalayan Griffon is entirely a cliff builder and generally select unapproachable and inaccessible sites with over hanging crests (Baker, 1935). Nesting sites are usually selected in very high inaccessible and steep cliffs with suitable ledges and abandoned caves on the elevated parts of valleys around villages (Thakur, 2014, Suwal, 2003; Li and Kasorndorkbua, 2008).
1.7. Food and Feeding Biology
Vultures search widely for carcasses by keenly scanning the area during their soaring flights (Houston, 1974, Ruxton and Houston, 2004). Such keen eye sighted searches enable these birds to locate their food more easily than any other terrestrial scavengers. The Himalayan Griffon Vulture is proud and magnificent raptor and almost entirely feeds on carrion by searching for dead animals by soaring on thermals and scavenging at garbage dumps and slaughterhouses (Grimmett et al., 1998;
Rehmani, 1998). The carrion may be fresh, but they often consume rotten, if fresher meat is not available (Rehmani, 1998). They can detoxify bacterial toxins in rotting flesh (Houston and Cooper, 1975). Lack of food availability is major threat to vultures as a result of human activities especially due to forestry activities and approaching the breeding sites (Abreu, 1987). Vultures have declined in United Arab Emeritus (UAE)
12 due to reduced available food as a result of improved veterinary care of domestic livestock (Cunningham, 2002).
The general abundance of vultures in some countries like India as compared to other countries is because of low beef eating habits due to which cattle carcasses are abundant for vultures and other scavenging species. In other countries of Asia, where beef eating is more common, fewer cattle carcasses are available to the vultures.
Declines of population may occur as a result of a combination of other factors
(Rehmani, 1998).
Himalayan Griffon Vultures are mostly attracted by the presence of Ravens and
Bearded vultures on the carcasses. It is a voracious feeder and usually gathered in large numbers at carcasses, and a flock can consume a carcass of Yak within 2 hours.
They show highly aggressive behavior during feeding, however, they can be kept away from the carcasses by wolves and other carnivorous mammals (Loke Wan Tho,
1957).
1.8. Ethno-vulture Relationship
Vultures play a vital role in the natural sanitation process by ripping meat from carcasses before becoming rotten. While consuming these carrions, they play a vital role in preventing the spread of different diseases which otherwise can badly affect human beings and other animals. Human hunting pressure on the wild ungulates in the upland habitat range of the Himalayan Griffon Vulture has resulted into a significant reduction in the availability of wild carrion as opposed to livestock (Newton, 1979).
13 1.9. Justification of Present Study
Vultures have always been considered important due to their vital roles in ecology, tradition and aesthetics in the Subcontinent (Virani et al., 2002). They are the natural cleaners of the ecosystem by eating flesh from carcasses (Lerner and Mindell, 2005).
Thus they help to maintain the sanitation of the area inhabited by the human population and play a vital role in controlling outburst of epidemics and keeping the environment clean (Virani et al., 2002; Gautam and Baral, 2003). These crucial functions of vultures are now threatened due to the sharply declining populations of
Gyps vultures as since the early 1990s, more than 92% of their populations have already diminished in the various parts of the Indian subcontinent (Prakash et al.,
2003; Green et al., 2004; Gilbert et al., 2004, 2006). However, the actual current population status of Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis), which belongs to the same genus, has not been explored properly through most of its distribution range.
Being the member of same genus, they many also are prone to catastrophic decline in southeast and south Asia. It is unclear whether this species is also affected by the late
1990’s population crashes among other Gyps vultures at lower altitudes in Pakistan,
India and Nepal (Lees and Christie, 2001). Furthermore, their other biological aspects e.g., breeding biology, habitat and food ecology, have never or minutely been explored throughout the range. These aspects are extremely important to understand the significant impact on their population (Flint et al., 1984).
Breeding biology, habitat requirements, food availability and feeding behavior of
Himalayan Griffon have never been studied in Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK),
Pakistan. The current population dynamics of Himalayan Griffon are also unknown.
The catastrophic decline in other species of the sub-continent has already occurred
14 and the Himalayan Griffon may not be the exception. Personal observations in AJK indicate that the Himalayan Griffons once seen very frequently are nowadays encountered very rarely.
Studies on other vulture species have shown that the diclofenac drug was the major cause of population decline of lowland vultures in India, Nepal and Pakistan (Shultz et al., 2004; Oaks et al., 2004). Like other lowland species of Gyps, the lethal effects of diclofenac on Himalayan Griffon cannot be ruled out (Swan et al., 2006).
The above discussion revealed that the Himalayan vultures have critical important, not only because of conservation point of view, but also having fundamental ecological role in the area. Their unknown conservation status restricts the effective conservation measures in AJK/Pakistan and raises some critical research questions that whether these vultures have also been affected by the sudden population crash like the other related three species have gone through, and if so, then either they are facing the same problem or have some other factors. Keeping in view the importance of the species in question, the unknown status, the current study was designed to collect the scientific information on the above raised questions about the important biological aspects of this species, particularly aiming at following objectives:
1.10. Aims and Objectives
To assess the breeding biology and breeding success including studying of
overall breeding season, nest building and nest structure, egg laying,
incubation, hatching, brooding, fledging at conceivable sites, nest status
during breeding season including recording of active nests, passive nests,
overall nest population, failure of nest and nest success of Himalayan Griffon
(Gyps. himalayensis) in Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
15 To determine the habitat utilization of Himalayan Griffon (Gyps.
himalayensis).
To determine foraging behaviour, food and feeding patterns, and the impact of
the food supply on the decline of Himalayan Griffon in Azad Kashmir,
Pakistan.
To determine the spatial and temporal population status of Himalayan Griffon
Vulture in study area
To find out the relation and perception of local people with reference to
Himalayan griffon vulture in the study area.
To recommend the conservation measures needed for Himalayan griffon
vulture in the study area.
16 Chapter II
MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Study Area
The state of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) is located in the north east of Pakistan.
The territory lies between longitude 73o – 75o and latitude 33o – 36o, covering an area of 13,297 square kilometers on the west of the Indian-held Jammu and Kashmir separated by the Line of Control (LoC). To the south and west, it borders with
Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces of Pakistan, respectively (Fig. 2.1;
GoAJK, 2013).
AJK falls within the foothills of the western Himalaya. The topography is mainly hilly and mountainous with valleys, deep ravines, rocky and undulating terrain. The northern part of the state is generally mountainous while southern part is relatively plain. The administrative setup of the northern part includes districts of Neelum,
Muzaffarabad, Hattian, Bagh, Haveli, Poonch, and Sudhnoti while the southern part comprises Kotli, Mirpur, and Bhimber districts (GoAJK, 2013).
Diverse topographical features have resulted a wide range of climatic conditions. The northern districts have generally moist temperate climate influenced by the monsoon weather (except the upper part of Neelum). The southern part has dry sub- tropical climate with hot weather in summers and moderate cold in winters.
Accordingly, the amount and distribution of average annual rainfall also varies in different regions ranging between 1000 mm and 2000 mm, while about 30-60% precipitation is received in the shape of snow in the northern district between
December and January. Average maximum and minimum temperatures range from
17 20°C to 32°C and 04°C to 07°C, respectively. The Neelum, Jhelum and Poonch
Rivers are the main water resources of the state.
Fig. 2.1: Map of the State of Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
18 The estimated human population of the state is around 4.257 million. On average, 2-3 livestock heads/household are generally reared, which are composed of goats
(1598830), sheep (235442), cows/bulls (557533), buffalos (654214), horses (11328), mules (6589), donkeys (57208), camels (614) besides 4232443 heads of poultry
(GoAJK, 2013).
Due to diverse topography and climatology, a great diversity of vegetation consisting of trees, shrubs, grasses and herbs is found in the area which supports associated faunal diversity (mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians etc.). The identified forest types in AJK are Montane Subtropical Semi-evergreen Forests, consisting of
Subtropical Scrub and Subtropical Pine Forests; Montane Temperate Forests consisting of Himalayan Moist and Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests; Sub-alpine
Forests and Alpine pastures (Termizi, 2001). The important wildlife species found in
AJK are Snow leopard, Common leopards, Musk deer, Himalayan ibex, Grey goral,
Rhesus monkey, Grey langur, Black bear, Brown bear, Western tragopon, Koklas pheasant, Monal pheasant, Cheer pheasant, Kaleej pheasant, Partridges (Black and
Grey) and different types of raptors including Golden eagle, Himalayan griffon vulture etc. In addition, there are hundreds of other mammals, resident and migratory birds, scavengers, birds of prey, reptiles and insects etc (GoAJK, 2005).
2.1.1. Study Colonies
Himalayan Griffon Vulture is one of the vulture species found in AJK. During initial surveys of different areas, six active colonies were found to exist in the northern parts of AJK. Two colonies found in District Neelum and Haveli, located in very remote were not included in the detailed periodic studies.
19 Four vulture colonies were monitored during 2005-2010. Two colonies (Nardajian and Chhum) were located in Jhelum Valley and other two (Talgran and Sarli Sacha) in Neelum Valley (Fig. 2.2). All these colonies were named after the names of the nearby villages. The first colony (Nardajian colony, 34˚12 13.41N, 73˚50 35.80E;
2180m above sea level, asl.) was established on a steep rock at a height of 500m from
Nardajian Village. A permanent water source of Tararan Nullah is passing from the right side of the colony. The second colony (Chhum colony, 34˚12 43.32N, 73˚56
17.88E; 2090m asl.) was situated at about 3km away from Nardajian near Chhum village. Both colonies were located at 20-23 km away from Chinari, a famous town on
Srinagar Muzaffarabad Highway. This colony was present at a steep slope of 1000m radius, 700m higher from the Chhum village. The Qazinag Nullah is flowing from the left side of the colony.
The third colony i.e., Talgran colony (34˚27 49.41N, 73˚27 32.03E, 1670 m asl.) was located in Neelum Valley near the western boundary of Machiara National Park
(MNP), at a distance of about 3km from Talgran village and 5km from Batal village on Kahori-Saidpur road. The colony built on steep inaccessible cliffs of 500 meter radius was located at Trakani Wala Par near Talgran village.
The 4th colony was Sarli Sacha colony (34˚30 51.80N, 73˚39 23.43E, 2724 m asl.), located at a distance of 500m from Sarli Sacha village inside the south eastern boundary of MNP. The colony was located in two adjacent steep cliffs interspersed with Pinus wallichiana.
20 Fig. 2.2: Location/Distribution of Himalayan Griffon Vulture colonies in AJK during 2005-2010.
21 2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Breeding Biology
Sum total of 187 surveys were conducted in five years (2005, 2007-2010) to collect the data on breeding biology of Himalayan griffon in four vulture colonies (i.e.,
Talgran, Sarli Sacha, Nardajian and Chhum). On average each colony was visited twice a month to check the status and number of vulture present in each colony. All observations were taken at the distance of 100-300m from the breeding cliffs. Focal scan sampling method was used to monitor the breeding status and breeding behavior of breeding population of each colony (Acharya et al., 2009). Of total surveys in
Jhelum Valley (Nardajian and Chhum), 16 were conducted each in 2005 and 2007, 14 in 2008, 16 each in 2009 and 2010. Similarly, 8 visits were conducted in Talgran and
16 visits in Sarli Sacha in 2005. During the years 2007-2009, 08 visits were conducted each in Talgran and Sarli Sacha. In 2010, 8 visits were conducted in Talgran and 16 visits in Sarli Sacha. The criterion of minimum of two visits per season was adopted to adequately determine the breeding success (Postuplaslsky, 1974).
Obtaining detailed data on breeding biology of a cliff-nesting raptor including egg laying, hatching, asynchrony, diet and causes of breeding failure can be a difficult task due to the inaccessibility of the location on cliffs (Richardson and Miller, 1997).
During each visit, five minutes were fixed to observe the breeding status of each nest in each colony.
All observations were recorded from 8.00-11.00 a.m. in the morning. Nests were identified by the presence of the nesting material and white past (excreta) below the nest or by the presence of the incubating vulture in the nest. All the identified nests were marked (numbered) in a sequence by some identification marks. Confirmation of
22 occupied, active and inactive nest was based on the criteria laid down by Postupalsky
(1974). An active breeding pair was defined as one that laid an egg, and non-breeding pair was one that occupied the nest at least for three week visits, but did not lay an egg. On each visit, a nest was considered occupied by a pair when two adult vultures were observed at the nest, one standing and one incubating or one incubating adult was present or one adult with chick or a young chick alone was present in the nest.
Thus, occupied nests were the nests occupied by the vulture pairs at least for three week visits. However, nests occupied by the active breeding pairs were active nests while nests occupied by the non-breeding pairs were considered as inactive nests.
Breeding success was calculated as the number of fledglings divided by the number of breeding pairs. Productivity was defined as the number of fledglings divided by the total number of pairs (breeding and non-breeding).
The vulture colonies and different nests were carefully observed using binoculars
(Canon 30×50) and spotting scope (Bushnell, 800×70 mm) from a suitable distance
(100-300m) in front of each colony. All colonies were located on inaccessible cliffs.
Data were collected during each breeding season for each colony (from February to
September). The breeding cycle of Himalayan Griffon started in December and ended in August/September.
In order to calculate the phenology of the colonies, the information obtained for over the last 10 years was used. The data on commencement of incubation was determined by the median day between the last visit with an empty nest or a standing adult and the first visit with the incubating bird. The hatching date was determined by the median day between the last visit with an incubating adult and the first visit with adult and chick. Similarly, the fledging date was determined by the median day between the
23 last visit to the nest with young present and the first visit to the nest when it was empty (Puente, 2005).
Observations for first two months (December, January) of breeding cycle were not taken since colonies were located on higher altitudes and area was completely covered with snow during these two months. Some additional visits were made to find out the status of non-breeding population, availability of carcasses and ethno-vulture relationship. The status of pairs was considered as ‘breeding pairs’ on the basis of their behavioral patterns such as site selection, observing the two adults, one in sitting in the nest and the other, if present, near by the nesting site. A colony was considered as active, if it was occupied by at least an active egg (Xirouchakis and Mylonas,
2005).
2.2.2. Population Status
For data collection on population dynamics of Himalayan Griffon, 187 transects surveys were carried out in the Jhelum Valley and Neelum Valley in the breeding sites of these vultures during 2005, 2007-2010. Two breeding sites of Jhelum Valley are geographically isolated from the sites of Neelum Valley (Talgran and Machiara
National Park) by a road distance of about 70 km between them. Generally, roads towards the colonies were used as transects to assess the population status of
Himalayan Griffon Vultures. Sometimes it was difficult to find out the exact distance from transect to the vultures, especially when they were soaring. Therefore, the fixed width stripe transect method was adopted using 1000m strip-width (Bibby et al.,
2000). Outside colonies, a vehicle (4×4 Jeep) was used at a speed of 20 km/hours with
2-5 observers keeping record of individuals. All counts were conducted during breeding season, starting from February to August. The density of Himalayan Griffon
24 was calculated using the data collected during transect surveys and individuals observed in nesting sites of the colony. To minimize the double counting, the method of Virani et al. (2008) was adopted and the probability of counting of the same bird twice was low because of rarity of their occurrence (Xin Lu et al., 2009). Counting the numbers of raptors observed over the distance travelled is usually the primary method of estimation of population index (Fuller and Mosher, 1981; Bibby et al.,
2000). The length of transects covered per visit varied depending upon the settlement, altitude and climate. All vultures were observed from both sides of the road at a distance of 500 m, however, some biasness may also be present in each year. The observations were made from 7.00 to 11.00 am and 2.00 to 6.00 p.m., when vultures are more active.
2.2.3. Habitat and Food
To collect the information about the different habitat variables and their relationship with breeding parameters and population of vulture, all 4 colonies and their habitats were regularly monitored during 2005-2010. The investigated parameters were broadly categorized as geomorphologic, anthropogenic, food availability and intraspecific variables.
Location, aspect and elevation of each colony/cliff above sea level were recorded using GPS device (Garmin Etrax 30), while the height (from the base) and cliff width were measured with the help of clinometer and measuring tape respectively. Rock exposure was determined by compass. Other geomorphic variables like percentage of rocky area, nest coverage by shelter and general pattern of vegetation were recorded using binoculars and telescope from the selected observation points at average distance of 500m from the parallel accessible hill/cliff opposite to each inaccessible
25 colony at about the similar elevation/height (Borello and Borellow, 1993).
Photographs were taken with zoom camera (Nikon, D3100) and later on analyzed.
The anthropogenic variables i.e., percentage of pastures, vegetation cover, rural development, availability of water sources, human settlements, cultivation status and availability of roads within the 5km radius of breeding colonies were recorded with the help of binoculars and telescope from the observation points selected on the top of the valleys covering the radius of 5km from the vulture colonies.
To assess the status of the variables related to food availability, surveys were carried out in the villages within 5-10 km radius around vulture colony. During these surveys, numbers of livestock (including sedentary and migratory) and rubbish dumps were recorded during each breeding season of the study period.
For assessing the livestock population, random sampling surveys of 118 households were carried out in the nearby villages. The collected data were extrapolated to all villages to estimate total available livestock population according to the total households of district Muzaffarabad and Hattian where vulture colonies were present.
Every animal was converted into biomass according to its weight and natural annual mortality rate. Based on the annual total biomass (kg), total daily food supply for vultures was calculated (Fernandez et al., 1996).
Ad hoc observations on the availability of the carcasses, population trend
(increase/decrease) of livestock, livestock foraging patterns, livestock mortality, disposal practices of livestock carcasses, animal husbandry practices, feeding behavior of vultures at available carcasses and their interspecific behavior all were recorded during the transect surveys within radius of 5km during five-year study period.
26 2.2.4. Ethno-Vulture Relationship
Detailed surveys based on interviews and questionnaires were carried out in the nearby villages of the study colonies (Annexure I). Efforts were made to find out the knowledge, views and perceptions of local people about vulture population decline, encounter with carcasses, hunting of vultures in study area, use of pesticides and diclofenac in study area, use of veterinary services, decrease/increase of livestock or any other impact of vulture decline, awareness about the use of pesticides.
During transect surveys, interviews were also carried out with nomads, veterinary government officials and veterinarians storekeeper to obtain the information about the availability and use of diclofenac drug for livestock in study area.
2.2.5. Statistical Analysis
Statistical tests including mean, standard error of mean, correlation, regression, One- way and Two-way Analysis of Variance followed by LSD were performed with the help of MS Excel 2010 and SPSS (ver.16).
27 CHAPTER III
RESULTS
In the wake of catastrophic decline of Gyps vultures in south Asia and elsewhere there was a point of concern to ascertain the overall status of Himalayan Griffons Gyps himalayensis. Therefore, some four sites, namely Nardajian, Chhum, Sarli Sacha and
Talgran were earmarked for detailed investigations. A total of 187 field visits, predominantly during breeding season, were conducted starting from 2005, 2007-
2010 with the exception of year 2006, when study area was struck by a massive earthquake on October 8, 2005 and destroyed roads and bridge structures leading to these sampling sites. The results are hereby analyzed and being narrated in the following sections:
3.1. Breeding Biology
3.1.1. Nest Status
During the course of five years’ study, a total of 98 nests were found occupied by the vultures, out of which 75 were active and 23 inactive. Among the active nests, 61 successfully fledged, while the remaining 14 failed (n=9) or destroyed (n=5). The maximum number of active nests or breeding pairs was recorded at Chhum (4.4±2.30) and Sarli Sacha (4.4±2.88) while minimum at Talgran (2.2±1.30) study site (Table
3.1).
28 Table 3.1: Summary of Himalayan Griffons nest status (mean±SEM) at four study sites.
Active Study Sites Occupied Nests or Inactive Failed nests Successful Breeding nests or nests nests pairs fledged Nardajian 5.0±2.82 4.2±1.92 0.8±1.30 2.2±2.38 2.0±1.00
Chhum 5.4±1.67 4.4±2.30 1.0±1.22 0.2±0.44 4.2±1.92 Sarli Sacha 6.8±2.38 4.4±2.88 2.4±1.51 0.0±0.00 4.4±2.88 Talgran 2.4±1.14 2.2±1.30 0.2±0.44 0.4±0.54 1.8±1.30
A continuous decline was recorded in occupied and active nests in the first three years, while a gradual increase in breeding pairs was recorded in subsequent years
(n=15). Evidently, a maximum of 30 occupied nests (7.50±2.52) were observed in year one whereas minimum of 14 (3.50±1.91) were seen in year three. Overall, there had been 40% @6.66% p.a. decline in active nests and 33.33% @5.5% p.a. in occupied nests recorded (Fig. 3.1).
Fig. 3.1: Overall nests’ status (mean±SEM) of Himalayan Griffons in study area.
29 A maximum of 94.4% pair laying was observed in yr 2 while minimum of 62.50% in yr 3. Accordingly, there was an overall decline of 10% @2% p.a. during the study period (Fig. 3.2).
Fig. 3.2: Annual breeding activities status of Himalayan Griffons in study area.
There was a strong positive correlation (r=0.94) between occupied nests and active nests. The percentage of pairs laying was negatively correlated (r=-0.79) with inactive nests and positively correlated (r=0.67) with active nests (Table 3.2).
30 Table 3.2: Correlation matrix of various breeding parameters of Himalayan Griffons during study period.
nests nests Years laying fledged Breeding Active nests Inactive nests Percentage of Occupied nests failure/Mortality Successful nests/ the basis of active Percentage of Pair successful clutches Breeding success on Breeding success on the basis of occupied
Years 1.00 Occupied nests -0.68 1.00 Active nests -0.73 0.94 1.00 Percentage of Pair -0.47 0.39 0.67 1.00 laying Inactive nests 0.10 0.26 -0.08 -0.79 1.00 Successful -0.93 0.84 0.93 0.67 -0.18 1.00 nests/fledged Percentage of -0.50 -0.27 -0.21 -0.05 -0.21 0.16 1.00 successful clutches Breeding 0.16 0.59 0.54 0.26 0.19 0.20 -0.92 1.00 failure/Mortality Breeding success on -0.50 -0.27 -0.21 -0.06 -0.20 0.16 1.00 -0.92 1.00 the basis of active nests Breeding success on -0.70 0.10 0.36 0.72 -0.74 0.62 0.66 -0.45 0.65 1.00 the basis of occupied nests
Analysis of Variance (2-way ANOVA) showed a non-significant difference
(F4,12=3.55, p=0.39) in total number of active nests during different breeding seasons and between study colonies (F3,12=1.98, p=0.17).
Himalayan Griffons start breeding activities with the process of mate selection, pairing and mating in December. It was coupled with nest construction that continued till last week of January. In the rest phase during nest building activities, the male bird gently taps the female on her head, back or neck with his beak in some form of flatter. Thereby, female invites mating by assuming the right position and the male ascends by acquiring firm grip on her head with his beak. Mating occurred at the
31 nest. However, the process of mating usually lasts for over 30 minutes, where most of
the time was taken up by the male trying to find a balance on the female back. The
male was seen to utter a distinctive and gruff call throughout the treading. Finally, the
male established his balance and then beat at the female with his tail, until, eventually;
both partners twisting their tails juxtaposed their cloacas.
3.1.2. Egg Laying and Incubation
All the observed nests had a single egg, usually off-white in colour. On yearly counts
at all sites, a maximum of 24 eggs (6.00±2.31) were laid in year one, while minimum
of nine eggs (2.25±0.96) were seen in year three. However, during the course of five
years’ observations in entire study area, a cumulative of 76.5% (n=75) eggs were
found from total occupied nests (n=98). Where, a maximum of 23 eggs (4.6±2.41)
were laid at Chhum and minimum of 11 (2.2±1.30) were laid at Talgran (Table 3.3).
Table 3.3: Details of number of eggs laid at each study site during study period.
Sites Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 mean±SEM
Nardajian 4.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 6.0 3.8±1.48
Chhum 8.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 6.0 4.6±2.41
Sarli-Sacha 8.0 7.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 4.4±2.88
Talgran 4.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 2.2±1.30 mean±SEM 6.00±2.31 4.25±2.06 2.25±0.96 2.50±0.58 3.75±2.63
There was consistent decline in the mean numbers of egg laid during yr-1 (6.00±2.31)
to yr-3 (2.25±0.96). However, a gradual increase in number of eggs laid was recorded
32 from yr-4 (2.50±0.58) to yr-5 (3.75±2.63). The fitted regression line explains only
42.81 % of variation in mean number of eggs laid in different years (Fig. 3.3).
Fig. 3.3: A declining trend in mean numbers of eggs laid by Himalayan Griffons during study period.
During the course of five years’ observations, the egg laying started from February 11 and lasted till March 31. However, most of the eggs, i.e., 86% were laid between third week of February to second week of March (Fig. 3.4).
33
Fig. 3.4: Himalayan Griffons eggs’ laying density observed during study period.
Majority of the eggs (n=38) were laid during March 1-10 at all study sites with an exception at Sarli-Sacha (Fig. 3.5).
40 Talgran 35 SarliSacha 30 Chhum 25 Nardajian 20 15 10 Numers Numers eggsof laid 5 0 11-20 21-28 1-10 11-20 21-31 February March Dates of egg laying
Fig. 3.5: Breakup of Eggs laying period of Himalayan Griffons at each study site.
34 The majority of eggs (n=38) were laid during March 1-10 followed by February 21-28
(n=27) during five-year study period. However, in year 2 and 4, the maximum eggs were laid during February 21-28 (n=20) (Fig. 3.6).
40 35 2010 30 2009 25 2008 20 2007 15 2005 No. ofNo. egglaid 10 5 0 11-20 21-28 1-10 11-20 21-31 February March Dates of egg layings
Fig. 3.6: Annual variation in eggs laying dates of Himalayan Griffon Vulture during different study years.
Mean eggs laying dates in different sites ranged from February 24 (day 55± 9.67 of the year) to March 6 (day 65±5.59) during the five years (Fig. 3.7). Similarly, the variation in mean eggs laying dates during all study years ranged from February 25
(56.11±6.79), to March 11 (70±9.10) (Fig. 3.8). The overall mean of eggs laying date in all sites during different study years was March 1 (60.41±8.72).
35
Fig. 3.7: Variation in Mean (±SEM) Eggs laying dates of Himalayan Griffons in four study sites.
Fig. 3.8: Annual Variation in Mean (±SEM) Eggs laying dates of Himalayan Griffon Vulture.
The two-way ANOVA reveals that the mean laying dates were significantly different in different colonies (F3, 55 =12.31, p<0.0001, n=75) and also between different years
(F4,55 =11.38, p<0.0001, n=75). There was also a significant interaction between colonies and breeding years (F 12,55 =6.09, p<0.0001). Post hoc analysis using LSD
36 showed a significant difference in mean egg laying dates of Nardajian with Chhum
(p=0.001), Sarli Sacha (p<0.0001) and Talgran (p<0.0001). Further, post hoc analysis also revealed a significant difference in mean laying dates of year 1 from year 2
(p=0.05), year4 (p<0.000), year 5 (p=0.016) breeding years.
There was a negative correlation (r=-0.50) between percentage of pair laying and years while positive correlations were recorded between the percentage pair laying, the occupied nests (r=0.39) and active nest (r=0.67) (Table 3.2). The minimum incubation period was recorded as 37 days and the maximum as 57 days. Most of times, single parent (male or female) was involved in incubation.
3.1.3. Hatching and Rearing
Out of 75 eggs laid by Himalayan Griffons in four sites, a total of 63 (86.6%) eggs were hatched successfully during the entire study period. The maximum of eggs hatched were at Chhum (n=22, mean=4.4±2.30) and Sarli Sacha (n=22, mean=4.4±2.88) sites while the minimum egg hatched at Talgran (n=11, mean=1.80±1.30). However, we observed maximum number of eggs hatched in yr-1
(n=22, mean=5.50±3.00), and minimum in 4th (n=8, mean=2.00±0.82) and 5th year
(n=8, mean=2.00±2.16) (Table 3.4).
Table 3.4: Details of number of eggs hatched during study period.
Sites Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Total
Nardajian 2.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 10
Chhum 8.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 22
Sarli Sacha 8.0 7.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 22
Talgran 4.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 9
37 There was consistent decline in the mean number of hatchings from year 1 (2005) to year-4 (2009), however, a slight increase was recorded in year-5 (2010) (Fig. 3.9). A negative value of regression coefficient (-0.825) revealed the decreasing trend of mean number of eggs hatched during study period. Regression analysis shows that
77.12% of variation is explained by the regression equation or regression line drawn in Fig. 3.9.
Fig. 3.9: Trends in mean numbers of eggs hatched by Himalayan Griffons during study period.
In the study area, the hatching period started from first week of April till the 2nd week of May. The earliest egg was hatched on April 4 while the latest on May 18. During the study period, majority of the eggs hatched during April 21-30 (n=30, 6±3.08) followed by April 11-20 (n=22, 4.4±2.60) (Fig. 3.10).
38 8 7 6 5 ) numbers 4 SEM
± 3 2 Mean( 1 0 1-10 11-20 21-30 1-10 11-20 April May Dates
Fig. 3.10: Eggs hatching density of Himalayan Griffons during study period.
Among all sites, majority (n=31) of hatchings were recorded during April 21-30 followed by April 11-20 (n=17). However, at Chhum, the maximum eggs (n=12) were hatched during April 11-20 (Fig. 3.11).
35 Talgran 30 SarliSacha 25 Chhum 20 Nardajian
15
10 Numersof Hatchings 5
0 1-10 11-20 21-30 1-10 11-20 April May Dates of Hatching
Fig. 3.11: Variation in hatching dates of Himalayan Griffon Vulture at four study sites.
Among active nests, the successful clutches ranged from minimum (78.13%) in yr-1 to the maximum (100%) in yr-3 (Fig. 3.2). The majority (n=30) of hatchings were
39 recorded among April 21-30 followed by April 11-20 (n=17) during different study years. However, in yr-2, the maximum eggs (n=6) were hatched during May 1-10
(Fig. 3.12).
35 2010 30 2009
25 2008 2007 20 2005 15
No. of hatchings 10
5
0 1-10 11-20 21-30 1-10 11-20 April May Dates of hatchings
Fig. 3.12: Annual variation in hatching dates of Himalayan Griffons during study period.
Mean eggs hatching dates in different sites ranged from April 21 (day 111± 6.46 of the year) to April 27 (day 117±10.59) during the five years (Fig. 3.13). Similarly, the variation in mean hatching dates ranged from April 19 (109±6.58), to April 27
(117±9.00) (Fig. 3.14). The overall mean hatching date in all sites during different study years was April 23 (113.37±7.45). The minimum rearing period was observed as 106 days and the maximum as 109 days.
40
Fig. 3.13: Variation in Mean (±SEM) hatching dates of Himalayan Griffons in all study sites.
Fig. 3.14: Annual variation in Mean (±SEM) hatching dates of Himalayan Griffons.
The two-way ANOVA reveals that the mean hatching dates was non-significantly different in different colonies (F3, 43, p=0.07), however a highly significant difference in hatching dates was found between different years (F4,43, p<0.0001). Post hoc analysis using LSD showed a significant difference in mean hatching dates of year 1 from year 2 (p=0.005), year 3 (p<0.011), year 4 (p=0.002) and year 5 (p=0.002).
41 There was a negative correlation between percentage of successful clutches and years
(r=-0.50), total occupied nests (r=-0.27), active nests (-0.21), inactive nest (r=-0.21) and percentage of pair laying (r=-0.05) (Table 3.2).
3.1.4. Fledglings
A sum of 61 (96.8% of the total hatchings) fledglings was recorded from four sites.
The maximum numbers of fledglings were recorded in Sarli Sacha (n=22, mean=4.4±2.88) while the minimum in Nardajian (n=9, mean=1.80±1.10) and
Talgran (n=9, mean=1.80±1.30). The maximum of fledglings were recorded in yr-1
(n=20, mean=5.00±3.16), and the minimum in yr-4 (n=8, mean=2.00±0.82) (Table
3.5).
Table 3.5: The number of fledglings observed at each site during study period.
Sites Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Total
Nardajian 1.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 9
Chhum 7.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 21
Sarli Sacha 8.0 7.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 22
Talgran 4.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 9
A continuous decline in fledglings was recorded from yr-1 (n=21) to yr-4 (n=8).
There was an overall fledglings’ decline of 57% during study period with an average annual decline of @ 11% (Table 3.5). Regression coefficient (-0.725) showed a continuous decreasing trend of mean number of fledglings in succeeding years.
Regression equation explains 78.75% variation in mean numbers of hatchlings (Fig.
3.15).
42
Fig. 3.15: Trend in fledglings of Himalayan Griffons during study period.
The fledging started in last week of June and completed in second week of August
(Fig. 3.16). The earliest chicks ever fledged were seen on June 30 (n=2) at Sarli Sacha and the latest on August 13 at Talgran site in yr-1. The maximum fledging (n=24,
37%) was observed between July 21-31 and minimum during August 11-20 (n=1,
2%). Most of the fledging i.e., 91% (n=59) took place between July 11 to August 10
(Fig. 3.16). Among study sites, majority of the fledging (n=25) was recorded during
July 21-31 followed by July 11-20 (n=16) (Fig. 3.17).
43
Fig. 3.16: Fledging pattern of Himalayan Griffons during study period at all study sites.
30 Talgran 25 SarliSacha Chhum 20 Nardajian 15
10 Numersof fledgings 5
0 21-30 1-10 11-20 21-31 1-10 11-20 June July August Dates of fledgings
Fig. 3.17: Variation in fledging dates of Himalayan Griffons.
During yr-1, majority (50%, n=10) of the fledging was recorded during July 21-31, while in yr-2, y-3, yr-4 and yr-5 most of the fledglings were recorded during August
1-10 (47%, n=7), July 11-31 (66%, n=6), July 21-31 (50%, n=4) and July 11-20
(54%, n=7) respectively (Fig. 3.18).
44 30 2010 25 2009 2008 20 2007 15 2005
10 No. of fledgings
5
0 21-30 1-10 11-20 21-31 1-10 11-20 June July August Dates of fledgings
Fig. 3.18: Annual variation in fledgling dates of Himalayan Griffons.
The two-way ANOVA showed a non-significant difference in overall fledging dates in different colonies (F3,41=1.32, p=0.281) and also between different years
(F4,41=0.42, p=0.793).
The mean chick fledging dates in different sites ranged from July 21 (day
202.22±9.45 of the year) to July 30 (day 211.22±6.39) (Fig. 3.19). In the same way, the variation in mean fledging dates ranged from July 19 (200±7.25), to July 26
(207.33±7.13) (Fig. 3.20). The overall mean fledglings date in all sites during different study years was July 23 (204.38±9.13).
45
Fig. 3.19: Variation in mean (±SEM) fledgling dates of Himalayan Griffons.
Fig. 3.20: Annual variation in mean (±SEM) fledgling dates of Himalayan Griffons.
There was a negative correlation between numbers of fledglings and years (r=-0.93) and inactive nests (r=-0.18). A positive correlation was recorded between numbers of
46 fledglings and occupied nests (r=0.84), active nests (r=0.93) and percentage of pair laying (r=0.67) (Table 3.2).
Collectively, during the course of five years’ study, Sarli Sacha site was the most successful site as all the laid eggs (4.4±2.88) were successfully hatched (4.4±2.88) and fledged (4.4±2.88) indicating zero mortality. However, the numbers of eggs laid at one site were the highest in Chhum (4.6±2.41) (Table 3.6).
Table 3.6: Summary of analysis of breeding activities (mean±SEM) of Himalayan Griffons documented during five years study period.
Study Sites Nos. of Eggs Nos. of Eggs Nos. of Fledglings Laid hatched left the nest
Nardajian 3.8±1.48 2.0±1.00 1.8±1.10
Chhum 4.6±2.41 4.4±2.30 4.2±1.92
Sarli Sacha 4.4±2.88 4.4±2.88 4.4±2.88
Talgran 2.2±1.30 1.8±1.30 1.8±1.30
3.1.5. Breeding Success
Mean active nests breeding success (productively) was calculated at Sarli Sacha study site (1.00) while the minimum at Nardajian site (0.53). The mean breeding success on the basis of occupied nests was highest at Chhum (0.77) and lowest at Nardajian
(0.50). The breeding success on the basis of occupied nests was calculated as 0.67
(0.7±0.39), 0.83 (0.78±0.21), 0.64 (0.75±0.30), 0.50 (0.55±0.22), and 0.45
(0.49±0.29) during different study years (yr-1, yr-2 to yr-5) respectively. The breeding success on the basis of active nests was calculated as 0.83, 0.88, 1.0, 0.80,
0.60 during five years respectively (Fig. 3.21).
47
Fig. 3.21: Annual variation in breeding success of Himalayan Griffons at study sites during study period.
An overall annual decrease of 5% was recorded in productivity of vulture population.
The minimum active nest breeding success was recorded in Nardajian (0.143) during yr-5 while the maximum (1.00) was recorded at most of the sites (Fig. 3.22). The overall active nest breeding success declined from 0.83 in yr-1 to 0.60 in yr-5 (Fig.
3.23).
Fig. 3.22: Active nest breeding success of Himalayan Griffons during study period.
The fitted regression line explains only 35.29% of variation in the breeding success during different years (Fig. 3.23).
48
Fig. 3.23: Annual trend in breeding success of Himalayan Griffon Vulture at all study sites.
The two-way ANOVA showed a non-significant difference (F4,12=0.711, p=0.599) in breeding success between different years. However, a significant difference
(F3,12=4.58, p=0.023) was recorded between different study colonies. Post-hoc analysis using LSD showed a significant difference in breeding success between
Sarli-Sacha and Nardajian (0.442), Chhum and Nardajian (0.418), Talgran and
Nardajian (0.276).
There was a negative correlation among years with active nest breeding success (r=-
0.50) and occupied nests breeding success (r=-0.70) (Table 3.2). A strong positive correlation was observed between active nest breeding success and percentage of successful clutches (r=1.00) and between occupied nest breeding success and percentage of successful clutches (r=0.66) (Table 3.2).
49 3.1.6. Breeding Failure
Out of 75 active nests, 14 nests (18.6%) were found unsuccessful. Among nine failed cases, 7 were unable to hatch while 2 chicks failed to fledge. At Nardajian, five active nests with incubating parents (n=5) collapsed due to a landslide in yr-5 and only one chick fledged successfully. Majority of the nest failures/mortality was recorded at
Nardajian during yr-1 (n=4, 1.00±1.41) and yr-5 (n=6, 1.50±3.00) while no breeding failure was observed at Sarli Sacha (Fig. 3.24).
Fig. 3.24: Nest status of Himalayan Griffons during study period.
A maximum of breeding failure was recorded in yr-5 (43%, n=6, 1.5±3.00) followed by yr-1 (29%, n=4, 1.00±1.41), yr-2 (14%, n=2, 0.5±0.58) and yr-4 (14%, n=2,
0.5±0.58) while no breeding failure was observed during yr-3 (Fig. 3.25).
50
Fig. 3.25: Status of nest failure of Himalayan Griffons during study period.
There was a strong negative correlation (r=-0.92) between breeding failure and percentage of successful clutches while the positive correlations were recorded between breeding failure and years (r=0.16), numbers of occupied nests (r=0.59), active nests (0.54), percentage of pair laying (r=0.26), inactive nests (r=0.19) and numbers of fledglings (r=0.20) (Table 3.2).
The regression coefficient (-2.5) suggests that numbers of active nests decreased non- significantly along the successive years (r2= 0.4281, p<0.2). The fitted regression line explains only 42.81% of the variation in the numbers of active nests in different years
(Fig. 3.26). There had been non-significant increase in numbers of failed nest during study period (r2=0.769, p>0.6). The fitted regression line explains only 7.69% of the variation in the numbers of failed nests (Fig. 3.26).
51
Fig. 3.26: Trend in nest status of Himalayan Griffons during study period.
3.1.7. Nest Occupancy (Nest Attendance)
The breeding pairs occupied a sum of 98 nests. They were regularly monitored on monthly basis to record the nest occupancy (presence of single parent, pair or un- attended). Amongst all observations (n=484), 72% nests were occupied by single parents (n=347), 12% by both parents (n=60) while the remaining 16% (n=77) were found un-attended (without any parent).
At all study sites, the nest occupancy by the single parent was dominated with the highest frequency in Chhum (18.43±16.96) followed by Sarli Sacha (15.00±9.80)
(Fig. 3.27).
52
Fig. 3.27: Nest occupancy status of Himalayan Griffons.
The pattern of nest occupancy was similar throughout the study period. The declining pattern of nest occupancy was coincided with the numbers of active nest along different study years (Fig. 3.28).
Fig. 3.28: Nest occupancy status of Himalayan Griffons during study period.
53 The tendency of nest attendance by a single parent declined from March (22.0±11.64) to July (9±4.74). However, the attendance by both parents (besides August) remained almost same throughout the breeding cycle (Fig. 3.29). In contrast, a slight increase in un-attended nests was recorded from February (0%) to July (29.17%, 4.20±2.95) (Fig.
3.29, 3.30).
Fig. 3.29: Mean monthly variations in nest occupancy/nest attendance of Himalayan Griffons.
It was recorded that during the early and last stages of breeding cycles (February and
August), 100% of observed nests were attended by parents. However, the attending tendency reduced from March to July with about 30% decline in nest attendance by parents (Fig. 3.30).
54 120.0 y = -2.3538x + 95.906 100.0 95.5 R² = 0.1507 100.0 91.2 100.0 y = 2.3538x + 4.0939 74.6 80.0 73.3 R² = 0.1507 70.8 60.0
40.0 Attended Occupancy (%) 26.7 25.4 29.2 20.0 Un-attended 4.5 0.0 8.8 0.0 0.0
Months
Fig. 3.30: Monthly trends in nest occupancy/nest attendance of Himalayan Griffons.
The fitted regression line explains only 15.07% of the variation in nest attendance in different breeding months (Fig. 3.30).
The temporal patterns of all breeding activities of Himalayan vulture in all study sites are summarized in Table 3.7. The breeding activities of vulture started from last week of December and ended in the last week of July.
55
Table 3.7: The overall breeding activities of Gyps himalayensis at all four study sites i.e. Sarli Sacha, Chhum, Nardajian & Talgran, during 2005, 2007-2010.
Parameters Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Breeding
Season
Pairing
Nest
Building
Copulation
Egg laying
Incubation
Hatching &
Brooding
Fledglings
56 3.2. Population
3.2.1. Population Status
During the whole study period, a total of 187 surveys were conducted at five sites
(Nardajian, Chhum, Sarli Sacha and Talgran) along with different habitats of
Himalayan Griffons within Muzaffarabad and Hattian districts. At all sites, the mean
(±SEM) population of Himalayan Griffon was estimated as 51.60±7.60 and 46±7.61 individuals on the basis of nesting site population count and transect survey counts, respectively. About 75 % (n=38) of the total population comprised of adult breeding individuals while the remaining 25% (n=13) comprised of newly fledged chicks.
3.2.2. Spatial Population Fluctuations
The maximum nesting site population count was recorded from Sarli Sacha (18±3.30) followed by Chhum (15±2.25), Nardajian (9±2.44) and Talgran (6.6±1.56) (Table
3.8).
Table 3.8: Estimated mean (±SEM) population of Himalayan Griffons during study period.
Study Sites Mean No. Mean No. of Mean Nesting Sites Mean Transect Breeding fledglings Population Count individuals Population
Nardajian 7.2±2.41 1.8±0.48 9.0±2.44 11.2±2.31
Chhum 10.8±1.49 4.2±0.86 15.0±2.25 11.2±1.93
Sarli Sacha 13.6±2.13 4.4±1.28 18.0±3.30 14.4±2.46
Talgran 4.8±1.01 1.8±0.58 6.6±1.56 8.0±2.10
57 3.2.3. Temporal Population Fluctuations
A consistent decline in population was recorded during first three years of study; however, a slight increase was recorded in the following two years. A sum of 80 individuals with 20±3.48 (mean±SEM) were recorded from nesting sites in year 1, which reduced to 50 (10.00±2.72 individuals per colony) in year 5, suggesting a decline of 37.50% @ 7.50% p.a. in vulture population (Fig. 3.31).
25 Nesting Site Population
20 Transect Count Population
15
10
Mean (±SEM) Mean(±SEM) Population 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 Years
Fig. 3.31: Population dynamics of Himalayan Griffons.
The sharp declining trend in nesting site as well as transect count from year1 to 5 was observed at all sites. Although a slight increase in population was observed at the end of study period, but not a single site showed complete recovery as observed during
2005 (Fig. 3.31). A consistent pattern of decline was observed in population and total numbers of active nests at all sites (Fig. 3.32).
58
Fig. 3.32: Comparison of adult individuals and active nests of Himalayan Griffon Vulture during study period.
The maximum population was recorded during February-May and minimum during
December-January and July-August (Fig. 3.33). Among all sites, the highest mean transect count (n=54) was recorded in the month of April followed by March (n=53).
However, at Sarli Sacha and Nardajian, the highest mean transect count was (n=16; n=14) recorded during the months of March and May respectively (Fig. 3.33).
Similar types of seasonal fluctuations were recorded during whole study years (Fig.
3.34).
Fig. 3.33: Seasonal fluctuations in Mean Transect Count population at different study sites.
59
Fig. 3.34: Annual seasonal variations in population of Himalayan Griffon Vulture during different breeding cycles in different years.
There was a negative correlation between the nesting site population and years (r=-
0.76) and between mean transect population and years (r=-0.80). A strong positive correlation (r=0.99) was observed between nesting site population and total number of breeding individuals. Another strong positive correlation (r=0.90) was observed between mean transect population and total numbers of fledglings (Table 3.9).
Table 3.9: Correlation matrix among population parameters of Himalayan Griffon vulture during study period.
Year Total No. Total No. Total Mean breeding of Population Transect individuals fledglings counted Population Year 1.00 Total No. breeding -0.76 1.00 individuals Total No. of -0.69 0.89 1.00 fledglings Total Population -0.76 0.99 0.94 1.00 Mean Transect -0.80 0.90 0.96 0.94 1.00 counted Population
60 The two-way ANOVA showed a significant difference in nesting site population of vultures during different years (F4,12=7.12, p=0.003) and between different colonies
(F3,12=11.34, p=0.001). Further post-hoc analysis showed a significant difference
(LSD=3.97) in nesting site population between Sarli Sacha and Talgran (11.4), Sarli
Sacha and Nardajian (9.2), Chhum and Talgran (8.4), and Chhum and Nardajian (6.2).
3.3. Food and Feeding
3.3.1. Food Availability and Carrying Capacity of the Area
All vulture sites were explored at Muzaffarabad and Hattian districts of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Vultures were found soaring in the vicinity of these districts. The available livestock population in these areas constituted a major food source of vultures. In order to assess the food availability of vultures, the livestock population of two districts was also estimated. Impact of food availability on population trend was determined. Based on livestock survey of 118 households, randomly selected, a total of about 1853750 livestock heads were estimated in year one which showed
75.31% decline up to the year five (n=457610) with 12.5% annual decline (Table
3.10).
Table 3.10: Estimated livestock population in District Muzaffarabad and Hattian during five-year study period.
Year Estimated total numbers of livestock in Study Area Total Dogs Dogs Bulls Cows Goats households households Sheep Mules Total No. ofTotal No. Horses/ Horses/ Donkeys Buffaloes
2005 127324 499585 214724 20501 19422 63662 570800 357154 107902 1853750 2007 111549 119112 35923 5672 9453 11344 109659 65228 27415 383805 2008 114673 104955 29154 4859 4859 7774 101067 62195 19436 334300 2009 117884 106894 29970 4995 5994 7992 87913 68932 18981 331672 2010 148346 140803 41487 7543 6286 8800 134517 95545 22629 457610
61 Comparison of livestock and vulture population showed similar trend of declining during the succeeding study years (Fig. 3.35). There was a sharp decline in population of livestock as well as the vultures from year one to two and it remained stable from year 2 to 3 with a slight increase recorded in both the populations (Fig. 3.35).
Fig. 3.35: Comparison among number of livestock and Himalayan Griffons’ population during study period.
There was a negative correlation (r=-79) between livestock and years and a strong positive correlation (r=0.95) was observed between nesting site population and livestock. Similarly, a positive correlation (r=0.82) was observed between mean transect count of vulture population and numbers of livestock (Table 3.11).
Table 3.11: Correlation matrix among number of livestock and vulture’s population during study period.
Year No. of Nesting sites Mean Transect livestock Total Counted Population Population Year 1.00 No. of livestock -0.79 1.00 Nesting sites Total -0.76 0.95 1.00 Population Mean Transect Counted -0.80 0.82 0.94 1.00 Population
62 The daily food availability to Griffon vultures was estimated in each year using numbers of livestock, their mean body mass and annual mortality rate (Table 3.12).
Among daily available food sources, the maximum share (77%) was contributed by cattle (cows and bulls) followed by goats (9%) and sheep (6%) (Fig. 3.36).
Table 3.12: Potential Food availability for the Himalayan Griffon Vulture in District Muzaffarabad and Hattian during five-year study period.
Types 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 Cattles Total No. 714309 155035 134109 136865 182290 (Cows and Annual Natural Mortality 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 Bulls) rate (%) Mean Body Mass 110 110 110 110 110 Annual Total Biomass (Kg) 3142959 682152 590078 602205 802075 Daily Food supply for 8611 1869 1617 1650 2197 vulture (kg/day) Buffaloes Total No. 20501 5672 4859 4995 7543 Annual Natural Mortality 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 rate (%) Mean Body Mass 122 122 122 122 122 Annual Total Biomass (Kg) 90042 24911 21341 21938 33129 Daily Food supply for 247 68 58 60 91 vulture (kg/day) Horses/Mules Total No. 19422 9453 4859 5994 6286 Annual Natural Mortality 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 rate (%) Mean Body Mass 165 165 165 165 165 Annual Total Biomass (Kg) 73708 35875 18440 22748 23855 Daily Food supply for 202 98 51 62 65 vulture (kg/day) Donkeys Total No. 63662 11344 7774 7992 8800 Annual Natural Mortality 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 rate (%) Mean Body Mass 118 118 118 118 118 Annual Total Biomass (Kg) 165266 29449 20182 20747 22845 Daily Food supply for 453 81 55 57 63 vulture (kg/day) Goats Total No. 570800 109659 101067 87913 134517 Annual Natural Mortality 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 rate (%) Mean Body Mass 15 15 15 15 15 Annual Total Biomass (Kg) 402414 77309 71253 61979 94835 Daily Food supply for 1103 212 195 170 260 vulture (kg/day) Sheep Total No. 357154 65228 62195 68932 95545 Annual Natural Mortality 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 rate (%) Mean Body Mass 15 15 15 15 15 Annual Total Biomass (Kg) 251794 45986 43848 48597 67359 Daily Food supply for 690 126 120 133 185 vulture (kg/day) Total Daily Food supply for vulture 11305 2454 2096 2132 2861 (kg/day)
63 Sheep 6% Goats 9% Donkeys Horses/Mules 3% 2% Buffellos 3%
Cattles (Cows and Bulls) 77%
Fig. 3.36: Percentage daily food supply by different types of livestock for Himalayan Griffon Vulture (kg/day) in study area during 2005, 2007-2010.
A dramatic decline in the livestock population was observed after first year. The decline seemed to be responsible for daily food availability to vultures of the area.
The daily food availability declined sharply from 11305 kg/day in first year to 2096 kg/day in third year (Fig. 3.37). Approximately 81% decline in the daily food availability to vulture with 13% annual decline rate was observed. Decline in vulture population coincided with the decline in daily food supply to vultures.
64
Fig. 3.37: Relationship of daily food supply (kg/day) with population dynamics of Himalayan Griffon Vulture during study period.
There was a strong positive correlation between daily food supply for vulture, nesting sites of vulture population (r=0.95) and mean transect vulture population (r=0.94) during the study period (Table 3.13).
Table 3.13: Correlation analysis between daily food supply and vulture population during study period.
Year Total Daily Nesting Mean Food supply sites Transect for vulture Population counted (kg/day) Population Year 1
Total Daily Food supply -0.79 1.00 for vulture (kg/day)
Nesting sites Population -0.76 0.95 1.00
Mean Transect counted -0.80 0.82 0.94 1.00 Population
65 Results of two-way ANOVA showed a non-significant difference in daily food supply for vulture during study years (F4,12=1.959, p=0.14). However, a significant difference in food supply was recorded between different study sites (F3,12=5.517, p=0.002). The post-hoc analysis (LSD=1275.07) revealed a significant difference in daily food supply for vulture between Nardajian and Sarli Sacha (3093), Nardajian and Chhum
(3084), and Nardajian and Talgran (3058).
3.3.2. Carcass Availability
During the study period, a total of 7 carcasses (mule=1, 14.29%; goats=3, 42.86%; horse=1, 14.29%; donkey=1 14.29% and sheep=1, 14.29%) were observed from different transect surveys of the study area (Table 3.14, Fig. 3.38).
Table 3.14: Spatio-temporal availability of carcasses to Himalayan Griffon vulture during study period scavengers No. otherof (min) Locality Habitat type %of consumed Type of carcass Observation date Observation time weather conditions Total observation time No. vulturesof observed Feral dogs Ravens Kites
23/3/2005 30 Mule Jheeng 12:00AM 9 2 0 0 10 sunny open rocky Bala 10/4/2005 20 Goat Nardajian 1:00 PM 10 1 8 1 50 sunny open rocky village 26/6/2007 25 Sheep Talgran 2:00PM 8 4 4 3 70 sunny open grassland 27/6/2007 15 Goat Lon Ban 12:00AM 8 0 3 0 30 Partly shrubby sunny 24/4/2008 20 Goat Sarli 12:30PM 7 4 6 3 60 sunny open Sacha grassland 8/7/2009 30 Horse Panjnoor 2:00PM 15 3 1 1 75 sunny open 0 grassland 9/8/2009 20 Donkey Trangar 1:45 MP 7 0 5 0 35 cloudy shrubby
66 donkey, (14.29%)
goat, (42.86%) horse, (14.29%)
sheep, (14.29%)
mule, (14.29%)
Fig. 3.38: Percentage of ungulates carcasses observed during the study period.
All carcasses were found within the radius of 1-5km from sites studied. The maximum (43%) carcasses were found in open grasslands followed by shrubby (29%) and open rocky areas (28%) (Fig. 3.39).
shrubby (29%) open rocky (28%)
open grassland (43%)
Fig. 3.39: Percentage of carcasses observed in different habitats during study period.
67 3.3.3. Foraging Behavior and Inter-Specific Relationship
A total of 64 vultures were observed on 7 carcasses. Minimum (n=7) and maximum
(n=15) numbers of vultures were recorded on the carcass of goat and horse respectively. The griffon vulture is mobile forager that soars on thermals in groups of
2-4 in search of food. Other members in group observed initially 2-3 vultures landing on carcass which later accompanied. The foraging and inter-specific competitive behavior was also recorded during consumption of carcass. Where feral dogs and ravens were involved in feeding, the vultures were sitting on nearby rocks waiting for their turns. On same occasion, vultures trying to attempt for food faced an agnostic behavior by the competing species (feral dogs, jackals and ravens). However, they were allowed to eat after competing species had satiated.
Aggressive behavior was also observed among vultures during feeding. Vultures consumed viscera first and then other soft parts of the body, leaving bones behind.
The ravens also showed the competitive foraging behavior with vultures as well as with dogs. The time spent on carcasses varied according to the size of the carcasses.
According to locals, sheep was consumed by a group of 6-7 vultures in 3-4 hours, while 10-15 vultures consumed cattle in 2-3 days. Goats were consumed in less time as compared to sheep. In Tranger, five vultures were observed drinking water from a nullah after taking a heavy meal from a carcass of a donkey. For behavioral observation of vultures on July 25, 2009, a slaughtered goat was thrown in front of
Nardajian site in shrubby habitat. Ravens and feral dogs were attracted within 30 minutes; however, no vulture was attracted at slaughtered goat carcass even within next five hours of observation.
68 3.4. Habitat Utilization
The spatial distribution of Himalayan Griffon vulture in four sites was analyzed and correlated with habitat variables of nesting sites (cliffs) within 5km radius from the nesting sites. The habitat variables (n=37) are related to geography and geomorphology (n=13), Anthropogenic disturbances to vulture (n=9), food (n=9), and intra-specific (n=2) variables.
3.4.1. Geographic Variables
Among geographic variables, 50-55% of nests were placed in open rocky sites in
Nardajian and Chhum and 30-70% in Sarli Sacha and Talgran (Annexure II). The maximum (70%) in Sarli Sacha and minimum (30%) in Talgran sites mean nests were covered with shelter of overhanging rocks. The maximum mean nests were placed in open ledges of rocks in Talgran (70%) and minimum in Sarli Sacha site (30%). A consistent trend of mean nests placed on open surface of rocks with mean numbers of active nests was recorded in Nardajian and Chhum sites (Fig. 3.40).
Fig. 3.40: Relationship between mean numbers of active nests and nest cover in different vulture sites during study period.
69 Most (60-98%) of the cliffs in study sites showed eastern exposure except Talgran which showed Southern (70%) and Western (30%) exposures (Annexure-II). The eastern face of the cliffs in all sites showed a consistent trend with mean numbers of active and occupied nests present at all sites while other aspects (southern and western) showed irregular pattern with mean numbers of both types of nests (Fig.
3.41).
Fig. 3.41: Relationship between mean number of nests and cliff exposure during study period.
The eastern face of the cliff in all four sites showed a positive correlation with mean numbers of active (r=0.80) and occupied nests (r=0.69), while western and southern exposure showed negative correlations with these two breeding parameters (Table
3.15).
70
Table 3.15 Correlation matrix between different geographic parameters within the habitat of Himalayan griffon vultures during study period. by Cliff (m.a.s.l.) elevation % Cliff slope Cliff above (m) height ground Cliff length (m) % of rocky area (within radius of 5km cliff) of % of rocky area in cliff % of vegetation cover cliff in % exposure of (Southern) cliff % exposure of (Eastern) cliff % exposure of (Western) cliff % mean covered nest shelter % of mean nest placed open Mean nest height from the ground of (m) the cliff of Mean numbers nestsactive of Mean numbers occupied nests of Mean numbers young fledged Mean population of site
Cliff elevation (m.a.s.l.) 1.00 % Cliff slope -0.75 1.00 Cliff height above ground (m) 0.37 0.30 1.00 Cliff length (m) 0.84 -0.38 0.76 1.00 % of rocky area (within radius 0.01 -0.35 -0.17 0.16 1.00 of 5km of cliff) % of rocky area in cliff 0.93 -0.82 0.08 0.59 -0.16 1.00 % of vegetation cover in cliff -0.93 0.82 -0.08 -0.59 0.16 -1.00 1.00 % of cliff exposure (Southern) -0.43 0.45 0.30 0.07 0.65 -0.70 0.70 1.00 % of cliff exposure (Eastern) 0.58 -0.44 0.07 0.14 -0.69 0.79 -0.79 -0.97 1.00 % of cliff exposure (Western) -0.76 0.37 -0.37 -0.52 0.64 -0.83 0.83 0.77 -0.90 1.00 % mean sent covered by 1.00 -0.77 0.33 0.82 0.02 0.94 -0.94 -0.44 0.58 -0.76 1.00 shelter % of mean nest placed open -1.00 0.77 -0.33 -0.82 -0.02 -0.94 0.94 0.44 -0.58 0.76 -1.00 1.00 Mean nest height from the -0.34 0.76 0.71 0.22 0.08 -0.63 0.63 0.79 -0.67 0.34 -0.38 0.38 1.00 ground of the cliff (m) Mean numbers of active nests 0.79 -0.31 0.52 0.65 -0.58 0.79 -0.79 -0.64 0.80 -0.98 0.78 -0.78 -0.19 1.00 Mean numbers of occupied 0.95 -0.54 0.52 0.82 -0.28 0.89 -0.89 -0.51 0.69 -0.91 0.94 -0.94 -0.23 0.94 1.00 nests Mean numbers of young 0.67 -0.05 0.93 0.93 -0.12 0.42 -0.42 0.08 0.16 -0.58 0.65 -0.65 0.44 0.71 0.77 1.00 fledged Mean population of site 0.84 -0.29 0.81 0.96 -0.11 0.64 -0.64 -0.11 0.33 -0.70 0.82 -0.82 0.19 0.81 0.90 0.97 1.00
71 The maximum (65%) of rocky area in cliff was recorded at Sarli Sacha and minimum
(40%) at Talgran. The maximum (60%) vegetation cover was recorded at Talgran while the minimum (35%) at Sarli Sacha (Annexure II). Excluding Talgran, mean numbers of active nests showed a consistent pattern of fluctuations with both habitat variables (Fig. 3.42).
Fig. 3.42: Relationship among mean numbers of active nests, vegetation cover and rocky area during study period.
Overall a positive correlation was recorded between percentage of rocky area with mean numbers of active (r=0.79) and occupied nests (r=0.89) at all four sites (Table
3.15). Similarly, a strong negative correlation of percentage of rocky area in cliff was recorded with both these breeding parameters. A consistent trend in cliff height (m) above the ground and mean numbers of active and occupied nests was recorded at all four breeding sites of the study area (Fig. 3.43).
72
Fig. 3.43: Nesting trend along the cliff height (m) above the ground of different vulture sites of the study area during study period.
There was a strong positive correlation (r=0.93) between the percentage of rocky area in cliff and cliff elevation and strong negative correlation (r=-0.93) between percentage of vegetative cover in cliff and cliff elevation. Cliff elevation, cliff heights above ground and cliff lengths were positively correlated with breeding parameters
(active nests, occupied nests, numbers of fledglings and population). Similarly, a strong positive correlation was recorded between eastern exposure of cliffs and percentage of rocky area at all studies cliffs (Table 3.15). The other intra-geographic variables showed little impact on population and breeding parameters of vultures in different study sites.
3.4.2. Anthropogenic Variables
The effects of anthropogenic parameters with in radius of 5km from the breeding cliffs on the population of vultures were analyzed at all study sites. Maximum pasturelands were observed at Sarli Sacha (40%) and minimum at Chhum (15%), while maximum (80%) of vegetation cover at Chhum and minimum (30%) at Sarli
73 Sacha was recorded. A maximum (30%) of rocky area around 5km of breeding cliff at
Talgran and minimum (5%) at Sarli Sacha was recorded. Maximum (27%) area was under rural development at Talgran and minimum (5%) area at Chhum. Talgran site had maximum (50%) area under cultivation while minimum (20%) at Chhum.
Maximum human settlements in terms of households were found at Talgran (n=900) while minimum (n=500) was recorded at Chhum. The percentage of cultivation around Nardajian and Talgran negatively affect the vulture population at two sites
(Fig. 3.44).
Fig. 3.44: Effects of anthropogenic factors on mean nesting site population of vulture sites.
The number of households, rural development and vegetation cover around study sites showed negative correlation with mean population (Table 3.16). Other anthropogenic variables like distance to paved, un-paved roads from the breeding cliffs and distance to nearest village from the cliff showed little impacts on the population dynamics of the vultures in different sites.
74
Table 3.16: Correlation matrix between various anthropogenic variables and population parameters within the habitat of Himalayan Griffon’s vulture.
% of % of % of % of rural Distance Distance Distance Total Mean Mean Mean Mean pasture vegetation cultivation development to nearest to paved to numbers of numbers numbers numbers population (within cover (within (within village road unpaved households of active of of of site radius of (within radius of radius of from cliff from road within nests occupied young 5km of radius of 5km of 5km of cliff) (m) cliff (m) from cliff radius of nests fledged cliff) 5km of cliff) (m) 5km of cliff) cliff % of pasture (within radius of 1.00 5km of cliff) % of vegetation cover (within -0.76 1.00 radius of 5km of cliff) % of cultivation (within radius of -0.15 -0.45 1.00 5km of cliff) % of rural development (within -0.24 -0.13 0.86 1.00 radius of 5km of cliff) Distance to water from cliff (m) -0.35 -0.27 0.98 0.86 Distance to nearest village from 0.07 0.25 0.02 0.50 1.00 cliff (m) Distance to paved road from cliff 0.28 -0.68 0.29 -0.23 -0.87 1.00 (m) Distance to unpaved road from 0.15 -0.75 0.86 0.50 -0.39 0.72 1.00 cliff (m) Total numbers of households 0.31 -0.80 0.89 0.67 -0.04 0.48 0.93 1.00 within radius of 5km of cliff Mean numbers of active nests 0.46 0.14 -0.95 -0.88 0.04 -0.13 -0.71 -0.70 1.00 Mean numbers of occupied nests 0.68 -0.19 -0.79 -0.86 -0.19 0.15 -0.43 -0.44 0.94 1.00 Mean numbers of young fledged 0.25 -0.06 -0.67 -0.95 -0.73 0.51 -0.23 -0.47 0.71 0.77 1.00 Mean population of site 0.47 -0.19 -0.70 -0.95 -0.59 0.46 -0.24 -0.41 0.81 0.90 0.97 1.00
75 3.4.3. Food Availability
The number of livestock and number of migratory ungulates around 4-10 kilometers of the sites were estimated and their effects on population of vultures analyzed.
Maximum (n=6300) and minimum (n=3500) livestock population was found at
Talgran and Chhum respectively (Annexure II). Similarly, maximum (n=4000) migratory ungulates were recorded at Sarli Sacha while minimum (n=2500) at
Chhum. A consistent trend in number of livestock and migratory ungulates around different study sites were recorded except from Talgran (Fig. 3.45).
Fig. 3.45: Effects of numbers of livestock and migratory ungulates on mean population vulture population of different sites in the study area during study period.
76 Number of livestock and number of migratory ungulates around sites showed slight correlation with vulture population and their breeding parameters (Table 3.17).
However, a strong positive correlation was observed with vulture population and distance to water from the breeding cliffs. The total number of livestock within a radius of 5km around cliff showed positive correlation with total number of domestic migratory ungulates. However, other variables of the food had little impact on the population and breeding parameters of the Himalayan vulture (Table 3.17).
77
Table 3.17: Correlation matrix between different food availability variables and population parameters with in habitat of Himalayan Griffon’s vulture during study period.
Distance Total numbers of Numbers of Distance Numbers of Mean Mean Mean Mean to water livestock (within rubbish to nearest migratory numbers numbers numbers population from cliff radius of 5km of damps rubbish domestic of active of of young of site (m) cliff) (within damp from ungulates (within nests occupied fledged radius of cliff radius of 10km nests 5km of cliff) of cliff) Distance to water from cliff (m) 1.00 Total numbers of livestock (within 0.78 1.00 radius of 5km of cliff) Numbers of rubbish damps (within -0.56 -0.15 1.00 radius of 5km of cliff) Distance to nearest rubbish damp -0.02 -0.04 -0.70 1.00 from cliff Numbers of migratory domestic 0.28 0.81 0.21 0.06 1.00 ungulates (within radius of 10km of cliff) Mean numbers of active nests -0.99 0.70 0.65 0.04 -0.16 1.00 Mean numbers of occupied nests -0.89 0.44 0.82 -0.19 0.13 0.94 1.00 Mean numbers of young fledged -0.67 0.47 0.93 -0.73 -0.17 0.71 0.77 1.00 Mean population of site -0.75 0.41 0.96 -0.59 0.01 0.81 0.90 0.97 1.00
78 3.4.4. Intra-Specific Relations
The mean number of active nests and number of roosting sites around the site were positively correlated with number of occupied nests and numbers of young fledged.
The mean numbers of active nests showed negative correlation with distance to breeding site (Table 3.18).
Table 3.18: Correlation matrix among Intra-specific variables and population parameters of Himalayan Griffon’s during study period.
numbers of Mean Distance to Mean Mean Mean roosting sites numbers nearest numbers numbers populati (within radius of breeding of active of young on of of 5km of occupied site (m) nests fledged site cliff) nests Distance to nearest 1.00 breeding site (m)
numbers of roosting -0.71 1.00 sites (within radius of 5km of cliff)
Mean numbers of -0.49 0.86 1.00 active nests
Mean numbers of -0.19 0.67 0.94 1.00 occupied nests
Mean numbers of 0.04 0.68 0.71 0.77 1.00 young fledged
Mean population of 0.03 0.65 0.81 0.90 0.97 1.00 site
3.5. Ethno-Vulture Relationship
Social surveys for ethno-vulture relationship were carried out at human habitations around the four sites. Locals and knowledgeable people were identified and interviewed. About 60% of the respondents agreed with the statement that vulture had
79 declined from the study area; however, 40% respondents disagreed with the statement
(Table 3.19).
Table 3.19: Local information regarding Ethno-Vulture Relationship at four study sites during five-year study period.
Percentage of respondents Yes No No idea Perception of people about decline in 60 40 vulture population Remarks of people about the encounter of 6 94 vultures with carcasses Use of pesticides in study area 77 23 Use of veterinary services in the study 89 11 area Hunting of vulture in the study area 2 98 People's knowledge about the wildlife in 75 15 10 the study area Decrease of livestock in study area 97 3
Majority of respondents (60%) believed that the number of Himalayan Griffon vulture has decline in the study area. However, the majority of respondents (94%) did not see any dead vulture in their lifetime (Table 3.19). About 98% of respondents disagreed with the statement that vultures were hunted. About 77% respondents used the pesticides in agriculture lands that were bought from the Agriculture departments and local Veterinary dispensaries. About 89% of respondents confirmed that veterinary services were present in the area while rest of the respondent did not avail the facility.
About 75% respondents were in favor of wildlife conservation in the area, and about
15% were not in this favor, while 10% were not aware about wildlife conservation.
80 PLATES
Plate 3.1: Overview of the nesting cliff of Sarli Sacha Vulture colony.
Plate 3.2: Overview of the nesting cliff of Talgran Vulture colony.
81
Plate 3.3: Overview of the nesting cliff of Chhum Vulture colony and surroundings.
Plate 3.4: A part of cliff inhabited by Nardajian Colony in Jhelum Valley.
82
Plate 3.5: Himalayan Griffon near an occupied nest in Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season.
Plate 3.6: Chick of Himalayan Griffon at Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season.
83
Plate 3.7: Himalayan Griffon coming back to the nest at Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season.
Plate 3.8: A newly hatched chick in a nest of Himalayan Griffon at Chhum Colony during 2009 breeding season.
84
Plate 3.9: A nest with a chick of Himalayan Griffon attended by a single parent at Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season.
Plate 3.10: A pair of Himalayan Griffon establishing breeding relationship at Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season.
85
Plate 3.11: Himalayan Griffon feeding its chick at Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season.
Plate 3.12: An injured Himalayan Griffon rescued from the local community near Talgran Colony during 2010 breeding season.
86
Plate 3.13: Himalayan Griffon released after treatment of its broken wing.
Plate 3.14: A newly fledged chick of Himalayan Griffon near the roosting site showing the white paste at Talgran Colony during 2010 breeding season.
87
Plate 3.15: Active nests of Himalayan Griffon in Chhum breeding Colony during 2007 breeding season.
Plate 3.16: Active nests of Himalayan Griffon at Chhum Colony during 2010 breeding season.
88
Plate 3.17: Himalayan Griffon vulture encountered during the transect survey near Chhum Colony during 2010 breeding season.
Plate 3.18: An active nest of Himalayan Griffon with one parent at Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season.
89
Plate 3.19: Himalayan Griffon protecting its young chick from heat of sun at Nardajian Colony during 2005 breeding season.
Plate 3.20: White paste of fecal droppings of Himalayan Griffon indicating the presence of vultures in breeding cliff at Chhum Colony during 2008 breeding season.
90
Plate 3.21: Himalayan Griffon vulture encountered during the transect survey near Nardajian Colony during 2005.
Plate 3.22: Aggressive behavior of Raven with Himalayan Griffon vulture observed during transect survey near Chhum Colony during 2010 breeding season.
91
Plate 3.23: Qazinag Nullah, the source of water for Himalayan Griffon vulture near Chhum Colony.
Plate 3.24: Author monitoring the breeding activities of Himalayan Griffon vulture at Chhum Colony during 2010 breeding season.
92 CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION
Over the last 15-20 years, the populations of G. bengalensis, G. tenuirotris and G. indicus have collapsed in the Indian Subcontinent (Prakash et al., 2003; Oaks et al.,
2004; Cuthbert et al., 2006), which resulted in up-gradation of their status as critically endangered (IUCN, 2006). Such declines are found to be linked with a veterinary drug namely diclofenac (Oaks et al., 2004; Green et al., 2004; Shultz et al., 2004).
According to Xin Lu et al. (2009), the most recent population estimates of Himalayan
Griffons (HG) are around 286749 (±5059) individuals in Tibetan plateau. However, the detailed biology of the species is not exclusively known, especially with particular reference to its breeding biology and habitat utilization. Therefore, the present study aimed at understanding the biology of this species, is based upon five years long investigations of the four different colonies earmarked in the study area.
4.1. Breeding Biology
4.1.1. Nest Status
Out of the total of 98 nests studied, 75 active nests were monitored in detailed over the five years. The maximum numbers of active nests were recorded at Chhum
(4.4±2.30) and Sarli Sacha (4.4±2.88) and minimum at Talgran (2.2±1.30) (Fig. 3.1).
However, an overall 40% @ 6.66% per annum decline in active nests was recorded during first three years of study. Similarly, 33.33% decline of occupied nests was also recorded @ 5.55% per annum during first three years of the study. Whereas, in the last two years of study, a gradual increase in occupied and active nests was recorded.
Thakur (2014) recently reported an increase in occupied nests from 49 to 69 during
93 three breeding years (2010-2012) of HG in Himachal Pradesh, India. Nevertheless, the results of Acharya et al. (2009), are in partial contrast to our findings where a decline of 84% in active nests was reported from 2002 to 2005 in Mastang, Nepal, probably due to the use of veterinary drug, diclofenac. There are also reports of 100% nest decline in HG during 2002-2004 in Ghemi area, 75% decline in Goysar area of
Upper Mastang, Nepal and a smaller decline of 27% at Chungshi area during 2004-
2005.
In study area, the availability of food, natural disaster and human related variables were the major factors contributing to the variation in breeding activities. The ethno- vulture surveys carried out during the study did not report any vulture mortality in the life time of respondents; though, there was a little use of veterinary drugs by the local livestock grazers in the area. The plausible explanation in decline of active and occupied nests in the first three years of the present study, may correspond to the massive earthquake struck the study area in 2005, which resulted in the loss of some
70,000 humans as well substantial amount of livestock. Therefore, a sudden decline in food base resulted in availability of poor food supply for HG during the early three years (Fig. 3.35). But the increase in livestock population in the last two years of study reflects a positive correlation for an increase in both active (r=0.70) and occupied nests (r=0.44) during this period (Table 3.17). Evidently, an increased food supply, provided by the livestock is an indicator of increased breeding activity in HG and vice versa.
However, in case of wildlife population fluctuations, some environmental factors may indirectly guarantee for healthy food supply. For example, Mduma et al. (1999) recorded the inverse relationship between the number of occupied /active nests and
94 rainfall, which could be related to high availability of food for scavengers.
Apparently, Pain et al. (2008) also reported the same situation elsewhere in case of other Gyps species, while in case of current study, the HG relies substantially on human led livestock fluctuations rather than wildlife of the area.
4.1.2. Egg Laying and Incubation
A consistent decline was recorded in the mean numbers of eggs laid during first three years followed by gradual increase during the succeeding years. During the study period, the egg laying started from February 11 to March 31 and 86% of eggs were laid between third week of February and second week of March. Roberts (1991) also reported that, nest of the HG were being occupied from the second week of February, when surrounding slopes were still covered with snow in northern Pakistan. The overall mean for egg laying in all study sites during five years was March 1 and a significant difference (F3=12.31, p=0.000, n=75) in mean egg laying dates between four study sites over the five years was recorded (F4=11.38, p=0.000, n=75). The significant difference between the egg laying dates and years might be due to the variability in availability of food stress faced by the HG thereafter the 2005 earthquake.
The average incubation period was 47 days (37-57, n=75) during the current study, while Roberts (1991) reported the incubation period of about 52 days in Pakistan. In case of Gypaetus barbatus, Margalida et al. (2003) reported that the average egg laying date was 6 January (range December 11 to February 12, n=69) and the average incubation period was 54 days (52-56, n=14). Additionally, the egg laying dates of
Ruppell’s vultures (Gyps rupelli) at Kwenia varied from year to year (Houston, 1976).
Mundy et al. (1992) reported egg laying dates of Cape vulture in April or May, while
95 the African white backed vultures have least variable egg laying dates in Africa.
However, in east Africa, the breeding of this species is bimodal with nesting in April-
May or December-January (Lees and Christie, 2001). Newton and Newton (1996) observed that the egg laying dates of Lappet-faced vultures ranged over a period of three months (November 17 to February 17) in western Saudi Arabia. According to them, mean egg laying dates was not significantly differed between years. About 75 percent of breeding failure occurred during the period of incubation, out of which, 71 percent incubation failure were related with anthropogenic activities and direct persecution of Egyptian vulture at Italian peninsula (Liberatori and Penteriani, 2001).
4.1.3. Hatching and Rearing
In current findings, out of the 75 active nests, 63 (86.6%) hatched successfully during the study period. The maximum egg hatching at Chhum (n=22) was due to large colony as compared to the other three sites. A consistent decline in egg hatching recorded during first four which was mainly contributed by 14% active nest failure recorded in Nardajian, where five active nests collapsed due to a local land slide in
2006. However, some 100% success in Sarli Sacha colony was due to the potential habitat protection and supplement of wildlife as food resource offered by the protected status of the area that is Machiara National Park (MNP).
The hatching started from first week of April till the second week of May (April 4 to
May 18). With the maximum hatching from April 21-30 (n=30). The hatching time coincides with the time (April-May) of nomadic seasonal movements towards the higher altitudinal pastures, which increases probability of finding food by the vultures for their nestlings. In another study on Gypaetus barbatus, the hatching occurred on average between February 21 and March 3 (range February 5 to April 7) in the eastern
96 Pyrenees (Margalida et al., 2003). Baral and Gautam (2007) observed the hatching of white ramped vulture in Pokhara Valley, Nepal on January 17. Similarly, hatching dates of Lappet-faced vultures ranged over a period of January 11 to April 13 with annual mean laying dates between February 9-23 in Saudi Arabia (Newton and
Newton, 1996).
4.1.4. Fledglings
An overall 57% decline, with annual decline of 11%, was recorded in fledglings of
HG in all study sites. The results correspond to Newton and Newton (1996), who recorded an overall 44% decline of fledglings in Lappet-faced vulture in Saudi
Arabia. While, during the current study, maximum number of fledglings (n=22) was recorded at Sarli Sacha site (Table 3.5). A significantly higher numbers of fledging at
Sarli Sacha (n=22) and Chhum (n=21) owe again to the abundance of food supply due to the availability of additional food from the protected wildlife at both sites. In both these colonies, the numbers of visiting ungulates (livestock) were higher as compared to Talgran and Nardajian. Whereas, the minimum fledglings (n=9) were recorded at
Nardajian due to collapse of one of the nesting colony owing to local land sliding in year 2006.
The earliest chicks fledged in first week of July while the last in first week of August with maximum (n=59) fledging between July 11 to August 10 (Fig. 3.18). Overall mean fledging date was July 23 (July 21-30, n=65). However, the difference in number of fledging during different years of study was not significant. Again these are the months when maximum livestock population is present in open grasslands in the alpine pastures. Marglida et al. (2003) have recorded first and last chick of
Gypaetus barbatus fledged in May 21 and July 20 respectively in the eastern
97 Pyrenees, and the average chick age at fledging was 123 days (range 103-133, n=22).
It was observed that after fledging, young were still fed by their parents at Sarli Sacha colony as also recorded by Marglida et al. (2003) in case of Bearded vulture in eastern
Pyrenees.
Conclusively, maximum fledglings (n=20) were observed in year 1 before the October
2005 earthquake disaster and the minimum in year 4, reflecting the natural outcomes of the post-earthquake scenario. Therefore, in the wake of post-earthquake consequences, shortage of food availability and changes in agro pastoral system might be among the major contributors of decline in fledgling population. According to
Newton (1998), food is the major cause of decline of raptors in the world.
4.1.5. Breeding Success
The overall breeding success of active nests (n=75) sharply declined from 0.83 in year
1 to 0.60 in year 5. There was the maximum (1.00) breeding success in Sarli Sacha colony and the minimum at Nardajian (0.53). There was an annual decline of 5% in breeding success during five years study period in all study colonies showing that the population of HG declined in the area because of various factors i.e., earthquake, availability and visibility of food. Newton and Newton (1996) recorded an overall
15% eggs loss in four years study of Bearded vultures. However, Baral and Gautam
(2007) reported 100% breeding success of oriental white backed vulture in Pokhara
Valley, Nepal.
The significantly higher breeding success at Sarli Sacha (1.00) and Chhum (0.77), indicate these sites being the most productive for vulture breeding. Although, Chhum was not as productive area as that of Sarli Sacha, but being located near the Line of
Control (LoC), it was protected by the presence of army, thereby supporting
98 aggregation of wild ungulates and reducing drastic effects of anthropogenic activities.
Anthropogenic disturbances were comparatively low while the nomadic pastoralism
(open livestock grazing in the pastures) was higher near these two sites. Thus evidently, food availability was the major factor that influenced the breeding activities of the HG in the study area. Several other studies have also reported that the breeding success may be influenced mainly by food availability and weather (Newton, 1979;
Kostrezewa and Kostrezewa, 1991; Steenhof et al., 1997).
At Nardajian, the breeding success was the lowest. This was due to a landslide in yr-5 which resulted into the devastation of five active nests with incubating parents (n=5).
Vultures constructed their colonies on rocky hills and such rocks had been shaken and dislocated by the massive earthquake of 2005. Thus the landslides were the common phenomenon in the earthquake affected areas. In Nardajian, almost an entire rocky hill having a vulture colony fell down in the form of a landslide along with the nests of vultures. Further, as Nardajian is a populated area with the least nomadic agro- pastoralism. This might be affected the food availability to vultures in these areas.
Although there was an increasing trend of nesting attempts and egg laying in
Nardajian, however, possibly due to above mentioned reasons the breeding success in this colony was the minimum.
4.1.6. Nest Occupancy
During five years monitoring of 98 nests on monthly basis, some 484 observations were centric to all four study colonies during study period. The nest attending tendencies by the parents reduced up to 30% from March to July. The occupancy of nests by single parents was documented in 72% (n=347) of observations indicating an active parental care in HG as well as ample availability of food resources near the
99 colonies. While during 16% observations (n=77), the nests remained unattended that reflects the growing nestlings stage when parents are more involved in searching of food rather than protection of nestlings and therefore, an increase in food searching home range is required and more time is spent away from the nest (Fig. 3.29).
Similarly, Marglida and Bertran (2000) also reported that the tendencies of presence of parents decreased as the chick is grew up in the Bearded vulture. They also pointed out that the amount of time per fortnight spent by each parent in attending the nest was related to the age of chick. According to them, overall, female spent more time in attending the chick than males, although the difference was not significant. In current study, the highest attendance was recorded in Chhum and Sarli Sacha being the productive sites in term of availability of food to vulture near the vicinity of both these colonies. During the study, the both parents were alternatively found involved in overall parental care. In the wake of distantly placed observations and inability to recognize the gender of parents involved, it was not possible to comment on the sex- wise contribution but witnessed both parents on the nest. The task of parental care is huge and needs uninterrupted supply of ample food, therefore, it is impossible for a single parent to look after the task of complete parental care during breeding season.
4.2. Population Status
The global population status of HG has now been upgraded from “Least Concern” to
“Near Threatened” (Birdlife International, 2014) that warrants active monitoring of
HG population, where they exist. During the five years study period, the mean ±SEM population of HG was estimated as 51.60±7.60 and 46±7.61 individuals on the basis of nesting site and transect counts in all 4 study sites, respectively. A consistent decline in population was observed during first three years, then there was a slight
100 increase in years 4-5 in each of the both nesting site and transect count vulture population study. However, the overall population declined from year 1 to year 5, suggesting some 37.50% (n=30) @ 7.5% per annum decline in vulture population.
Acharya et al. (2009) also observed 67-70% decline in HG with an annual decline rate of 31-33% during years 2002, 2004 and 2005 in upper Mastang, Nepal.
Correspondingly, Iqbal et al. (2011) observed 64 individuals of HG from February 28 to May 30, 2011 in Pitheali, Sanikot, Low Gali, Dao Khan, Reshian and MNP.
Pitheali is near Talgran site, while Sanikot, Low Gali and Daokhan are near our study area i.e., Chhum and Nardajian colonies. The demographic data documented by Iqbal et al. (2011) however, indicates about the same positive trend of substantial increase in vulture population as that during the last two years of our study. These results are in line with the findings of Thakur (2014), who reports an increase of 148 to 211 adult individuals over three years study in five districts of Himachal Pradesh, India.
Xin Lu et al. (2009) estimated some 229,339 (±40447) HG, distributed over 2.5 million km2 in Tibetan plateau, China. This may well be the highest population of HG in an area around the world. This highest population of the vulture is because of the abundant availability of food due to celestial celebrations. Virani et al. (2008) observed a total of 1307 individuals of HG during 2001-2006 in Annapurna conservation area Nepal. They reported a stable population of HG with a very slow decline. However, they were unable to conclude the reasons behind such shallow decline in HG population, probably due short duration of the study and large variance in HG/day.
During current study, the maximum population was recorded in the months of
February-May and minimum during July-August (Fig. 3.33). Among all sites, the
101 maximum mean transect count population was recorded during months of March,
April and May; probably again corresponding to the food availability as these are peak months of nomadic movements of livestock grazers towards the alpine pastures.
Therefore, vultures usually soar more frequently in search of livestock carcasses during these months.
In current study, 7.5% annual decline is basically representing strong negative correlation of nesting sites (r= -0.76) and transect counts (r= -0.80) populations with study years, respectively, suggests a sharp declining trend of HG coupled with quake related disaster and steep decline in livestock availability in the area in the first three years. Both of these populations were significantly correlated with the availability of food in the form of livestock (Table 3.11). Although, Das et al. (2011) found diclofenac toxic to HG but their study was based on only one specimen. Whereas,
Kushwaha and Kanujia (2010) pointed out that diclofenac is not only the sole cause of vulture decline in India. Nevertheless, the current study agrees with findings of
Kushwaha and Kanujia (2010) as the use of diclofenac drug was not very common in the study area.
According to Zuberogoitia et al. (2009), reduced food availability induces behavioral changes in Gyps fulvus and systematic removal of ungulates from the mountains have caused the local population of vultures to decline. Thereby, in our study area, availability of food in the form of livestock carcasses and habitat shield to locate food were among the important factors that might be responsible for measured decline of
HG population in the study area.
ANOVA results of the current study showed that nesting site population of vulture was significantly different during different years and between different sites. Among
102 these sites, Sarli Sacha and Chhum were the productive in term of vulture population as both of these sites had higher number of migratory ungulates in open meadows having minimum anthropogenic activities. Talgran and Nardajian sites are very close to human settlements and animal husbandry practices were particularly different (Stall feeding) as compared to Sarli Sacha and Chhum (Nomadic pastoralism).
4.3. Food and Feeding
4.3.1. Food Availability and Carrying Capacity of the Area
Following a reconnaissance of some 118 randomly selected households, we estimated some 1,853,750 livestock heads in study area in initial year. However, the livestock population witnessed an unprecedented decline to mere 457,610 heads in year 5, the final year of study (Table 3.10). This sharp decline of 75.31% (averaging @12.5% per annum) in livestock population during five years resulted in severe shortage of food for HG. Consequently, daily food availability sharply declined from 11,305 kg/day in first year to 2,096 kg/day in third year showing overall 81% reduction in daily food availability to HG (Table 3.12). This sharp decline in the food supply was due to sudden livestock population crash following 2005 earthquake disaster. Whereas, Xin
Lu et al. (2009) ascertained the daily food supply to HG equal to 243,838 kg/day in
Tibetan plateau China, where food availability to HG is far ahead as compared to our study area.
In the wake of natural disaster, the agro-pastoral system (nomadic grazing in open pastures) sharply decreased and replaced by stall feeding. There are some evidences that the food limitation is a potentially emerging factor for the Asian vulture crisis, because, the shift and increase in livestock utilization by human has resulted into decline in carcasses. Hence, the availability of carcasses decreased from 2002 (n=17)
103 to 2005 (n=0) and none of the carcasses could ever be recorded in the years thereafter
(Fakhar-i-Abbas et al., 2013). Parra and Telleria (2004) also recorded that changes in the number of breeding pairs of Gyps fulvus in Spain was positively correlated to changes in livestock abundance during 1989-1999, supporting functional relationship between food availability and vulture abundance.
Our study shows a strong positive correlation between daily food supply for vulture with nesting site population (r=0.95) and also with mean transect count vulture population (r= 0.94). The maximum (77%) food was contributed by cattle
(cows/bulls) followed by goats (9%) and other ungulates (Fig. 3.38). The diet of
Bearded vultures as reported by Margalida et al. (2009) was mainly comprised of medium sized ungulates (66%) in which sheep and goats were the important species.
Chao et al. (2013) also reported that population of HG showed slightly decreasing trends at Drigung Thel Monastery, Tibet, China from year 2009 to 2012 (n=250-200) due to decreasing trend of celestial burials in Tibet. Evidently, the decline in vulture population corresponds to decreasing food availability in the area.
Interestingly, Xin Lu et al. (2009) pointed out that the highest number of daily food intake by vultures in Tibetan Plateau was due to the openness of area, protected funeral sites, absence of stall feeding practice of livestock and very low population of other scavengers. Therefore, besides food availability, the obstruction in carcass visibility in Himalayas is another important factor that may be responsible in some decline of HG in AJK, Pakistan. In recent years, the agro-pastoral trends are changing, which has resulted in spread of sparse clumped vegetation cover, thereby, replacing the original rangeland or grassland communities, hence, reducing the livestock grazing interests in the area. In line to our observations, Dar (2012) also
104 reports an increase in sparse vegetation from 6.8% to 30% /ha. during year 1998 to
2009 in MNP. Furthermore, in addition to the Himalayan land characteristics, an increasing trend in clumped scrubby vegetation cover may also produce shielding effect in carcasses visibility by the soaring vultures.
In the wake of pragmatic observations, it is assumed that, annual decline in winter grass cutting practices, promotion of stall feeding to livestock and decreasing nomadic pastoralism are key factors responsible for annual increase in clumped scrubby cover around human settlements and elsewhere. Evidently, the vulture colonies near human settlements such as, Talgran and Nardajian showed comparatively low population, which might be due to prevailing scrubby cover. Thus limiting food visibility is a plausible explanation responsible for small colony size. There are some reports about changes in land use practices, as the key factors responsible for decline in vulture population (Oganda and Keesing, 2010; Oganda and Buij, 2011; Virani et al., 2011).
It has been observed that probability of response of vultures to carcass increases when the open area around carcass is some 5 km apart (Gavashelishvili and McGrady,
2006). Furthermore, it has also been reported that the probability of consuming carcasses by Gyps fulvus, Aegypius monachus and Gypaetus barbatus was positively correlated with visibility within 10 m.
3.3.2. Carcass availability, foraging behavior and intraspecific relation
Very little is known about the foraging strategy of HG and more studies are needed to investigate this aspect (Noriji, 2006). Out of total seven carcasses observed during the study period, maximum (n=4) were observed within 1-5 km radius of Sarli Sacha, the most productive colony. Maximum (43%) numbers of carcasses were found in open grassy areas which attracted maximum number of vultures (Fig. 3.39).
105 Gavashelishvili and McGrady (2006) pointed out that the vultures freely attract toward a carcass when it is present within 5 km radius from their colony. They also recorded that the heavier the carcasses such as cattle, and the farther they are from the road, the sooner the Griffons landed on it. The similar foraging behavior was recorded during the present study at Panjoor, 3 km from Sarli Sacha colony, where maximum number of vultures (n=15) were observed during taking their meals on the carcass of a horse present 2 km away from the road.
A total of 64 vultures were observed on seven carcasses during the whole study period. Travis et al. (2004) explained that total home range of raptors was influenced by abundance of prey and prey accessibility. Similar problem of prey accessibility was faced by the vultures in the study area due to increasing scrubby cover near the human settlements after 2005.
Besides the food availability and accessibility, interspecific competition was also observed for the available carcasses especially with feral dogs and ravens. It was observed that initially ravens were attracted toward a carcass then the vulture landed on it. These observations were consistent with Houston (1988) who pointed out that individual vultures rely on the activities of the other bird species to help locate carcasses. In Caucasia, carcasses of large ungulates often attracted ravens and other avian scavengers (Gavashelishvili and McGrady, 2006).
4.4. Habitat Utilization
Overall distribution of HG in four study sites during study years was analyzed and correlated with habitat variables of the nesting sites (cliffs) within 5 km radius of each breeding colony. Habitat quality is responsible for controlling the raptor populations and determines the specific settlement pattern of the species (Newton, 1998). It is
106 essential to investigate the factors which limit the populations of vultures as well as describing their habitat in terms of changes in land use and human related pressure in a quantitative fashion (Sara and Vittorio, 2003). Keeping in view the above literature, the habitat variables were categorized in four groups i.e. geographic, anthropogenic, food and intraspecific variables as discussed below:
4.4.1. Geographic Variables
A total of 17 geographic variables were correlated to the population and breeding parameters of each breeding cliff. About 50-55% of nests were placed in open rocky areas in Nardajian and Chhum cliffs, and 70% of nests were covered by shelter of overhanging rocks (caves) in two most productive colonies of Sarli Sacha and
Chhum. The selection of cliff for nesting site was based on presence of small rocks which provided shelter to the active nests, since the number of occupied nests was strongly correlated to the mean nest covered by the shelters (r=0.94). In another study in Herzegovina, 31% of the population of nests of Gyps fulvus was present in caves and 36.1% in half caves (Marinkovic et al., 2012). Cliffs at Sarli Sacha and Talgran were mainly made up of limestone rocks, while at Nardajian and Chhum sites they were composed of dolomite rocks. The Eurasian griffon has nested in Herzegovina on dolomite and limestone rocks (Tal-Sky, 1882; Reiser, 1939). Gyps fulvus, a closely related species to HG, prefers 92% limestone of nesting sites in Balkans (Marinkovic,
1999), 74% on the Iberian Peninsula (Donazar, 1993) and 60% of rocky area made up of dolomite and limestone in Crete, Greece (Xirouchakis and Mylonas, 2005).
Liberatori and Penteriani (2001) also recorded higher percentage of nests covered by shelters in rocky areas in Egyptian vulture colonies at Italian peninsula.
107 About 60-98% of the current study site cliffs were on the eastern exposures except the
Talgran (70% western). Overall eastern face of the cliff in all four sites showed the positive correlation (r=0.80) with mean number of active and occupied nests.
According to Donazar et al. (1989), the role of cliff in nest site selection process by species is very important. A strong association of active nests with eastern exposures in majority of study sites was probably to absorb maximum heat from the sun or it may be the specific characteristic of this species, as in case of Egyptian vultures, where the strong association of mean number of active and occupied nests with south facing slopes was reported as a typical preference of the species (Canut et al., 1988;
Grubac, 1989; Carlon, 1992; Mundy et al., 1992; Vlachos et al., 1998; Liberatori and
Penteriani, 2001). A sufficient amount of heat is necessary during the incubation period to give maximum output in terms of fledged chicks as evident in our Sarli
Sacha site, where the breeding success was 100%.
The vegetation cover of the cliffs was strongly negatively correlated with the active
(r=-0.79) and occupied (r=-0.89) nests suggesting that the rock selection and breeding activities of vultures might also be influenced by the vegetation cover. The larger the vegetation covers in cliffs, the smaller the breeding output, as was observed in less productive colonies (Talgran and Nardajian), where vegetation cover was 60% while in Sarli Sacha, the most productive nesting site, it was only 35% (Annexure II).
The selection of cliffs, with reference to elevation above sea level, height above the ground and cliff length, was strongly associated with the breeding output of the vulture in the study area. All these cliff characteristics were strongly positively correlated to the occupied nests and numbers of young fledglings (Table 3.15).
Similarly, there was a strong positive correlation (r=0.93) between the percentage of
108 rocky area and cliff elevation. All of these parameters made the cliff inaccessible to human and other predators.
4.4.2. Anthropogenic Variables
During study period, nine anthropogenic variables were investigated with reference to their association with vulture population and breeding parameters. A strong negative correlation of rural development (within the 5km radius of nesting cliffs) with mean numbers of active nests (r= -0.88), occupied (r=-0.86) nests and population (r=-0.95) revealed the negative impacts of human population near vulture colonies. Sara and
Vittorio (2003) recorded that the probability of Egyptian vulture site increases with less percentage of urbanized or rural areas and with greater percentage of natural areas. Both productive sites i.e. Sarli Sacha and Chhum, have only one village each within radius of 5km of nesting site, while our two other sites i.e., Talgran and
Nardajian have 5 and 4 villages respectively. Similarly, a strong negative correlation between percentage of cultivation with mean numbers of active (r=-0.95) and occupied (r=-0.79) nests, suggests that the agricultural practices might have strong negative impacts on the breeding process and population of HG in the study area
(Table 3.16). Low productive colonies (i.e., Talgran and Nardajian) have much anthropogenic pressure (in terms of human settlements and activities) as compared to productive colonies i.e. Sarli Sacha and Chhum. According to Liberatori and
Penteriani (2001), habitat modification by human was the main factor in population change of Egyptian vulture in Italy. In the study area, habitat modifications through agricultural activities, noise, summer grass cutting for winter fodder collection for their cattle, and collection of medicinal plants were major activities around the vulture colonies. Land use changes can decrease the carrying capacity of nesting habitat,
109 although food availability is not always the deterministic factor in population growth of raptors (Xirouchakis and Mylonas, 2005).
4.4.3. Food Variables
Population trend of livestock and its impact on vulture population was investigated.
Food availability is a limiting factor that strongly affects the population density, occupancy of nest area and productivity of breeding of vulture (Liberatori and
Penteriani, 2001). As discussed earlier, the breeding parameters and population of HG correlate with the livestock population which constitute the major portion of their food. Similarly, the numbers of rubbish damps near the vulture colonies were also found to be strongly associated with the breeding parameters and population of these vultures in the area, as all these parameters were strong positively correlated (Table
3.17). This might be due to the fact that, these animals are scavengers and rubbish damps having dead animals and their remains may act as source of food. Besides food availability, the distance to water from colonies was strongly negatively correlated with all breeding parameters and population of vultures (Table 3.17). These findings suggest that the site selection by vultures might also be affected by the distance from the sources of water. These inferences are further strengthening by the field observation. The water sources available in the form of Jheeng and Qazinag Nullahs are adjacent to the fertile colonies of Sarli Sacha and Chhum, respectively, and the source of water is far farther from Talgran colony.
4.4.4. Carcass Availability
During the study period, the carcasses of mule (14.29%), goat (42.86%), horse
(14.29%), donkey (14.29%) and sheep (14.29%) were recorded (Table 3.14). Xin Lu et al. (2009) recorded 54 carcasses of domestic animals, of which 12 (01 donkey, 04
110 sheep, 07 domestic yak) were not attended by any scavenger for a few weeks, while remaining carcasses of yak (60%), horse (21%), sheep (14%), donkey (2%) and dog
(2%) were attended by vultures. HG were never observed feeding any type of food except carrion. The report of Xin Lu et al. (2009) stating that not 100% of all carcasses were attended is in consistent with one of our observation at Nardajian site, where one slaughtered goat thrown the vicinity of colony was not attended during 24 hours observation.
111 CONCLUSION
In AJK among six Himalayan Griffon colonies, four active breeding colonies of
were found in Neelum (Sarli Sacha and Talgran) and Jhelum valleys (Chumm and
Nardajian) of Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
A sum total of 98 occupied nests, comprising active (n=75) and inactive (n=23),
were recorded in four breeding colonies. The overall 40% (@ 6.66% per annum)
decline was recorded in active nests.
Egg laying started from February 11 and lasted till March 31 and a total of 75
eggs were laid during the study period. The overall mean egg laying date was
March 1.
The incubation period ranged from 37-57 days. And the overall mean egg
hatching date was April 23 ranging between April 21 to April 27.
Majority (n=63; 86.6%) of eggs hatched successfully with an overall 57% decline
at the rate of 11% per annum during study period. The overall mean fledging date
was July 23 ranging from July 19 to July 26.
Maximum breeding success was recorded in Sarli Sacha (1.00) and minimum in
Nardajian (0.53). Overall breeding success of active nests declined from 0.83 in
year 1 to 0.63 in year 5. Majority of breeding failure was recorded at Nardajian in
year 5.
Sum of 80 individuals (20±3.48) were recorded from nesting sites in year 1 which
reduced to 50 individuals in year 5 suggesting 37.50% overall decline in nesting
site population at the rate of 7.5% per annum.
There was 75.31% decline in livestock population from year 1 to year 5 with
12.5% annual decline. There was strong positive correlation (r=0.95) of livestock
numbers with vulture population. Daily food availability to vultures sharply
112 declined from 11305 kg/day in year 1 to 2096 kg/day in year 3 of study suggesting
81% decline with 13% annual decline.
Selection of breeding cliffs by vultures was found one of the very important
factors for vulture breeding population. Cliff elevation above the sea level, cliff
height from ground, cliff length, cliff exposure and the open rocky area in the cliff
were found strongly correlated with the breeding activities of the vulture. The
maximum (70%) nests were placed in open rocky area at the Eastern exposures
(60-98%).
Shortage of food and various anthropogenic pressures (human settlements,
developmental activities and agricultural practices) were found as the major
factors responsible for declining the population of HG in the area. All these
factors were found strongly correlated to vulture population.
Besides, the reduction in carcass detectability by vultures and changes in agro
pastoral system in study area might also be among the contributing factors in
declining of vulture population.
Majority (60%) of the respondents agreed about decline of vultures in the area.
Use of pesticides and diclofenac veterinary drugs was still present. However, no
body reported any mortality of vulture observed in their life time.
113 CONSERVATION IMPLICATIONS
The population of Himalayan Griffon Vulture was found declining at a rate of 7.5% per annum. With this rapid decline in population, the species may attain the threshold of threatened species and need immediate conservation measures. Based on the findings of the current study, the following recommendations are put forward to help formulate some conservation strategies:
1. Restoration of the traditional agro pastoral system should be promoted by
encouraging the people to increase livestock population on the open
grasslands/pastures. This will not only increase the food availability to vultures
but also provide healthy population of livestock to enhance the socioeconomic
conditions of the local human population.
2. The Animal Husbandry department of AJK government must encourage the local
inhabitants near the vulture colonies to increase the population of livestock
(especially the open grazing ungulates), which will increase the possibilities of
food supply for vulture. While stall feeding should be discouraged, at least near
the vulture breeding colonies.
3. The local communities should be educated to discourage the burial of the dead
bodies of their livestock. Instead these bodies should be placed in open outskirt of
the villages.
4. Anthropogenic disturbance around the 5 km radius of vulture breeding colonies
should be minimized by sensitizing the local communities through awareness
programs at village level. These awareness programs should be carried out by
organizing seminars, workshops and involving the electronic and print media and
by establishing the vulture conservation committees and vulture clubs at schools.
114 These committees and clubs should be trained properly to act practically for
minimizing the threats to the vulture population in the area.
5. The increase in vegetation cover within 5km radius of breeding colonies should be
discouraged as this vegetation may reduce the detectability of carcasses by soaring
vultures.
6. For increasing food supply to the vultures, the Wildlife Department should
establish Vulture Restaurants near the breeding colonies of vultures in District
Muzaffarabad and Hattian. These restaurants will help vultures cope with shortage
of food in open grasslands.
7. Besides taking in-situ conservation measures, the establishment of a Vulture
Information and Captive Breeding Center is highly recommended at suitable place
e.g., Pir Chinasi area of District Muzaffarabad.
8. Further molecular based studies are required to investigate the genetic diversity of
these vultures and effects of possible population fragmentation (e.g., inbreeding)
on the population of these vultures.
9. A detailed GIS based habitat mapping is required to monitor the periodic change
in land use (e.g. vegetation cover) and its possible impacts on the vulture
population. This investigation will help to explore other factors responsible for
population decline in the area besides the food availability.
115 REFERENCES
ABREU, M. V., 1987. La dynamique des populations de necrophages (Gyps fulvus et
Neophron percnopterus) au fleuve Tejo International-1984. Supplemento alle
Ricerche di Biologia della Selvaggina, 121: 287-294.
ACHARYA, R., CUTHBERT, R., BARAL, H. S. AND SHAH, K. B., 2009. Rapid
population declines of Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis in Upper
Mustang, Nepal. Bird Conservation International, 19: 99–107.
ALI, S. AND RIPLEY, S. D., 1983. Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan:
Compact Edition. Delhi, Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York.
AMADON, D., 1964. The evolution of low reproductive rates in birds. Evolution, 18:
105-110.
ARMSTRONG, S., 1993. Dining with vultures. New Scientist, 140 (1899): 41-43.
AWAN, M. S., KHAN, A. A., QURESHI, M. A., AHMED, K. B. AND MURTAZA,
G., 2004. Habitat Utilization of Cheer Pheasant (Catreus wallichii) in Jhelum
Valley, Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Journal of Applied Sciences,
4(2): 250-256.
BAKER, E. C. S., 1928. The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma.
Second edition. Vol. 4. Taylor and Francis, London.
BAKER, E. C. S., 1935. The nidification of birds of the Indian Empire. Vol. 4. Taylor
and Francis, London.
116 BARAL, H. S., GIRI, J. B., CHOUDHARY, H., BASNET, S., WATSON, R. AND
VIRANI, M., 2002. Survey of Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis in the
Nepalese Himalayas, final report. Boise, Idaho, USA: The Peregrine Fund.
BARAL, N. AND GAUTAM, R., 2007. Socio-economic perspectives on the
conservation of Critically Endangered vultures in South Asia: an empirical
study from Nepal. Bird Conservation International, 17(02): 131–139.
BARAL, N., GAUTAM, R. AND TAMANG, B., 2005. Population status and
breeding ecology of White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Rampur
Valley, Nepal. Forktail, 21: 87–91.
BATES, R.S.P. AND LOWTHER, E.H.N., 1952. Breeding Birds of Kashmir. Oxford
University Press, Delhi.
BIBBY, C. J., BURGESS, N. D., HILL, D. A. AND MUSTOE, S., 2000. Bird Census
Techniques (2nd ed.). Academic Press, London, UK, 325 pp.
BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL, 2001. Threatened Birds of Asia; The BirdLife
International Red Data Book. Cambridge.
BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL, 2006. Threatened Birds of Asia; The BirdLife
International Red Data Book. Cambridge.
BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL, 2012. Gyps himalayensis. The IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Version 2014.3.
15 August 2012.
117 BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL, 2014. Gyps himalayensis. The IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species. Version 2014.3.
on 29 May 2015.
BLANDFORD, W. T., 1895. The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and
Burma. Vol. III. Taylor and Francis, London.
BORELLO, W. D. AND BORELLO, R. M., 1993. Demographic trends in cape
griffon Gyps coprotheres colonies in Botswana, 1963–1992. In: Wilson RT
(ed) Birds and the African Environment. Proceedings of the Eighth Pan-
African Ornithological Congress. Annales Muse´e Royal de l’ Afrique
Centrale (Zoologie), 268:123–131.
CANUT, J., GARCIA-FERRE, D., MARCO, J. AND CEBALLOS, O., 1988. Le
percnoptere d’Egypte. Acta Biologica Montana, 8: 105–118.
CARLON, J., 1992. Breeding phenology of the Egyptian vulture. World Working
Group on Birds of Prey and Owls. Newsletter, 16/17: 12–13.
CHAO, L., HUO, Z. AND YU. X., 2013. Population and conservation status of the
Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis) at the Drigung Thel Monastery, Tibet,
China. Chinese Birds, 4(4): 328–331.
CHHANGANI, A. K., MOHNOT, S. M. AND PUROHIT, A. K., 2002. Population
status of vultures in and around Jodhpur with special reference to long-billed
Vulture (Gyps indicus). Journal of Nature Conservation, 14 (1): 121-130.
CUNNINGHAM, P. L., 2002. Vulture declining in the United Arab Emirates. Vulture
News, 46:8-10.
118 CUTHBERT, R., GREEN, R. E., RANADE, S., SARAVANAN, S. S. PAIN,
PRAKASH, V. AND CUNNINGHAM, A. A., 2006. Rapid population
declines of Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus and Red-headed Vulture
Sarcogyps calvus in India. Animal Conservation, 9: 349–354.
CUTHBERT, R., PARRY-JONES, J., GREEN, R.E. AND PAIN, D.J., 2007.
NSAIDs and scavenging birds: Potential impacts beyond Asia’s critically
endangered vultures. Biology Letters, 3: 91–94.
DAR, M.E.U.I., 2012. A study on human livelihoods and impacts on the vegetation
of Machiara National Park, District Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir,
Pakistan. Ph.D. Dissertation, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand.
DAS, D., CUTHBERT, R. J., JAKATI, R. D. AND PRAKASH, V., 2011. Diclofenac
is toxic to the Himalayan Vulture Gyps himalayensis. Bird Conservation
International, 21: 72–75.
DERMENT’IEV, G. P. AND GLADKOV, N. A., 1969. Birds of the Soviet Union.
Vol. I. IPST, Press, Jerusalem.
DODSWORTH, L., 1913. Notes on the vultures found in the neighbourhood of Simla
and adjacent ranges of the Himalayas. Ibis, 10 (1): 534-534.
DONÁZAR, J. A., 1993. Los buitres ibéricos. Biología y conservación. Madrid: J.
M. Reyero Editor.
DONAZAR, J. A., CEBALLOS, O., LEON, C. F., 1989. Factors influencing the
distribution and abundance of seven cliff-nesting raptors: a multi- variate
119 study. Raptors in the Modern World, World Working Group on Birds of Prey
and Owls, Berlin, 545–549.
FAKHAR-I-ABBAS, ROONEY, P. T., HAIDER, J. AND MIAN, A., 2013. Food
limitation as a potentially emerging contributor to the Asian vulture crisis.
Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 23(6): 1758-1760.
FERNÁNDEZ, C., AZCONA, P. AND DONAZAR, J. A., 1996. Density-dependent
effects on productivity in the Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus: then role of
interference and habitat heterogeneity. Ibis, 140: 64–69.
FLINT, V. E., BOEHME, R. L., KOSTIN, Y. V. AND KUZNETSOV, A. A., 1984. A
Field Guide to Birds of the USSR including Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
Princeton University Press, New Jersy.
FULLER, M. R., MOSHER, J. A., 1981. Methods of detecting and counting raptors: a
review. Studies in Avian Biology, 6:235–248.
GAUTAM, R., TAMANG, B. AND BARAL, N., 2003. Ecological Studies on White-
Rumped vulture in Rampur valley, Palpa, Nepal, final report submitted to
Oriental Bird club, UK.
GAVASHELISHVILI, A. AND MCGRADY, M. J., 2006. Geographic information
system-based modelling of vulture response to carcass appearance in the
Caucasus. Journal of Zoology London, 269: 365–372.
GILBERT, M., OAKS, J.L., VIRANI, M.Z., WATSON, R.T., AHMED, S.,
CHAUDHRY, J., ARSHAD, M., MAHMOOD, S., ALI, A. KHATTAK, R.
M. AND KHAN, A.A., 2004. The status and decline of vultures in the
120 provinces of Punjab and Sind, Pakistan: a 2003 update. In: Raptors
Worldwide: Proceedings of the VI World Conference on Birds of Prey and
Owls, Budapest, Hungary, 18-23 May 2003. Chancellor, R. D. and Meyburg,
B-U. (eds). World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls, Berlin.
GILBERT, M., VIRANI, M. Z., WATSON, R. T., OAKS, L., BENSON, P. C.,
KHAN, A. A., AHMED, S., CHAUDHRY, J., ARSHAD, M., MAHMOOD,
S. AND SHAH, Q. A., 2002. Breeding and mortality of Oriental Whitebacked
Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Punjab Province, Pakistan. Bird Conservation
International, 12: 311 – 326.
GILBERT, M., WATSON, R. T., VIRANI, M. Z., OAKS, J. L., AHMED, S.,
CHAUDHRY, M. J. I., ARSHAD. M., MAHMOOD, S., ALI, A. AND
KHAN, A. A., 2006. Rapid population decline and mortality clusters in three
Oriental White-backed vulture Gyps bengalensis colonies in Pakistan due to
Diclofenac poisoning. Oryx, 40: 388-399.
GIRI, J. B. AND BARAL, H. S., 2002. An initial survey of Himalayan Vulture (Gyps
himalayensis) in Annapurna conservation area, Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal.
Vulture News, 47:20-24.
GoAJK, 2005. Revised Management Plan for Machiara National Park. Department of
Wildlife and Fisheries. Government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. pp 143.
GOAJK, 2013. Azad Kashmir at a Glance. Planning and Development Department,
Government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
121 GREEN, R. E., NEWTON, I., SHULTZ, S., CUNNINGHAM, A. A., GILBERT, M.,
PAIN, D. J. AND PRAKASH, V., 2004. Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of
population declines across the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Applied
Ecology, 41:793–800.
GRIMETT, R., INSKIPP, C. AND INSKIPP, T., 1998. Birds of the Indian Sub-
continent. Oxford University Press, Delhi. India.
GRUBAC, R. B., 1989. The Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus in Macedonia.
Raptors in the Modern World, World Working Group on Birds of Prey and
Owls, Berlin, 331–333.
HERTEL, F., 1994. Diversity in body size and feeding morphology within past and
present vulture assemblages. Ecology, 75:1074–1084.
HOUSTON, D. C., 1974. Food searching in Griffon Vultures. East African Wildlife
Journal, 12: 63-77.
HOUSTON, D. C., 1976. Breeding of the White-backed and Rüppell’s Griffon
Vultures, Gyps africanus and G. rueppellii. Ibis, 118: 14–40.
HOUSTON, D. C., 1985. Indian white-backed vulture (G. bengalensis). In: Newton,
I., Chancellor, R.D. (Eds.), Conservation Studies on Raptors. International
Council for Bird Preservation Technical Publication, ICBP, Cambridge, 5:
465–466.
HOUSTON, D. C., 1987. Competition for food between Neotropical vultures in
forest. Ibis, 130: 402-417.
122 HOUSTON, D. C., COOPER J. E., 1975. The digestive tract of the white back griffon
vulture and its role in disease transmission among wild ungulates. Journal of
Wildlife Diseases, 11(3): 306-13.
IQBAL, S., KHAN, U. AND MURN, C., 2011. Vulture Population and Status Survey
Pakistan. WWF-Pakistan. pp 1-11.
IUCN., 2007. IUCN Red List of threatened species, 2007. http://www.iucn.org.
IUCN., 2012. Gyps himalayensis. http://www.iucnredlist.org/ apps/ redlist/ details/
144352/0. Downloaded on 15 October 2012.
KOSTRZEWA, R. AND KOSTRZEWA, A., 1991. Winter weather, spring and
summer density, and subsequent breeding success of Eurasian Kestrels,
Common Buzzards, and Northern Goshawks. Auk, 108: 342–347.
KUSHWAHA, S. AND KANAUJIA, A., 2010. Ecology of Vultures in and Around
Orcha, Madhya Pradesh. Asian Journal Experimental Biological Sciences,
1(1): 112-118.
LEES, J. F. AND CHRISTIE, D. A., 2001. Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm,
London. 992 pp.
LERNER, H.R.L. AND MINDELL, D. P., 2005. Phylogeny of eagles, Old World
vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA.
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 37 (2): 327–346.
LESHEM, Y., 1985. Israel: an international axis of raptor migration. In Conservation
study of raptors: 243–250. Newton, I. and Chancellor, R. D. (Eds). ICPB
Technical Publication 5. Norwich: Page Bros Ltd.
123 LI, Y.D. AND KASORNDORKBUA, C., 2008. The status of the Himalayan Griffon
Gyps himalayensis in South-East Asia. Forktail, 24: 57–62.
LIBERATORI, F. AND PENTERIANI, V., 2001. A long-term analysis of the
declining population of the Egyptian vulture in the Italian peninsula:
distribution, habitat preference, productivity and conservation implications.
Biological Conservation, 101: 381–389.
LOKE WAN THO, 1957. A company of birds. London: Michael Joseph.
MARGALIDA, A. AND BERTRAN, J., 2000. Breeding behaviour of the Bearded
Vulture Gypaetus barbatus: minimal sexual differences in parental activities.
Ibis, 142: 225–234.
MARGALIDA, A., BERTRAN, J. AND HEREDIA, R., 2009. Diet and food
preferences of the endangered Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus: a basis
for their conservation. Ibis, 151: 235–243.
MARGALIDA, A., GARCIA, D. BERTRAN, J. AND HEREDIA, R., 2003. Breeding
biology and success of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the eastern
Pyrenees. Ibis, 145: 244–2523.
MARINKOVIĆ, S., 1999. Ecological basis of conservation and survival of Eurasian
Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus Hablizl 1783) on Balkan Peninsula. Dissertation.
Faculty of Biology. Belgrade.
MARINKOVIĆ, S., LJILJANA, P., ORLANDIĆ, B., SKORIĆ, S. B. AND
KARADŽIĆ, B. D., 2012. Nest-site preference of griffon vulture (Gyps
fulvus) in herzegovina. Archives of Biological Sciences, 64 (1): 385-392.
124 MDUMA, S. A. R., SINCLAIR, A. R. E. AND HILBORN, R., 1999. Food regulates
the Serengeti wildebeest: a 40-year record. Journal of Animal Ecology, 68:
1101–1122.
MUNDY, P. J., BUTCHARD, D., LEDGER, J. AND PIPER, S., 1992. The Vultures
of Africa. Academic Press, London, UK, 464 pp.
NAROJI, R., 2006. Birds of Indian Subcontinent. Om Book International, New Delhi,
India.
NEWTON, I., 1979. Population ecology of raptors. T. and A.D. Poyser,
Berkhamsted, U.K., 399 pp.
NEWTON, I., 1998. Population Limitation in Birds. Academic Press, San Diego, CA,
597 pp.
NEWTON, S. F. AND NEWTON, A. V., 1996. Breeding biology and seasonal
abundance of Lappet-faced Vultures (Torgos tracheliotus) in western Saudi
Arabia. Ibis, 138: 675–683.
OAKS, J. L., GILBERT, M., VIRANI, M. Z., WATSON, R. T., METEYER, C. U.,
RIDEOUT, B. A., SHIVAPRASAD, H. L., AHMED, S., CHAUDHRY,
M.J., ARSHAD, M., MAHMOOD, S., ALI, A. AND KHAN, A.A., 2004.
Diclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan.
Nature, 427: 630–633.
OGADA, D. L. AND BUIJ, R., 2011. Large declines of the Hooded Vulture
Necrosyrtes monachus across its African range. Ostrich, 82(2): 101–113.
125 OGADA, D. L., KEESING, F., 2010. Decline of raptors over a three-year period in
Laikipia, central Kenya. Journal of Raptor Research, 44: 129–135.
PAIN, D. J., BOWDEN, C.G. R., CUNNINGHAM, A.A., CUTHBERT, R., DAS, D.,
GILBERT, M., JAKATI, R.D., JHALA, Y.D., KHAN, A.A., NAIDOO, V.,
OAKS, J.L., PARRY-JONES, J., PRAKASH, V., RAHMANI, A., RANADE,
S.P., BARAL, H.S., SENACHA, K.R., SARAVANAN, S., SHAH, N.,
SWAN, G., SWARUP, D., TAGGART, M.A., WATSON, R.T., VIRANI,
M.Z., WOLTER, K. AND GREEN, R.E., 2008. The race to prevent the
extinction of south Asian vultures. Bird Conservation International, 18: S30–
S48.
PAIN, D. J., CUNNINGHAM, A. A., DONALD, P. F., DUCKWORTH, J. W.,
HOUSTON, D. C., KATZNER, T., PARRY-JONES, J., POOLE, C.,
PRAKASH, V., ROUND, P. AND TIMMINS, R., 2003. Causes and effects of
temporospatial declines of Gyps vultures in Asia. Conservation Biology, 17
(3): 661–671.
PARRA, J. AND TELLERIA, J. L., 2004. The increase in the Spanish population of
Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus during 1989–1999: effects of food and nest site
availability. Bird Conservation International, 14: 33–41.
PETRIDES, G. A., 1959. Competition for food between five species of East African
vultures. Auk, 76:104–106.
PIPER, S. E., MUNDY, P. J. AND LEDGER, J. A., 1981. Estimates of survival in the
Cape Vulture Gyps corprotheres. Journal of animal ecology, 50: 815-825.
126 POSTUPALSKY, S., 1974. Raptor Reproductive Success: Some problems with
methods, criteria, and terminology. Reprinted from Management of Raptors,
Proceedings of the Conference on Raptor Conservation Techniques, Fort
Collins, Colorado, 22-24 March, 1973 (Part 4). F.N. Hamerstrom, Jr., B.E.
Harrell, and R.R. Olendorff, Editors. Raptor Research Report, 2: 21-31.
PRAKASH, V., 1999. Status of vultures in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,
Rajasthan with special reference to population crash in Gyps species. Journal
of Bombay Natural History Society, 96: 365-378.
PRAKASH, V., PAIN, D.J., CUNNINGHAM, A.A., DONALD, P.F., PRAKASH,
N., VERMA, A., GARGI, R., SIVAKUMAR, S. AND RAHMANI, A. R.,
2003. Catastrophic collapse of Indian White-backed Gyps bengalensis and
Longbilled Gyps indicus Vulture populations. Biological Conservation, 109:
381-390.
PRAKASH, V., GREEN, R.E., PAIN, D.J., RANADE, S.P., SARAVANAN, S.,
PRAKASH, N., VENKITACHALAM, R., CUTHBERT, R., RAHMANI,
A.R., AND CUNNINGHAM, A.A., 2007. Recent changes in populations of
resident Gyps vultures in India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History
Society, 104(2): 129–135.
PUENTE, J. D. L., 2005. Effect of Monitoring Frequency and Timing on Estimates of
Abundance and Productivity of Colonial Black Vultures Aegypius monachus
in Central Spain. In: Houston, D.C. and S. E. Piper (eds). 2006. Proceedings of
the International Conference on Conservation and Management of Vulture
Populations. 14-16 November 2005, Thessaloniki, Greece. Natural History
Museum of Crete and WWF Greece. pp 31-40.
127 RAHMANI, A. R., 2002. Threatened Birds of India: Their conservation
requirements. IBCN, Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) and Birdlife
International collaboration. Oxford University Press, Mumbai, India.
REISER, O., 1939. Materialien zu einer Ornis Balcanica. I Bosnien und
Herzegovina. Bosnisch-Hercegovinischen Landesmuseum in Sarajevo. Wien.
RICHARDSON, C. T. AND MILLER, C. K., 1997. Recommendations for Protecting
Raptors from Human Disturbance: A Review. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 25(3):
634-638.
ROBERTS, T. J., 1991. The birds of Pakistan. Vol I. Non-Passeriformes. Oxford
University Press, Karachi. Pakistan.
RUXTON, G. D. AND HOUSTON, D. C., 2004. Obligate vertebrate scavengers must
be large soaring fliers. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 228: 431-436.
SAMANT, J. S., PRAKASH, V., NAOROJI, R., 1995. Ecology and behavior of
resident raptors with special reference to endangered species. Final Report to
the US Fish and Wildlife Service Grant number 14–1600009–90–1257.
Bombay Natutral History Society, Mumbai, India.
SARÀ, M. AND VITTORIO, M. D., 2003. Factors influencing the distribution,
abundance and nest-site selection of an endangered Egyptian vulture
(Neophron percnopterus) population in Sicily. Animal Conservation, 6(4):
317-328.
SATHEESAN, S. M., 1998. The role of vultures in the disposal of human corpses in
India and Tibet. Vulture News, 39: 32–33.
128 SHULTZ, S., BARAL, H. S., CHARMAN, S., CUNNINGHAM, A. A., DAS, D.,
GHALSASI, G. R., GOUDAR, M. S., GREEN, R. E., JONES, A.,
NIGHOT, P., PAIN, D.J., PRAKASH, V., 2004. Diclofenac poisoning is
widespread in declining vulture populations across the Indian subcontinent.
Proceeding of Royal Society Bulletin: Biological Sciences, 271 (Suppl.): 458–
460.
SRIKOSAMATARA, S. AND SUTEETHORN, V. 1995. Populations of gaur and
banteng and their management in Thailand. Natural History Bulletin of the
Siam Society, 43(1): 55-83.
STEENHOF, K., KOCHERT, M. N. AND MCDONALD, T. L., 1997. Interactive
effects of prey and weather on golden eagle reproduction. Journal of Animal
Ecology, 66: 350–362.
SUWAL, N. R., 2003. Ornithological survey Upper Mustang, Upper Mustang
biodiversity conservation project. Kathmandu, Nepal: King Mahendra Trust
for Nature Conservation.
SWAN, G.E., CUTHBERT, R., QUEVEDO, M., GREEN, R. E., PAIN, D. J.,
BARTELS, P., CUNNINGHAM, A.A., DUNCAN, N., MEHARG, A.A.,
OAKS, J.L., PARRY-JONES, J., SHULTZ, S., TAGGART, M.A.,
VERDOORN, G. AND WOLTER, K., 2006. Toxicity of diclofenac to Gyps
vultures. Biology Letters, 2: 279–282.
TALSKY, J., 1882. Ein weissköpfiger Geier (Vultur fulvus) au Bosnien. Mitt. Ornith.
Verein. 6(2), Wien.
129 TERMIZI, S.S.H. AND RAFIQUE, C.M., 2001. Forestry Statistics of Azad Kashmir.
Forest Department, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad.
THAKUR, M.L., 2014. Breeding records and recent population trends of Himalayan
Griffon (Gyps himalayensis Hume) in Himachal Pradesh, India. American
Journal of Research Communication, 2(3): 141-152.
THIOLLAY, J.-M., 2006. The decline of raptors in West Africa: long-term
assessment and the role of protected areas. Ibis, 148: 240–254.
TRAVIS, L., BRADLEY, R. D., LEHR, B. J. R. AND OLIN, R. E., 2004. Home
ranges of sympatric Black and Turkey Vultures in South Carolina. The
condor, 106:706-7114.
VIRANI, M. Z., GILBERT, M., WATSON, R., OAKS, J. L., CHAUDHRY, J.,
ARSAD, M., AHMED, S., MAHMOOD, S., ALI, A., BARAL, H. S. AND
GIRI, J. B., 2002. Breeding and mortality of Oriental White-backed Vultures
Gyps bengalensis: summary of results of a two-year study in Pakistan and
Nepal (2000/ 2001 and 2001/2002). pp. 1–3. In: T. Katzner and J. Parry-
Jones, eds. Reports from the workshop Conservation of Gyps vultures in
Asia. New Orleans, USA: Third North American Ornithological Conference.
VIRANI, M. Z., KENDALL, C., NJOROGE, P. AND THOMSETT, S., 2011. Major
declines in the abundance of vultures and other scavenging raptors in and
around the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya. Biological Conservation,
144:746–752.
130 VIRANI, M., GIRI, J. B., WATSON, R. AND BARAL, H. S., 2008. Surveys of
Himalayan Vultures (Gyps himalayensis) in the Annapurna Conservation
Area, Mustang, Nepal. Journal of Raptor Research, 42 (3):197-203.
VLACHOS, C. G., PAPAGEORGIOU, N. K. AND BAKALOUDIS, D. E., 1998.
Effect of the feeding station establishment on the Egyptian vulture (Neophron
percnopterus) in Dadia Forest, NE Greece. In: Chancellor, R. D. Meyburg, B.
and Ferrero, J. J. (Eds). Holoarctic birds of prey: Adenex – World Working
Group on Birds of Prey and Owls. Calamonte: IGRAEX C.B.197–207.
WATSON, R.T., GILBERT, M., OAKS, J. L. AND VIRANI, M., 2004. The collapse
of vulture populations in South Asia. Biodiversity, 5(3): 3-7.
WYNNE-EDWARDS, V. C., 1955. Low reproductive rates in birds, especially Sea
birds. Acta X1. International Ornithological Congress, 1954: 540-547.
XIN LU, KE, D., ZENG, X., GONG, G. AND CI, R., 2009. Status, Ecology, and
Conservation of the Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis (Aves,
Accipitridae) in the Tibetan Plateau. Ambio, 38 (3): 166-173.
XIROUCHAKIS, S. M AND MYLONAS, M., 2005. Selection of breeding cliffs by
Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus in Crete (Greece). Acta Ornithologica, 40(2):
155-161.
ZUBEROGOITIA, I., ÁLVAREZ, K., OLANO, M., RODRÍGUEZ, A. AND ARAMBARRI, R., 2009. Avian scavenger populations in the Basque Country: status, distribution and breeding parameters. In: Vultures, feeding stations and sanitary legislation: a conflict and its consequences from the perspective of conservation biology. (eds. Donázar, J.A., Margalida, A. and Campión, D. Sociedad de Ciencias Aranzadi, Donostia Munibe, 29 (Suppl.): 34–65.
131 Annexure I
Questionnaire for Vulture Survey in AJK
Name of Respondent: ______Age: ______
Village Name: ______Occupation: ______Date: ______
Sr. Questions Response # 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
1 How many animals (livestock) did you own in your home?
Cows
Oxen (Bulls)
Buffalos
Sheep
Goats
Horses
Mules
Donkeys
Dogs
2 How many animals were died (without slaughtering)?
3 What was/were the Reason(s) of such animal deaths?
4 How many vultures were seen on the carcasses of the dead animals?
5 What disease caused the maximum deaths?
6 Did you got examined of your animal by a veterinarian?
7 What types of drugs the veterinarian generally prescribed
132 for your animal?
8 Did you ever used diclofenac-a pain killer drug, for your cattle?
9 Did your use any pesticide or herbicide?
10 If yes, please give name(s)
11 Did you find any dead vulture in your area?
If yes, then where did you see?
What was the possible reason for its death?
12 Do you think that population of vultures is declining or increasing?
13 What are the possible reason(s) for its declining or increasing?
133 Annexure II Summary of population, habitat and breeding parameters of Himalayan Griffon at different study sites during 2005, 2007-2010
Habitat Parameters Nardajian Chhum Sarli Sacha Talgran Coordinates 34˚1213.41N; 34˚1243.32N; 34˚3051.80N; 34˚2749.41N; 73˚5035.80E 73˚5617.88E 73˚3923.43E 73˚2732.03E Cliff elevation (m.a.s.l.) 2180 2090 2724 1670 % Cliff slope 65 80 60 75 Cliff height above ground (m) 20 40 35 25 Cliff length (m) 30 50 70 30 % of pasture (within radius of 5km of cliff) 30 15 40 17 % of vegetation cover (within radius of 5km of cliff) 60 80 30 50 % of rocky area (within radius of 5km of cliff) 10 5 30 33 % of rocky area in cliff 60 50 65 40 % of vegetation cover in cliff 40 50 35 60 % of cultivation (within radius of 5km of cliff) 30 20 30 50 % of rural development (within radius of 5km of cliff) 20 5 7 27 Distance to water from cliff (m) 30 20 27 70 Distance to nearest village from cliff (m) 70 35 30 40 Distance to paved road from cliff (m) 130 200 300 250 Distance to unpaved road from cliff (m) 50 45 70 80 Dominant vegetation (within radius of 5km of cliff) Pinus wallichiana, Picea Pinus wallichiana, Picea Pinus wallichiana, Pinus wallichiana, Taxus smithiana, Juglan regia, smithiana, Juglan regia, Taxus wallichi, wallichi, Plactranthus Plactranthus rugosus, Plactranthus rugosus, Plactranthus rugosus, rugosus, Vibernum Vibernum glandiflorum Vibernum glandiflorum Vibernum glandiflorum glandiflorum, Indigofera heterantha % of cliff exposure (Southern) 2 40 40 70 % of cliff exposure (Eastern) 98 60 90 0
134 Habitat Parameters Nardajian Chhum Sarli Sacha Talgran % of cliff exposure (Western) 0 0 0 30 Total numbers of households within radius of 5km of 700 500 800 900 cliff Total numbers of livestock (within radius of 5km of 4900 3500 5600 6300 cliff) % mean sent covered by shelter 50 45 70 30 % of mean nest placed open 50 55 30 70 Distance to nearest breeding site (m) 3000 3000 10000 10000 Mean nest height from the ground of the cliff (m) 10 20 15 18 Numbers of rubbish damps (within radius of 5km of 2 3 4 2 cliff) Distance to nearest rubbish damp from cliff 70 35 30 40 numbers of roosting sites (within radius of 5km of cliff) 3 4 3 2 Types of predatory bird (within radius of 20km of cliff) Golden eagle, Kite, Raven Raven, Golden eagle, Raven, Golden eagle, Raven, Kite Common kestrel Kite Types of predatory mammals (within radius of 20km of Jackal, Feral dogs, Jackal, Common Jackal, Feral dogs, Jackal, Feral dogs, Red cliff) Common leopard, Red leopard, Red fox, Palm Common leopard, Red fox, Indian mongoose fox, Indian mongoose civet fox, Indian mongoose, Palm civet Numbers of migratory domestic ungulates (within radius 3500 2500 4000 3500 of 10km of cliff) Mean numbers of active nests 4.2 4.4 4.4 2.2 Mean numbers of occupied nests 5 5.4 6.8 2.4 Mean numbers of young fledged 2 4.2 4.4 1.8 Mean population of colony 8.8 15 18 6.6
135
136