V.S.B. ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KARUR Department of English 2MARKS QUESTION for TECHNICAL ENGLISH - II

V.S.B. ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KARUR Department of English 2MARKS QUESTION FOR TECHNICAL ENGLISH - II

Technical Vocabulary Match the words with their meanings 1. a) accelerate 1) feasible b) simultaneously 2) increase speed c) viable 3) extremely high d) prohibitive 4) occurring at the same time Answer: 2,4,1,3

2. a) distort 1) bulky b) cumbersome 2) twist out of shape c) comprehend 3) state of being out of date d) obsolescence 4) understand Answer: 3,1,4,2

3. a) alien 1) remove b) discard 2) innumerable c) myriad 3) foreign d) advent 4) arrival Answers : 3,1,2,4

4. a) priming 1) thing or part added to improve b) indispensable 2) preparing c) supplement 3) consider before hand d) anticipate 4) necessary Answer: 2,4,1,3

5. a) explore 1) including all b) comprehensive 2) arrangement c) array 3) unfit to eat d) inedible 4) examine Answer: 4,1,2,3

6. (a) Slight a) Temperate (b) Penny-wise b) Generous (c) Avaricious c) Heavy (d) Greedy d) Extravagant Answer: c,d,a,b

7. a. Diversity a) Negligent b. Inadvertent b) Hindrance c. Obstacle c) Shooting forward d. Projection d) Difference Answer: d, a,b,c

8. a) Dynamism 1) producer 1

b) Enhance 2) sympathy c) Breeder 3) heighten d) Empathy 4) strength Answer: 5,3,1,2

9. a. Accurate 1) Swift b. Gigantic 2) Precise c. Elide 3) Huge d. Rapid 4) Omit Answer: 2,3,4,1

10 a) Conventional 1) use up b) Appropriate 2)traditional c) consume 3)exhibit d) display 4)suitable Answer: 2,4, 1,3

Antonyms I. 1) What's the opposite of more? Few, less, a lot, many 2) What's the opposite of alive? Asleep, dead, death, sick 3) What's the opposite of loud? Soft, quite, quiet, noisy 4) What's the opposite of happy? Glad, ugly, difficult, sad 5) What's the opposite of last? First, beginning, start, end 6) What's the opposite of now? Always, never, then, soon 7) What's the opposite of to buy? to take, to sell, to bring, to lend 8) What's the opposite of better? Bad, worse, good, worst 9) What's the opposite of dangerous? Easy, beautiful, safe, pleasant 10) What's the opposite of cool? Warm, hot, cold, cooler

II. 1) What's the opposite of many? Less, few, more, most 2) What's the opposite of deep? Shallow, narrow, thin, low 3) What's the opposite of long? Broad, small , thing, short 4) What's the opposite of clean? tidy up, clear, dirty beautiful 5) What's the opposite of empty? Shut, open, Ugly ,full 6) What's the opposite of thin? Light, slow, fat, more 7) What's the opposite of beginning? End, start, finish, depart 8) What's the opposite of big? Huge, small, large, less 9) What's the opposite of modern? Older, ancient, new, contemporary 10) What's the opposite of poor? Wealth, rich, poverty, wise III. 1) What's the opposite of to break? to join, to fasten, to mend, to build 2) What's the opposite of early? Soon, late, last, first 3) What's the opposite of to lose? to forget, to find, to search, to look for 4) What's the opposite of over? Downstairs, below, under, above 5) What's the opposite of rough? Sharp, heavy, hard, smooth 6) What's the opposite of heavy?

Light, soft, easy, smooth 7) What's the opposite of to learn? To know, to teach, to forget, to understand 8) What's the opposite of high? Under, low, beneath, down 9) What's the opposite of to start? to stop, to begin, to go on, to continue 10) What's the opposite of to push? to tow, lift ,to pull, to send Answers I.1) less 2) dead 3) quiet 4) sad 5) first 6) then 7) to sell 8) worse 9) safe 10) Warm

II.1) few 2) shallow 3) short 4) dirty 5) full 6) fat 7) end 8) small 9) ancient 10) rich

III.1) to mend 2) late 3) to find 4) under 5) smooth 6) light 7) to teach 8) low 9) to stop 10) to pull

Prepositions

1) Trevor had promised his young nephew Caleb that they would go to the town parade ____ July 4th. (A) at (B) on 2) Trevor told Caleb that they had to get there ____ 7:30 a.m. at the latest so they could get a good spot. (A) in (B) by 3) Caleb got up very early that morning, and they arrived ____ a great viewing spot on Smithtown Road at 7:15 a.m. (A) at (B) in 4) Marching ____ the front of the parade was the Smithtown High School Band. (A) at (B) by 5) Proudly blaring out the melody ____ her trumpet was Caleb's sister Alexie. (A) on (B) at 6) Following the band came an antique car, and sitting ____ the front seat was Mary Abelson, the parade's grand marshal. (A) at (B) in 7) Then came a colorful float displaying a huge American flag; Caleb had worked ____ that float during the week. (A) in (B) on 8) Caleb was excited ____ the float, feeling like he had made an important contribution to the parade. (A) at (B) by

9) Volunteers came by with shopping carts, and Caleb put some cans of food ____ one of the carts; the donated food would go to the community food bank. (A) in (B) on 10) The clowns came last ____ the parade, and one of them put a huge hat made of balloons on Caleb's head. (A) in (B) at 11) Mariel and I decided to spend a day together ____ the city. (A) at (B) in 12) We met ____ the train station to catch the 8:00 a.m. train. (A) on (B) at 13) We got ____ the train at 8:10 because it was running a little late. (A) on (B) by 14) ____ the time the train reached the end of the line, it was 9:15 a.m (A) on (B) by 15) We enjoyed the morning browsing through the shops ____ Farrell Street. (A) on (B) in 16) Mariel loves old-fashioned clothes, so she had an especially good time ____ a shop that sold antique dresses. (A) at (B) on 17) We had a quick lunch ____ a hot dog stand in the park. (A) on (B) at 18) Then we split up, agreeing to meet again ____ 4:00 p.m. at the corner of Harrison and Maple Streets. (A) at (B) in 19) While in a bookstore, I realized I was running late, so I ran out and got ____ a taxi. (A) in (B) at 20) When I finally got to Harrison and Maple, Mariel, who had come ____ bus, had just arrived. (A) at (B) by

ANS: 1.B 2.B 3.A 4.A 5.A 6.B 7.B 8.B 9.A 10.A 11.B 12.B 13.A 14.B 15.A 16.A 17.B 18.A 19.A 20.B

B) Choose the correct answers 1. My best friend lives ______Boretz Road. a. in b. on c. at 2. I'll be ready to leave ____ about twenty minutes. a. in b. on c. at 3. Since he met his new girlfriend, Juan never seems to be ______home. a. on b. in c. at 4. The child responded to his mother's demands ______throwing a tantrum. a. with b. by c. from 5. I think she spent the entire afternoon ______the phone. a. on b. in c. at 6. I will wait ______6:30, but then I'm going home. a. from b. at c. until 7. The police caught the thief _____ the corner of Cascade and Plum Streets. a. in b. at c. from 8. My fingers were injured so my sister had to write the note _____ me.

a. for b. with c. to 9. I am not interested _____ buying a new car now. a. to b. for c. in 10. What are the main ingredients ______this casserole? a. about b. to c. of 11. My best friend, John, is named ______his great-grandfather. a. after b. to c. about 12. Grandpa stayed up ______two in the morning. a. since b. for c. until 13. My parents have been married ______forty-nine years. a. since b. for c. until 14. He usually travels to Philadelphia ______train. a. by b. at c. with 15. You frequently see this kind of violence ____ television. a. with b. in c. on 16. I told Mom we'd be home ______an hour or so. a. to b. in c. at 17. I was visiting my best friend _____ the hospital. a. of b. at c. in 18. The professor ______South Africa amazed the American students with her stories. a. from b. of c. in 19. I'll see you ____ home when I get there. a. in b. by c. at 20. It's been snowing ______Christmas morning. a. since b. for c. until

Answers 1.B 2.A 3.C 4.B 5.A 6.C 7.B 8.A 9.C 10.C 11.A 12.C 13.B 14.A 15.C 16.B 17.C 18.A 19.C 20.A

Abbreviation

9mm 9 millimeter ARFJ Are Rhinos Frying Jacks? A Another arg argument A Appropriate AS Accent Sensitive A Awesome ASK Alpha Sigma Kappa A/K/A Also known as ASSOC Association AA Alcoholics Anonymous ATO Alpha Tau Omega AAPM Adjective Accusative Plural CQD All Stations Distress Masculine CSM Collective Management AB Ajduckiewicz Bar Societies CTO cancelled to order AB Always Been CUNT Can't Understand ABBR Abbreviation Normal abbr. abbreviated Thinking abbrevs abbreviations CUPS Capitalization, Usage, ABBRV Abbreviation Punctuation, and Spelling ABBV ABBreViations Curtz Courtesy abbv. abbreviations CV Co-Verbs ABCU Animals Byelaws Coroners unit CYT cut your tongue ACE Accent and Conversational D.A. ducks a. English DATE Day and Time Evolution ADD'L Additional DDT Decoy Distract And Trash ADM Alpha Delta Mu DEC Delta Epsilon Chi Ads Advertisements DECA Delta Epsilon Chi Association AESM Anglo Eastern Ship decom decommission Management def Definitely AFP A Frightful Paradigm defen defence AG Aggregate Grizzly deliv delivery AG Anime Genisis dep. depart(ure) AG3 Artificial Girl 3 I DESG Design AGD Alpha Gamma Delta DEV'T Development AGR Alpha Gamma Rho DF Determiner Field AGS Alpha Gamma Sigma DF Discourse Focus AHANA Asian Hispanic African Native DFG Dig For Gold American DHACM Don't Have A Cow Man. Aight All right (Bart Simpson reference.) AIM Ambition In Mind DIY Doing It Yourself Aite All right alt. altitude AKA Alpha Kappa Alpha AP Azn Pride AKO Alpha Kappa Omicron APB Alpha Phi Beta AKS Alpha Kappa Sigma APO Alpha Phi Omega ALT Argon laser trabeculoplasty APPROX APPROXimately ar(r). arrive/arrival

Extended Definitions

1. Activated Charcoal: A carbon which is porous in nature and possesses high adsorption power. It is useful for removing toxic substances from air and water.

2 .Activation energy: During a chemical reaction, the minimum amount of energy which is needed by the reactants to get converted into products is known as activation energy.

3. Acyl Group: It is a functional group of organic compounds which is usually obtained by replacing the hydroxyl group (--OH) from any carboxylic acid.

4. Addition Reaction: A type of chemical reaction in which an atom or a group of atoms is added to a double or triple bond compound, in order to change it into a single and double bond compound respectively.

5. Alcohol: An organic compound which consists of a hydroxyl group (--OH) attached to a carbon atom of an alkyl group chain.

6. Aldehyde: A functional group of organic compounds, consisting of one atom each of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Here, the carbon atom forms a single bond with the hydrogen atom and is bonded to the oxygen atom with the help of a double bond.

7. Aliphatic: An organic compound in which the carbon atoms are bonded together in the form of a chain. It does not have aromatic rings.

8. Alkali Metals: Elements which belong to Group IA of the periodic table.

9. Alkaline Earth Metals: Elements which belong to Group IIA of the periodic table.

10. Alkanes: Alkanes are a series of organic compounds, consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms, where all the carbon atoms are bonded to each other only by single bonds.

11. Alkenes (Olefins): Unsaturated organic compounds which have at least one carbon-carbon double bond. Electrodes: In an electrochemical cell, an electrode can be defined as a surface, on which the transfer of electrons takes place.

12. Electrolyte: An electrolyte is a chemical substance that splits up into ions in aqueous state or molten state and acts as a medium to conduct electricity.

13. Electron: Electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle that revolves around the nucleus of an atom.

14. Electron Affinity: Electron affinity of an atomic or molecular particle is the energy change that takes place as a result of addition or deletion of an electron from a neutrally charged atom or molecule.

15. Electron Configuration: The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is known as electron configuration.

16. Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity with time is called acceleration. Mathematically, the second derivative of the distance traveled by an object is called acceleration.

17. Accuracy: The measure of the closeness of a value to the actual value of a result is called accuracy.

18. Acute Angle: An angle whose measure is less than 900 is called an acute angle.

19. Acute Angled Triangle: A triangle in which all the interior angles are acute is known as an acute angled triangle.

20. Circular Cone: A cone with a circular base.

21. Circular Cylinder: A cylinder with circle as bases.

22. Circumcenter: The center of a circumcircle is called circumcenter.

22. Circumcircle: A circle that passes through all the vertices of a regular polygon and triangles is called circumcircle.

23. Circumference: The perimeter of a circular figure.

24. Circumscribable: A plan figure that has a circumcircle.

25. Circumscribed: A figure circumscribed by a circle.

26. Circumscribed Circle: The circle that touches the vertices of a triangle or a regular polygon.

27. Clockwise: The direction of the moving hands of a clock.

28. Simile: There is an obvious comparison that is made between two dissimilar things using words such as, like and as.

29. Onomatopoeia: The technique in which words that imitate sounds are used to refer to the objects, living things, or actions that they are associated with.

30. Personification: This is a figure of speech which is used when the poet or the writer wants to attribute human qualities to an inanimate object or thought.

Phrases/Structures indicating use /Purpose

1. An instrument that measures the height above ground; used in navigation. 2. A measuring instrument for measuring freezing and melting points. 3. A measuring instrument for determining the specific gravity of a liquid or solid. 4. An instrument for measuring the acceleration of aircraft or rockets. 5. The instrument which creates three dimensional images body tissue. 6. A charged particle accelerator which can accelerate charged particles to high energies. 7. Continuous recording of atmospheric pressure.

8. Acid use to food preservation and preparation, when in solution with water it is known as vinegar. 9. Determines the speed of an aircraft in terms of the speed of sound. 10. The apparatus used for measuring blood pressure. 11. An instrument is used to hold small amounts of chemicals during heating at high temperatures. 12. An apparatus is used to cool hot vapors or liquids. 13. A measuring instrument that adjusts to assume the size of a feature. 14. The difference between a measurement reading and the true value of that measurement. 15. A form of visible energy used by lasers. 16. The degree to which an instrument will repeat the same measurement over a period of time. 17. A condition in which a hole that should be round has two opposing lobes, resulting in an egg shape. 18. A standard of measurement that is often displayed as a series of lines. 19. The acceptable variation from a specified dimension. 20. A bores cope that contains a video camera rather than an eyepiece 21. A measuring device of a standard size that is used to inspect parts. 22. ID. The interior surface of a hole in a work piece. 23. A device, often numerical, that displays a measurement. An indicator may be a dial with a needle or a digital readout. 24. A curved surface condition like the inside of a ball. 25. The part of a pneumatic inspection system by which pressurized air is controlled. 26. an instrument used by a draftsman in making drawings 27. An instrument for extracting tight-fitting components. 28. An instrument designed to aid vision 29. An instrument used to make tracings 30. An instrument with a handle and a flexible lash that is used for whipping 31. A certificate or voucher acknowledging a debt 32. A legal instrument authorizing someone to act as the grantor's agent 33. A document issued by a country to a citizen allowing that person to travel abroad and re- enter the home country 34. An instrument that uses the differential transmission and reflection of ultrasonic waves in order to provide an image of a bodily organ

35. An instrument that performs analyses

Answers: 1. Altimeter 2. Cryoscopy 3. Gravimeter, hydrometer 4. Accelerometer 5. CAT scanner 6. Cyclotron 7. Barograph 8. Acetic acid 9. Mach meter 10. Sphygmomanometer 11. Crucible 12. Condenser 13. Comparison Device 14. Accuracy15. Light Wave 16. Precision 17. Ovality 18. Scale 19. Tolerance 20. Video Bores cope 21. Working Gage 22. Inner Diameter 23. Indicator 24. Concavity 25. Air Regulator 26. Drafting instrument 27. Extractor 28. Optical instrument 29. Tracer 30. Whip 31. Debenture 32. Power of attorney 33. Passport 34. Sonograph 35. Analyser

Adverbs

Find the adjective in the first sentence and fill the gap with the adverb. 1. Joanne is happy. She smiles ______. 2. The boy is loud. He shouts ______. 3. Her English is fluent. She speaks English ______. 4. Our mum was angry. She spoke to us ______. 5. My neighbour is a careless driver. He drives ______. 6. The painter is awful. He paints ______. 7. Jim is a wonderful piano player. He plays the piano ______. 8. This girl is very quiet. She often sneaks out of the house ______. 9. She is a good dancer. She dances really ______. 10. This exercise is simple. You ______have to put one word in each space.

Find correct adverbs to fill the gap. 11. She ______rejected his proposal. 12. I ______endorsed the new restaurant. 13. I ______want that new toy. 14. He ______understands me. 15. I ______refuse to stay here any longer. 16. He swims ______. 17. He ran ______18. She spoke ______. 19. James coughed______to attract her attention. 20. He plays the flute ______. 21. He ate the chocolate cake______. 22. The party is going to take place ______. 23. I called him ______.

24. They have a ______house. 25. Matthew called the police ______. 26. Jane is ______late for work. 27. Peter ______reads the Bible. 28. It is ______the man who proposes marriage. 29. While overseas, he ______phoned home. 30. She has ______forgotten her books.

Answers: 1. happily 2. loudly. 3. fluently. 4. angrily 5. carelessly. 6. awfully. 7. wonderfully. 8. quietly. 9. well 10. simply. 11. completely 12. heartily 13. so 14. completely 15. absolutely 16. well 17. quickly. 18. aggressively 19. loudly 20. beautifully 21. greedily. 22. here 23. yesterday 24. small 25. immediately 26. rarely 27.seldom 28.usually 29.frequently 30. often

Process Descriptions

1. How to lose weight without losing your mind 2. How to choose a major 3. How to find the perfect roommate 4. How to prepare fruit salad 5. How to kick a bad habit 6. How to avoid a nervous breakdown during exam 7. How to survive a recession 8. How to develop self-confidence 9. How to wash a sweater 10. How to quit smoking 11. How to survive without a car 12. How to make the perfect cup of tea 13. How to build a great sandcastle 14. How ice cream is made 15. How to make chocolate 16. How to prepare Curd 17. How to avoid unnecessary calls 18. How to decorate party hall

19. How to ride a bike without making any accident. 20. How to prepare apple juice.

Cause and effect expression 1. The cost of petroleum has gone up. I would like to buy a car later. 2. My sister is good at English. I would like her to take up English literature. 3. Brazil has the best front line players. Nobody can beat the team. 4. The monsoon did not arrive on time. The framers suffered terribly. 5. You can not believe him. He is compulsive liar. 6. There were too many mosquitoes. I couldn‘t have a wink of sleep. 7. It was pitch dark. I could see nothing on the road. 8. He strictly followed the doctor‘s advice. He was cured in a week. 9. Sally closed the window. The weather outside was cold. 10. We were late. It rained heavily. 11. Library edition has a strong binding. It is costlier than a paper back edition. 12. The handicraft worker was poor. He decided to work in the factory. 13. The illiteracy of women is due to the poverty of parents. 14. A lot of students leave school. They have family problems. 15. Ilyass has got 19/20 in English. Of his hard work 16. The police arrested him. He broke into a bank. 17. The police arrested him. He broke into a bank. 18. She can't read the letter. She is illiterate. 19. They received a high mark on their exam. They had studied hard. 20. I'm studying hard. I want to pass my exam. 21. He works a lot of overtime. His rent is so expensive 22. Since he loves music. He decided to go to a conservatory. 23. They had to leave early. Their train left at 8.30. 24. We will be staying for an extra week. We haven not yet finished. 25. We were late. We took a taxi. 26. This year's sales have not been at all good. We are going to have to let some of you go. 27. It was snowing outside. School was canceled. 28. The leaves blew all over the yard. Tom and Sue raked them. 29. Amber could not see the board. She got glasses.

30. Mother was not at home. Sue took a telephone message. 31. Pat felt sick. She went to the doctor. 32. The children were late for school. Their alarm didn‘t work. 33. Mary scraped her knee. Dad gave her a Band-Aid. 34. It was raining; Alice brought her umbrella to school. 35. They earned extra money; the children bought an ice cream treat. 36. The baby spilled milk on the floor. Mom got the mop. 37. Mark and Arthur needed extra money. They started a pet business. 38. Cat made up new rules. Mouse said he wasn‘t a fair player. 39. Matthew and Tilley had a fight. Matthew looked for a new best friend. 40. The hamster‘s cage was messy. The children cleaned it.

Answer 1. As the cost of petroleum has gone up, I would like to buy a car later. 2. My sister is good at English; therefore I would like her to take up English literature. 3. As Brazil has the best front line players, nobody can beat the team. 4. As the monsoon did not arrive on time, the framers suffered terribly. 5. Hence you can not believe him, he is compulsive liar. 6. As there were too many mosquitoes, I couldn‘t have a wink of sleep. 7. It was pitch dark; as a result I could see nothing on the road. 8. Since he strictly followed the doctor‘s advice, he was cured in a week. 9. Sally closed the window because the weather outside was cold. 10. We were late, because it rained heavily. 11. As library edition has a strong binding, it is costlier than a paper back edition. 12. The handicraft worker was poor, and therefore he decided to work in the factory. 13. The illiteracy of women is due to the poverty of parents. 14. A lot of students leave school since they have family problems. 15. Ilyass has got 19/20 in English, as a result of his hard work 16. The police arrested him because he broke into a bank. 17. The police arrested him since he broke into a bank. 18. She can't read the letter as she is illiterate. 19. They received a high mark on their exam because they had studied hard. 20. I'm studying hard because I want to pass my exam.

21. He works a lot of overtime because his rent is so expensive. 22. Since he loves music so much, he decided to go to a conservatory. 23. They had to leave early since their train left at 8.30. 24. We will be staying for an extra week due to the fact that we haven not yet finished. 25. We were late, therefore we took a taxi. 26. This year's sales have not been at all good, consequently we are going to have to let some of you go. 27. It was snowing outside so school was canceled. 28. The leaves blew all over the yard so Tom and Sue raked them. 29. Amber could not see the board so she got glasses. 30. Mother was not at home so Sue took a telephone message. 31. Because Pat felt sick, she went to the doctor. 32. The children were late for school because their alarm didn‘t work. 33. Mary scraped her knee so Dad gave her a Band-Aid. 34. Since it was raining, Alice brought her umbrella to school. 35. Because they earned extra money, the children bought an ice cream treat. 36. The baby spilled milk on the floor so Mom got the mop. 37. Mark and Arthur needed extra money so they started a pet business. 38. Because Cat made up new rules, Mouse said he wasn‘t a fair player. 39. Matthew and Tilley had a fight, so Matthew looked for a new best friend. 40. The hamster‘s cage was messy so the children cleaned it. Different Grammatical forms of the same word 1. About Adverb: They wandered about in sheepskins and goatskins Preposition: There is something pleasing about him.

2. Above Adverb: The heavens are above Preposition: The moral law is above the civil Adjective: Analyze the above sentence. Noun: Our blessings come from above.

3. After Adverb: They arrived soon after. Preposition: He takes after his father. Adjective: After ages shall sing his glory. Conjunction: We went away after they had left.

4. All Adjective: All men are mortal. It was all profit and no loss. Adverb: He was all alone when I saw him. Pronoun: All spoke in his favor. Noun: He lost his all in speculation.

5. Any Adjective: Are there any witnesses present? Pronoun: Does any of you know anything about it? Adverb: Is that any better?

6. As Adverb We walked as fast as we could. Conjunction As he was poor I helped him. Relat. Pron She likes the same color as I do.

7. Before Adverb I have seen you before. Preposition He came before the appointed time. Conjunction He went away before I came.

8. Better Adjective I think yours is a better plan. Adverb I know better. Noun Give place to your betters. Verb The boxes with which he provided me bettered the sample--Froude.

9. Both Adjective You cannot have it both ways. Pronoun Both of them are dead. Conjunction Both the cashier and the accountant are Hindus.

10. But Adverb It is (=only) right to admit our faults. Preposition None but (=except) the brave deserves the fair. Conjunction We tried hard, but did not succeed. Relat. Pronoun There is no one but likes him (=who does not like him)

11. Down Adverb Down went the "Royal George". Preposition The fire engine came rushing down the hill. Adjective The porter was killed by the down train. Noun He has seen the ups and downs of life. Verb Down with the tyrant!

12. Either Adjective Either bat is good enough. Pronoun Ask either of them.

Conjunction He must either work or starve.

13. Else Adjective I have something else for you. Adverb Shall we look anywhere else? Conjunction Make haste, else you will miss the train.

14. Enough Adjective There is time enough and to spare. Adverb You know well enough what I mean. Noun I have had enough of this.

15. Even Adjective The chances are even. Verb Let us even the ground. Adverb Does he even suspect the danger?

16. Except Verb If we except Hari, all are to be blamed. Preposition All the brethren were in Egypt except Benjamin. Conjunction I will not let thee go except (=unless) thou bless me ($415)

17. For Preposition I can shift for myself. Conjunction Give thanks unto the Lord; for He is good.

18. Less Adjective You are paying less attention to your studies than you used to do. Adverb The population of India is less than that of China. Noun He wants $100 for that watch. He won't be satisfied with less.

19. Like Adjective They are men of like build and stature. Preposition Do not talk like that. Adverb Like as a father pitied his own children. Noun We shall not see his like again. Verb Children like sweets.

20. Little Adjective There is little danger in going there. Noun Man wants but little here below. Adverb He eats very little.

21. More Adjective We want more men like him. Pronoun More of us die in bed than out of it. Adverb You should talk less and work more.

22. Much

Adjective There is much sense in what he says. Pronoun Much of it is true. Adverb He boasts too much.

23. Near Adverb Draw near and listen. Preposition His house is near the temple. Adjective He is a near relation. Verb The time nears.

24. Needs Noun My needs are few. Verb It needs to be done with care. Adverb He needs must come

25. Neither Conjunction Give me neither poverty nor riches. Adjective Neither accusation is is true. Pronoun It is difficult to negotiate where neither will trust.

26. Next Adjective I shall see you next Monday. 27. Adverb What next? Preposition He was sitting next to her. Noun I shall tell you more about it in my next.

28. No Adjective It is no joke. Adverb He is no more Noun I will not take a no.

29. Once Adverb I was young once. Conjunction Once he hesitates we have him. Noun Please help me for once.

30. One Adjective One day I met him in the street. Pronoun The little ones cried for joy. Noun One would think he was mad.

31. Only Adjective It was his only chance. Adverb He was only foolish. Conjunction Take what I have, only (=but) let me go.

32. Over Adverb Read it over carefully. Noun In one over he took three wickets.

Preposition At thirty a change came over him.

33. Right Verb That is a fault that will right itself. Adjective He is the right man for the position. Noun I ask it as a right. Adverb Serves him right! He stood right in my way.

34. Round Adjective A square peg in a round hole. Noun The evening was a round of pleasures. Adverb He came round to their belief. Preposition The earth revolves round the sun. Verb We shall round the cap in safety.

35. Since Preposition Since that day I have not seen him. Conjunction Since there's no help, come, let us kiss and part. Adverb I have not seen him since.

36. So Adverb I am so sorry. Conjunction He was poor, so they helped him.

37. Some Adjective We must found some way out of it. Pronoun Some say one thing and others another. Adverb Some thirty chiefs were present.

38. Still Verb With his name the mothers still their babes. Adjective Still water runs deep. Noun Her sobs could be heard in the still of night. Adverb He is still in business.

39. Such Adjective Don't be in such a hurry. Pronoun Such was not my intention.

40. That Demonst. Adjective What is that noise? Demonst. Pronoun That is what I want Adverb I have done that much only. Relative Pronoun The evil that men do lives after them. Conjunction He lives so that he may eat.

41. The Def. Article The cat loves comfort. Adverb The wiser he is, the better.

42. Till Preposition Never putt off till tomorrow what you can do to-day. Conjunction Do not start till I give the word.

43.Up Adverb Prices are up. Preposition Let us go up the hill. Adjective The next up train will leave here at 12.30. Noun They had their ups and downs of fortune.

44. Well Noun Let well alone. Adjective I hope you are now well. Adverb Well begun is half done. Interjection Well, who would have thought it?

What Inter. Adjective What evidence have you got? Interjection What! you don't mean to say so? Inter. Pronoun What does he want? Relative Pronoun Give me what you can. What happened then. I do not know. Adverb What by fire and what by sword, the whole country was laid waste.

While Noun Sit down and rest a while. Verb They while away their evenings with books and games. Conjunction While a great poet, he is a greater novelist.

Why Interro. Adverb Why did you do it? Relative Adverb I know the reason why he did it. Interjection Why, it is surely Nanak! Noun This is not the time to go into the why and the wherefore of it.

Yet Adverb There is more evidence yet to be offered. Conjunction He is willing, yet unable.

Different Grammatical forms of the same word

By OH TEIK THEAM THE eight parts of speech are the verb, the noun, the adjective, the adverb, the pronoun, the conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection.

The function of a word in a sentence determines what part of speech it is in that sentence. The same word may be used as different parts of speech.

Can you identify the part of speech of each of the bold words in the story below? 21

The Wolf and the Lamb

A hungry Wolf who was wandering in the countryside saw a Lamb quenching her thirst by a brook with clear running (1a) water. He did not wish to be castigated as a vicious animal, so (2a) he sat down to think of an excuse to justify the impending violence.

He watched the Lamb from a narrow path that zigzagged up a small hill, and then trotted closer to the brook until he was overlooking her.

―Hello, Lamb,‖ the Wolf said in his gruff voice (3a). ―I hope you are well (4a). You are the only (5a) animal I‘ve seen today. Why are you all (6a) alone? Come and join me up here – we can while (7a) away the afternoon by having a conversation. I think I like (8a) you.‖

The Lamb thought, ―There is something about (9a) him that makes me uneasy.‖ And she replied, ―Please don‘t talk like (8b) that, Wolf. We are not animals of like (8c) temperance and disposition. I have to decline your invitation – a little (10a) knoll ledge is a dangerous thing.‖

―Since (11a) you are afraid to come up,‖ said the Wolf, ―I shall go down.‖

After a while (7b), the lupine creature reached the brook and drank from it. ―Ugh! This water tastes awful!‖ he exclaimed. ―Why did you dirty it?‖

―An animal needs much (12a) patience to listen to you,‖ said the Lamb. ―I drink very little (10b), and I am drinking downstream from you.‖

―You talk too much (12b),‖ said the Wolf, who was bent on quarrelling with his agnine adversary. ―Well (4b), let me voice (3b) a genuine complaint against you. Do you always have to bleat 140 times at night? I slept badly three nights running (1b).‖

―That is a gross lie,‖ said the Lamb. ―I sleep inside my master‘s barn, which is on the other side of the hill.‖

―Ah, now I remember,‖ said the Wolf, and he could see tears well (4c) in her eyes. ―You called me many terrible names behind my tail about (9b) two years ago. One name that I particularly hated was Baaaad Wolf.‖

―I am only (5b) six months old,‖ said the Lamb, ―and I have not bad-mouthed a single animal since (11b) my birth. You see, I respect all (6b) creatures.‖

―You are so (2b) clever,‖ said the Wolf, ―but I am still going to devour you.‖ And he jumped on the Lamb while (7c) she tried unsuccessfully to get away. (Adapted from a fable by Aesop)

Answers 1. Running (a) adjective (b) adverb 2. So (a) conjunction (b) adverb 3. Voice (a) noun (b) verb 4. Well (a) adjective (b) interjection (c) verb 5. Only (a) adjective (b) adverb 6. All (a) adverb (b) adjective

7. While (a) verb (b) noun (c) conjunction B. PLACING ORDER

1. You are the Purchase Manager of Automobile Industry. Write a letter placing order for the electrical and electronic products for establishing a new office cum showroom. Invent details including discount price, delivery and transportation charges, delivery date and mode of payment.

2. You are the Purchase Manager of Automobile Industry. Write a letter placing order for the electrical and electronic products for establishing a new office cum showroom. Invent details including discount price, delivery and transportation charges, delivery date and mode of payment.

3. Write a letter placing an order for some sports goods with Bharat Sports Good company, 12 anna Salai, Chennai-2.

4. Assume that you are the Purchase officer of the Taj Group of Hotels, Mumbai-25. You have already called for quotations to purchase 15 tables. 20s-chairs, and 10 rotating chairs. You have chosen Bindaas Furniture mentioning the terms and conditions of the transaction. Place and date of delivery, mode of payment, type of packing mode of transport, etc.

C. Complaint Letter

1. You have placed order for ten computer tables with a reputed firm. You received the items on the mentioned date but you find two tables have a broken leg and drawer. Write to the Director asking for replacement.

2. As the purchase manager of Sathyam computers, 9, Nehru Road, Hyderabad- 45, You had ordered two dozen personal computers from HCL ( Hindustan computers Limited), 135 G.H.Road, Bangalore-20. When the consignment arrived, you found some of the computers damaged. Write a complaint letter to the Sales Manager of the company asking for repair, replacement or compensation.

3. As the Purchase Manager of Dev Computer Ltd., you have received a consignment of four computers on order from Intel Computer Ltd., New Delhi, but two of them were of lower configuration than you had paid for. Write a letter of complaint asking for immediate replacement.

4. Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper complaining about the indiscriminate use of cell phones by drivers of vehicles.

5. Write a letter to the Deputy Commissioner of Police complaining about the noise problems caused by the constant use of loud speakers in your residential area. In your letter, offer for suggestions to solve the problems you have discussed.

D. Seeking Clarification

1. Write letter to the solidair TV Corporation, 72, Cart Tract Road, Bangalor-4, seeking clarifications regarding their newly launched aptop in which you are interested. 2. Imagine that you received the quotation from Danish TechnologiesPvt Ltd. But you have certain doubts in the quotation letter. Draft a letter to the Sales Manager, seeking clarification. 3. Assume that you received the quotation from Sathyam ComputersPvt Ltd. But you have certain doubts in the quotation letter. Draft a letter to the Sales Manager, seeking clarification. 4. Imagine that you have already received quotations to purchase 15 tables. 20s-chairs, and 10 rotating chairs. You have chosen Bindaas Furniture mentioning the terms and conditions of the transaction. Draft a letter to the Sales Manager, seeking clarification.

E Job Application Letter

1. Write a letter of application along with resume in response to the advertisement for the post of management trainees in the Hindustan Times dated 19.06.2009. Invent all necessary detail. 2. Draft on a letter of application for the post of General Manager to the managing Director of a leading company. Add a suitable resumes to your letter.

3. Write a letter of application for the post of Deputy Manager, Design and development with bio-data to India Auto, a 50 crore plus company, the leader in the automobile industry.

4. Draft on a letter of application for the post of Maintenance Engineer in response to the advertisement given in the Hindu Newspaper for a reputed engineering firm, located in Chennai, to the Human resource Manager, P.O, Box. 7977 C/o The Hindu, Chennai-2, within 15 days.

5. Write a letter of application for the post of Mechanical Engineer with Computer knowledge to the H.R. Manager, TATA Automobiles Pvt, Ltd. Chennai-2 along with your resume. 8. Like (a) verb (b) preposition (c) adjective 9. About (a) preposition (b) adverb 10. Little (a) adjective (b) adverb 11. Since (a) conjunction (b) preposition 12. Much (a) adjective (b) adverb

Numerical Adjectives

1.a lamp of a power of 60-wats 2.an expedition lasting for three days 3.a road measuring 100 feet 4.a research grant of 20 lakhs 5.at intervals of 10 minutes 6. an engine with 100 cc power 7.a certificate course for 10 months 8.a walk of five kilometers 9.a drive for 8 hours 10. a tank with a capacity of 2000 litres 11. a committee of 6 members 12. a project proposal for 10 crores 13. a seminar for 2 days 14. a national conference on 3 days 15. thirty three sqpi 16. a function on 3 days 17. 5 kilograms of sugar 18. The pipe is 3 feet long 19. a match lasting five days 20. a stamp with value of Rs.6/- 21. a dc supply of 240 volts 22. a motor bike weighing 23. a journey of 2500 kilometers 24. a budget estimate of 5 lakhs 25. a bottle with a capacity of 10 litres 26. a tank with a capacity of 200 litres 27. A project, worths of a million 28. a marriage function lasting for three days 29. a degree course of four years 30. a mission of two days.

Answers

1.60-watts lamp 11.6 members committee

2.3 days Expedition 12.10crores project proposal 3.100 feet Road 13. 2 days seminar 4.20 lakhs research grant 14. 3 days National Conference 5.10 minutes interval 15. 33square per inch 6.100 cc power engine 16. 3 days function 7.10 months certificate course 17.5 kg sugar . 8.5 kilometers walk 18. a 3- foot pipe

9.8 hours drive 19. 5 days function 10. 2000 litres tank 20. a Six rupee Stamp 21.240 volts Dc Supply 26. a 200 litre capacity tank

22.a150 kg motor bike 27.1 million worth project 23.2500 km journey 28.3 days marriage function 24.a 5 lakhs budget 29.a 4 years degree course 25.10 liter capacity bottle 30.a 2 days mission.

Part - B Process Description 1. Write the process involved in making glass. 2. Describe the process involved in making of coins. 3. Describe the process involved in bio-diesel from algae 4. Write the process involved in making of manufacture of paint. 5. Write the process of opening a savings bank account in a bank. 6. Describe briefly the method of giving first aid to a person who has received an electric shock. 7. Describe the process involved in the purification of water. 8. Write a process involved in the recycling of plastics. 9. Describe the process description of cement manufacture. 10. Write the process description of cloning. 11. Describe the process description of extraction of gold. 12. Describe the process description of welding. 13. Describe the mechanism description of micrometer. 14. Describe briefly the process involved in air conditioning system. 15. Describe the process description of extracting silver. 16. Describe the process description on the classification of education. 17. Describe briefly the process of recording a song in a CD. 18. Describe briefly the process of making a cup of tea. 19. Describe briefly the process involved in the extraction of sugarcane juice. 20. Write the process involved in distribution of pure water to the consumer.

Argumentative paragraphs 1. Dieting makes people fat. 2. High school graduates should take a year off before entering college. 3. All forms of government welfare should be abolished. 4. Both parents should assume equal responsibility in raising a child. 5. Americans should have more holidays and longer vacations. 6. Participating in team sports helps to develop good character. 7. People have become overly dependent on technology. 8. Privacy is not the most important right. 9. Drunk drivers should be imprisoned on the first offense. 10. Government and military personnel should have the right to strike. 11. College students should have complete freedom to choose their own courses. 12. The primary mission of colleges and universities should be preparing students for the work force. 13. All students in high school and college should be required to take at least two years of a foreign language

14. College athletes should be exempted from regular class-attendance policies. 15. Students should not be required to take physical education courses. 16. Any student caught cheating on an examination should be automatically dismissed from college. 17. Government financial aid for students should be based solely on merit. 18. At the end of each term, student evaluations of faculty should be posted online.

Instructions – Exercises 1. Write a list of eight instructions for students to improve their speaking skill. 2. Write a set of eight safety instructions when we use gas cylinders. 3. Write a set of eight instructions to take care of aged people in our house. 4. Write a set of eight instructions to be followed by passengers of flight. 5. Write a list of instructions followed when we use Refrigerator. 6. Write a set of eight safety instructions when someone is going to rescue people who caught in fire accident 7. Write a list of eight instructions to be followed by two wheelers. 8. Write a set of eight instructions to maintain and develop our home library. 9. Write a list of eight instructions to be followed by everyone in hospitals to maintain the hygienic condition. 10. Write a list of eight instructions to be followed by students in classroom. Checklists: 1. Write down a checklist of a Tour Program to Singapore. 2. Create a checklist to avoid Road Accidents. 3. Present a checklist for the Internal Audit in your company. 4. Produce a checklist for Creating Website. 5. Write down a checklist for the construction work of your company

E – Mail Exercises 1. Compose an email memo to your supervisor, requesting 2 personal days to attend your sister‘s graduation in another state. Provide him with the necessary details to take action on your request. Make up a subject line for the email and type your message 2. Compose an email memo to your co-worker and friend, accepting her invitation to a working lunch tomorrow during your noon break. She will drive her car and has asked you to meet her at the main entrance at 12:00. Let her know that you will bring along the latest rough draft of the product flier for her review. Make up a subject line for the email and type your message. You are part of the Marketing Division and your extension is 5100. 3. Compose an email request to a college, technical college, or university that interests you requesting information about a particular major/minor/program and admission forms/procedures as you are considering applying. Locate an email address you would use by visiting the web site of that post-secondary school. 4. Copy message c to Mr. Raja and send this email out and email a courtesy copy to Mr.Ramesh [email protected]. If you don‘t wish to mail it to the actual post- secondary school, send the original to Mrs. D and a courtesy copy to someone else in the class. 5. Write an email about yourself (hobbies, likes, dislikes, interests…). Send the message to four people in the class. 6. Write an email to your close friend about your tour experiences with your classmates and share some photos with your friend.

7. Assume that you have to write an e-mail to The Librarian, The American library Chennai requesting him to provide you an online library membership. 8. Compose an e-mail to The Hindu newspaper about the price raise and request the editor to publish it their editorial. 9. Write an e – mail to your friend who joins in a foreign university for his higher education. 10. Write an e-mail to the candidate who got selected in your company. Inform him the joining date and congratulates him. Essays

1.Write an essay about Cyber crime 2.Draft an essay on Science. 3.Write an essay on ―the impacts of atomic radiation‖. 4.Sketch on an essay on ―The Problems and Benefits of Technology ‖ 5.Sort out ―the impacts of atomic radiation‖ in an essay of 250 words. 6.Write an essay stating the role of electronic media in imparting education 7.Draft an essay on the natural resources of Energy. 8.Describe on the good and evil effects of Friendship in an essay of 250 Words. 9.Sort out the evil effects of Television in an essay of 250 Words. 10. The Advantage and Disadvantages of the Internet- describe in an essay of 250 Word

Proposal Writing 1. Writing a Proposal for opening another Honda service station in your area. Write a Business proposal for that. 2. Assume that you have decided to establish a shoe manufacturing unit in your town. You wish to avail the loan facility from the Industrial Development Bank under self- employment scheme of the Govt. of India. Draft a Technical proposal for the same. 3. You are going to do a research on Modernization of language Labs in India. Write a Research proposal for that. 4. As the librarian in a rural library write a proposal to the District Library officer to provide more books to your library especially for the benefit of the rural students. 5. Assume that you are the Manager of TATA motors, Chennai write a Business proposal for opening a new branch in Chennai zone. 6. Assume that you are involved in conducting personality development program in Colleges. Write a proposal to an engineering college to conduct a program. 7. Draft a technical proposal as the District Director of Health, for setting up rehabilitation of the flood-affected people. 8. As the personal Manager of The Chennai Silks, Karur draft a proposal to the Secretary, Board of Directors of the company for improving the parking facility in Karur Branch. 9. Draft a technical proposal to the CEO of ABC company for the purchase and installation of the equipment. 10. Write a proposal to the Director for developing a new product which you want to be funded by the company, explaining its future demands in the market.

Advertisements 1. You want to hire some accommodation to start a small scale business. Draft a suitable advertisement. 2. Frame an advertisement for a receptionist for a Doctor‘s clinic. 3. Draft a suitable advertisement for a Librarian for a leading Public School.

4. You are an Engineer. You want a job. Frame an advertisement. You have recently started a Centre for Personality Development for school children. Draft an advertisement to be published in a local daily, giving all relevant details. 5. You are the General Manager of a leading industrial concern .you need a Chartered Accountant for your office. Draft a suitable advertisement to be published in the classified columns of a local daily. 6. Suppose you are Mohan Singh of 25, Adarsh Nagar, New Delhi. You want a Dance Teacher for your younger sister. Write an advertisement to be published in the classified columns of a local newspaper. 7. Draft a matrimonial advertisement for a convent educated Punjabi Khatri girl, inventing all relevant details in about 50 words. Do not exceed the word limit. 8. You are Aravind living in Agra. You have a good knowledge of all the historical places around there. Write a suitable advertisement for a newspaper, offering your services as a tourist guide during the coming summer vacation. 9. You are Manish/ Manorma. While traveling in the DTC bus you have lost your brown coloured VIP suitcase. Draft a suitable advertisement to be published in the newspaper giving all necessary details about the suitcase. 10. You are planning to sell your two wheeler. Draft a suitable advertisement in not more than 50 words to be published in the classified columns of a local daily, giving all necessary details of the two wheeler. You are Sumit/Sudha of 14 Kabir Nagar, New Delhi. 11. You wish to dispose of your household items like T.V., Refrigerator, some wooden furniture etc. as you are moving out of the country. Draft a suitable advertisement in not more than 50 words to be published in the classified columns of ‗The times of India‘. Give the necessary details of the items. You are Neha/Nitin, 35, Deol Nagar, Pune. 12. You have found some documents in a hard plastic cover in the local electric train. Draft a suitable advertisement for the ‗Lost and Found‘ columns of a national daily in about 50 words. Specify details needed to make delivery. 13. You are Ashok of Sitapur, Lakhnow. You have got a foreign assignment and would be going abroad soon. You have television set and refrigerator to sell. Draft a suitable advertisement is published in the classified columns of The Hindustan Times, Delhi. 14. You want to purchase a flat. Draft an advertisement in about 50 words for a newspaper detailing your requirements and your capacity to pay.

Report Writing 1.Write a report on Your Performance for the Academic year 2012 and 2013. 2.Write a report on Frequent Power Cut in your area 3.Write a report on the Conduct of the Sports for the Academic year 2012 and 2013. 4.Write a report to your HoD about the completion of your assignments. 5.Write a report to the principal of your college about the conduct of Spoken English Course. Application Writing: 1. Candidates holding a Master‘s degree with a sound communication skills and leadership qualities are required to work in one of the reputed colleges in Tamilnadu. Interested candidates can apply for the post of professors. Please send the application to the Principal, ZZZ college of Arts and Science. Karur. 2. Write an application for the post of manager in HCL 3. Create an application for the post of Managing Director in BHEL. 4. Write an application for the post of Editor, The Hindu. 5. Write an application for the post of Head Supervisor in HCL.

Resume

1. Prepare a Resume

a. REQUEST ON PRICE QUOTES (OR) SEEKING FOR PRICE QUOTES

1.Assume yourself to be the purchase officer of Kavin automobiles Pvt, Ltd. Write a letter inviting quotations to buy certain computer peripherals from Crichton Technologies Pvt, LTD 14, Anna Salai, Chennai 06. Mentionclearly all details you expect from the dealers.

2.Imagine yourself to be the purchase officer of TATA automobiles Pvt, Ltd. Write a letter inviting quotations to buy certain Automobile spare parts from Radiant automobiles spare parts Pvt, LTD 15, Jawaharlal Nehru Marg. Anna Salai, Chennai.Mention clearly all details you expect from the dealers.

3.Imagine you are the captain of your college sports council. Write a letter calling quotation from leading sports goods supplier for the purchase of articles.( Address: R.A. REynold, General Captain, Oasis College of Engineering, Tirunelveli-9).

4.Write to ―Vasuki electronics‖ asking detailed quotation.Specification- Digital inverter (electronic generator)-fully automatic-Industrial Tubular battery –battery life 4 to 5 years-1 year warranty.

5.Imagine you are the Principal of an Engineering College. You would like to purchase a dozen LCD projectors for your college. Write to PEARL Electronics, Chennai asking for Quotation.

B. PLACING ORDER 5.You are the Purchase Manager of Automobile Industry. Write a letter placing order for the electrical and electronic products for establishing a new office cum showroom. Invent details including discount price, delivery and transportation charges, delivery date and mode of payment.

6.You are the Purchase Manager of Automobile Industry. Write a letter placing order for the electrical and electronic products for establishing a new office cum showroom. Invent details including discount price, delivery and transportation charges, delivery date and mode of payment.

7.Write a letter placing an order for some sports goods with Bharat Sports Good Company, 12 anna Salai, Chennai

8.Assume that you are the Purchase officer of the Taj Group of Hotels, Mumbai-25. You have already called for quotations to purchase 15 tables. 20s-chairs, and 10 rotating chairs. You have chosen Bindaas Furniture mentioning the terms and conditions of the transaction. Place and date of delivery, mode of payment, type of packing mode of transport, etc.

C. Complaint Letter 6.You have placed order for ten computer tables with a reputed firm. You received the items on the mentioned date but you find two tables have a broken leg and drawer. Write to the Director asking for replacement.

7.As the purchase manager of Sathyam computers, 9, Nehru Road, Hyderabad- 45, You had ordered two dozen personal computers from HCL ( Hindustan computers Limited), 135 G.H.Road, Bangalore- 20. When the consignment arrived, you found some of the computers damaged. Write a complaint letter to the Sales Manager of the company asking for repair, replacement or compensation.

8.As the Purchase Manager of Dev Computer Ltd., you have received a consignment of four computers on order from Intel Computer Ltd., New Delhi, but two of them were of lower configuration than you had paid for. Write a letter of complaint asking for immediate replacement.

9.Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper complaining about the indiscriminate use of cell phones by drivers of vehicles. 9.Write a letter to the Deputy Commissioner of Police complaining about the noise problems caused by the constant use of loud speakers in your residential area. In your letter, offer for suggestions to solve the problems you have discussed. D. Seeking Clarification 5.Write letter to the solid air TV Corporation, 72, Cart Tract Road, Bangalore-4, seeking clarifications regarding their newly launched Laptop in which you are interested.

6.Imagine that you received the quotation from Danish Technologies Pvt Ltd. But you have certain doubts in the quotation letter. Draft a letter to the Sales Manager, seeking clarification.

7.Assume that you received the quotation from Sathyam ComputersPvt Ltd. But you have certain doubts in the quotation letter. Draft a letter to the Sales Manager, seeking clarification.

8.Imagine that you have already received quotations to purchase 15 tables. 20s-chairs, and 10 rotating chairs. You have chosen Bindaas Furniture mentioning the terms and conditions of the transaction. Draft a letter to the Sales Manager, seeking clarification.

E Job Application Letter 3.Write a letter of application along with resume in response to the advertisement for the post of management trainees in the Hindustan Times dated 19.06.2009. Invent all necessary detail.

4.Draft on a letter of application for the post of General Manager to the managing Director of a leading company. Add a suitable resumes to your letter.

5.Write a letter of application for the post of Deputy Manager, Design and development with bio-data to India Auto, a 50 crore plus company, the leader in the automobile industry.

9.Write a letter of application for the post of Mechanical Engineer with Computer knowledge to the H.R. Manager, TATA Automobiles Pvt, Ltd. Chennai-2 along with your resume.

PH8252 – PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE

UNIT 1 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1. Define Mobility of electrons. It is defined as the velocity acquired by the electron per unit electric field μ=v/E

2. Define Wiedemann- Franz law. Give the value of Lorentz number. The ratio between the thermal conductivity and the electrical conductivity of a metal is directly proportional to the absolute temp of the metal.

3. Define Fermi energy level and Fermi energy with its importance. It is the highest reference energy level of a particle at absolute zero. It is the state at which the probability of electron occupation is 50% at any temp.

4. Define electrical conductivity. It is defined as the quality of electricity flowing per unit area per unit time maintained at unit potential gradient.

5. What are the drawbacks of classical free electron theory?

It is a macroscopic theory. ü This theory cannot explain the Compton, photo – electric effect, paramagnetic, ferromagnetism, etc. The Lorentz number by classical theory does not have good agreement with the experimental value and is rectified by quantum theory.

6. Write the Fermi- Dirac distribution function. Fermi-dirac distribution function represents the probability of an electron occupying a given energy level.

7. Define density of states and given an example and state its importance. Density of states Z(E)dE is defined as the number of available energy states per unit volume in an energy interval dE.

8. Define mean free path. The average distance travelled between two successive collisions is called mean free path. It is denoted by the letter. ( λ )

9. Define Drift velocity and give its formula. It defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electron in a particular direction, due to the application of electric field and is denoted by the letter vd.

10. Drawbacks of classical free electron theory 1. Classical theory states that all free electrons absorb the supplied energy. But quantum theory states that only a few electron absorb the supplied energy. 2. The electrical conductivity of semiconductor and insulator cannot be explained by this theory. 3. The concept of photo - electric effect, Compton effect and black body radiation cannot be explained on the basis of this theory because these phenomenon are based on quantum theory. 4. The susceptibilities of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the temperature. But, experimental result shows that para-magnetism of a metal is independent of temperature. Moreover, the ferro-magnetism cannot be explained by this theory.

11. What is forbidden energy gap? The space between the valence and conduction band is said to be forbidden energy gap.

12. What are the source of resistance in metals? The resistance in metals is due to o Impurities present in the metals o Temperature of the metal o Number of free electrons

13. What are the importance of Fermi Energy level? It is the reference energy level which separates the filled energy level and vacant energy level. It is the highest reference energy level of a particle at absolute zero. It is the state at which the probability of electron occupation at 50% at any temperature.

14. Difference between electrical and thermal conductivity.

 In thermal conduction, the heat is transferred by the oscillation of atoms inside the material. In electrical conduction, the electrons themselves move in order to create the current.

 Most of the thermal conductors are good electrical conductors.Both thermal conductivity and the electrical conductivity depend on the material.  In thermal conductivity, energy is transferred but in electrical conductivity electrons are transferred.

15. What is Fermi factor? Discuss its variation with temperature and energy.

Fermi factor is the probability of occupying an electron into a given energy level when the material is in thermal equilibrium.Probability of energy state with energy E is occupied by electron at a steady temperature T is given by Fermi factor f(E) and is given by Where Ef is Fermi energy, K=Boltzmann constant=1.38x10-23 JK-1 and T is temperature in Kelvin. The Fermi factor varies with temperature and energyl. Its variation is as shown in the figure and is discussed as follows

Variation of f(E) with temperature T=0K Case (i): At T = 0K and E < EF Case (ii): At T = 0K and E > EF

16. Define Thermal velocity A conductor consists of large number of free electrons of about 1029electrons/m3. Due to thermal energy these electrons are moving in between the ions with a speed of 106m/s and collide with ion cores of the conductor. After each collision velocity of the electron becomes zero. There after start moving in random direction. Thus in the absence of applied electric field, there is a kind of randomness in the motion of electrons. Though the free electrons are in motion, the net flow of current is zero or does not give rise to any current. ―The average velocity with which the free electrons move inside the conductor due to thermal energy is called thermal velocity‖.

17. Define Mean collision time The average time interval between two consecutive collisions of an electron with the lattice cores in a conductor under the influence of applied electric field is called mean collision time. τ = λ/vth Where „λ‟ is the mean free path, v≈vth is velocity same as combined effect of thermal & drift velocities.

18. What is meant by degenerate and non degenerate states. Degenerate :The number of different states corresponding to a particular energy level is known as the degree of degeneracy of the level. It is represented mathematically by the Hamiltonian for the system having more than one linearly independent eigen state with the same energy ei genvalue.

Non degenerate : The quantum state of a given system is described by probability wave function, which depends on a set of quantum coordinates. The absolute square of the wave function determines the probability of finding the particle in the given quantum state.

19. Define scattering power of potential barrier. Define scattering power of potential barrier is defined aas the strength with which the 2 electrons are attracted by the positive ions is given by P=mV0ba/ħ

20. What is meant by brillouin zones? These are the boundaries that are marked by the values of propagation vector k in which the electrons can have the allowed energy levels without diffraction.

UNIT-II SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

1. State the properties of a semiconductor. They have negative temp coefficient of resistance.  The resistivity lies between 10-4 to 0.5 ohm-meter. At OK they behave as insulators.

2. Define Hall effect? If a metal or semiconductor carrying current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field B , an electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both I and B This phenomenon is known as Hall effect.

3. Give some application of Hall Effect. i). Hall Effect can be used to measure the strength of a magnetic field in terms of electrical voltage.ii).It is used to determine whether the semiconductor is p – type or n- type materialiii).It is used to determine the carrier concentration

4. Compare elemental semiconductors and compound semiconductor? S.No. Elemental semiconductor Compound semiconductor 1. They are made of single Made of compounds element Ge,Si GaP,MgO 2. They are indirect band gap They are called as direct semiconductors bandgap semiconductors 3. Heat is produced due to Photons are emitted recombination during recombination

5. What is meant by intrinsic semiconductor and extrinsic semiconductor? S.No. Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor 1. Semi conductor in a pure form Semiconductor which are doped with impurity 2. They have low electrical They have high electrical conductivity conductivity 3. They have low operating temp They have high operating temp

6. Compare n-type and p-type semiconductor. S.No. n- type p- type 1. Pentavalent impurity Trivalent impurity 2. Here electrons are majority Here holes are majority and holes are minority and electrons are minority 3. Donar energy levels very to acceptor energy levels

conduction band very to valence band

7. What is Extrinsic Semiconductor? If certain amount of impurity atom is added to intrinsic semiconductor theresulting semiconductor is Extrinsic or impure Semiconductor.

8. What are the types of Extrinsic Semiconductor? 1. P-type Semiconductor 2. N- Type Semiconductor.

9. What is P-type Semiconductor? The Semiconductor which are obtained by introducing pentavalent impurity atom(phosphorous, antimony) are known as P-type Semiconductor.

10. What is N-type Semiconductor? The Semiconductor which is obtained by introducing trivalent impurity atom (gallium, indium) are known as N-type Semiconductor.

11. What is doping? Process of adding impurity to a intrinsic semiconductor atom is doping. The impurity is called dopant.

12. Which charge carriers is majority and minority carrier in N-type Semiconductor? majority carrier: electron and minority carrier: holes. 24.which charge carriers is majority and minority carrier in P-type Semiconductor? Majority carrier: holes and minority carrier: electron

13. Why n - type or pentavalent impurities are called as Donor impurities? n- type impurities will donate the excess negative charge carriers ( Electrons) and therefore they are reffered to as donor impurities. 14. Why P – type or trivalent impurities are called as acceptor impurity? p- type impurities make available positive carriers because they create holes which can accept electron, so these impurities are said to be as acceptor impurity.

15. Give the relation for concentration of holes in the n- type material? pn = ni2 /ND Where pn - concentration of holes in the n – type semiconductor ND - concentration of donor atoms in the n – type semiconductor

16. Give the relation for concentration of electrons in the p - type material? np = ni2 /NA Where np - concentration of electrons in p- type semiconductor ND - concentration of acceptor atoms in the p – type semiconductor

17. Define drift current? When an electric field is applied across the semiconductor, the holes move towards the negative terminal of the battery and electron move towards the positive terminal of the battery. This drift movement of charge carriers will result in a current termed as drift current.

18. Define mean life time of a hole or and electron. The electron hole pair created due to thermal agitation woll disappear as a result of recombination

.Thus an average time for which a hole or an electron exist before recombination can be said as the mean life time of a hole or electron.

19. What is zener breakdown? Zener break down takes place when both sides of the junction are very heavily doped and Consequently the depletion layer is thin and consequently the depletion layer is tin. When a small value of reverse bias voltage is applied , a very strong electric field is set up across the thin depletion layer. This electric field is enough to break the covalent bonds. Now extremely large number of freecharge carriers are produced which constitute the zener current. This process is known as zener break down.

20. What is avalanche break down? When bias is applied , thermally generated carriers which are already present in the diode acquire sufficient energy from the applied potential to produce new carriers by removing valence electron from their bonds. These newly generated additional carriers acquire more energy from the potential and they strike the lattice and create more number of free electrons and holes. This process goes on as long as bias is increased and the number of free carriers get multiplied. This process is termed as avalanche multiplication. Thus the break down which occur in the junction resulting in heavy flow of current is termed as avalanche break down.

21.What is a transistor (BJT)? Transistor is a three terminal device whose output current, voltage and /or power is controlled by input current.

22. What are the terminals present in a transistor? Three terminals: emitter, base, collector.

23.What is FET? FET is abbreviated for field effect transistor. It is a three terminal device with its output characteristics controlled by input voltage.

24.Why FET is called voltage controlled device? The output characteristics of FET is controlled by its input voltage thus it is voltage controlled.

25.What are the two main types of FET? 1. JFET 2. MOSFET.

26. What are the terminals available in FET? 1). Drain, 2).Source and 3). Gate

27. What is JFET? JFET- Junction Field Effect Transistor.

28. What are the types of JFET? N- Channel JFET and P- Channel JFET

29. What are the two important characteristics of JFET? 1. Drain characteristics 2. Transfer characteristics.

30. What is transconductance in JFET? It is the ratio of small change in drain current to the corresponding change in drain to source voltage.

31. What is amplification factor in JFET? It is the ratio of small change in drain to source voltage to the corresponding change in Gate to source voltage.

32. Why do we choose q point at the center of the loadline? The operating point of a transistor is kept fixed usually at the center of the active region in order that the input signal is well amplified. If the point is fixed in the saturation region or the cut off region the positive and negative half cycle gets clipped off respectively.

33. List out the different types of biasing. Voltage divider bias, Base bias, Emitter feed back bias,

UNIT-III MAGNETIC AND DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1. Explain Meissner effect. When a super conducting material is kept in an external magnetic field under the condition when T≤ Tc and H≤ Hc the magnetic flux lines are completely excluded from the material and this phenomenon is called meissner effect.

2. What are soft and hard magnetic materials? S.No. Soft Hard 1. They can be easily magnetised They cannot be easily and demagnetized. Magnetized 2. Movement of domain wall is Movement of domain easy wall is not easy 3. Hysteresis loop is very steep Hysteresis loop is very broad

3. What are ferrites? They are made by two or more different kinds of atoms. Its general formula is given by X2+ Fe23+ O4.

4. Define energy product The product of retentively and the coercivity is Known as energy product. It represents the maximum amount energy stored in the specimen.

5. State the applications of ferrites. They are used in two port devices such as circulator. They are used in computers and data processing circuits. They are used in switching circuits and parametric amplifiers.

6. Define Bohr magneton. The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom can be expressed in terms of atomic unit of magnetic moment

7. What are the four type‟s magnetic domains? Exchange energy Anisotropy energy Domain wall energy Magneto- strictive energy.

8. Define electronic polarization. When a dielectric material is kept in external field , the positive and negative charges in the dielectrics moves in opposite direction, thereby creating a dipole moment.

. 12. List out the applications of ferroelectrics.  It is used to produce ultrasonics. It is used in SONAR. It is used to bond the bones in the human body. It is used production of piezoelectric materials.

13. Define ionic polarization. The process of displacement of cations and anions in the opposite directions, of a dielectric material kept in external in external electric field.

14. What is meant by ferro electricity? When a dielectric material exhibits electric polarization even in the absence of external field, it is known as ferro electricity and these materials are termed as ferroelectrics.

15.Give curie weiss law

Curie weiss law is given by ᵡ =C/T-Ө It determines the susceptiblity of the magnetic materials interms of temperature.

16. Define dielectric constant?

It is the ratio between the absolute permittivity of the medium (ε)and the permittivity of

17. Define polarization of a dielectric material.

The process of the producing electrical dipoles inside the dielectric by the application an external electrical field is called polarization in dielectrics. Induced dipole moment (µ) = αE E →Applied electrical field α → Polarizability

18. Name the four polarisation mechanisms.  Electronic polarisation.  Ionic polarisation.  Orientational polarisation.  Space- charge polarisation.

18. What is electronic polarisation? Electronic polarisation means production of electric dipoles by the applied electric field .It is due to shifting of charges in the material by the applied electric field.

19. What is ionic polarisation? Ionic polarisation is due to the displacement of cations (negative ions) and anions (positive ions) in opposite direction due to the application of an electrical field. This occurs in an ionic solid.

20. What is orientation polarisation? When an electrical field is applied on the dielectric medium with polar molecules, the dipole align themselves in the field direction and thereby increases electric dipole moment. Such a type of contribution to polarisation due to the orientation of permanent dipoles by the applied field is called orientation polarisation.

21. What is space- charge polarisation? In some materials containing two or more phases, the application of an electrical field causes the accumulation of charges at the interfaces between the phases or at the electrodes. As result of this, polarisation is produced. This type of polarisation is known as space charge polarisation.

22. Define dielectric loss and loss tangent. When a dielectric material is subjected to an A.C voltage, the electrical energy is absorbed by the material and is dissipated in the form of heat. This dissipation of energy is called dielectric loss.In a perfect insulator, polarisation is complete during each cycle and there is no consumption of energy and the charging current leads the applied voltage by 900. But for commercial dielectric, this phase angle is less than 900 by an angle and is called dielectric loss angle. Tan is taken as measure of dielectric loss and is known as loss tangent.

23. Define dielectric breakdown and dielectric strength. Whenever the electrical field strength applied to a dielectric exceeds a critical value, very large current flows through it. The dielectric loses its insulating property and becomes conducting. This phenomenon is known as dielectric breakdown.The electrical field strength at which dielectric breakdown occurs is known as dielectric strength.

24. Mention the various breakdown mechanisms.

 Intrinsic breakdown and avalanche breakdown  Thermal breakdown  Chemical and Electrochemical breakdown  Discharge break down  Defect breakdown

25. What is intrinsic breakdown?

For a dielectric, the charge displacement increases with increasing electrical field strength. Beyond a critical value of electrical field strength, there is an electrical breakdown due to physical deterioration in the dielectric material.

26. What is thermal breakdown? When an electrical field is applied to a dielectric material, some amount of hear is produced. This heat must be dissipated from the material. In some cases, the amount of hear produced is very large as compared to the heat dissipated. Due to excess of heat the temperature inside the dielectric increases and may produce local melting in the dielectric material.During this process, a large amount of current flows through the material and causes their dielectric to breakdown. This type of breakdown is known as thermal breakdown.

27. What is chemical and electrochemical breakdown? Electro chemical breakdown is similar to thermal breakdown. When the temperature of a dielectric material increases, mobility of ions increases and hence the electrochemical reaction may take place.This leads to leakage current and energy loss in the material and finally dielectric breakdown occurs.

28. What is discharge break down? Discharge breakdown occurs when a dielectric contains occluded gas bubbles. When this type of dielectric is subjected to electric field; the gases present in the material will easily ionize and thus produces large ionization current.The gaseous ions bombard the solid dielectric. This causes electrical deterioration and leads to dielectric breakdown.

29. What is defect breakdown? The surface of the dielectric material may have defects such as cracks, porosity and blowholes. Impurities like dust or moisture may collect at these discontinuities (defects). This will lead to a breakdown in a dielectric material.

30. What are requirements of good insulating materials? The good insulating materials should have  High electrical resistivity to reduce leakage current.  High dielectrical strength to with stand higher voltage.  Smaller dielectric loss  Sufficient mechanical strength.

31. What are ferro-electric materials? Give examples.

Materials which exhibit electronic polarization even in the absence of the applied electrical field are known as ferro-electric materials.Example.Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KH2PO4)

UNIT-IV OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1. What is solar energy?

Solar energy takes advantage of the sun‘s rays to generate heat or electricity. It is an infinitely renewable resource and unique for its ability to generate energy in a quiet, clean, and consistent manner.

2. What‟s the difference between solar photovoltaic and solar hot water systems?

Solar photovoltaic systems use photovoltaic panels to produce electricity. Solar hot water, or thermal, systems capture sunlight to heat water. SunPeak does not offer solar thermal systems.

3. What is the principle of semiconductor.

When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from n – region and the holes from the p- region cross the junction and recombine with each other.

During the recombination process, the light radiation (photons) is released from a certain specified direct band gap semiconductors like Ga-As. This light radiation is known as recombination radiation.

4. Mention any four advantages of led in electronic display

. This is useful in battery powered or energy saving devices. . This is more efficient and can lower initial costs. . Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner. . When used in applications where dimming is required, LEDs do not change their color tint as the current passing through them is lowered, unlike incandescent lamps, which turn yellow.

5. How is a light emitting diode differ from semiconductor laser? specification Light Emitting Diode Laser Diode

Output power linearly proportional to drive current Proportional to current above the threshold

Current Drive Current (50 to 100 mA) (Peak) Threshold current (5 to 40 mA)

Coupled power Moderate High

6. What is Laser Diode?

Laser is derived from Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It produces a very intense beam of light or infrared radiation which is having following properties.

• Monochromatic ( meaning consists of one wavelength)

• Coherent (meaning all parts are in phase)

• Collimated (meaning all parts travel in one and same direction

7.What is holography?

Holography deals with image construction by means of interference techniques without using lenses .here the distribution of amplitude and phase is recorded in 3D manner so as to get complete information of the object to be photographed.

8.What are the difference between holography and photography?

S.No Photography Holography 1. Ordinary light is used Laser light is used 2. The variation of amplitude alone is The distribution of amplitude and phase is recorded recorded 3. It gives 2D picture It gives 3D picture 4. Lens is used No Lens is used

9. What are optical materials and give its types

Materials which are sensitive to light are called optical materials. In general there are 3 types of optical materials.

i)Transparent materials: They transmit more light

ii)Translucent materials: they transmit light partially

iii)opaque materials: they will not transmit any light.

10. What is an opto electric device?

Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics which includes the study, design and manufacture of a hardware device that converts electrical energy into light and light into energy through semiconductors. This device is made from solid crystalline materials which are lighter than metals and heavier than insulators.

11. Explain the term delayed transmission?

When photons are made to incident on the optical material , it creates oscillatory dipoles. These oscillatory dipoles when return to ground state by emitting the same frequency as that of its excitation, without any loss in energy, it is termed as delayed transmission.

12. Define skin depth and skin layer.

When light passes through the metal it produces conduction current. The maximum distance upto which it can travel in the metal is called skin depth and last layer inside the metal upto which the conduction current passes is called skin layer.

13.Define luminescence and give its types.

When an atom in an excited state returns to ground state by emitting diode it is called luminescence. Based on the types of excitation, luminescence can be classified into many types

 i)photo- luminescence  ii)cathode- luminescence  iii)electro- luminescence  iv)thermo- luminescence  v)injection – luminescence

14. Write principle and operations of solar cell

A solar cell is a basically a large area photo diode which converts sunlight directly into electrically ,with larger efficiency of photon absorption.

15. What is meant by optical data storage?

Optical storage devices use a laser to burn small, dark pits into the surface of a disk . the pits are dark and the places without pits remain shiny and smooth . binary codes can be stored to dark and shiny places on a storage medium. Since information can be stored by optical meant, it is called optical data storage.

16. List out the recent application of OLED

 OLED‘s are widely used in cell phones, digital cameras etc.  They are also used in TV screens ,computer monitors.  They are nowadays used in automotive dash boards and backlight in cars.  In future ,newspaper also may have OLED display to refresh us with the latest or breaking news.

17.Define trap its origination and types.

Trap is an intermediate energy level present in energy band gap. These trap arises due to the presence of impurity atoms and imperfection in the crystal. There are two types and trap

i)trapping center

ii)recombination center

18. What is the effect of optical absorption in semiconductor?

The optical absorption in semiconductor produces the following effects.

i)It forms excitons.

ii)It produce photo-conductivity

iii)It excites the crystal lattice vibrations.

iv)It also excites free electron and holes.

UNIT V NANOELECTRONIC DEVICES

1. What are the properties of nano particles? The energy bands in these materials will be very narrow. In nano materials a large number of atoms will be present at the surface. Interparticles spacing is very less in nano- materials.

2. List out any recent applications of nano- meterials. It is used in ICs,optical switches, mass sensors etc. Recently nano-robots were designed, which are used to remove the damaged cancer cells It is used in the production of DNA-chips, bio-sensors etc.

3. What are Bloch oscillations A Particle in a periodic potential with an additional constant force performs oscillations and these oscillation are called as Bloch oscillations

4. Define Resonant Tunnelling Resonant Tunnelling refers to the tunneling in which electron transistion Coefficient through a structure is sharply peaked sbout certain energies.

5. What are spintronics? Spintronics is a nano-technology which deals with spin-dependent Properties of electrons instead of Charge-dependent properties.

6. Define couloumb blockade. The resistance to electron transport caused by electrostatic coulomb forces in certain electronic structures,including quantum dots and single electron transistor is called coulomb blockade. 7.What is meant by tunneling? The phenomenon in which a particle like an electron encounters an energy barrier is an electronic structure and suddenly penetrates is known as tunneling. 8. What we will observe when we decrease the size of the particle to nano size? It we decrease the size of the particle to nano size ,the decrease in confining size creates the energy level discrete . the formation of discrete energy level increase or widens up the bandgap and finally band gap energy also increases. 9. What is meant by single electron transistor? A transistor made from a quantum dot that control the current from source tom drain one electron at a time is called singl3e electron transistor. 10.Write any two applications of quantum dot? Quantum dot may be used as a basic building block in making a quantum computer. The quantum dot application in various flied include blue laser diode , single electron transistor ,light emitting diode. 45

11. List out the applications of quantum well? Quantum well are widely used to make semiconductor layer and other important devices. Quantum well important photo detectors are also based on quantum well and are used for infra red imaging. 12. Define density of energy states? Density of energy is defined as the number of available energy states per unit volume per unit energy in a solid 13. Define Quantum confinement. The effect achieved by reducing the volume of solid so that the energy level with in it becomes discrete is called as Quantum confinement. When we decrease the volume of solid to such an extend, that the energy levels inside becomes discrete, we have achieved Quantum confinement.

14. Define density of states in quantum dot. In zero dimension system such as quantum dot, the density of states are truly discrete and they do not form quasi continuam.

UNIT – I CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1. (i) Define Density of States. (ii) Derive an expression for the density of states in metal. 2. (i) State the assumption of the classical free electron model. (ii) Obtain expressions for the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of a metal on the basis of classical free electron theory. 3. What is fermi function? Discuss how the Fermi function varies with temperature. 4. Derive the electrical conductivity of a metal based on classical free electron theory. 5. Derive the thermal conductivity of a metal based on classical free electron theory. 6. State and Prove Wiedemann-Frantz law.What is Compton effect ? Give the theory of Compton effect and Show that the Compton shiftΔλ = h . (1 – cosθ)/m0c. 7. Explain the application of Schrodinger wave equation to a one Dimensional Potential well. 8. Derive Time independent Schroedinger wave equation and hence deduce the time dependent Schroedinger equation. 9. Describe the energy band theory of solids with the help of neat band diagram. 10. Deduce the mathematical expressions for electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of a material and hence obtain widemann - franz law. 11. Derive an expression for the density of states and based on that calculate the carrier concentration in metals . 12. Write Fermi-Dirac distribution function. Explain how Fermi function varies with temperature. Evaluate the Fermi function for energy KT above the fermi energy. UNIT – II SEMI CONDUCTING MATERIALS 13. (i) Derive an expression for the concentration of electron in the conduction band of an intrinsic Semiconductor.

14. (ii) Write the necessary theory, describe the method of determining the band gap of an intrinsic Semiconductor. derivation experimental set up 15. Derive an expression for density of holes in the valance band of P type semiconductor. 16. Derive an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band of n type semiconductor. 17. (i) What is Hall Effect? Give the theory of Hall Effect and hence justify how Hall coefficient depends on the doping concentration. Describe an experimental set up to determine the Hall Co efficient. 18. (iii) A sample of silicon is doped with 1023 phosphorous atom/m3. Find the Hall voltage in a sample with thickness = 100μm, Current Ix =1 mA and magnetic field B =0.1 Wb/m2(Assume electron Mobility, μ = 0.07 m2/V.S)

19. Distinguish between metals insulator and semiconductor on the basis of band theory. 20. Derive the expression for Planck‘s theory of Black body radiation. 21. Obtain and expression for the carrier concentration in an intrinsic semi conductor. Calculate the intrinsic concentration of charge carriers at 300˚K, given me= 0.12mo,· 22. Discuss electrical conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductor and hence derive an expression for the band gap energy. 23. Derive an expression for carrier concentration in an N-type semi conductor (Density of electrons in the conduction band). 24. Derive an expression for the density of holes in the valence band of an P-type semi conductor. 25. Discuss the variation of Fermi-level with temperature in N-type and P-type semi conductors. 26. Discuss the variation of carrier concentration with temperature for N-type and P-type semiconductors. 27. Explain the determination of Hall co-efficient, carrier concentration and mobility of charge carriers of a semi conduct. 28. Derive an expression for the density of electrons and holes in an intrinsic semi conductor. 29. Discuss the variation of Fermi level with temperature in an intrinsic semi conductor 30. Describe the method of determining the band gap of an intrinsic semiconductor 31. Discuss the carrier concentration, variation of Fermi level with temperature in case of p- type and n-type semiconductors for high and low doping levels. 32. What is Hall Effect? Derive an expression for hall coefficient. Describe an experimental setup for determining the hall coefficient. UNIT – III MAGNETIC AND DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 33. (i) Draw the M-H curve for a Ferro magnetic material and explain the same on the basis of domain theory (ii)Differentiate between hard and soft magnetic materials. 34. With neat sketch explain preparation, structure, properties and applications of ferrites. 35. explain dia ,para and ferromagnetic 36. Distinguish between dia, para, ferro and anti ferro magnetic materials. Mention their properties and applications

37. Explain domain theory of ferromagnetism. Using that how will you explain the properties of ferromagnetic materials. 38. Explain the different types of polarization mechanisms involved in dielectric materials. . UNIT IV OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

39. Discuss the absorption of light by Semi-conductors and define the terms of Phosphorescence and Florescence 40. What are Color Centers and explain the different types and how they are generated? 41. Explain the phenomena of absorption, dispersion and refelection on the basis of polarisation? 42. Explain optical absorption in metals, di-elcetrics and semiconductors 43. Describe the principle, construction and working of Photodiode 44. Explain about traps and excitions with it‘s types 45. Describe about the principle and working of Photo-detector 46. What do you mean by active and passive display units and explain any one of them in detail. 47. Explain the theory and working of LED‘s, what are the different types, it‘s advantages, disadvantages, applications. 48. Describe the principle, construction and working of Solar-Cell types, it‘s advantages, disadvantages, applications. 49. Mention the difference between LED and Liquid OLED and compare the differences between Photodiode and LASER diode. 50. What do you mean by OLED, Discuss them in details with their Construction ,working of OLED. 51. Describe the principle and working of LASER diode. 52. Describe the principle, construction and working of Hetero-Junction LASER diode. 53. Describe about the principle and working of Quantum LASER diode

UNIT - V NANOELECTRONIC DEVICES

54. Describe the structure, fabrication, properties and applications of carbon nano tubes. 55. Derive an expression for density of States for Quantum confinements 56. Explain the phenomena for BLOCH Zener Oscillations 57. Give a brief description of Spintronics 58. Explain about Magnetic Semi-conductors? List out the properties and applications of Magnetic semi-conductors 59. Explain about Quantum well, Quantum wire and Quantum dots. 60. Describe about the principle and working of single electron transistors 61. Write a short notes on (i) GMR (ii) Spin valve 62. Describe about the principle and working of Carbon Nano-tubes 63. Derive an expression for density of States in Quantum well and in two dimensions 64. Explain about Resonant Tunneling diode with neat diagrams 65. Describe about coulomb blockade with the single electron

GE8291 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING QUESTION BANK PART-A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS UNIT-I ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY Environment PART-A 1. Define environment.? Where from the word environment is derived and what does it refer to? (Apr/May 2019) ‗Environment‘ is derived from the French word Environ which means to encircle or surround. All the biological and non-biological things surrounding an organism are thus included in environment. In simple, the interrelationship between living things and non-living things. 2. Write down the components of environment. (May-June 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) The components of environment can be broadly divided into two a) Abiotic components - composed of all the non living components like temperature, water, minerals and gases etc. It includes 1. Lithosphere 2. Hydrosphere 3. Atmosphere b) Biotic components - composed of all the living components (plants, animals µ- organisms) It includes 1. Producers 2. Consumers 3.Decomposers 3. Write the classification of biological environment. Floral/Plant Environment Faunal /Animal Environment Microbial environment

4. What is hazard? Hazard is any substance that can hurt you or make you ill. It is expressed in degree. Degree of hazard is the function of risk, exposure, vulnerability and response. 5. Give some important physical hazards and their health effects. Or Give any two examples of physical hazards. (May - June 2016) Physical hazards Health effects Radioactive radiations Affect the cells, function of glands and organs and cancer. UV radiations Skin cancer. Global warming Increase in temperature causes famine, mortality. Noise Painful and irreparable damage to human ear.

6. Mention some important chemical hazards and their health effects. (Nov-Dec 2016) Chemical hazards Health effects Combustion of fossil fuels: Asthma, bronchitis and other lung

LiberatesSO2, NO2, CO2 and particulate matter. diseases. Industrial effluents(toxic) Kill cells and cause cancer, and death. Pesticides like DDT and chlorinated pesticides Affect the food chain Heavy metals like Hg, Cd, Pb, fluoride and nitrate. Contaminate water, cause ill effects.

7. How are hazards controlled? Ventilation of the places should be improved. Use of UV lamp and air conditioning systems. Use of personal protective equipment like masks, gloves, protective clothes, eye shield. Elimination of the sources of contamination of biological hazards.

ECOSYSTEMS 1. What are the components of Ecosystem? An Eco system has two major components. Biotic (or) Living components Abiotic (or) Non living components

2. What are nutrient cycles (or) Bio-geochemical cycle? The cycle flow of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic components is known as Nutrient cycle (or) biogeochemical cycle 3. What is hydrological cycle? (Nov-Dec 2013) The process of Evaporation, Condensation and Transpiration is known as hydrological cycle. 4. What is ecological succession? Mention their types. (Nov-Dec 2013) The progressive replacement of one community by another till the development of Stable community in a particular area is called ecological succession. Types: a) Primary succession i) Hydrosere ii) Xerosere b) Secondary succession 5. Why are plants called as producers? The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds namely water and carbon dioxide. As the green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophy. 6. What are food chains?(April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) The sequence of eaten and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chains 7. What is food web? The interlocking pattern of eaten and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food web. 8. What is ecological pyramid? Graphical representation of structure and function of tropic levels of an ecosystem starting with producers at the bottom and each successive tropic levels forming the apex is known as ecological pyramids. 9. What are called Producers? Producers are mainly the green plants, which can synthesize their food themselves by making use of CO2 present in the air and water in the presence of sunlight by involving chlorophyll, through the process of photosynthesis. They are also known as photo autotrophs. 10. Name the four ecosystems.  Forest ecosystems  Grass land ecosystems

 Desert ecosystems  Pond ecosystems

11. Explain the concept of an ecosystem. (Nov-Dec 2013)/What is an ecosystem? (Nov/Dec. 2019) A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as ecosystem. 12. Define the terms a) Producers and b) Consumers. a) Producers synthesis their food themselves through photosynthesis. b) Consumers are organisms which cannot prepare their own food and depends on food directly or indirectly on the producers. 13. What is meant by keystone species?(or)Define keystone species with suitable example. (April-May2018) With in a habitat each species connects to and depends on other species. But while each species contribute to habitat functioning, some species do more than others in the overall scheme of things. Without the work of these key species, the habitat changes significantly. These Species are called keystone species. When a keystone species disappears from its habitat, that Habitat changes dramatically. e.g. Elephant in forest eco system. Elephant is strong enough to digest large size fruits from tallest tree. If elephant is not existed, tallest tree will be extinct species 14. What are the characteristics of desert ecosystem?  Air and climate is dry is hot.  Soil is poor nutrients and organic matter.  Annual rain fall is less than 25 cm.  Vegetation is poor 15. What are autotrophic and heterotrophic components of an ecosystem? Give examples. Autotrophic component: The members of autotrophic components are producers which are autotrops (self – nourishing organisms). They derive energy from sun light and make organic components from inorganic substances. Eg: Green plants, Algae, Bacteria etc Heterotrophic components: The members of heterotrophic components are consumers and decomposers, which are heterotrops (depend on others for food). They consume autotrops (Producers). 16. Define primary production and secondary production. Primary production: It is defined as the conversion of radiant energy into organic substances by photosynthesis by the primary producers (Plants) Secondary production: .It is defined as distribution of energy in the form of food to the consumer (or) the energy stored by the consumer. 17. How does biome differ from an ecosystem? The kind of organisms which can live in a particular ecosystem depends on their physical and metabolic adoptions to the environment of that place. On earth there are many sets of ecosystems which are exposed to same climatic conditions and having dominant species with similar life cycle, climatic adoptions and physical structure. This set of ecosystem is called a biome.

18. Define decomposer and give their significance. The microorganism which feeds on dead organs is known as decomposer. Examples: bacteria and fungi.

19. Define ecology. (May-June 2014) Ecology is the scientific study of interactions among organisms and their environment.

20. Mention two and secondary consumers in grassland ecosystem. (May-June 2016) Primary consumers – Giraffe, Deer. Secondary consumers – Snake, Lizard. 21. How is nitrogen fixed in soil? (April-May 2017) They contain symbiotic bacteria called rhizobia within nodules in their root systems, producing nitrogen compounds that help the plant to grow and compete with other plants. When the plant dies, the fixed nitrogen is released, making it available to other plants; this helps to fertilize the soil. 22. Define the ecosystem. (April-May2018) A group of organism interacting among themselves and with environment is known as ecosystem. 23. Write the various adaptive features of desert plants. (April-May2018)  Ability to collect and store water and  Features that reduce water loss 24. What are indicator species? Give example. (April-May2018) An indicator species is an organism whose presence, absence or abundance reflects a specific environmental condition. Indicator species can signal a change in the biological condition of a particular ecosystem, and thus may be used as a proxy to diagnose the health of an ecosystem. For example, plants or lichens sensitive to heavy metals or acids in precipitation may be indicators of air pollution 25. Define oxygen cycle (Nov-Dec 2018) Plants are able to use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon di oxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen in a process called photosynthesis. This means that plants breathe in carbon di oxide and breathe out oxygen. Animals form the other half of the oxygen cycle. 26. What would happen to an ecosystem if all its producers were eliminated? (Nov/Dec 2019) If it so, means food and energy were not available for consumers and the decomposers. The ecosystem has vanished.

BIODIVERSITY 1. What is In-situ conservation? (Nov-Dec 2017) It involves protection of fauna and flora within its natural habitat, where the species normally occurs is called in-situ conservation. 2. What is Ex-situ conservation? (Nov-Dec 2017) It involves protection of fauna and flora from the outside natural habitats. 3. Enumerate the human activities which destroy the biodiversity.  The farmers prefer hybrid seeds; as a result, many plant species become extinct. 52

 For the production of drugs, pharmaceutical companies collect medicinal plants, become extinct.  Trophical forest is the main sources of world‘s medicine. Every year these forests are disappearing due to agriculture, mining, logging.

4. Define the terms a) genetic diversity and b) species diversity (April-May 2017) a) Genetic diversity: It is the diversity within species b) Species diversity: It is the diversity between different species. The sum of varieties of all the living organisms at the species level is known as species diversity. 5. What do you understand by the terms flora and fauna? Flora: Plants present in a particular region or period. Fauna: Animal present in a particular region or period.

6. India is a mega diversity nation-Account. India is one among the 12 mega diversity countries in the world. It has 89450 animal species accounting for 7.31% of the global faunal species and 47000 plants species accounting for 10.8% of the global floral species. The loss of biodiversity is about 33%. 7. What is a bio-diversity hot spot? Give example. (Nov-Dec 2018) (Nov/Dec 2019) Biodiversity hotspots are the geographical areas which possess high endemic species. In India the biodiversity hotspots are: 1. Eastern Himalayas 2. Western Ghats 8. Give few examples for endangered and endemic species. Endangered species: Plants : Santalum. Reptiles : Tortoise, Python. Endemic species: Mammals : Indian wolf, Red fox, Tiger. Flora: Sapria Himalayan, Ovaria lusida Primates : Golden monkey. Fauna: Monitor lizards, Indian salamander 9. Define biodiversity and mention its significance. (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) It is defined as the variety and variability among all groups of living organism and the ecosystem in which they occur. Significance:  It is very important for human life, as we depend on plants, microorganisms, earth‘s animals for our food, medicine and industrial products.  It protects the fresh air, clean water and productive land. 10. Write the classification of biodiversity. (May-June 2014) (Nov-Dec 2016) The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. 1. Ecosystem diversity 2. Species diversity 3. Genetic diversity Ecosystem diversity: (Nov-Dec 2016)  The richness and complexity of a biological community, including tropic levels, ecological processes food webs and material recycling. Species diversity:  The number of kinds of organisms within individual communities or ecosystems. Genetic diversity:  It is a measure of the variety of versions of same gene within individual species. 53

11. What are called endangered species? Mention with two examples (Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2017) (Nov-Dec 2018) A species said to be endangered species, when its number has been reduced to a critical level. Unless it is protected and conserved it is in immediate danger of extinction. Examples: Python and peacock 12. What are the major threats to biodiversity? (Nov-Dec 2014)  Habitat loss.  Poaching.  Man – wild conflicts.

13. Explain vulnerable species. A species said to be vulnerable species when its population is facing continuous decline due to habitat destruction or over exploitation. Such a species is still abandoned.

14. Write a note on nitrogen cycle. (Nov-Dec 2017) The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into various chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification. The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is nitrogen, making it the largest source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. 15. Mention two invasive species. (Nov-Dec 2017) An invasive species is a plant, fungus, or animal species that is not native to a specific location (an introduced species), and which has a tendency to spread to a degree believed to cause damage to the environment, human economy or human health Eg. Flat worms, jelly fish, bony fish, sharks, rays, amphibians, reptiles. 16. What are called endemic species? (Nov-Dec 2017) These species which are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Eg. Endemic flora species- Sapria himalayana, Ovaria lurida, Endemic fauna species- Monitor lizards, reticulated python. 17. What is habitat fragmentation? (Nov-Dec 2018) Habitat fragmentation is the process by which habitat loss results in the division of large continuous habitats into smaller, more isolated remnants 18. Write the criteria to determine hotspot and name the hotspots in India. (Apr/May 2019) i. The richness of the endemic species is the primary criterion for recognizing hotspots. ii. The hotspots should have a significant percentage of specialized species. iii. The site is under threat. iv. It should contain important gene pools of plants of potentially useful plants. Hotspots in India: Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats

UNIT-I PART-B ENVIRONMENT 1. Discuss the structure of atmosphere. 2. Explain the community participation in environment management programmes. 3. What are the components of the environment? Explain their roles. (May - June 2016) (Nov/Dec 2019)

ECOSYSTEM Describe the types, characteristic features, structure and function of 4. Forest eco system (Nov-Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov/Dec 2019) 5. Aquatic eco system ( (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) 6. Grass land ecosystem.(Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov/Dec 2015) (April-May 2017) (April-May2018) (Apr/May 2019) (Nov/Dec.2019) 7. Describe the types, characteristic features, structure and function of i) Desert ecosystem (May-June 2013) (April-May2018) ii) Estuarine ecosystem. 8. Explain energy flow in ecosystem, food chain and food web. (Nov-Dec 2013) 9. Explain ecological pyramids and their types. (May/June 2014) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov/Dec 2019). 10. Discuss the structure and function of an ecosystem in detail. OR Discuss the components of ecosystem. (Nov/Dec 2014) (May - June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2016) 11. Give the types and process of ecological succession. (May-June 2013) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May2018) a. With a neat sketch discuss the nitrogen cycle. (Nov-Dec 2014) 12. Explain briefly in energy flow through ecosystem. (Nov-Dec 2015) (April-May2018) 13. Explain oxygen and nitrogen cycle briefly with diagrams.(May-June 2016) 14. Write short notes on following Food web & Food chain(May/June2014)(April-May2018) 15. Write the importance of biological hazard in the environment. (April-May 2017) 16. Draw the process of food chain and food web. (April-May2018) 17. What is the importance of protecting the Biodiversity of earth? (Nov/Dec 2019) 18. Identify and explain the major threats to the biodiversity of India. (Nov/Dec 2019) 19. Discuss the two approaches of wildlife conservation in protected habitats. (April-May2018) 20. Mention the role of an individual in conservation of natural resources. (April-May2018) 21. Discuss the Ex-situ and In-situ conservation of biodiversity with their advantages and limitations. (Nov/Dec.2019)

BIODIVERSITY 1. Explain the conservation of biodiversity. (Nov-Dec 2013 and 2014) (April-May 2017) 2. Write a note on measuring biodiversity. 3. Explain the role of biodiversity at global, national and local levels. (May-June 2014) 4. Explain in-situ and ex-situ conservation along with their merits and limitations. (May - June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May2018) 5. Describe the term hotspot in biodiversity. (Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2017) 6. Discuss endangered and endemic species of India. 55

7. Discuss the status of India as a mega diverse nation of bio diversity. (May-June 2013) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May 2017) 8. Describe the structural features of ecosystem. 9. Discuss the importance of biodiversity. (Nov-Dec 2013) 10. Explain the values of biodiversity. (May-June 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May2018) (Nov-Dec 2018) 11. Identify and explain the major threats to the biodiversity of India. (Nov-Dec 2013) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015)(May - June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2017) 12. Discuss uniqueness of different ecosystems; Forest ecosystem, Grassland ecosystem, Desert ecosystem and aquatic ecosystem. (Nov-Dec 2017) 13. Discuss human animal conflicts with special reference to media coverage/ten control measures for man-wild life conflict. (Nov-Dec 2017) (April-May2018) (Nov-Dec 2018) 14. What is bio diversity? Discuss the unique advantages of biodiversity(Nov-Dec 2018)

UNIT - II ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION PART-A 1. Define pollution. Pollution may be defined as the excessive discharge of undesirable substances into the natural quality of the environment and causing damage to humans, plants and animals. 2. What are suspended particulate matters? Give examples. (April-May 2018) Suspended Particulate matters are the substances which cause undesirable effects on man and his environment. eg. Smoke, dust, soot, fumes, aerosols, liquid droplets, pollen grains etc. 3. What is photochemical smog?  It is a mixture of brownish smoke and fog that frequently forms on clear, sunny days over large cities with significant amount of automobile traffic.  It is mainly due to chemical reactions among nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbon by sunlight. 4. How will you control Air pollution? Air pollution can be minimized by Using low sulphur coal in Industries.

Removing NOx during the combustion process. Using mass transport system, bicycles.etc. Planting more trees etc.,

5. Define Acid rain. Write its type. (Nov-Dec 2013) (April-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2018) (April- May 2019) Excess amount of acid present in the rain is called acid rain. It has two types, Wet deposition: It involves acid rain or snow or dew Dry deposition: It is the particles such as polluting gases, dust particles and gaseous elements are just absorbed by the surface of the earth or the plant bodies. 6. What is PAN? Give its detrimental effects. (May - June 2016) (April-May 2017) Definition: PAN is Peroxy Acetyl Nitrates formed by the photochemical reaction between hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and light. Effects: Damages plants and art, React explosively and produce chemical smog. 7. Define BOD and COD (Nov-Dec 2013) BOD-Biological Oxygen Demand is the quantity of dissolved oxygen required by bacteria for the oxidation of organic matter under aerobic conditions. COD- Chemical Oxygen Demand is the measure of both biologically oxidisable & inert organic materials present in the sewage. 8. What are point sources and non-point sources of pollution? Point sources- Point sources are discrete discharges from pipes and other conduits such as sewage treatment plants and Industri9al facilities. Non-Point sources- It is broad, unconfined area from which pollutants enter a body of water. eg., urban storm water run-off, run-off from farm fields, ac id rain etc., 9. Give the source of radioactivity. Natural sources- Cosmic ray from outer space, radioactive radon-222, soil, rocks, air, water and food which contains one or more radioactive substances. Anthropogenic sources- Nuclear power plants, nuclear accidents, X-rays diagnostic kits, test laboratories etc. 57

10. What are the important physical and chemical parameters affecting the quality of water? (OR) Mention the water quality parameters. (Nov-Dec 2016) Physical parameters: Colour, Taste and odour, Turbidity and sediments. Chemical parameter: PH, Acidity, Alkalinity, Fluoride, Nitrogen Nitrates, Sulphates, Chloride. 11. What is the role of Citizen in reducing pollution? Help more in pollution prevention than control. Use ecofriendly products. Cut down the use of CFC‘s. Adopt and popularize renewable energy resources.

12. What is meant by air pollution? Air pollution may be defined as the presence of impurities in excessive quantity and duration to cause adverse effects on plants, animals, human beings and materials. 13. List the types of air pollutants. Particulate pollutants- Dust, Smoke, Fly ash, Smog, etc.

Gaseous pollutants - SO2, SO3, CO2, CO, H2S, aerosols, etc.

Internal Combustion Engines - CO2, CO, SO2, NO2 and hydrocarbons

14. Define thermal pollution Addition of excess of undesirable heat to water that makes it harmful to aquatic life and cause significant changes of normal activities of aquatic communities. 15. Write any four major water pollutants.

Infectious agents, Organic wastes, In-organic wastes and Demand of O2

16. Name the sources of soil pollution. (May/June - 2013) Biotic agents, Industrial waste, Urban wastes, Domestic wastes, Radioactive wastes and Agricultural wastes.

17. Write briefly how human activities can introduce thermal pollution in Streams. The addition of heat to water that changes the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water and also harmful to man, animal and aquatic life. The atomic and Thermal power plants may utilize water for cooling the reactor and resultant warmed water is often discharged into streams or lakes that cause thermal pollution. 18. What are the sources of thermal pollution? (May - June 2016) Nuclear power plants, Thermal power plants, Hydro electric power plants, Industrial effluents, Domestic sewage, Hydro electric power 19. What is marine pollution? Mention few reasons / sources for marine pollution.(Nov- Dec2014) (April-May 2017) (April-May2018) Dumping of waste and oil spillage in the ocean cause threat to marine system is called marine pollution. Dumping of wastes and Oil Spilling. 20. What is noise pollution? How it is caused? (or) Define the term noise pollution.(Nov/Dec 2013) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015)(April-May2018) It is an unwanted sound created by human activities is called noise pollution. Blaring loudspeaker, bursting of crackers, road traffic, aircraft taking off, massive industries and from entertainment centers. 21. What is disposal? 58

Disposal is the discharge, deposit, injection, dumping, spilling, leaking or placing of waste into or any land, water or air.

22. Differentiate between recycling and reuse. S.No. Recycling Reuse Reprocessing of the discarded materials into new 1. Usage of discarded materials useful products Eg. Preparation of cellulose insulation from paper Discarded refillable containers can be reused 2. Aluminium cans and glass bottles are melted and Discarded cycle tubes can be reused to recast into new cans and bottles manufacture rubber rings.

23. What is composting? The decomposition and stabilization of solid wastes taken place by biochemical bacteriological process under the controlled conditions is called composting. It occurs in 2 ways. Aerobic decomposition Anaerobic decomposition 24. What are the sources of Urban and Industrial waste? Urban waste consists of medical waste from hospitals, municipal solid wastes from homes, offices, markets, small cottage units and horticulture wastes from park, garden, orchards etc., Industrial waste consist of a large no: of materials including factory rubbish, packaging materials organic wastes, acids, alkalis, metals etc., 25. When is a waste said to be hazardous? A waste is said to be hazardous if it possess one or more of the following characteristics, Toxicity b)Reactivity c)Ignitability d)Radioactivity 26. What are the general methods to removal of heavy metals by adsorption? Using coconut shell carbons Using fly ash Using clay and coal based adsorbents.

27. What are the causes and effects of ozone layer depletion? Causes: Chloro fluoro carbon and Hydro Chloro fluro carbon Effects: Increases the average temperature of the earth. It also affects the aquatic forms. 28. What are the major causes of earthquake? (May/June 2014) Underground nuclear testing. Volcanic eruptions Pressure of manmade dams, reservoir and lakes Movement of plates of earth.

29. Mention the effects of ozone on plants. (Nov-Dec 2014) Ozone effects on plants are most pronounced when soil moisture and nutrients are adequate and ozone concentrations are high. Under good soil moisture and nutrient conditions the ozone will enter through openings into the leaf and damage the cells that produce the food for the plants. 30. Define hazardous waste (Nov-Dec 2014) , (Nov-Dec 2019) Radioactive and toxic wastes which poses a substantial or potential threats or illness to human health and the environment is called as hazardous waste. 59

31. Define green house effect. (Nov-Dec 2014)

The progressive warming up of earth surface due to blanketing effect of manmade CO2 in the atmosphere. 32. Differentiate between sound and noise. (Nov-Dec 2014), (Nov-Dec 2019) S.No Sound Noise 1 Below 120 dB Above 120 dB 2 It does not make pollution It makes pollution 33. How does ozone layer depletion take place? (Nov-Dec 2014)

It occurs due to the presence of CO2, CFC in the atmosphere. 34. What is the role of individual in preventing pollution? (Nov-Dec 2015) Plant more trees. Use water, energy and other resources efficiently. Reduce deforestation. Use CFC free refrigerators.

35. Mention the measures to control thermal pollution caused by industry. (Nov-Dec 2016) Cooling towers (Wet cooling tower & Dry cooling tower) Cooling Ponds Cooling Sprays Artificial Lake

36. Mention the effects of nuclear wastes in humans. (April-May 2017)  The waste released from chemical industries and from explosives are dangerous to human life.  The dumped waste degrade soil and make unfit for irrigation. 37. What are mitigation procedures? Give example. (Nov-Dec 2017) (April-May2018) Mitigation is the effort to reduce loss of life and property by lessening the impact of disasters. In order for mitigation to be effective we need to take action now—before the next disaster—to reduce human and financial consequences later (analyzing risk, reducing risk, and insuring against risk). It is important to know that disasters can happen at any time and any place and if we are not prepared, consequences can be fatal. Example:

 Disasters (e.g.Cyclone and earthquake) can happen at anytime and anyplace; their human and financial consequences are hard to predict.  The number of disasters each year is increasing but only 50% of events trigger Federal assistance.

38. List the types of nuclear reactors. (April-May2018)  Thermal Reactors and  Fast neutron reactor

39. Classify the pollution types. (April-May 2019) Water, air, soil, marine, nuclear hazards, thermal, noise are the types of pollution

UNIT-II PART-B 1. Write brief notes on solid waste management. State the measures recommended for proper management of the solid wastes. (Nov-Dec 2013) (May/June 2014) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (Nov-Dec 2019) 2. Explain the causes, effects and control measure of water pollution.(Nov-Dec 2013) (May/June 2013) (May-June 2014) (Nov/Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May - June 2016) (April-May 2018) 3. Explain the causes, effects and various methods of controlling air pollution. (May - June 2016) (May-June 2013) (Nov/Dec 2014) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2018) 4. Explain the concept of source, path receiver in the control of noise pollution. (Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May 2017) 5. Explain the causes, effects and control measures of marine pollution. (Nov/Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May - June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May2018) (April-May2019) 6. Explain the causes, effects and control measures of nuclear hazards and explain any two case studies on nuclear pollution. (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (April-May2018) 7. What are the causes and control measures for soil pollution. (Nov-Dec 2018) (April-May 2019) 8. Explain the disaster management in detail. (Nov-Dec 2019) 9. Discuss the role of individual in preventing pollution. (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May2015) (April- May2018) (April -May 2019) 10. Explain the causes, effects and control measures of thermal pollution.(Nov-Dec 2013) (May/June 2014) (May-June 2013) (Nov-Dec 2015) 11. Describe the various chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. (Nov-Dec2014) (May - June 2016) (April-May 2017) 12. Write informative notes on water treatment processes. (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May2018) 13. Discuss the significance of any six parameters of drinking water quality standards. (Nov/Dec 2014) 14. Discuss about the causes, impacts and control measures of ozone depletion in the atmosphere. (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May2018) (April-May 2019) 15. What are the effects of heavy metals in aquatic environment? (April-May 2017) 16. What is a particulate matter? How is it controlled by using equipment? (April-May 2017) 17. Discuss physical, chemical, biological parameters to ensure drinking water quality.(Nov-Dec 2017) 18. Demonstrate the various classes of water pollution and enumerate in detail about the following i) Domestic waste water ii) Industrial waste and iii) storm water (April-May 2018) 19. Illustrate in detail about Green house effect and Global warming with neat sketch(April-May 2018) 20. Discuss the measures that should be taken to de-pollute our waterways (Nov-Dec 2018)

UNIT-III NATURAL RESOURCES PART-A 1. What are renewable and non-renewable energy resources? Give examples. Renewable energy resources are natural resources which can be regenerated continuously and are inexhaustible. They can be used again and again in an endless manner. 2. State the environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources. (May - June 2016) Devegetation and defacing of landscape Air pollution Subsidence of land Ground water contamination Surface water pollution 3. Define sustainable forestry. It is the optimum use of forest resources which meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. 4. Define overgrazing. Overgrazing is a process of eating away the forest vegetation without giving it a chance to regenerate. 5. What is desertification? Give two reasons for it. (Nov-Dec 2018) It is a progressive destruction or degradation of arid or semi arid lands to desert. Reasons: Deforestation, Overgrazing, Mining and quarrying 6. What is water logging? Mention about the problems in water logging. Water logging is the land where water stand for the most of the year. Problems: During water logged conditions, pore-voids in the soil get filled with water and the soil- Air gets depleted. In such condition the roots of the plants do not get adequate for respiration. So, mechanical strength of the soil decreases and the crop yield fails. 7. What do you mean by environmental impact? (Nov-Dec 2014) Environmental impact is nothing but the effect on the natural environment caused by various human actions. 8. Define soil leaching. List the effects of soil leaching. The process in which materials in or on the soil gradually dissolve and are carried by water seeping through the soil. Effects of soil leaching: It removes valuable nutrients from the soil. It may carry buried wastes into ground water and contaminates it.

9. Write any four functions of forests. Forests perform very important functions both to humans and to nature. They are habitats to millions of plants, animals and wildlife. They recycle rain water and remove pollutants from air. They control water quality and quantity 10. What are the causes of deforestation? Developmental projects, Mining operations, Raw materials for industries, Fuel Requirements

Shifting cultivation and Forest fires.

11. Compare merits and problems of dams.

Merits of dams:  Dams are built to control flood and store flood Problems of dams: water  Displacement of tribal people  Its used for diverting part or all of the water from  Loss of non-forest land river into a channel  Loss of forests, flora and fauna  Dams are used mainly for drinking and  Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation agricultural purposes  Reduced water flow and silt deposition in rivers  Dams are built for generating electricity  Salt water intrusion at river mouth 12. What is meant by soil erosion? Soil erosion is the process of removal of superficial layer of the soil from one place to another. Soil erosion also removes the soil components and surface liter. 13. Differentiate deforestation with forest degradation. Forest degradation Deforestation It is the process of deterioration of forest materials. It is the process of destruction of forest materials. Slow process Rapid process Cannot be recovered Can be recovered

14. Enumerate the desired qualities of an ideal pesticide. It must kill only the target species It must be a biodegradable It should not produce any new pests It should not produce any toxic pesticide vapour Excessive synthetic pesticide should not be used Chlorinated pesticides and organophosphate pesticides are hazardous, so they should not be used. 15. Write any two adverse effects caused by overgrazing. Land degradation, soil erosion and loss of useful species. 16. Differentiate renewable and non-renewable energy resources.

S.No. Renewable energy Non-renewable energy 1 It is regenerated continuously Cannot be regenerated 2 Inexhaustible exhausted 3 It can be used again and again Cannot be used again 4 It is pollution-free Pollutes the atmosphere 5 It is developed in a long period It is developed in a short period

17. Mention the various causes of desertification. Deforestation, overgrazing, water management, mining and quarrying, climate change and pollution.

18. What are the effects of dams on tribal people? Due to continuous removal of minerals, forest covers, the trenches are formed on the ground leading to the water logged area, which in turn contaminates the ground water. During mining operations, the vibrations are developed, which leads to earthquake. When materials are disturbed in significant quantities during mining process, large quantities of sediments are transported by water erosion. 19. What is eutrophication? (Apr/May 2019) A large proportion of N and P fertilizers used in crop fields are washed off by the runoff water and reaches the water bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes. The process of accumulation of nutrients in the water bodies is called eutrophication. 20. What do you mean by land degradation? What are the reasons for land degradation? (Nov- Dec 2015) (May - June 2016) Definition: It is the process of deterioration / destroys soil or loss of fertility of the soil. Causes: Population, Urbanization, Fertilizers and pesticides, Damage of top soil, Soil erosion, Water logging and Salination. 21. Wood is renewable resource but not coal. Why? Wood is renewable resources because we can get new wood by growing a sapling into a tree within 15-20 years. But the formation of coal from trees has taken million of years and cannot be regenerated in our life time. 22. Define the term sustainable development. It is defined as all the natural resources must be used in such a way that it must be available for the future generation also. 23. Mention the major environmental impacts of mining. (Nov-2013) or State the environmental effects of extracting and using mineral uses. ((Nov /Dec 2019) Mining reduces the shape and size of forest areas. It produces noise pollution. It develops the vibration and hence earthquake will occur. Water surface will pollute due to discharge of wastages.

24. What are the changes caused by overgrazing? (Nov-2013) or what are the impacts of overgrazing? (Apr/May 2019) Land degradation Soil erosion Loss of useful species

25. State the use of bio-energy as a non-conventional source of energy. The cost of obtaining bio-energy through bio-gas plant is less than the cost of obtaining energy from fossil fuels.

Bio-mass consumers more CO2 than is released during combustion of bio-mass. It provides a stored form of energy and in many cases in a form suitable for vehicle propulsion.

26. What is environmental biochemistry?

It involves approaches to treat polluted air, waste water and solid waste using metabolic activities of micro-organisms. 27. What are xenobiotics? Biochemistry, used in environmental science to understand the effects of environment on living organisms as they interact with environmental pollutants.

28. What is energy conversion? It is a process of changing energy from one form to another form. 29. What is ECO-mark? Environmentally friendly products are generally indicates the symbol called ECO-mark. It is a certification mark issued by the Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) to environmental friendly products. 30. What is environmental ethics? (Nov/Dec-2013) It refers to the issues, principles and guidelines relating to human interactions with their environment. 31. What is bio-gas? Mention its uses. (Nov-Dec 2016) It is a mixture of various gases formed by an aerobic degradation of biological matter in the absence of free oxygen.

Composition of biogas: O2 0 Compound %

Methane 50-75 Uses:  It is used for cooking, heating water. CO2 25-50  It is used to run engines.  It is used for running tube well and water pump set N 0-10 2 engine.

H2 0-1  It is used as an illuminant in villages.

H2S 0-3

32. State the reasons of over exploitations of forest. (May-June 2013) Increasing agricultural production Increasing industrial activities Increase in demand of food resource

33. Write the ways of drought management. (May-June 2013) Modern irrigation technology (drip irrigation) is very much useful to conserve water Rain water harvesting programme is another fruitful method to conserve more water and to control drought.

34. Write the economic importance of forests. (Nov/Dec-2013) Commercial uses (fuel, pulp, paper, gums, dyes, medicines, drugs, mining)

Ecological uses (production of O2, reducing global warming) Aesthetic value Touristic value (ecotourism)

35. Write the problems due to constructions. (May/June-2014) Deforestation, Pollution, Soil erosion, Devegetation.

36. Define non-renewable energy resources. (May/June-2014) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) Non renewable energy resources are natural resources which cannot be regenerated once and are exhaustible. They cannot be used again and again in an endless manner. 37. Define the term nuclear energy. (Nov-Dec 2014) Energy release from nuclear fission reaction is known as nuclear energy. 38. Define renewable energy resources. (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) Renewable energy resources are natural resources which can be regenerated. They can be used again and again in an endless manner. 39. Write the preventive methods of deforestation. (Nov-Dec 2014) Planting more trees, Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged.

40. What is desertification? (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) The progressive destruction of arid or semiarid lands to desert is known as desertification. 41. Write any two problems caused by high saline soils? (April-May 2017)  Due to high saline soils, the soil becomes alkaline and crop yield decreases. 42. List some ways to protect soil. (April-May2018)  Practice No-Till farming  Use Terrace Farming  Practice Contour Farming  Plant Windbreaks 43. What is bioconversion of pollutants? Give example. (April-May2018) Bioconversion is the change of pollutants into a source of energy by the action of micro organisms. It is the cheap and safe method. e.g: Bioconversion of biomass into ethanol and methanol 44. What is habitat fragmentation? Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. 45. What are the ecological benefits of forests? (Nov /Dec 2019) Ecological uses

1. production of O2, 2) reducing global warming 46. Identify the main reasons for deprivation of food resources in the present human development.

UNIT-III PART-B 1. Discuss the consequences of overdrawing surface and ground water. (Nov-Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2016) 2. Explain how the alternate energy sources play an important role in environmental impact.

3. Explain the environmental impacts of Mineral extraction/mining and use. (May/June-2013) (April- May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (April-May2018)/ Problems associated with Exploitation of Mineral resources with two case studies. (April-May2018) (Nov /Dec 2019) 4. Explain renewable and non-renewable energy resources with examples. Explain the merits and demerits of any two renewable energy resources. Why are non renewable energy resources preferred for energy utilization now-days? (May-2014) (Nov-Dec 2013) (May - June 2016) 5. Explain the major causes and ill effects of deforestation. (Nov-Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) (April- May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May 2017) (April-May2018) 6. Explain briefly the various methods of harvesting solar energy. 7. Discuss the merits and demerits of wind energy and tidal power. (May/June-2013) 8. Describe the benefits and problems of constructing dams. (Nov/Dec-2013) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov- Dec 2018) or Illustrate the various environmental ill effects and benefits associated with dams with reference to a case study. (Nov /Dec 2019) 9. Explain the environmental impacts of modern agriculture (May-June 2013, 2014) (Nov/Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May - June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May 2017)(Nov-Dec 2017) 10. Explain any two conflicts over water confining to our nation. 11. Discuss in detail the causes and consequences of over exploitation of forest resources. Or Enumerate the consequences of deforestation (Apr /May 2019) 12. What are the ecological benefits of forests? 13. Discuss the effects of dams on forest and tribal people. (or) Explain how construction of dams affects forests and tribal people. (Apr /May 2019) 14. Discuss the timber extraction on forest and tribal people. (Nov/Dec-2013) 15. Discuss the role of individual in conservation of natural resources. (Nov/Dec-2013) (April- May2018) 16. Explain the hydrological cycle with its components with suitable sketch. (May/June-2014) (Nov/Dec 2014) 17. Explain the production and uses of biogas with neat diagram. (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May 2015) (May - June 2016) (April-May 2017) (OR) Energy conversion process with suitable example. (April- May2018) 18. Explain bioconversion of pollutants with examples. (May - June 2016) 19. Explain in detail about biochemical degradation of pollutants. (April-May2018) 20. Write short notes on different types of energy sources. (May/June 2014) 21. Discuss the following (i) Land resources (ii) land degradation (iii) soil erosion and (iv) desertification (Nov/Dec-2013) (May/June-2013)(Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2016) 67

22. What are the changes caused by agriculture and overgrazing? (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May2018) 23. Write note on i). Food resources ii). Mineral resources. (April-May 2015) (April-May2018) 24. Discuss the renewable sources of energy with respect to solar, wind and tidal power. (Nov-Dec 2017) (Apr /May 2019) or Identify the reason for growing energy demand. Discuss the advantages and limitations of solar energy, wind energy, and thermal power energy. (Nov-Dec 2019) 25. Write on pros and cons of some of the renewable energy sources. (Nov-Dec 2018) 26. Describe the problems associated with over exploitation of ground water. (April-May2018) (Nov /Dec 2019) 27. What is deforestation and give its ill effects. (Nov /Dec 2019) 28. Discuss the causes and effects of soil degradation. (Apr /May 2019) 29. Distinguish between commercial and ecological function of forest resources. (Apr /May 2019)

UNIT-IV SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT PART-A 1. Define sustainable development. (OR) Explain the term sustainability. (OR) Define sustainable life style. (Nov-Dec 2013) (May - June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2016) (Nov-Dec 2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) Sustainable development can be summarized as ‗meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs‘. 2. Explain the concept of sustainable development. The concept of sustainable development has the following underlying promises. A symbiotic relationship between the consumer human race and the producer natural system. Compatibility between ecology and economics.

3. What is the aim of national committee of environmental planning and co-ordination? Conservation of natural resources. Control of environmental pollution. Environmental education. Environmental laws.

4. Write down the components of Environmental Law. Environmental Law includes official rules, decisions and actions concerning environmental quality, natural resources and ecological sustainability. 5. What are the major constitutional provisions in India for environmental protection? Article 47 Article 48-A Article 51-A (g) Article 253.

6. State the Article-47 of the Indian Constitution. Article 47 of the Constitution states that, "The State is to ensure as its primary duty of, Raising standard of living of its people, To increase the level of nutrition of the people, To bring improvement in public health". 68

7. State the Article 48-A of the Indian Constitution. Article 48-A of the Constitution states that, "the State shall endeavor for protection and improvement of the environment and for safeguarding the forest and wild life and improving the natural environment of the country". 8. State the Article 51-A (g) of the Indian Constitution. According to Article 51-A (g) of the Constitution, it shall be the duty of every citizen of India 'to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures'. 9. State the Article 253 of the Indian Constitution. Article 253 of the Constitution empowers the parliament to make laws regarding preserving the environment. It states 'The parliament has power to make any law for the whole or any part of the territory of India for implementing any treaty, agreement or convention with any other country or countries or any decision made at any international conference, association or other body'.

10. List the major environmental conventions of 20th century. World summit on sustainable development, The Earth Summit, World conference on women.

11. Name some of the acts enacted by the Indian Government to protect the environment. The Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974,1978 The Water (prevention and control of pollution) amended Act, 1987 The Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1981 amended in 1987. The Environment (protection) Act 1972 The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991.

12. What are the common objectives of environmental legislation? All the Acts were enacted to achieve the following: To control further damage to the environment and ecosystem To conserve the environment To create authorities to administer the policy and contents of the legislation. To provide penalties and prosecution for violation of laws.

13. List the major environmental protocols of 20th century. Kyoto protocol Montreal protocol.

14. Write notes on NGOs. The groups working for social changes are called Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). When the activities are concerned with environmental issues they are called environmental NGOs. 15. Write notes on ‗Green Peace‘: ‗Green peace‘ is one of the largest NGOs in the world with 1.6 million contributing members, carries out well-published confrontations with toxic waste dumpers, seal hunters and others who threaten very specific and visible resources. 16. List some of the NGOs available in India. World Wide Fund for Nature India. Indian Environmental Association, Mumbai. 69

Environmental Society of India (ESI), Chandigarh. Sastrakalayatha, Kerala. C. P. Ramaswami Ayer Environmental Education Centre.

17. How does the community participation involve in protecting the environment? Community participation requires involvement in several areas: Better theoretical knowledge about the environmental information (both Scientific and traditional) Better practical guidelines and tools are need. Better educational support.

18. Write a short note on the history of implementation of international treaties and conventions.  Intercontinental shipping of hazardous waste  Reforestation  Over-fishing Trade in endangered species

19. Write down the purpose / objectives of The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. (Nov-Dec 2014) The purpose of The Water Act is ―to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintenance or restoring wholesomeness of water for the establishment, with a view to and carrying out the purpose of aforesaid of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith‖. 20. Write notes on Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous chemical Rules, 1989. These rules are applicable to three different types of flammable substances and about 450 hazardous chemicals. The importers of hazardous chemicals should inform the Board authorities of the following given details within 30 days, The place of entry in India, The name of address of the importer, Mode of transport and The quality of the chemicals and the safety details of the product. 21. What is meant by rain water harvesting? (Nov-Dec 2014) Rain water harvesting is a technique of capturing and storing of rain water for further utilization. 22. What is environmental ethics? (Nov/Dec-2013) (April-May2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) (April-May 2019) It refers to issues, principles and guidelines related to human interactions with their environment. (or) Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It deals with morals and values. An ethic is a principle for value that we use to decide whether an action is good or bad. 23. List the objectives of forest conservation act. (Nov/Dec-2013) Protect and conserve the forest. To ensure judicious use of forest products.

24. What is cyclone? (Nov/Dec 2013) (April-May 2017) Cyclone is meteorological phenomena, intense depressions forming over the open oceans and moving towards the land.

25. What are biomedical wastes? Give example. (April-May2018) Biomedical wastes are one type of bio-wastes generated from health care activities (hospitals, nursing homes, laboratories, etc,). They may be solid or liquid in nature. 26. What are landslides? (Nov-Dec 2014) The movement of earthy materials like coherent rock, mud, soil and debris from higher region to lower region due to gravitational pull is called landslides. 27. Define floods. Whenever the magnitude of water flow exceeds the carrying capacity of the channel within its banks, the excess of water over flows on the surroundings causes floods. 28. What are the advantages of rain water harvesting? (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2019) To increase the ground water level. To avoid the water scarcity.

29. Define consumerism. (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) Consumption of resources by the people is known as consumerism.

30. What do you mean by disaster management? (April-May2015) Disaster Management can be defined as the organization and management of resources and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the impact of disasters.

31. State any two biomedical waste handling rules. (May - June 2016) "Act" means the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986) Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 32. Write any four principles of green chemistry. (Nov-Dec 2016) (Nov-Dec 2019)  Prevention  Design Less Hazardous Chemical Synthesis  Use of Renewable  The use of Safer Chemicals Feedstocks 33. What is nuclear holocaust? (Nov-Dec 2017) It means destruction of biodiversity by nuclear equipments and nuclear bombs. In a holocaust a large number of living beings are totally destroyed. Usually these kind of destructions are happened in a nuclear war. 34. Write on EIA? (Nov-Dec 2017) (Nov-Dec 2019) EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) is defined as a formal process of crediting the environmental consequences of any development projects. It is used to identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of the project prior to decision making. 35. What is a watershed? (Nov-Dec 2017) (April-May2018) Watershed is defined as the land area from which water drains under the influence of gravity into a stream, lake, reservoir or other body of surface water. 36. Define the term the Man induced landslide. (April-May2018) These are basically the human activities like construction of roads, buildings, dams, etc. These have strong bearing on the Man Induced Landslides 37. Write the various uses of sustainable development indicators. (April-May2018)

It was developed by the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) from earlier work by the Canadian government. Increasingly widely accepted and internationally adopted, it can be applied at a national level, at sectoral levels, at the levels of an industrial firm, or at the community level. Pressure indicators measure policy effectiveness more directly -- whether emissions increase or decrease, whether forest depletion waxes or wanes, and whether human exposure to hazardous conditions grows or shrinks. Pressure indicators are thus particularly useful in formulating policy targets and in evaluating policy performance. They can also be used prospectively to evaluate environmental impacts of socioeconomic scenarios or proposed policy measures. 38. What is green chemistry? Green chemistry is the use of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate substances hazards to human health or the environment. 39. Define e-waste(Nov-Dec 2018) Electronic waste or e-waste describes discarded electrical or electronic devices. Eg: used and discarded computers, printer, cartridges, mobile phone, photocopy machines etc.

40. When does rehabilitation arise? Mention any one problem to government during rehabilitation. (April-May2017) Rehabilitation arises due to  Developmental activities  Due to disaster  Due to conservation initiatives In India, most of the displacements have resulted due to land requirements by the government for various reasons. The government of India has the land Acquisition Act 1897. 41. Mention the objectives of wasteland reclamation. (Nov-Dec 2019)  To improve the physical structure and quality of the marginal soils.  To improve the availability of good quality water for irrigation purpose.  To prevent soil erosion, flood and landslides.  To avoid over-exploitation of natural resources. 42. What are the major effects of Global warming? (Nov-Dec 2019)  Raise of sea level  Water scarcity  Destruction of terrestrial ecosystems  Human health issues

UNIT-IV PART - B 1. What is meant by rain water harvesting? Name and discuss in brief the types of rainwater harvesting. (Or) Depict the process of rainwater harvesting and mention its objectives. (Apl-May 2019) (Nov-Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May 2015) (April-May2018) 2. Explain forest conservation act. (May-June 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May 2017) (April- May2018)

3. Write the factors influence the unsustainable to sustainable development. (Or) Discuss the recent approaches to achieve sustainable development. (Apl-May 2019) (Or) Suggest important measures to be adopted in achieving sustainable development. (May-June 2013) (May - June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2019) 4. Discuss the phenomenon of global warming and the factors contributing to it (Nov-Dec 2013) (April- May2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) (Or) Outline the effects of global warming. (Nov-Dec 2019) (Apl-May 2019) Write a note on watershed management. (Nov/Dec-2013) 5. Discuss briefly on The Environment protection act 1986and The Air Act (Nov/Dec-2013)(Nov- Dec2013)(May/June2014)(April-May2015)(Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016)(April-May 2017) (Nov- Dec 2017) 6. Explain the important provision in the wild life protective act (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May2018), (Apl-May 2019) air protection act, water protection act (May/June 2014) (May - June 2016) and environment protection acts. (Apr-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) 7. Discuss the issues involved in the enforcement of environmental legislation. 8. Explain the powers and functions of state pollution control board. (Nov-Dec 2019) 9. Discuss the energy requirement in detail for sustaining urban life. 10. Describe the measures to conserve water. 11. Write a note on waste land reclamation. (May-June-2013) (May-June 2014) (April-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) 12. Write about resettlement and rehabilitation of people. (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May2018) 13. What are the major urban problems related to energy? (Nov/Dec-2013) (May-June 2013) 14. Write short notes on nuclear accidents and holocaust with case studies. (Nov/Dec-2013) (May-June 2013) (April-May 2015) 15. Explain the Water (prevention and control of pollution act) 1974. (May-2014) (Nov/Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2019) 16. Explain the following Floods Earthquake (Nov-Dec 2013) (May/June 2014) (Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2015) Cyclone (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (Nov-Dec 2018) Landslides (May-June 2013) (Nov-Dec 2018)

17. Explain the following (May-June 2013) i).Consumerism ii).Waste products 18. Explain in detail, how biomedical wastes are managed and handled? (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) 19. What is green chemistry and what are its 12 principles?. (May - June 2016) (April-May 2017)(Nov-Dec 2017) (April-May2018) 20. Discuss the various applications of green chemistry for achieving sustainable development. (May - June 2016)

21. What is ECO mark? Explain. (Nov-Dec 2016) 22. Explain the role of state and central pollution control board. (April-May2018) 23. Discuss about the effects of nuclear hazards. (April-May2018) 24. Distinguish between natural and enhanced green house effect. (Nov-Dec 2019) 25. Write about climate change. (Apl-May 2019) 73

26. Discuss the features of forest conservation act. (Apl-May 2019) UNIT-V HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT PART-A 1. List the problems of population growth./ Population explosion. (April-May2018) Increasing demands for food and natural resources. Inadequate housing and health services. Loss of agricultural lands. Unemployment and socio-political unrest. Environmental pollution.

2. Define doubling time. (Nov – Dec 2013) Population explosion can be better understood by considering the doubling time. i.e., the number of years needed for a population to double in size. Td (Doubling time) = 70/r Where, r = annual growth rate If a nation has 2% annual growth, its population will double in next 35 years. 3. What is total fertility rate? It is the average number of children delivered by a woman in her life time. The TFR value varies from 2 in developed countries to 4.7 in developing countries. 4. Define population explosion. (Nov-Dec 2013) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May - June 2016) (April- May2018) (Nov- Dec 2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) The enormous increase in population, due to low death rate (mortality) and high birth rate (Natality) is termed as population explosion. 5. Differentiate between HIV and AIDS HIV AIDS Human Immuno deficiency Virus Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome It is a virus It is a disease 6. What are the reasons behind the increased population growth in the less developed nations compared with developed nations? The rapid population growth is due to decrease in death rate and increase in birth rate. The availability of antibiotics, immunization, increased food production, clean water and air decreases the famine- related deaths and infant mortality. In agricultural based countries, children are required to help parents in the fields that is why population increases in the developing countries. 7. Define population equilibrium. A state of balance between birth rate and death rate in a population is known as population equilibrium. 8. What are the major precautions to avoid AIDS? Avoid indiscriminate sex and encourage the use of condoms and also avoid the use of shaving razors, needles and syringes. Prevention of blood born HIV transmission. Aids awareness programmes should be encouraged. Counseling services should be provided.

9. What are the causes of population explosion? (Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2019)

Invention of modern medical facilities reduces the death rate (mortality) and increases the birth rate (Natality). Increase of life expectancy.

10. What are the objectives / advantages of family welfare programme? (April-May2015) Slowing down the population explosion by reducing the fertility. Pressure on the environment due to over exploitation of natural resources is reduced.

11. Define immigration and emigration. Immigration: It denotes the arrival of individuals from neighboring population. Emigration: It denotes the dispersal of individuals from the original population to new areas. 12. What are the factors which do not influence transmission of HIV? Tears, food and air, cough, handshake, mosquito, flies, insect bites, urine, saliva during normal kissing, sharing of utensils, cloths, toilet, bathroom, etc. 13. How does HIV functions in human body? White blood cells (WBC) responsible in the formation of antibodies are called T helper cells. T helper cells are the key infection fighters in the immune system. The HIV enter into the human body and destroys the T cells, as a result of which various types of infection diseases occur. 14. Define population equilibrium. A state of balance between birth rate and death rate in a population is known as population equilibrium. 15. State the role of information technology in environment. Information technology plays a vital role in the field of environmental education. Information technology means collection, processing storage and dissemination of information. A number of software has been developed to study about the environment. 16. Mention some ill effects of HIV/AIDS. Large number of death occur which affect environment and natural resources. Due to large number of deaths there is loss of labour and level of production decreases More water is required for maintaining hygiene in AIDS affected locality. The people affected by HIV cannot perform work well due to lack of energy.

17. What is meant by NIMBY syndrome? NIMBY means Not In My Back Yard, which describes the opposition of residents to the nearby location of something they consider undesirable, even if it is clearly a benefit for many. 18. Define population density. (Apl-May2019) It is expressed as the number of individuals of the population per unit area (or) unit volume. 19. Define population equation.

Pt+1 = Pt + (B•D) + (I-E) Where, Pt and Pt+1 = sizes of population in an area at two different points in time t and t+1 B = birth rate, D = death rate, I = immigration and E = emigration 20. Write the objectives/importance of value education. (Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2019) To improve the integral growth of human beings. To create attitudes and improvement towards sustainable lifestyle. To increase awareness about our national history, our cultural heritage, constitutional rights, To create and develop awareness about the values and their significance and role.

21. What are human rights? 75

Human rights are the fundamental rights, which are possessed by all human beings, irrespective of their caste, nationality, sex and language. 22. Name any two schemes of human health program initiated by Indian Government on effects of population growth. National Vector borne Disease Control Program National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Program National Cancer Control Program National Aids Control Program

23. What is meant by human demography? The study of statistics on human populations including elements such as growth rate, age and sex ratios, distribution, density and their effects on socioeconomic and environmental conditions. 24. What are the reasons for declining Birth rate? The non-availability of anti-biotic, immunization, decreased food production, cleans water and air.

25. Why is variation important within a population? In order to improve the economic status of the people and decrease of population growth, the variation is important within a population. Generally the following variation must be present within a population. Pre-productive population (0-14 Years) Re-productive population (15-44 years) Post reproductive population (Above 45 years)

26. What are the various schemes of various organizations towards women welfare? The National Network for Women and Mining United Nations Decade for Women International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination against women. NGO‘s as Mahila Mandals. Ministry for Women and Child development.

27. State the human right to food and environment. All human beings have the right to get sufficient healthy food, safe drinking water and healthy environment. 28. Mention about the applications of remote sensing in forestry. Sustainable forest management requires reliable information on the type, density and extent of forest cover, wood volume and biomass, forest fire, pest and disease induced losses, encroachment etc., remote sensing provides all such information clearly. 29. What is NEDS? NEDS is National Emission Data System and is developed by the Environmental Protection Agency of USA. This NEDS works for coding, storage, retrieval and analysis of nationwide air emission data. 30. Give some Examples for Bell shaped variation of population. France, UK, USA, Canada, etc., 31. What is meant by remote sensing? (May/June-2013) It is used more commonly to denote identification of earth features by directing the characteristics electromagnetic radiation that is reflected/emitted by the earth.

32. What is value education? (Nov/Dec-2013) (May/June-2014) (April-May 2017) (Nov-Dec 2019) It is an instrument used to analyze our behavior and provide proper direction. It teaches well the distinction between right and wrong, to be helpful loving, generous and tolerant. 33. Write the reason for child labour. (May/June-2014) Poverty Want of money

34. What are the objectives and benefits of environmental impact assessment (EIA)? (May/June-2014) (Nov-Dec 2016) (Nov- Dec 2017) (Nov- Dec 2018) EIA is defined as a formal process of predicting the environmental consequences of any developmental projects. Objectives of EIA To identify who is the party To identify why problems arise. Benefits of EIA To maintain the biodiversity. To save money and time.

35. What are the sources of HIV infection? (Nov-Dec 2014) HIV from infected person can pass to normal person through blood contact. Using needles or synergies, contaminated with small quantities of blood from infected person.

36. State the role of information technology in environmental. (Nov-Dec 2015) It means data collection, processing, reporting and dissemination of the environment.

37. Mention any two family welfare programs adopted in India. (May - June 2016) National population policy National health policy 38. What are the objectives of women welfare systems? (Nov-Dec 2016)  To improve employment opportunities.  To provide educations.  To generate awareness about the environment.  To restore dignity and status. 39. What is mitigation? (Nov-Dec 2017) The implementation of measures designed to reduce the undesirable effects of a proposed action on the environment 40. What is child abuse? (Nov-Dec 2017) Child abuse is when a parent or caregiver, whether through action or failing to act, causes injury, death, emotional harm or risk of serious harm to a child. There are many forms of child maltreatment, including neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, exploitation and emotional abuse. 41. Define GIS remote sensing. (April-May2018) (Apl-May2019) GIS applications enable the storage, management, and analysis of large quantities of spatially distributed data. These data are associated with their respective geographic features. For example, water quality data would be associated with a sampling site, represented by a point. Data on crop yields might be associated with fields or experimental plots, represented on a map by polygons. 42. Name some test available to find HIV infection. (April-May2018)  ELISA test (Enzyme-Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay)  Western blot test 43. Mention any two welfare programs for children adopted in India. (April-May2017)  Mid-Day meal scheme  Integrated child development services  Pulse polio immunization programme. 44. What is human development index? The Human Development Index is a result of measure of a country's overall achievement in its social and economic dimensions. The social and economic dimensions of a country are based on the health, level of education attainment and standard of living.

UNIT-V PART-B 1. Discuss briefly on the reasons and effects of the population explosion. (Nov-Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) 2. What are the modes of transmission of HIV how it can be prevented? (Nov/ 2013) (Apr-May 2017) (Nov- Dec 2015) (OR) Write a note on AIDS in developing countries. (May-June 2013) (May-June 2014) (Nov-Dec 2013) (Apr-May 2015) (May - June 2016) (Apr-May 2017)/ How to give value education on HIV/AIDS? Explain. (Apr-May2018) (Apr-May2018) (Nov-Dec 2018) 3. Explain in detail about women welfare and child welfare. (Nov/Dec-2013) (May/June-2014) (Nov- Dec 2014) (Apr-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May-June 2016) (Apr-May2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) 4. Write a note on the various methods of family planning. (Nov/Dec 2013) (May-Jun 2014)/ What are the family welfare programmes available? Explain. (Nov- Dec 2018) (Apr-May 2019) 5. Define human rights and discuss the salient features of the universal declaration of human rights by UN? (Apr-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) 6. Write a short note on value education.(May-June 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) (Apr-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (Nov-Dec 2019) (Apr-May 2019) 7. Discuss the influence of environmental parameters on human health. (OR) Discuss the factors influencing human health under current environmental conditions. (Nov-Dec 2016) (Apr-May 2019) 8. Explain the role of information technology in environment protection and ten role of IT in human health protection. (Nov/Dec-2013 and 2014) (Apr-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (Apr-May 2017) (Nov-Dec 2017) (Apl-May2018) (Nov- Dec 2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) 9. Write a neat diagram and explain the variation in population growth among various nations. (Or) What are sparsely populated areas? Give examples and reasons for poor population in those areas.(Nov- Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) (May-June 2016) 10. Explain a note on EIA. (May - June 2016) (Apr-May 2017) 11. Discuss the linkages among population explosion, development and environment. ((Nov-Dec 2017) 12. Illustrate and explain the three population variation based on age structure in different nations. (Nov-Dec 2019) 13. Explain the applications of remote sensing in environment management. (Nov-Dec 2019) 14. Write short notes on various rights of human. (Apr-May 2019)

PART-C 1. Explain about any two methods of biodegradation of pollutants. (Nov-Dec 2016) 2. Mention a case study on Man – Wild life conflicts. (Nov-Dec 2016) 3. Mention a case study on Productive use of biodiversity. (Nov-Dec 2016) 4. Illustrate any two methods of harnessing alternative sources of energy. (Nov-Dec 2016) 5. Describe in detail about any one pollution related case study. (Nov-Dec 2016) 6. Enlist the rules of management and handling biomedical waste and analyse critically the problems associated with the implementation. (April-May 2017) (Nov-Dec 2017) 7. Analysis the environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources and write the remedies taken. (April-May 2017) 8. India is a mega diversity nation. Explain in detail about this statement. Explain the in situ and ex situ conservation of biodiversity. (Nov-Dec 2017) 9. Explain in detail and how will you calculate the rain water harvesting potential for your house? (April-May2018) 10. Compare physical and chemical, characteristics of Marian water with terrestrial water. (April-May2018) 11. Give a case study of any anthropogenic( Manmade) pollution disaster know to you and discuss the effect of these on environment(including the human population) in which they happen. (April-May2018) 12. Discuss the desirable changes in lifestyle that will help conserve the environment. (Nov- Dec 2018) 13. Discuss mitigation and adaptation measures with regard to climate change. (Nov- Dec 2018)

UNIT I ENVIRONMENT, ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY

1. Explain in detail about the Components of environment. (Nov/Dec 2019)

The ecosystem/environment consist of the following three components 1. Abiotic or non living components 2. Biotic or living components 3. Energy components 1. Abiotic or non living components Non living components are called Abiotic components. Example: Air, water, soil and minerals Abiotic components are sub divided into three categories a. Atmosphere b. Lithosphere c. Hydrosphere a. Atmosphere: Structure The air that covers the earth is known as atmosphere. It is 500 km from earth. It is essential for all living organisms. 78% N2, 21% O2 and 1% other gases. Structure of atmosphere

Region Altitude in Km Temperature in oC Chemical species

Troposphere 0 -18 15 to -56 N2,H2O,CO2,O2 Stratosphere 18 – 50 -56 to -2 Ozone

Mesosphere 50 – 85 -2 to -92 NO+,O2+ Thermosphere 85 – 500 -92 to 1200 NO+,O+,O2+ Troposphere (0 to 18 km) 75% atmospheric air contain moisture Stratosphere (18 to 50 km)

 consists of large amount of O3  free from moisture and clouds  prevents UV radiation from sun Mesosphere (50 to 85 km) a. less ozone b. more nitrogen oxide Thermosphere (or)Ionosphere (upto 500 kms )  Temperature raises upto 1200°C + + +  Contains charged particles like O2 ,O ,NO , etc., Exosphere: (upto 1600 kms )  Temperature is high due to solar radiation.  Only H2 and He is present.

Function of atmosphere:  It maintains heat balance on the earth by absorbing the IR radiations.  Gases present in atmosphere are essential for sustaining life. Oxygen – supports life Carbon dioxide – essential for photosynthesis of plants Nitrogen – essential nutrient for plant growth.

b. Lithosphere: It consists of soil and rock components of earth. Function:  Home for human beings and wild life.  Store house of minerals and organic matter.

c. Hydrosphere: The aquatic envelope of the earth. It includes oceans, lakes, streams, river and water vapour. In the hydrosphere 97% of water is not suitable for drinking and only3% is fresh water. Functions of hydrosphere:  Drinking purpose  Irrigation  Power production  Industries and transport

2. Biotic or living components The living components of environment are called biotic components. Example: Animals, plants and micro organisms 3. Energy components The components flow across biotic and Abiotic components. Example: Solar energy, geochemical energy 2. Discuss the Structure and functions of an Ecosystem: (Nov/Dec 2014) (May-June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2016) Ecosystem 81

An ecosystem is defined as a natural functional ecological unit comprising of living organisms and their non-living environment that interact to form a stable self supporting system. Eg: Pond, lake, desert, grassland, forest, etc. Structure (or) Components of an Ecosystem: An ecosystem has two major components. I. Biotic (living) components II. Abiotic (non-living) components. I. Biotic components: The living organisms in an ecosystem collectively form its community called biotic components Examples: Plants (producers), animals (consumers), and microorganisms (decomposers). Members of biotic components of an ecosystem.(or)Classification biotic components: There are three types 1. Producers (Plants) 2. Consumer (Animals) 3. Decomposers (Micro-organisms)

1. Producers (Autotrophs) Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Examples: All green plants, trees. Photosynthesis The green pigments called chlorophyll, present in the leaves of plants, converts CO2 and H2O in the presence of sunlight into carbohydrates. hv 6 CO2 + 12 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O Chlorophyll This process is called photosynthesis. 2. Consumers (Heterotrophs) Examples: (i)Plant eating species Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc., (ii) Animals eating species Fish, lion, tiger, etc Consumers can not prepare their own food. They depend on the producers. Classification of consumers Consumers are further classified as (i) Primary consumers (Herbivores) (Plant eaters) They depend on the plants for their food. Examples: Insects, rat, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc (ii) Secondary consumers (primary carnivores) (meat eaters) They directly depend on primary consumers (Herbivores) for their food. Examples: Frog, cat, snakes, foxes, etc…. (iii) Tertiary consumers (Secondary carnivores) (meat eaters): They directly depend on primary carnivores for their food. Examples: Tigers, Lions, etc., Grass → Rat → Cat → Tiger Producers 10 consumer 20 consumer 30consumer

(Herbivores) 10 carnivores 20 carnivores 3. Decomposers Examples: Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. They attack the dead bodies of Producers and consumers and decompose them into simpler compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients released. These inorganic nutrients together with other organic substances are then utilized by the producers for the synthesis of their own food. II. Abiotic (non living) components The non living components (physical and chemical) of an eco system called abiotic (non living) components. Examples; Climate, soil, water, air, energy, nutrients, etc., 1. Physical components They include the energy, climate, raw materials and living space that the biological community needs. They are useful for the growth and maintenance of its member. Examples:Air, water, soil, sunlight, etc 2. Chemical components They are the sources of essential nutrients. Examples: (i) Organic substances : protein, lipids, carbohydrates, etc (ii) Inorganic substances: All micro (Al, Co, Zn, Cu) and macro elements ( C,H,O,P,N,P,K) and few other elements. Function of an Ecosystem: The function of an eco system is to allow flow of energy and cycling of nutrients. Types of functions They are three types. 1. Primary function 2. Secondary function 3. Tertiary function 1. Primary function It is manufacture of Starch (Photosynthesis) 2. Secondary function It is distributing energy in the form of food to all consumers. 3. Tertiary function All living systems die at particular stage. These dead systems are decomposed to initiate the third function of ecosystems namely ―cycling‖. The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following terms. (a) Energy and material flow (b) Food chains (c) Food webs (d) Food pyramids 3. Explain the energy flow in ecosystem in food chain and food web. (Nov-Dec 2013) (April-May2018) Food chain This sequence of eating and being eaten in an eco system is known as food chain. Grass → Rat → Cat → Tiger Producers 10 consumer 20 consumer 30consumer (Herbivores) (10 carnivores) (20 carnivores) Food web The interlocking pattern of various food chains in an ecosystem is known as food web.

Tigers

Eagle Birds Birds

Snakes Cattles Deer Fishes

Insects

Rats Insects

Grass Energy flow in ecosystem Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. The flow of energy from producer level to top consumer level is called energy flow.

The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional. It flows from producer level to consumer level and never in the reverse direction. The process of energy flow involves transfer of energy from autotrophy to various components of heterotrophy and help in maintaining bio diversity. The main source of energy in the ecosystem is sunlight. About 90% of energy is lost during flow of energy from one tropic level to the next one. Sun →Producer → Herbivores →Carnivores→ Top carnivores →Decomposers Photosynthesis The green pigments called chlorophyll, present in the leaves of plants, converts CO2 and H2O in the presence of sunlight into carbohydrates. hv 6 CO2 + 12 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O Chlorophyll This process is called photosynthesis

1. Ist law of Thermodynamics: It states that ―energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to another.‖ Example: Energy for an ecosystem comes from the sun. It is absorbed by plants, wherein it is converted into stored chemical energy. i.e., Solar energy is converted into chemical energy.

2. IInd law of thermodynamics It states that, ―whenever energy is transferred, there is a loss of energy through the release of heat.‖ Example: This occurs when energy is transferred between tropic levels. There will be a loss of energy (about 80-90%) in the form of heat as it moves from one tropic level to another tropic level. The loss of energy takes place through respiration, running, hunting etc. 84

Respiration equation CH2O + O2 → CO2 + H2O Carbohydrate Oxygen Carbon di oxide Water

4. Explain the types, characteristic features, structure and functions of Forest ecosystem. (Nov-Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2017) (Nov-Dec 2019) Forest ecosystem Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild animals 40% forest area is in the world. 19% forest area is in the India, Types: 1. Tropical rain forests They are found near equator. Trees : Teak and sandal Animals : Tiger and Lion 2. Tropical deciduous forests They are found little away from near equator. Trees : Maple and oak Animals : Deer and fox 3. Tropical scrub forests Dry climate for longer time. Trees : Small deciduous trees and shrubs Animals : Deer and fox 4. Temperate rain forests They are found in temperate areas with adequate rain fall. Trees : Pines and red wood Animals : Fox, bear 5. Temperate deciduous forests They are found in areas with moderate temperature. Trees : Oak, hickory Animals : Deer, fox Characteristics: Warm temperature Adequate rain fall Protects biodiversity Soil is rich in organic matter Structure and function Abiotic components: Soil, sun light, temperature etc Biotic components : Producer : trees and shrubs Consumer : Primary consumer – elephants, deer etc. Secondary consumer – snakes, birds, lizards etc Tertiary consumer – lions, tigers etc Decomposers : fungi, bacteria Functional components: Ecological pyramids (upright)

Lions

Lizards

Deers

Tree

5. Explain the types, characteristic features, structure and functions of grassland ecosystem (Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov/Dec 2015) (April-May 2017) (Nov-Dec 2017) (April-May2018) (April-May2019) (Nov-Dec 2019) Grassland ecosystem: Grassland occupies 20% of earth‘s surface. Some trees and shrubs are also present in grassland. Limited grazing helps to improve net primary production. But overgrazing leads to desertification. Types – depending on the climate 1. Tropical grass lands Found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg. Savannas in Africa. Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. 2. Temperate grasslands Flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and very hot summer 3. Polar grasslands Found in arctic polar region Organism – arctic wolf, fox, etc. Characteristics: Plain land occupied by grasses, Soil is very rich in nutrients, Ideal place for grazing, Low or uneven rain fall. Structure and function: Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, Biotic: Producer : Grass and shrubs Consumer : Primary – Cows, Buffaloes, deer, sheep. Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc Tertiary – Hawks, Eagles etc Decomposers: fungi, bacteria Functional components: Ecological pyramid

Eagle

Snake

Cow

Grass

6. What is Biodiversity? Discuss the unique advantages of bio-diversity. (Nov-Dec 2018) /What are the classifications (or) levels of biodiversity?

Biodiversity

It is the sum of total of various types of microbes, plants and animals (producers, consumers and decomposers) in a system.

Classification (or) levels of biodiversity The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. They are 1. Genetic diversity 2. Species diversity 3. Ecosystem diversity 1. Genetic diversity It is the diversity within species. Variation of genes within the species. Genes are the basic units of hereditary information transmitted from one generation to another. Examples: a. Rice varieties: All rice varieties belong to species ―Oryzasativa‖. But there are 1000 of rice varieties, which show variation at genetic level differ in their size, shape, color and nutrient content. b. Teak wood varieties There are number of teak wood varieties found available. Eg: Indian teak, Burma teak 2. Species diversity It is the diversity between different species. The sum of varieties of all the living organisms at the species level is known as species diversity.

Examples: Total number of living species in the earth are about more than 20 million. But, of which only about 1.5 million living organisms have been identified. a. Plant species: Apple, mango, grapes etc b. Animal species: Lion, Tiger, elephant, deer etc

3. Ecosystem diversity The diversity at the ecological or habitat level is known as ecosystem diversity. A large region with different ecosystems can be considered as ecosystem diversity. Example: River eco system 87

The river which includes the fish, aquatic insects, mussels and variety of lands that have adopted. It explains the interaction between living organism and physical environment in an ecosystem.

7. Explain the values of biodiversity (May-June 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May2018)

Biodiversity is must for the stability and proper functioning of the biosphere. Types of values/uni of biodiversity They are classified as follows. 1. Consumptive use value 2. Productive use values 3. Social values 4. Ethical values 5. Aesthetic value 6. Option values 1. Consumptive use value: Biodiversity products are harvested and consumed directly. Eg: Food, Drug, fuel Food Many wild plants and animals are consumed by human beings. 90% food crops are obtained from tropical wild plants Eg Codonopisis in Himalayan region. Molluscus, spiders and wild herbivores are consumed by tribals Drugs and medicine 70% modern medicines are derived from plant and plant extracts. 20000 plant species are believed to be used medicinally in Unani, Ayurveda, Siddha. Eg For natural medicinal products  Penicillin – fungus is the source – Antibiotic  Quinine – chincona bark - Malaria treatment  Morphine – poppy bark – Analgesic Twenty years before, once the drugs were not introduced, childhood leukemia was fatal. Now the remission rate for childhood leukemia is 99%. Fuel Fire woods are used by villagers and tribals. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are also the products of fossilized biodiversity. 2. Productive use values Biodiversity products have obtained a commercial value. These products are marketed and sold. These products may be derived from the animals and plants. Animal products Silk (Silk-worm), Wool (Sheep), Musk (Musk deer), Tusk (Elephants) Plant product Wood (Paper and pulp industry), Cotton (textile industry), Fruits and vegetables (Food industry)

3. Social values These values are associated with the social life, religion and spiritual aspects of the people. Examples: i) Holy plants : Tulsi, lotus… ii) Holy animals : Cow, snake, rat, peacock, etc.

4. Ethical values It involves ethical issues like ―all life must be preserved‖. In India, biodiversity is considered to have great value on religious and cultural basis. Our rich heritage teaches us to worship plants, animals, rivers, mountains. Eg The river Ganga-Holy river Vembu, Tulsi, Vengai are worshipped by the Tamilians 5. Aesthetic values The beautiful nature of plants and animals insist us to protect biodiversity. The most important aesthetic value of biodiversity is eco-tourism. Eg Eco tourism People from far place spent a lot of time and money to visit the beautiful areas, where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity. This type of tourism is known as eco-tourism.

6. Optional values: The optional values are the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be known. Eg Searching a species for causing the diseases of cancer and AIDS

8. Explain In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity. (or) What are the measures recommended for conservation of biodiversity? (May - June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) Conservation of biodiversity There are two types of biodiversity conservation 1. In-situ or on-site conversion (within habitat) 2. Ex-situ conservation (outside habitat) 1.In-situ conservation:  Conservation of species in its natural habitat, in place where the species normally occurs  The strategy involves establishing small or large protected areas, called protected areas  Today in world, there are 9800 protected areas and 1500 national parks Methods: 1. Nature or biosphere reserves Biosphere reserves cover large area, more than 5000 sq.km. It is used to protect species for long time. Role of biosphere reserves  It gives long term survival of evolving ecosystems.  It protects endangered species.  It protects maximum number of species and communities.  It serves as site of recreation and tourism.  It is also useful for educational and research purposes.  It remains and functions as an open system and changes in land use are not allowed. Restriction 89

No tourism and explosive activities are permitted. (Eg) Nilgiri Bio reserve-Tamil nadu Gulf of mannar -Tamil nadu 2. National parks It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. It is a small reserve covering an area of about 100-500 sq.km. Within the biosphere reserves, one of more national parks are also exists.

(Eg) Gir national park-Gujarat-Indian Lion Kaziranga-Assam-One horned Rhino Role of National park  It is used for enjoyment through tourism, without affecting the environment.  It is used to protect, propagate and develop the wildlife. Restriction  Grazing of domestic animals inside the national park is prohibited.  All private rights and forestry activities are prohibited within a national park.

3. Wild life sanctuaries It is an area, which is reserved for the conservation of animals only. At present, there are 492 wildlife sanctuaries in India. (Eg) Mudumalai wildlife sanctuaries-Tamil nadu-Tiger, Elephant Vedanthangal bird sanctuary-Tamil nadu-Water birds Role of Wild life sanctuaries  It protects animals only.  It allows the operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of forest products and forestry operations provided it does not affect the animals adversely. Restriction Killing, hunting, shooting of wild animals is prohibited. 4. Gene Sanctuary It is an area, where the plants are conserved. Ex: In Northern India, two gene sanctuaries are found.  One gene sanctuary for Citrus and  One gene sanctuary for Pitcher plant (insect eating plant). Advantages  It is very cheap and convenient method.  The species gets adjusted to the natural disasters. Disadvantages  A large surface area of the earth is required  Maintenance of the habitats is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution.

5. Other projects for conservation of animals For the conservation of certain animals, some special projects are framed in our country. Eg: Project Tiger, project elephant

2. Ex- situ conservation:  It involves maintenance of plants and animals outside the natural habitat  Methods: 90

1. Long term captive breeding 2. Shortage term propagation and release 3. Animal translocation and re introductions 4. Seed bank 5. Reproductive technology (i) Embryo transfer technology (ii) Cloning.

National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) It is located in Delhi. It uses cryo preservation techniques to preserve agricultural and horticultural crops. National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources(NBAGR) It is located in Karnal, Haryana. It preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals. National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Respository (NEPTCR) It develops the Facility of varieties of crop plants of trees by tissue culture. This facility has been created within the NEPTCR. Advantages  Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention.  In captive breeding, animals are assured food, water, shelter and also security and hence longer life span.  It is carried out in cases of endangered species, which do not have any chance of survival, in the world.

Disadvantages  It is expensive method.  The freedom of wildlife is lost.  The animals cannot survive in natural environment.  It can be adopted only for few selected species 9. “India is a mega biodiversity nation” - Explain. (May-June 2013) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May 2017) Mega diversity There are nearly 170 countries in the world and 12 of them contain 70% of our planet‘s biodiversity. Mega diversity regions The following 12 countries Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Ecuador, the United States, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Mexico, Peru and Democratic Republic of the Congo regions are known as mega diversity regions. These countries have the world‘s selected few rich floral land and faunal zones.

India as a mega diversity nation India is one among the 12 mega diversity countries in the world. It has 89450 animal species accounting for 7.31% of the global faunal species and 47000 plant species which accounts for 10.8% of the world floral species. The loss of biodiversity or endemism is about 33%.

Distribution of species in some groups of flora and fauna in India.

Group wise species distribution

Plants Number Animals Number

Fungi 23000 Mollusca 5042

Bacteria 850 Lower groups 9979

Algae 2500 Anthropoda 57525

Bryophytes 2564 Amphibian 2546

Gymnosperms 64 Birds 1228

Pteridophytes 1022 Reptiles 428

Angiosperms 15000 Mammals 372

Endemism The species which are confined to a particular area are called endemic species. Our country has a rich endemic flora and fauna. About 33% of the flowering plants,53% of fresh water fishes, 60% amphibians, 36% reptiles and 10% mammalian are endemic species. Plant diversity Nearly 5000 flowering plants and 166 crops plant species have their origin in India. Marine diversity More than 340 coral species of the world are found here. Several species of mangrove plants and sea grasses are also found in our country. Agro-diversity There are 167 crop species and wild relatives. India is considered to be the centre of origin of 30,000 to 50,000 varieties of rice, mango, turmeric, ginger etc. Animal biodiversity There are 75,000 animal species including 5,000 insect. India is a home to about nearly 2,00,000 living organism.

RED DATA BOOK It is a catalogue of text facing risk of extinction. Red list is to  Provide awareness to the degree of threat to biodiversity.  Provide global index on already decline of biodiversity.  Identification of species at high risk of extinction.  Help in conservation action.  Information about international agreements. India‘s biodiversity is threatened due to habitat destruction, degradation, fragmentation and over exploitation of resources. According to RED DATA book 44 plant species are critically endangered, 54 endangered and 143 are vulnerable. India‘s rank 2nd in terms of the number of threatened mammals and 6th rank among the countries with the most threatened birds.

10. What are the major threats to biodiversity? (Nov-Dec 2013) (May-June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2017) (April- May2018) Discuss the man-wildlife conflict in India with cases from recent incidents. (Nov- Dec 2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) Threats to biodiversity: Habitat loss  Deforestation activities (cutting trees for timber, removal of medicinal plants)  Production of hybrid seeds requires wild plants as raw material, farmers prefer hybrid reeds, many plant species become extinct  Increase in the production of pharmaceutical companies made several number of medicinal plants and species on the verge of extinction.  Removal of forest-cover for road laying and also due to soil erosion  Illegal trade of wild life  Population explosion, construction of dam, discharge of industrial effluents use of pesticides. Poaching of wild life 1. Subsistence poaching: Killing animals to provide enough food 2. Commercial poaching: Hunting and killing animals to sell their product Factors influencing poaching 1. Human population 2. Commercial activities Due to poaching, illegal wild life smuggling because of huge profit Eg. 1. Rhinoceros – for horns, 2. Bengal tigers-Its fur sell is more than $1,00,000 in the foreign market. 3. Sea Horse, Star turtle – sold to foreign market. 4. Baleen- To prepare combs 5. Blubber- to prepare lamp oils and lubricating oils 6. Elephant – for ivory, 7. Elephant feet- to make ash tray Man-wild life conflicts: Man wildlife conflicts arise when wildlife starts causing immense damage and danger to the man. Under such condition it is very difficult for the forest department to compromise the affected villagers and to gain the villagers support for wild life conservation Eg 1. In Sambalpur Orissa 195 humans were killed. 2. Very recently two men were killed by leopards in powai,Mumbai 3. 14 persons were killed by the leopards in Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai. Factors influencing(or causes) Man-wild life conflicts: 1. Shrinking of forest 2. Human encroachment into forest 3. Often villagers put electric wiring around cropland 4. Due to lack of water and food in forest areas, wild animals move out of forest Remedial activity: 1. Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes 2. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest 3. Adequate water and food should be made available within forest 4. The development and construction work around forest should be stopped.

11. What is the importance of protecting the biodiversity of earth? 93

(i) Biodiversity is very important for human life because we depend on plants, micro organisms, medicine nad industrial products (ii) Biodiversity protects the fresh air clean water and productive land (iii)It is also important for forestry, fisheries and agriculture (iv) It provides immediate benefits to the society such as recreartion and tourism (v) Drugs, herbs, food and other important raw materials can be derived from plants and animals (vi) It also preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals (vii) Ensures the sustainable utilization life supporting systems on earth (viii) It leads to conservation of essential ecological diversity and life supporting systems (ix) The biodiversity loss results in ecological and environmental deterioration, it is essential to conserve the biodiversity. UNIT II ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 1. Mention the sources and effects and control measures of of various air pollutants. (May-June 2013) (Nov/Dec 2014) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May - June 2016) (OR) What are the causes and control measures of Air pollution? (Nov- Dec 2018) Air pollution Definition Air pollution is defined as the presence of one (or) more contaminants like dust, smoke, mist and odour in the atmosphere which causes damage to plants, animals and human beings.

Classification of air pollutants:

Air pollutants

According to origin According to state of matter

Primary pollutants secondary pollutants (SO2, NOX, smoke) (PAN, SO2, aldehydes)

Gaseous air particulate air Radioactive pollutants pollutants pollutants 239 (CO2, NOX) (dust, mist) Pt Sources of air pollution Natural sources Man made sources (anthropogenic) 1. Volcanic eruption thermal power plants (fly ash, SO2) 2. Forest fires industrial units 3. Biological decay vehicle emission- 4. Sea salt spray fossil fuel burning 5. Pollen grains of flowers Agricultural activities Metallurgical plants (SO2, CO2) Fertilizer plants, Textile mills, Refineries, Paper and pulp mills Common air pollutants: [i] Gaseous air pollutants: 1. Oxides of carbon CO

It is formed by the incomplete combustion of carbon containing fuels.

2C + O2 ------> 2CO

Sources Cigarette smoking, burning fossil fuels. 77% CO comes from motor vehicle exhaust.

CO2 Smoke from burnt fuels (coal, petroleum etc) 2. Oxides of nitrogen

NO, NO2, NO3, N2O5, N2O3, N2O4, N2O

NO and NO2 are important air pollutants Sources It is formed by the combustion of fossil fuels in automobiles, nitric acid manufacturing industries, fertilizer industries etc

NO2 +Moisture ------> HNO3

3. Oxides of sulphur SO2 It is formed mostly by the combustion of sulphur containing fossil fuels like coal and oil.

S + O2 ------> SO2 4. Particulates (SPM) Suspended droplets, solid particles (sizes 0.1µ to100µ)

5. Ozone (O3) It is highly reactive irritating gas with an unpleasant odour that forms in the troposphere. It is major component of photochemical smog. Human source: Chemical reactions with volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides. Environmental effects: Moderates the climate 6. Hydrocarbons: Lower HC get accumulated due to CH4, C2H2, C2H4 causes air pollution from natural &forest fires, car engines etc. 7. Chlorofluorocarbon:  As a coolant in refrigerator etc  As a propellant in cleaning solvents etc. 8. Photochemical smog: Photochemical smog is a mixture of more than 100 primary and secondary pollutants formed under the influence of sunlight. Its formation begins inside automobile engines and the boilers in coal burning power and industrial plants.

Effects:

1. CO&CO2,NOX, SOX causes respiratory disorder, headache, visual difficulty, suffocation, Trigger heart attacks. 2. CO reacts with hemoglobin and reduces the ability of to carry O2 to body cells and tissues, which causes headaches and anemia.CO has 210 times affinity more than oxygen for hemoglobin. 3. CO2 raises temperature of sea level and contribute 55% global warming 95

4. NOX, SOX.H2S, causes cardiac, respiratory diseases attack building materials, eye irritation, chlorosis, necrosis in plants.

NO2 +Moisture ------> HNO3

SO2 +H2O ------> H2SO4 Acid rain Methods of control of air pollution. Control methods I Source control II Using equipments I. Source control 1. Using non conventional energy 2. Using bio filters 3. Planting more trees because they remove particulates and CO and absorb noise. 4. Reducing vehicle exhausts 5. Using only unleaded petrol 6. Using mass transport 7. Use fuels that have low sulphurs and ash containing. II. Using equipments: Electrostatic precipitator Principle Electrically charged particles in the pollution are separated from the gas stream under the influence of the electrical field. Removes 98% of the particles

Bag house filter (fabric filter) A stream of the polluted gas is passed through a fabric that filter pollutants and allow clean gas to pass through.

Cyclone collector Gas containing particulate is allowed to flow into a light-circular spiral filtered. The centrifugal forces disperse particulate towards the walls of the chamber, which settling down due to gravity.

Wet scrubber Particulates, vapour and gases are removed by passing the polluted gas through a liquid solution.

Mainly used on coal burning power plants. Green belt Plants absorbs CO2, H2Sand HNO3 Planting trees in a series around the industry and along the road to absorb air pollution and noise by 10% Slow down air movements and help in deposition of particulates.

2. Discuss in detail about chemical and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. (Nov-Dec2014) (May - June 2016) (April-May 2017) Formation of smog Smog is a mixture of smoke and fog in suspended droplet form. The brownish smoke like appearance that frequently forms on clear, sunny days over large cities with significant amounts of automobile traffic.

Types of Smog There are two types of smog. 1. London smog 2. Los Angles smog (or) Photochemical smog. 1. London smog

 It is a coal smoke and smog. It is the mixture of SO2 + SO3 + Humidity.

 It is bad in morning hours and worse after sun rise. It is due to sunlight induced oxidation of SO2 + SO3, followed by reaction with humidity giving H2SO4. 2. Los Angles Smog (or) Photochemical smog It is not related to smoke or fog. It is formed by the combination of NO, NO2, CO2, H2O, CO, SO2 and unburnt HC particles. The important reaction is dissociation of NO2 in sunlight. These oxidized HC with ozone in the presence of humidity causes photochemical smong. Health effects of smog  Causes irritation to eyes and lungs.  Damage the plants.  Irritates nose, throat, etc.  It also causes bronchial irritation. Environmental effects of smog  Produces acid rain and damages plants, trees  Smog can reduce visibility. Remedial measures of smog  By decreasing nitrogen oxides and HC level in the air.  By using unleaded petrol in the automobiles. PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrates) (Lachrymatory substance) 98

It is a secondary pollutant present in photochemical smog. It is a lachrymatory substance. It is thermally unstable and decomposes into peroxy ethanoyl radicals and nitrogen dioxide gas. It is an oxidant and more stable than ozone. Health effect At lower concentrations It is a powerful respiratory and eye irritants, toxic in nature. At higher concentrations Cause extensive damage to vegetation, causing skin cancer.

Production of PAN They are formed by the photochemical reaction between HC, nitrogen oxides and sun light. It occurs in 2 steps. Step-I Unburnt HC undergo oxidation to give aldehydes, ketones and dicarbonyl compounds, which creates peroxyacyl radicals.

Step-II Peroxyacyl radicals combine with nitrogen dioxide to form peroxyacyl nitrates.

Sources  It comes from degradation of isoprene, HC and acylation.  Blended gasoline with ethanol. Environmental effects  Damages plants and art.  React explosively.  Plays a very large role in photochemical smog.

3. Explain the mechanism of Ozone layer depletion. (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May2018) Ozone layer depletion (Nov-Dec 2019) Between10Km and 50Km presence of ozone layer in the atmosphere, which is above the sea level. The concentration of O3 is 10ppm. Importance:

 O3 protects us from damaging UV radiation of the sun. It filters UV- B radiation.  Now a days certain parts of O3 layer is becoming thinner and O3 holes are formed. Because of this more UV-B radiation reaches the earths surface. UV-B radiation affects DNA molecules, causes damages to the outer cell of plants and animals.  It causes skin cancer and eye disease in human beings. Formation of O3 It is formed in the atmosphere by photochemical reaction O 2 + hv → O * + O * The atomic oxygen reacts with molecular O2 to form O3 O * + O2 + M → O3 + M Where M = third body like nitrogen.

Causes of O3 layer depletion Refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosol sprays and cleaning solvents release CFC s into the atmosphere.

CFCs releases chlorine which breakes O3 to O2

CF2Cl2 + hv → Cl + CF2Cl

CF2Cl + O2 → CF2O + ClO Cl + O3 → Cl O + O2 (g) Cl O + O * → Cl + O2 Each chlorine atom is capable of breaking several O3 molecules. It is a chain reaction.

 1% loss of O3 results in 2% increase in UV rays reaching the earth surface .  Due to the continuous attack of chlorine free radical thining of ozone layer which leads to the formation of ozone hole. Ozone depletion chemicals Chloro Flouro carbon(CFC)-Refrigerants, blowing agent , Hydro Chloro Fluoro Carbon(HCFC)- Refrigerants, blowing agent , Bromo Fluoro Carbon(BFC)-Fiore extinguishers. Some times atmospheric sulphur dioxide is converted in to H2SO4 which increases the rate of O3 layer depletion. Effects ozone layer depletion: Effects on human beings 1. UV rays causes skin cancer. 2. Increases the rate of non melanin skin cancer in fair colored people. 3. Prolonged expose to UV rays leads to actiniakatatities ( slow blindness) and cataracts.

Effects on aquatic system : 1. UV rays affects phytoplankton , fish , larval crabs. 2. phytoplankton consumes large amounts of CO2 .Decrease in phytoplankton results in more amount of CO2 in atmosphere. This contributes to global warming 3. Ozone depleting chemicals can causes global warming. Effects on agriculture Yield of vital crops rice, corn etc will decrease. Effects on materials Degradation of paints, plastics and other polymer materials will result in economic loss. Effects on climate The earth‘s temperature will increase. Control measures:

 Manufacturing and using of O3 depleting chemicals should be stopped.  Use of methyl bromide .which is a crop fumigant should be controlled.  Replacing CFC s by other materials which are less damage.

4. What are the sources, effects and control measures of acid rain. Acid rain Normal rain water is always slightly acidic (pH 5-5.6) because of CO2 present in the atmosphere gets dissolved in it. Because presence of SO2 and NO2 gases as pollutants in the atmosphere. The pH of the rain is further lowered. This type of precipitation of water is called acid rain. Formation Acid rain means the presence of excessive acids in the rain water. The thermal power plants industried and vehicles release NO2 and SO2 in to the atmosphere due to the burning of coal and oil. These gases reacts with water vapour in the atmosphere and from acids like HNO3, H2SO4. These acids descends on to the earth as acid rain through rain water. SOx +H2O------) H2SO4

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NOy +H2O------) NO3 Acid deposition has two parts. Wet deposition Snow, sleet and mist are collectively known as wet deposition.

Dry deposition Gases, dust and smog are collectively known as wet deposition. Sources of acid rain 1. 70% is due to oxides of sulphur and 30% is due to oxides of nitrogen. 2. Burning of fuels etc. Effects of acid rain Effect on human being:  Human nervous system respiratory system and digestive system are affected by acid rain.  It causes premature death from heart and lung disorder like asthma, bronchitis. Effect on building:  At present Taj Mahal in Agra is suffering due to SO2 and H2SO4 fumes from Madura refinery.  Acid rain corrodes houses, monuments, statues, bridges and fences.  Acid rain causes corrosion of metals. Effect on Terrestrial Ecosystem.  Reduce the rate of photosynthesis and growth in terrestrial vegetation.  Acid rain retards the growth of crops like beans potatoes, carrot, spinach.  Beneficial organisms are killed ex earthworm  It weakens the trees. Effect on Terrestrial and lake Ecosystem  Acid rain reduces fish population, black flies, mosquitoes, deer flies occurs largely which causes number of complications in Ponds Rivers and lakes.  Activity of bacteria and other microscopic animals is reduced in acidic water.  The dead materials are not rapidly decomposed. Hence the nutrients like N,P are locked up in dead matter.  Self purification of water body decreases. Control of acid rain:  Emission of NO2 and SO2 from industries from power plants should be reduced by using pollution control equipments.  Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effect of acid rain.  In thermal points low sulphur content coal should be used.Replacement of coal by natural gas would reduce the problem.

5. Write in detail about green house effects and global warming. (April-May2018) Global warming Definition The raise of earth‘s surface temperature due to intense green house effect is called global warming. Causes: The level of carbon dioxide in the atm has increased by 25%, the level of nitrous oxide by 19% and the level of methane by 100%. . Green house effect Green house gases are CO2, Methane .Nitrous oxide NO2, CFC Green house gases

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CO2  55% of green house gases from GHG and 76% from industries.  Progressive warming up of a gas surface due to blanketing effect of manmade CO2 atmosphere.

Chlorofluorocarbon  Refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosol sprays and cleaning solvents release CFC s into the atmosphere.  As expenders in the foam products.  Atmospheric concentration of CFC is 0.00225ppm that is increasing at a rate of 0.5% anusally. Methane  Production and use of oil and natural gas.  Incomplete combustion of organic material. Nitrous oxide  Combustion of biomass and nitrogen rich fuel.  Break down of nitrogen fertilizers.  Released from nylon products. Effects of global warming 1. Sea level increases as result of melting and thermal expansion of ocean. 2. High CO2 level in the atmosphere have a long term negative effect on crop production and forest growth. 3. Global rainfall pattern will change .Drought and floods will become more common. Raising temperature will increase domestic water demand. 4. Many plants and animal species will have a problem of adapting. Many will be at the risk of extinction, more towering verities will thrive. 5. As the earth becomes warmer the floods and drought becomes more frequent. There would be increase in water-borne diseases. Measures to check global warming: 1. CO2 emission can be cut by reducing the use of fossil fuel. 2. Plant more rees. 3. Shifting from coal to natural gas. 4. Stablize population growth. 5. Remove efficiently CO2 from smoke stocks. 6. Removal atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photo synthetic algae.

6. Explain the causes, effects & control measures of Water pollution. (Nov-Dec 2013) (May/June 2013) (May-June 2014) (Nov/Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May - June 2016) (April-May2018) (OR) Discuss the measures that should be taken to de-pollute our waterways (Nov- Dec 2018). Definition The alternation in physical, chemical & biological characteristics of water causes harmful effects on humans and aquatic life. Point source Ex: flow of water pollutants from sewerage system, industrial effluent etc. Non-point source Ex: agricultural land (pesticides, fertilizers, mining, construction sites) Ground water pollution:  It forms 6.2% of the total availability on the planet earth.  It seems to less prone to pollution  There are number of potential source of ground water. 102

 Arsenic, fluoride and nitrate are posing serious to health hazards

Surface water pollution Sewage Pouring the drain and sewage in fresh water bodies etc. Industrial effluents It contains toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, cyanides, phenols etc and synthetic detergents which is used in washing and cleaning produce foam and pollute water. Agrochemicals Fertilizers, pesticides etc washed by run off.

Oil Oil spillage into sea water during drilling and shipment pollute it.

Waste heat It is emitted from industrial discharges increases the temperature of water bodies. Common water pollutants and their effects:

sources effects

1.Infectious agents [or] pathogens Water borne diseases like cholera, dysentery, Sewage contains bacteria, viruses etc typhoid etc. 2.Oxygen demanding wastes Lowering DO level which is harmful to Organic matter decomposed by aerobic aquatic population. bacteria in water. 3.Inorganic chemicals Plant nutrients [N&P] surface run off Fluorosis, blue baby syndrome, industrial and house hold runoff. eutrophication.

4.Organic chemicals Run off from farms, industries Nervous damage and cancer to human health etc[DDT] Biomagnifications. 5.Sediment Increase turbidity and reduce light Land erosion penetration. 6.Radioactive materials Genetic mutations, birth defects and cancer. From nuclear power plants, mining etc 7.Heat[thermal pollution] Lower dissolved oxygen levels and affects Cooling of water in nuclear power the aquatic life, stations and industries etc.

Controlling of water pollution: 1. All domestic and municipal effluents be drained to water bodies only after treatment 2. Use of pesticides in agriculture should be limited. Only standard quality pesticides should be used. 3. Chemicals like potassium permanganate should be sprayed regularly to protect water from micro organisms. 4. Radio active substances can be removed by Ion-exchange method. 5. Plants, trees and forests control pollution and they act as natural air conditions. 103

6. Bacteria are killed by passing chlorine gas into water bodies. 7. Highly qualified and experienced persons should be consulted from time to time for effective control of water pollution. 8. Inorganic wastes can be treated chemically. 9. Acids and bases are removed by neutralization 10. Sewage is treated by biochemical oxidation. The chemicals retards the growth of plants and retard reproduction process.

7. What are the sources, effects & control measures of Marine pollution? (Nov/Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May - June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) Marine Pollution The discharge of waste substances into the sea resulting in harm to the aquatic livingbeings, hazards to the human health hindrances to the fishery and impairment of quality use of sea water.

Sources: 1. Dumping the wastes: Dumping of untreated wastes and sewages in the oceans by coastal towns, cities and industries. Rivers on the way to sea carry huge amount of sewage garbage agricultural discharge pesticide heavy metals. Huge quantity of plastic dumped in to the sea. Effects: Many marine birds ingest plastic that causes gastrointestinal disorders. 2. Oil: This is discharged in to the sea as cracks of oil tankers, accidental spillage, warships. This causes devastation of marine environment. Effects: Oil spills inhibit photosynthesis and the growth of planktons. All aquatic animals depend either directly of indirectly on planktons the basis of trophic cahin. 3. Radio active materials enter the ocean from nuclear weapon testing. 4. Toxics: Toxic waste is the most harmful form of marine pollution. Once toxic wastes affects an organism it quickly passes along the food chain and as sea food which cause various problems. 5. Marine Debris: Garbage like plastic bags, ropes helium balloons Effects of marine pollution: 1. Heavy metals and organic pollutants damages birds by thinning of egg shells and tissue damage of egg. 2. Oil pollution causes damage to marine animals and plants including algae bird, fish etc. 3. Oil spilling in the sea causes abnormal low body temperature in birds resulting in hypothermia. During Exxon Valdez accident 150 rare species of bald eagles are affected by ingested oil. 4. Oil films are able to retard the rate of oxygen uptake by water. 5. Hydrocarbon and benzpyrene accumulate in food chain and consumption of fish by man may cause cancer. Control of marine pollution: Nature and world conservation union suggest the principles 1. The industrial unit on the coastal lines should be equipped with pollution control instrument. 2. Urban growth near the coast should be regulated. Methods of removal of oil Physical methods. a) skimming the oil off the surface with suction device b) Floating oil can be absorbed using absorbing materials like ploy urethane foam. Chopped straw and

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saw dust also used to absorbed oil from the sea water. c) Chemical methods like dispersion , emulsification and using chemical additives are used to coagulated the oil Protective method: 1. Municipal and industrial waste should be treated before disposing in to sea 2. Coastal waste are periodically analyzed for detecting pollution level 3. Soil erosion in the coastal land should be arrested be suitable techniques 4.Recreation beaches should be maintained to meet hygienic and aesthetic standard.

8. Briefly describe the sources effects and control of noise pollution. (Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May 2017) It may be defined as unwanted sound which gets dumped into the atmosphere. Causes: Industrial noise Most noise sources are compressors, generators power looms, grinding mills, furnaces. These are used in many industrial processes and installed partially in closed and open sheds. Domestic noise Transistors radio, TV, other musical instruments, Air conditioners, washing machines. They affect users as well as the neighbors. Traffic noise Continuous movement of vehicles causes traffic noise. It affects not only those who are moving but also those who live near the roads, railway links, and airports

Effects of noise pollution 1. Physiological effects Headache increase in the rate of heart beat, pain in heart, emotional disturbances, hearing loss. 2. Annoyance A noise is said be annoying if the exposed individual or groups of individuals reduce the noise avoid or leave the noisy area if possible. Both loudness and annoyance increase with increasing sound levels. 3. Recently it has been reported that the blood also thickened by excessive noise 4. Impulsive noise also causes psychological and pathological disorders. 5. Ultrasonic sound can affect digestive respiratory cardiovascular system and semi circular canals of internal ear. 6. It causes muscle to contract leading to nervous breakdown, tension etc. Control measures: Source Control 1. Modification of source such as acoustic treatment to machine surface designed changes limiting the operational timings. 2. Oiling: Proper oiling will reduce the noise from the machine. 3.Transmission path intervention: Containing the source inside a sound insulating enclosure, construction of noise barrier or provision of sound absorbing material along the path. 4. Planting of trees: Planting of trees like neem, tamarind, coconut etc near schools hospitals reduce the noise to the extent of 8 to 10 db. 5. Selection of machinery: Careful selection of machine tools and equipments to be used may help to lower the noise levels in machine shop.

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9.What are the major sources and the measures to be taken to prevent soil pollution? (Nov- Dec 2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) Soil pollution Contaminations of the soil by human and natural activities which may cause harmful effects on living beings. Effects on living beings This may be due to the following factors. (i) Industrial wastes: (ii) Industries are the major causes for soil pollution Textiles, steel, paper,cement, oil, dyeing and other industries are responsible for soil pollution. Toxic organic compounds and phenol destroy the fertility of the soil. (iii) Biological agents Fungi, protozoa, bacteria are important Biological agents for soil pollution. The human and animal wastes, garbage, waste water generates heavy soil pollution. (iv) Radio active pollutants: Atomic reactor, nuclear radio active devices releases radio active pollutants. These pollutants enter the land and accumulate there by causing soil pollution. (v) Pesticides: Pesticides pollute the soil. There are of two types

(1) Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide Common chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are DDT, BHC. (2) Organic phosphorous pesticides. Organo phosphorous insecticides are synthetic chemicals like Malathion and parathion. DDT reduces the activity of sex hormones of male and female. The land with fungicides, insecticides causes diseases to human beings. Fertilizers These discharge N, Na, K, S, Nitrates etc., into the soil. The nitrate causes cancer. Polymer, Plastics & other water: These materials appear as garbage. Solid wastes and their quantities increase day by day. They pollute the atmospheres, land and also water badly. Agricultural practices: Modern agriculture practices pollute the soil to a large extent. Today huge quantities of fertilizers, pesticides, weedicides are added to increase the crop field. Apart from these farm wastes, manure debris, soil erosion containing inorganic chemicals are causing soil pollution. Effect of soil pollution 1. Organic wastes enter the soil pores and decompose. Pathogenic bacteria spread infection 2. Compounds containing As, Hg, Cr, Ni, Zn and Fe are toxic to life. 3. Fluorides affect plant development 4. Water logging and salinity increase the dissolved salt content in the soil. Some plants are very sensitive to soil PH and salinity. Thus land becomes unfit for irrigation.

Control of soil pollution 1. Treat the sewage before land disposal 2. Rotate the crop pattern to allow the soil replenish the nutrients. 3. Preserve and protect top fertile soil, control soil erosion by tree plantation. 4. Fertilizers may be applied only after estimating the soil and crop measures. 5. Production of natural fertilizers Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides 106

should be avoided. Bio pesticides should be used instead of toxic chemical pesticides. 6. Proper hygienic condition- People should be trained regarding the sanitary habits. 7. Recycling and reuse of waster – The wastes such as paper, plastic, metals.

10.Explain in detail about solid waste management/soil waste management/waste shed management. (Nov-Dec 2013) (May/June 2014) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) Solid waste management. (Nov-Dec 2019) Management of solid waste is very important to minimize adverse effect of solid waste. Types of solid waste: Urban waste and industrial waste Sources of urban and industrial wastes 1. Sources of urban waste: domestic waste like food waste, waste paper, glass bottles, polythene bags etc 2. Commercial waste like packing materials cans, bottles, polythene bags etc 3. Construction wastes like concrete, wood, debris etc .Biomedical waste like Anatomical waste, infectious waste etc Classification of urban waste: 1. Biodegradable wastes – urban solid waste materials that can be degraded by micro organisms are called biodegradable waste. E.g. food, vegetables, Tea leaves, dried leaves etc. 2. Non biodegradable waste. Urban solid wastes that cannot be degraded by microorganisms are called non biodegradable wastes. Sources of industrial wastes The main source of industrial waste is chemical industries, metal and mineral processing industries. E.g. 1. Nuclear power plants generate radioactive wastes 2. Thermal power plants produce fly ash in large quantities 3. Chemical industries produce toxic and hazardous materials. 4. Other industries produce packing materials acid, alkalis, scrap metals, rubber, plastic, glass wood etc Effect of solid waste 1. Biodegradable materials in the disposed municipal waste undergo decomposition. This produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects which spoil land well. 2. Industrial waste containing toxic metals and hazardous waste affect soil characteristics. 3. Toxic substances name percolate into the ground and contaminates the ground water. 4. Burning of some industrial waste or domestic waste produces furan, dioxins and poly chlorinated biphenyls which are harmful to human beings. Steps involved in solid waste management Reduce, reuse and recycle: if the usage of raw materials is reduced the generation of waste also gets reduced. Reuse of waste materials: discarded refillable containers can be reused. Waste generation during manufacture of rubber bands is reduced by making rubber bands from discarded cycle tubes. Recycling of materials.

Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products. Ex. Old aluminium cans glass bottles are melted into new cans and bottles. Preparation of cellulose insulations from paper. Preparation of fuel pallets from kitchen wastes.

Disposal of solid waste: 107

Land Fill: Solid wastes are placed in sanitary land fill system in alternate layers of 80cm thick refuse covered with selected earth fill of 20cm thickness. After 2 or 3 years solid waste volume shrinks by 25-30% and the land is used for parks, roads and small buildings. Waste disposal is dumping in sanitary land fill which is employed in Indian cities. This method involves spreading the solid waste on the ground. Compacting it and then covering it with soil at suitable intervals. Advantages: 1. Simple and economical. Segregation is not required. 2. Natural resources are returned to soil and recycled . 3. Converts low lying, marshy waste land into useful areas.

Disadvantages: 1. Large area needed. 2. Bad odour. 3. High transportation cost. 4. Sources of mosquito, flies. 5. Insecticides and pesticides are to be applied at regular intervals. 6. Causes fire hazard due to methane formation in wet weather. INCINERATION In this method the municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator. The combustible substances such as rubbish, garbage, and dead organisms and non combustible matter such as glass, metals are separated before feeding into incinerator. The non combustible can be left out for recycling and reuse. The left out ashes and clinkers from the incinerator may be about 10-20 % which is disposed by land fill or some other methods. The heat produced in the incinerator during burning is used as steam power for generation of electricity through turbines. The wet solid waste is dried in pre heaters and then taken into large incinerating furnaces called destructors which incinerate 100- 150tons per hour. The temperature maintained is about 700 ˚ C and increase to 1000˚ C when electricity is to be generated. Advantages: 1. Requires little space 2 .Hygienic point of it is safest. 3. Incinerated plants of 300 tons per day capacity generate 3 MW of power. Disadvantages: 1. Capital and operational cost is high. 2. Needs skilled persons. 3. Formations of smoke, dust and ash causes air pollution.

COMPOSTING: In this method bulk organic waste is converted in to manure by biological action. Compost able waste is dumped in underground trenches in layer of 1.5 meters and is finally covered about 20 cms and left for decomposition. Microorganism like actinomycetes is added for active decomposition. Within two to three days biological action starts .The organic matter decomposed by actionomycetes and lot of heat is liberated. The temperature of the compost increases by 75˚C and finally the refuse is converted to a brown coloured powder known as humus and is used in agricultural fields. The compost contains N,P and other minerals. Advantages: 1. Recycling occurs 2. Number of industrial solid wastes can also be treated by this method.

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11. Case studies related to pollution (i)The Bhopal gas tragedy: The world‘s worst industrial accident occurred in Bhopal, MadyaPradesh on 03.12.84. Name of company: Union carbide India Ltd, Manufacture of pesticides, using methyl isocyanate (MIC) The reactor exploded due to failure of its cooling system and 40 tons of MIC leaked.

Effect: (i) MIC is toxic gas, lower concentration of MIC affects lungs and eyes (ii) Higher concentration of MIC removes oxygen from lungs and cause death Effects in Bhopal:

1. MIC spread over 40 sq.km area. 2. 5000 persons were killed 3. 65000 people suffered from severe eye, respiratory problems 4. 1000 persons became blind. (ii) Chernobyl nuclear disaster(Nuclear pollution/Nuclear accidents) On 26.04.1986, the meltdown of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor in Russia has leaked out the radioactive rays and radioactive material. Effects: 1. 2000 people have been killed 2. People suffered due to the illness such as degeneration of the cells, severe bleeding, anemia, skin cancer 3. Animals, plants are also affected by nuclear radiation 12. Discuss the role of individual in preventing pollution. (Nov-Dec 2014) (April- May2015) (April-May2018)(Nov-Dec 2019) (1)Pollution prevention from the source itself. (2)Recycled and environmentally safer materials used. (3)Eliminate or reduce the pollutants. (4)To promote a more effective use of energy, materials and resources. (5)Rubbish and garbage should be placed in a container rather burning or disposing them on land. (6)Improper disposal of hazardous wastes, pesticides, paints, solvents and gasoline should be avoided. (7)Septic tank system should be located far away from the water course. (8)Natural vegetation cover in the top soil should not be removed. (9) Implement a law, appliances should be purchased with a label of ENERGY STAR.

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UNIT-III NATURAL RESOURSES 1. What is deforestation? Discuss the ill effects of deforestation. (Nov-Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) (April- May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May 2017) (April-May 2018)(Apl-May 2019) (Nov-Dec 2019) Deforestation: It is process of removal of forest resources due to natural or man-made activities (i.e.) destruction of forests. Causes of deforestation: 1. Developmental projects: Developmental projects causes deforestation in two ways.  Through submergence of forest area.  Destruction of forest area. (eg) big dams, hydroelectric projects, road construction. 2. Mining operations: It reduces forest areas. (e.g.)Mica, coal, Manganese and lime stone. 3. Raw materials for industries: Wood is an important raw material for various purposes. (e.g.) making boxes, furniture and paper, etc. 4. Fuel requirement: Wood is the important fuel for rural and tribal population. 5. Shifting cultivation: Replacement of natural forest ecosystem for mono specific tree plantation.(eg) teak 6. Forest fires: Forest fire destructs thousands of forest. 7. Overgrazing: Overgrazing by cattle reduces the cultivation land. Consequences of deforestation (or) ill effects (or) impact of deforestation 1. Economic loss 2. Loss of biodiversity and genetic diversity. 3. Destructs the habitats of various species 4. Reduction in stream flow 5. Increases the rate of global warming 6. Disruption of weather patterns and global climate 7. Degradation of soil and acceleration of the rate of soil erosion. 8. Induces and accelerates mass movement/ landslides. 9. Increases flood frequency, magnitude/ severity. 10. Breaks the water and nutrient cycle. Preventive measures (or) avoid of deforestation (or) methods of conservation of forests 1. New plants of more or less of the same variety should be planted to replace the trees cut down for timber 2. Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged. 3. Forest pests can be controlled by spraying pesticides by using aero planes 4. Forest fire must be controlled by modern techniques. 5. Overgrazing by cattle must be controlled. 110

6. Steps should be taken by the government to discourage the migration of people into the islands from mainland. 7. Education and awareness programmers must be conducted. 8. Strict implementation of law of Forest conservation Act.

Case study: Deforestation in the Himalayan region, involves clearing of natural forests and plantation of monoculture like eucalyptus. Nutrient in the soil is poor, therefore soil losing their fertility. Hence, the Himalayan area facing the serious problem of deforestation.

1a) What are the ecological benefits of forests? Distinguish between commercial and ecological functions of forests resources?

Ecological benefits/uses/functions of forests (i) Production of oxygen – trees produce oxygen by photosynthetic process

(ii) Reducing global warming – the main green house gas CO2 is absorbed by forest for photosynthetic process (iii)Wild life habitat – forests are homes for millions of wild animals and plants. (iv) Regulation of hydrological cycle – Forested watersheds like sponges, absorbs the rainfall, slow down the run off, and slowly releasing the water for recharge of springs. (v) Soil conservation – Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil erosion (vi) Pollution moderators – Forests can absorb many toxic gases and help in keeping air pureThey can also absorb noise and help in preventing air and noise pollution

Commercial benefits/uses/functions of forests Forest resources can supply the following products for commercial use. (i) Timber – forest trees are used to make timbers (ii) Pulp wood - forest pulpwood trees are used to make pulp and paper (iii) Food products – Forest resources supply fruits, condiments, spices, beverages, etc. (iv) Fodder – Tress can supply fodder for cattles (v) Rubber/gum – Forests can supply products like rubber lattices, gum to rubber industries. (vi) Fibres – Many types of fibres are produced from forest based trees (vii) Drugs & Medicines – Forests can supply a number of drugs and medicines to the pharmaceutical industry

2. Discuss in detail the impacts of modern agriculture. (OR) Explain in detail the effects due to pesticides and fertilizers usage in modern agriculture. (May-June 2013, 2014) (Nov/Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May - June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May 2017)(Nov-Dec 2017) Agriculture: Agriculture is an art, science and industry of managing the growth of plants animals for human use. It includes cultivation of the soil, growing and harvesting crops, breeding and raising livestock, dairying and forestry. Types of agriculture: 1. Traditional agriculture 2. Modern (or) industrialized agriculture Traditional agriculture: Small plot, simple tools, surface water, organic fertilizer and a mixture of crops are enough. They 111

produce enough food to feed their family and to sell it for their income. Modern agriculture: Hybrid seeds of single crop variety, high tech equipment‘s lot of fertilizers, pesticides and water to produce large amount of single crops. Effects of modern agriculture: 1. Problems in using fertilizers: a. Excess of fertilizers causes micronutrient imbalance. (e.g) Punjab and Haryana deficiency of nutrient zinc in the soil affect the productivity of the soil. b. Blue baby syndrome(nitrate pollution) Nitrate present in the fertilizer causes blue baby syndrome, when the amount exceeds the limit 25mg/lt leads to death. c. Eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorus in the crop fields washed out by run off water in the water bodies, which increases the nourishment of the lakes called eutrophication. Hence algal species increases rapidly. Lifetime of the species is less and they decompose easily and pollute the water which affects the aquatic life. 2. Problems in using pesticides: First generation pesticide: Sulphur, arsenic, lead and mercury. Second generation pesticide: DDT Number of side effects: 1. Death of non-target organism. 2. Producing new pest–super pest 3. Bio magnification–Most of the pesticides are non-bio degradable, keep on Concentrating in the food chain and it is harmful to human beings. 4. Risk of cancer: a. It directly acts as carcinogen b. It indirectly supports immune system.

3.Water logging: Land where water stand for most of the year.

Causes of water logging: 1. Excessive water supply 2. Heavy rain 3. Poor drainage Remedy: 1. Preventing excessive irrigation 2. Sub surface drainage technology 3. Bio drainage like trees like Eucalyptus 4. Salinity: The unobserved water can be evaporated but salt can‘t be evaporated. That salt contents are deposited on the surface of the soil. Hence thin salt layer formed in the crop lands. It‘s called salinity.

3. Explain the role of individual in conservation of natural resources. (Nov/Dec-2013) (April- May 2018) Measures for conservation of Natural Resources 1) Conservation of Energy (i) Switching of lights, fans and electrical gadgets when not in use (ii) Use solar heater (iii) Dry the clothes in sun light (iv) Growing of trees near houses and office buildings to keep them cool and minimize use of air conditioners need not be used always 112

(v) Use Pressure cooker (vi) Use bicycles or go by walking 2) Conservation of Water i) Minimize water use ii) Arrest water leaks iii) Reuse wastewater generated from kitchen washings and cloth washing iv) Use drip irrigation v) Rainwater harvesting 3) Conservation of Soil i) Grow different types of plants, herbs, trees and grass in open areas and house backyards ii) Do not uproot trees for construction of buildings iii) Irrigate plants with less amount of water iv) Use sprinkling irrigation v) Use green manure in gardens vi) Use mixing cropping so that soil nutrients will be restores 4) Conservation of Food Resources i) Eat minimum food/Avoid over eating ii) Don‘t waste food and food materials iii) Cook only required amount of food iv) Don‘t store large amount of food grains that could not be stored properly. 5) Conservation of Forest i) Use non-timber products ii) Plant more trees and protect them iii) Control grazing in forest lands iv) Minimize use of papers and fuel wood v) Avoid constructing dams, roads in forest areas.

4. Discuss briefly on the consequences of overdrawing of ground water. (Nov-Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2016) (Nov-Dec 2019) Reasons- Increased population, rapid industrialization.

Effects of over utilization of groundwater: 1) Decrease of ground water: Due to increased usage of ground water, the ground water level decreases Reason: a) The erratic and inadequate rainfall b) The building construction activities reducing the percolation of rain water and increases in surface runoff. 2) Ground subsidence: When the ground water withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in the aquifer get compacted, which results in shrinking of land surface Problems: 1. Structural damage 2. Fracture in pipes

3. Lowering of water table: Overutilization of groundwater in arid and semiarid regions for agriculture disturbs the state of equilibrium of the reservoir. Problems: 1. Lowering of water table 113

2. Decreased pressure in the aquifers and changes in the speed and direction of water flow.

4. Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area, over exploitation of ground water would lead to rapid intrusion of salt water from the sea Problems: Water cannot be used for drinking and agriculture

5. Earthquake and landslides: Overutilization of ground water leads to decrease in ground water level, which cause earthquake and landslides

6.Drying up of wells: As a result of overutilization of ground water, the level of ground water getting depleted at much faster rate than regeneration. It leads to Drying up of wells

7.Pollution of water: When the ground water level near the agricultural land decreases, water, containing the nitrogen as nitrate fertilizer, percolates into the ground and pollute the groundwater Problems: Water becomes not potable if nitrate concentration exceeds 45 mgs/lit

5. Give an account on conflicts over water. Nearly 1.2 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water-Fresh water is becoming scarce; Conflict between States (Sharing of Cauvery between Karnataka and TamilNadu; Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh; Sharing of Siruvani water between Kerala and TamilNadu) and between Countries (e.g. India vs. Pakistan over sharing of Indus; India vs Bangladesh over sharing of Brahmaputra; Iran-Iraq conflict over Shatt-al-Arab water; USA-Mexico conflict over Colorado river) Causes of Water conflicts 1) Conflict through use 2) Conflict due to construction of Dams and Power stations 3) Conflict due to pollution (Pollution of Thenpennaiyar by Bangalore Sewage) Management of Water conflicts 1) Enacting laws 2) Pollution control 3) Interlinking of rivers 4) Nationalization of water 5) Powers for National Water Authority Local Managers 1) Neerkatti in South India 2) Havaldars in Maharashtra 3) Churpun in ladakh Cauvery Water Dispute Dispute between Karnataka and TamilNadu. Increasing demands for agriculture and industry by both States. Cauvery Water Dispute Tribunal awarded 205 TMCT to be available at Mettur. Karnataka refused to give this amount. Meantime the water flow is getting reduced even in the Karnataka side. Ethiopia-Sudan-Egypt water conflict: The Jordan, Tigris-Euphrates and Nile are shared by the above three countries. Ethiopia controls 80% of Nile‘s flow and intends to increase it. Sudan tries to divert more. Egypt is badly affected. Nile delta basin is becoming a desert. As the population of Egypt will be doubled in the next 15-20 years the water crisis will become more critical.

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6. Enumerate the various benefits and drawbacks of constructing dams.(or) Explain ill effects and benefits associated with dams with 2 case studies. (Nov/Dec-2013) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov- Dec 2018) (Nov- Dec 2019) Dams Benefits 1) Control of floods 2) Facilitates diversion of water through channels 3) Useful to off take water for drinking and irrigation 4) Can generate electricity 5) Aquaculture can be developed 6) Used for recreation and tourism 7) Facilitates navigation and fishing Problems A. Upstream problems 1) Displacement of tribal people 2) Loss of forest and non-forest lands 3) Loss of flora and fauna 4) Cause landslips, sedimentation and siltation 5) Stagnation and water logging around reservoirs 6) Retards plant growth 7) Breeding vectors and spread of water borne diseases 8) Induce earth quake 9) Navigation blocked B. Downstream problems 1) Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation 2) Reduced water flow and reduced silt deposition in the delta 3) Salt water intrusion at river mouth 4) Fertility of land reduced as the nutrients are deposited in the dam on its storage side 5) Structural defects may cause cracks and sudden flooding

7. What are the environmental impacts of mineral extraction? Explain with 2 case studies. (May/June- 2013) (April-May2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (April-May2018) (Nov-Dec 2019)

MINERAL RESOURCES Minerals: Minerals are naturally occurring substances having definite chemical composition and physical properties Ores: Ores are minerals from which useful substances particularly metals can be extracted for profitable use. Formation of mineral deposits The mineral deposits have been formed at particular spots on earth by biological processes over millions of years. Biological processes 1) Biological decomposition of dead animals and organic matter 2) Concentration of minerals during cooling of molten rock 3) Evaporation of seawater 4) Weathering, transportation and sedimentation Classification of mineral resources 1) Identified Resources: Identified by geological measurements 2) Undiscovered resources: Assumptions on the basis of geological knowledge and theory 3) Reserves: Identified reserves with extractable minerals 115

Uses/Exploitation of minerals 1) Industrial plants and machinery 2) Housing and settlement materials 3) Energy generation 4) Defense equipment‘s 5) Ornaments and Jewelry 6) As fertilizers (phosphates) 7) Communication equipment‘s (telephone wires, cables, electronic devices) 8) Making alloys for various purposes 9) Medicines (Ayurvedic medicines) Examples of Metallic Minerals Aluminum-food packing Chromium-alloys, chrome tanning Copper-vessels and electrical wires Iron-heavy machineries and household articles Lead-Leaded gasoline, car batteries, paints and ammunition, pipes Manganese-high resistant steel alloys Platinum-automobiles, automatic converters, Jewelery Gold-Ornaments, medical use Silver-photography Nickel-Chemical industry Examples of Non-metallic minerals Silicate minerals-bricks, pavements Limestone-concrete, neutralizing acidic soils, cement industry Gypsum-Plaster, wall-board, agriculture Sulphur pyrites-Medicine and car battery Classification of Minerals 1) Based on composition a) Non-metallic minerals: quartz, feldspar, dolomite, calcite b) Metallic minerals: Iron, aluminum, copper zinc 2) Based on usage a) Critical minerals: Iron, aluminum, copper and gold b) Strategic minerals: Manganese, cobalt, platinum and chromium Mineral wealth of India STATE MINERALS AVALABLE

Andhra Coal, manganese, Copper, mica, lead Pradesh Assam Petroleum Bihar Iron, coal, copper, aluminum, tin, mica Goa Iron, manganese Gujarat Copper, aluminum, petroleum, lead, zinc Karnataka Iron, manganese, copper, Gold, aluminum, chromium Kashmir Aluminum, gypsum Kerala Monazite, ilmenite (Ti), rutile(Ti) Madhya Coal, manganese, aluminum, marble Pradesh Maharashtra Iron, Coal, manganese, aluminum, chromium, petroleum Orissa Iron, coal, copper, aluminum, tin, chromium, lead Rajasthan Manganese, copper, tin, marble, mica, lead, zinc, precious stones, 116

gypsum Sikkim Copper, magnesite TamilNadu Iron, manganese, aluminum, chromium, magnesite, ilmenite(Ti), rutile(Ti), gypsum, West Bengal Coal MINING Definition: Mining is the process of extraction of metals from a mineral deposit. Types of mining 1) Surface mining 2) Underground mining (i) Open-pit mining: for Fe, Cu, limestone, sandstone and marble mining (ii) Strip mining: Stripped using bulldozers and stripping wheels

7 a) What are the environmental impacts of mining?

1) Devegetation- Top soil and vegetation are removed from the mining area. Large scale devegetation/deforestation leads to many ecological losses. 2) Defacing of landscape – Landscape is badly affected. Huge quantities of debris and tailings with scars and disruptions spoil the aesthetic value and may cause soil erosion. 3) Groundwater contamination-– Mining pollutes the pollutes the ground water. Sulphur present as impurity in many ores is converted into sulphuric acid through microbial action and makes the water acidic. 4) Surface water pollution – drainage from the acid mines contaminate the nearby streams and lakes thereby affecting the aquatic life. Radioactive substances like uranium contaminate the water bodies and kill aquatic animals. 5) Air pollution – to separate and purify metal from ore, smelting is done which emits large quantities of air pollutants damages the vegetation nearby and has serious health impacts. 6) Subsidence of land: Caused due to underground mining and results in cracks in houses, tilting of buildings, bending of rail tracks, and leaking of gas from cracked pipelines leading to serious disasters. 7) Occupational health hazards – Miners suffer from respiratory and skin diseases due to exposure to suspended particulate matter and toxic substances.

Effects of mining 1) Rapid depletion of minerals 2) Leading to wastage and dissemination of mineral deposits 3) Environmental pollution 4) Heavy energy requirement Management of Mineral Resources 1) Efficient use 2) Protection from illegal mining 3) Search for new deposits 4) Re-use and Re-cycling of metals 5) Eco-friendly mining technology 6) Microbial leaching technique for concentrating low-grade ores

8. Comment upon the types of energy harnessed from wind, sun and Oceans (Apl-May 2019). Or Identify the reasons for growing energy demand. Discuss the advantage and limitations of solar, wind and thermal power energy. (Nov-Dec 2019) Non-renewable energy: Coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear fuels Renewable energy: Wood, solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, tidal energy Merits of renewable energy 117

1) Unlimited supply 2) Provides energy security 3) Promotes sustainable development 4) Reliable and modular in size 5) Decentralized energy production Wind energy Wind: Moving air is called wind. Wind energy: Energy recovered from the force of wind is called wind energy. Energy recovered from the force of the wind is called ‗wind energy‘

Fig: Wind mill Wind mill: Wind Energy Kinetic energy Mechanical energy Electrical Energy

Working:  It consists of wheel having blades; the wheel rotates about an axle mounted on a pole;  The wind energy used to rotate the wheel. The axle is connected to a generator which rotates between two poles of a strong magnet.  When wind falls on the wheel of wind mill, it rotates axle and electric current is produced. Wind Farm: The region where large number of wind mills is erected to produce electricity is called wind farm. Advantages  Not give pollution

 Very cheap and economic

 Renewable Disadvantages: × Makes unwanted sound × Interfere with electromagnetic signals Uses:  Used to move sail boats in lakes and rivers  Used to operate water pumps  Used to run the flour mills  Used to produce electricity. 118

Electricity produced: 100kw Solar energy Energy released due to nuclear fusion reactions in the Sun. Energy is released as heat and light.

Method of collecting Solar energy 1) Photo voltaic cells

Fig: Solar cell Working:  The solar rays are fall on the top of the p-type semiconductor.  The electrons are flow from the valence band to conduction band.  The potential difference occurs between the semiconductors. Now the electrons are generated and hence current is generated.

Advantages:  Pollution free (eco friendly).  Lifetime long.  Need not be recharged.  Used in remote & isolated areas.  Low maintenance cost. Disadvantages: × Storage of solar energy is not possible. × Produces only DC. × High Capital cost × Not available through out the year. Uses:  Lighting purposes.  In water pumps.  In electronic devices.  Silicon solar cell used in space crafts. 2) Solar heat collectors 3) Solar water heater Ocean Energy

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1) Tidal energy-flow of seawater into the reservoir during high tide and reverse flow during the low tide-Such units are located near the bays and estuaries; seawater is inexhaustible, pollution free. 2) Ocean Thermal Energy (OTE) In tropical oceans the difference in temperature between surface level and deeper sea level is high (>20oC). Warm surface water boils a low boiling liquid like ammonia. The vapor is used to drive a turbine. The cool water is used to condense the vapor back into liquid. Significance of OTE (1) OTE is continuous and renewable (2) Pollution free (3) The electric power generated can be used to produce hydrogen

9. What are conventional/non-renewable energy sources? (Nov-Dec 2013) (May-2014) (May - June 2016) (Apl-May 2019) Non-renewable energy sources 1) Coal: Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed from plants that lived 300-400 million years and were subjected to intense heat and pressure. Anthracite contains 90% carbon Bituminous coal contains 80% carbon Lignite contains 70% carbon Peat contains 60% carbon. India has 5% of world‘s coal reserve but of poor heat capacity. Disadvantages of using coal 1) CO2 produced on burning of coal causes global warming 2) Produces oxides of sulfur and nitrogen causing pollution 2) Petroleum: It is a thick liquid fuel containing combustible hydrocarbons with small amounts of S, O, N as impurities. It is a liquid fossil fuel formed by decomposition of dead animals and plant that were buried under ocean and subjected to high temperature and pressure for millions of years. Fractional distillation The various hydrocarbons in petrol/crude oil are separated by fractionating. About 25% of world‘s crude poil reserves are in Saudi Arabia. The crude oil reserves in the world can last for another 40 years. 3) LPG: The petroleum gas obtained during cracking and fractional distillation is converted into liquid under high pressure which is called LPG. LPG is colorless and odorless gas. Some mercaptan is added to produce bad odour for easy detection of leaks. 4) Natural Gas: It is found above oil in oil wells. It is a mixture of 50-90% methane and small amount of other hydrocarbons. Its calorific value is 12000-14000 kcal/m3. Dry gas: If the natural gas contains lower hydrocarbons like methane and ethane it is called ‗dry gas‘. Wet gas: If the natural gas contains higher hydrocarbons like propane, butane along with methane it is called wet gas. Nuclear energy Nuclear Fission: Energy is obtained on bombardment with fast neutrons. Here heavier nucleus is split into lighter nuclei 235 1 139 94 1 E.g. U 92 + n 0 Ba 56 + Kr 36 + 3 n 0 + energy

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Nuclear Fusion (at 1 billionoC): 2 2 1 2 H 1He 2 + 2 n 0 Comparison of Coal with Nuclear Power 1) Coal is a fossil fuel 2) Coal power meets 90% energy needs of the world. 3) Energy changes taking place are very small 4) Generation of coal power is governed by temp and pressure. 5) Products formed are not new 6) Atomic No. of elements involved do not change. 7) No loss in mass during combustion 8) During nuclear reaction, no change occurs in nucleus 9) CO2 causes Green House Effect. 10) Air pollution can be minimized 11) Pollutants themselves may be radioactive.

10. Explain the role of alternate (renewable) energy sources in environmental impacts. Uses of alternate energy sources Need for Alternate energy sources 1) Fossil fuels have impact on environment so we need alternate energy sources 2) Least pollution generating energy sources needed 3) Hydroelectric power causes ecological imbalance 4) Hydel power plants pollute aquatic and terrestrial biota. 5) Radioactive pollutants are chronically hazardous 6) Burning of coal, oil, wood, dung cakes and petroleum products pollute air, soil and underground water. 7) Disposal of fly ash requires larger land. Objectives 1) Provide more energy for growing population 2) Reduce environmental pollution 3) Reduce safety and security issues related with the use of nuclear energy. Alternate energy sources 1) Wind energy 2) Hydrogen fuel cell 3) Tidal energy 4) Geothermal energy 5) Solar energy

11. Explain the biochemical degradation of pollutants. (April-May2018) Most of the organic matter, present in waste water, includes degradable carbohydrates, proteins and lipids of different complexities. The treatment of such waste water aims at oxidizing or degrading the organic compounds, so as to decrease the biological oxygen demand (BOD). Types: 1. Very easily degradable 2. Easily degradable 3. Potentially degradable 4. Very slowly degradable

1. Very easily degradable Pollutants 121

Simple sugars, amino acids, organic acids, simple short polymers. Organisms Bacteria, fungi, protozoa and algae posses the ability to degrade these pollutants. Generally it constitutes a small amount of the pollutants in the environment that are quickly removed by the microbes for their growth. It occurs under aerobic conditions. Time for removal These pollutants are removed within hours of their release.

2. Easily degradable Pollutants Branched and straight chained polysaccharides, proteins, fatty acids. Organisms More than one bacterial strain accelerates the degradation process. Generally degradation of such pollutants do not necessarily require adaptation of the micro-organisms.

Time for removal These pollutants are removed in 10-14 days.

3. Potentially degradable Pollutants Complex substances like saturated fatty oils, lipo proteins, fats and aliphatic aromatic HC.

Organisms Extremely high bacterial densities are required for these degradation. Degradation of such pollutants occurs slowly with prolonged exo-enzyme activity at high bacterial densities. Bacteria are able to perform the degradation of such pollutants, but to accelerate degradation artificial conditions are required for enhancing the bacterial growth.

Time for removal These pollutants are removed in 3 weeks.

4. Very slowly degradable

Pollutants Ligno cellulose, Organo chlorines, PCB, OC, insecticides, some aromatic HC.

Organisms Very high microbial biomass is required for these degradation. Degradation of such pollutants required a comparatively high concentration of exo-enzymes to initiate the degradation process. Artificial inoculation, growth subsidization and addition of growth supporting substances (vitamins, nutrients) accelerate the degradation time.

Time for removal These pollutants are removed in 3 weeks.

12. Explain the manufacture of Biogas. Biogas is a renewable energy source . Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste.

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Flow chart:

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Block diagram:

Working method: 1. Slurry(animal dung+water) is fed into the digester through the inlet chamber. 2. The slurry, in the digester is left for about two months for fermentation by using anaerobic microorganisms. 3. As a result, bio gas is collected in the dome. 4. When the sufficient amount of bio gas is collected in the dome, it exerts a large pressure on the slurry and this in turn forces the spent slurry to the over flow tank through the outlet chamber. 5. Once the bio gas plant starts functioning more and more slurry may be fed into the digester to get continuous supply of bio gas. Uses: 1. Bio gas is used for cooking food and heating water. 2. It is used to run engines. 3. It is used in gas turbines and fuel cells for producing electricity.

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UNIT IV SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1. What is rain water harvesting? Name and discuss in brief the types of rain water harvesting. (Nov-Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May 2015) (April-May 2018) Rain water harvesting It is a technique of capturing and storing of rainwater for further utilization. Objectives 1. To reduce run-off loses 2. To avoid floods 3. To meet increasing demands of water 4. To raise water table by recharging ground water 5. To reduce ground water contamination from salt water intrusion 6. To store excess water for use at subsequent time 7. To prevent salinity increase in coastal areas Need for rain water harvesting 1. Essential because surface water is inadequate to meet our demand and we have to depend on ground water. 2. Due to rapid urbanization, filtration of rainwater into the sub soil has decreased drastically. Rain water harvesting methods There are two main techniques for rain water harvesting: 1. Storage of rain water on the surface for future use 2. Recharge of ground water Recharge of ground water is a recent concept and the structures used for the purpose are: Recharge pits Constructed for recharging the shallow aquifers. Constructed 1-2m wideand 6m deep which are backfilled with gravels and coarse sand. Trenches Constructed when the permeable stream is available with gravels and coarse sand. Dug wells Utilized as recharge structure. Hand pumps May be used for recharging aquifers. Recharge wells Recharge wells of 100-300mm diameter are constructed for recharging the deep aquifers.

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Modern techniques of rain water harvesting Roof top rain water harvesting

Figure: Roof top rain water harvesting

 Low cost and effective technique for urban houses and buildings  Rain water from the roof is turned away to some surface tank or pit through delivery system.  Also later used to recharge underground aquifers.

Advantages of rainwater harvesting  Increases the well water availability  Raise ground water level  Minimizes soil erosion  Upgrading the social and environmental status etc  It helps in recharging aquifers. 2. Discuss the watershed management practices. (Nov/Dec-2013) Watershed management Water shed (or) drainage basin: It is defined as land area from which water drains under the influence of gravity into stream, lake, reservoir (or) other body of surface water. Watershed management of rain fall and resultant run off is called watershed management. Factors affecting watershed 1. Overgrazing, deforestation, mining, construction activities affect and degrade watershed. 2. Droughty climate also affects the water shed.

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Need or objectives of watershed management 1. To raise the ground water level. 2. To protect the soil from erosion by run off. 3. To minimize the risks of floods, drought and landslides. 4. To generate huge employment opportunities in backward rain fed areas to ensure security for livelihood. Watershed management techniques  Trenches (pits) were dug at equal intervals to improve ground water storage.  Earthern dam or stone embankment must be constructed to check run off water.  Farm pond can be built to improve water storage capacity of the catchment‘s area. Maintenance of watershed Water harvesting Proper storage of water in water shed can be used in dry season in low rainfall areas. Afforestation and agro-forestry It helps to prevent soil erosion and retention of moisture in watershed areas Mechanical measures for reducing soil erosion Terracing, contour cropping, minimize soil erosion and run off on the slopes of water sheds. Scientific mining and quarrying minimize the destructive effect of mining in water shed areas. Public participation It is essential for water shed management. People should be motivated for maintaining water harvesting structures implemented by the government. Livestock population It should be reduced in surrounding villages of water shed. Advantages of Watershed projects  Improved access to drinking water in project areas during drought  Increase in cultivation area leading to increase in employment  Increase in crop yield, resulting better income to rural population  Improved availability of fodder for animals and increase in milk yield  Increase in employment & involvement of women 3. Describe the important waste land reclamation practices. (May-June-2013) (May-June 2014) (April- May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) Waste land reclamation Waste land  The land which is not in use is called waste land.  Waste land is unproductive, unfit for cultivation, grazing etc.  20% of the geographical area of India is waste land. Types of waste land: 1. Uncultivable waste land Uncultivable waste land: Barren rocky areas, hilly slopes, sandy deserts. 2. Cultivable waste land. Cultivable waste land: These are cultivable but not cultivated for more than 5 years. Ex Degraded forest land, Gullied water logged, marsh lands, saline lands. Causes of waste land formation: 1. Over exploitation of natural resources. 2. Industrial and sewage wastes. 3. Due to soil erosion, deforestation, water logging, salinity etc. 4. Mining activities destroy the forest and cultivable land. Objects of waste land reclamation: 127

1. To prevent soil erosion, flooding and land slides. 2. To avoid over exploitation of natural resources. 3. To improve the physical structure and quality of the soil. 4. To conserve the biological resources and natural ecosystem. Methods waste land reclamation: Drainage: Excess water is removed by artificial drainage. This is for water logged soil reclamation. Leaching: Leaching is a process of removal of salt from the salt affected soil by applying excess amount of water. Leaching is done by dividing the field into small plots. In continuous leaching 0.5to 1.0cm . Water is required to remove 90% of soluble salts. Irrigation practices: High frequency irrigation with controlled amount of water helps to maintain better availability of water in the land . Application of green manure and bio fertilizers It improves saline soil. Application of gypsum: Soil sodality (sodium held in soil) can be reduced with gypsum. Ca of gypsum replaces sodium from the exchangeable sites. This converts clay back into calcium clay. Social Forestry programme: These programmes involves strip plantation on road, canal sides, degraded Forest land etc. 4. Discuss about the Forest Act and Wildlife act. (Nov-Dec 2014) (April-May2018) (Apl-May 2019) (Nov- Dec 2019) Forest (conservation) Act, 1980 It deals with conservation of forest and includes reserve forest, protected forest and any forest land irrespective of ownership. Objectives of forest act: (i) To protect and conserve the forest (ii) To ensure judicious use of forest products Important features 1. The reserved forests shall not be diverted without the prior permission of the central government 2. The forest may not be used for non forest purposes 3. Illegal non forest activity stopped under this act 1992 Amendment 1. This amendment allows transmission lines, seismic surveys, exploration drilling and hydro electric project in forest area without cutting trees or with limited cutting of trees – prior approval CG to be sought. 2. Wild life sanctuaries, National parks etc. are prohibited from exploration except with CG prior approval. 3. Cultivation of coffee, rubber, tea (cash crop), fruit bearing trees, oil yielding trees, trees of medicinal values are also prohibited in reserved forest area without prior approval from CG. Has this may create imbalance to ecology of the forest. 4. Tusser (a type of silk yielding insect) cultivation in forest area is allowed since it discourages monoculture practices in forests and improves biodiversity. 5. Plantation of mulberry for rearing silk worm is prohibited. 6. Proposal sent to CG for non-forestry activity must have a cost benefit analysis and environmental impact statement (EIS).

Draw backs of the forest (conservation) act 1980  Inheritance of exploitative and consumerist elements of the British period 128

 Tribal people (i.e.) inhabitants of forest are left by the act  Instead of attracting public support (tribal) it has intrigued in the human rights.  Protection of trees, birds and animals have marginalized poor people. State the important provisions in Wildlife act. (Apl-May 2019) (Nov-Dec 2019) Wildlife [protection] act, 1972:  Land mark in the history of wildlife legislation.  1976 the powers are transferred from state to central government. [  I B of W L] was created in 1952 in our country which after WLA, 1972, took up the task of setting National parks and sanctuaries. Objectives of wildlife act 1. to maintain essential ecological processes and life supporting systems 2. to preserve biodiversity 3. to ensure a continuous use of species Important features of Wildlife [protection] Act 1. The act covers the rights and non rights of forest dwellers 2. It provides restricted grazing in sanctuaries but prohibits in national parks 3. It also prohibits the collection of non-timber forest 4. Defines wild life related terminology. 5. Provide appointments of advisory Board, wildlife warden, their powers & duties etc. 6. Prohibition of hunting of endangered species [was first] mentioned. 7. List of endangered species is provided. 8. The Act imposes ban on trade & commence of scheduled animals. 9. Provide captive breeding programme for endangered species. Many conservation projects for endangered species were started under this act. Lion 1972; Tigers 1973 Crocodile [1974]; Deer 1981. Draw backs of wild life (protection) act  Fall out of Stockholm conference not localized  Ownership certificate of animals article – illegal trading  Trade through J & K. This act not applicable to J&K  Offender to get just 3 years imprisonment and or Rs.25000/- fine.

5. State the important provisions in Air Act(Nov/Dec-2013)(Nov- Dec2013)(May/June2014) Water Act. (May/June 2014) (May - June 2016) (April-May2015)(Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May 2017) (Nov-Dec 2017) (Nov- Dec 2018) (Apl-May 2019) (Nov-Dec 2019)

Objectives: (iii) To prevent, control and abatement of air pollution (iv) To maintain the quality of air (v) To establish a board for the prevention control of air pollution Important features 1. The central board may lay down the standards for the quality of air 2. The central board coordinates and settle dispute between state boards. 3. The state board empowered to lay down standards for emission of air pollutants. 4. The state board is to examine industries whether they meet standards prescribed 5. The direction of central board is mandatory on state boards. 6. Violation of law is punishable with imprisonment 129

7. Noise pollution – inserted in 1987 8. Section 20 provides for emission standard to auto mobile 9. Section 19 provides for SG to declare ―air pollution control area‟ in consultation with SPCB * Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974: (Nov- Dec 2018) Objectives: (i) Prevention and control of water pollution (ii) Maintaining and restoring the water (iii) Establishing central and state boards for the prevention and control of water pollution Important features Maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water by preventing and controlling its pollution. The salient features and provisions of Act are summed as follows. 1. This act aims to protect water from all kinds of pollution 2. This act aims to preserve the quality of water in all aquifers 3. The states are empowered to restrain any person from discharging a pollutant/sewage/effluent into any water body without the consent of the board 4. Any contravention of the guidelines or standards would attract penal action including prison Sentence 5. The act is not clear about definition of pollutant, discharge of pollutant, toxic pollutant 6. Maintenance and Restoration of Quality – surface and ground water 7. Establishment of central pollution control board (CPCB) and state pollution control board(SPCB) 8. Confers powers and functions to CPCB and SPCB 9. The act provides for funds, budgets, accounts and audits of the CPCB & SPCB

6. State the important provisions in Environment protection Act. Nov/Dec-2013)(Nov- Dec2013)(May/June2014)(April-May2015)(Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (April-May 2017) (Nov-Dec 2017) (Nov- Dec 2018) Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 SPCB is to follow the guidelines provided in schedule VI. Some are as follows 1. Advises industries for treating the waste water and gases – use of technology – achieve prescribed std. 2. Encourage recycling and reusing the wastes 3. Encourage recovery of biogas, energy and reusable matter 4. Discharge of effluents and emissions into environment is permitted by SPCB after taking into account capacity of the receiving water body 5. To emphasize clean technology to increase fuel efficiency and decrease environmental pollutants The act provides for environmental Audit for checking complying with the environmental laws and regulations. Objectives (i) to protect and improvement of the environment (ii) to prevent hazards to all living creatures and property (iii)to maintain harmonious relationship between humans and their environment\

Important features CG is to take action to protect and improve environment and SG to co ordinate actions. CG to set up 1. Standard of quality of air, water or soil 2. Maximum permissible limits of concentration of pollutants (including noise pollutant) 3. Procedures and safe guard for handling hazardous items 4. Prohibition of using hazardous items 5. Prohibition and restriction of certain industries in certain area 6. Procedure and safe guard for prevention of accidents 7. The government has authority to close or prohibit or regulate any industry if any industry violates Act

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8. If the violation continues additional fines may be imposed 9. The act empowers the officer of central government to inspect the site or plant or the machinery for preventing pollution and to collect the samples of air, water, soil or other material from any factory or its premises for testing.

7. Describe the steps involved in management of Bio medical waste. (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) Step – I : Generation and accumulation . It is generated by health care centers. . It should be collected in the containers. . It should not be mixed with other wastes.  Those containers should be marked with bio hazard symbol. . Discarded sharp materials should be collected in needle boxes. Classification of biomedical wastes. Category Types of waste Treatment or Disposal No Human anatomical wastes: 1 Incineration or Deep burial Ex : Body parts, organs, body tissues. Animal wastes 2 Incineration or Deep burial Ex : Body parts, bleeding parts, body fluid Microbiology and biotechnology wastes 3 Ex : Wastes from laboratory cultures, Incineration or microwaving. specimens of micro organisms Waste sharps 4 Disinfection or microwaving Ex : Needles, syringes, blade, glass Discarded medicines and cytotoxic drugs 5 Incineration or microwaving. Ex : Contaminated medicine, outdated wastes Solid wastes 6 Autoclaving or microwaving Ex : wastes from disposed items Solid wastes 7 Ex : Items contaminated with blood, cotton, Incineration or microwaving. beddings Liquid wastes 8 Ex : From the laboratory ( washing & Discharge drains Cleaning ) Incineration ash 9 Disposal in municipal landfill Ex : Ash of bio medical wastes. Chemical wastes 10 Chemical treatment Ex : Chemicals used in hospital & laboratory

Step – II : Handling refers to the act of manually moving biomedical waste between the point of generation, accumulation areas, storage locations and on-site treatment facilities. No untreated bio-medical wastes shall be kept stored beyond a period of 48 hours. Step – III : On-site treatment It uses relatively expensive equipments and is used only by large hospitals & major universities. Off-site treatment It‘s a hiring of a biomedical waste disposal service. Type of treatment Incinerator: Destroy pathogens & sharps 131

Autoclave: By the use of steam and pressure, reduce microbiological contents. For liquids- used to disinfect biomedical wastes. 8. What functions are performed by the central & state pollution control boards? (April-May2018) (Apl- May 2019) (Nov-Dec 2019) 1. Central pollution control Board (CPCB): 1. Advices CG in matters – prevention and control of water pollution 2. Co ordinates SPCB and provide technical assistance and guidance 3. Training programs for prevention and control of pollution by mass media and other ways 4. Publishes statistical and technical details about pollution 5. Prepares manual for treatment and disposal of sewerage and trade effluents 6. Lays standard for water quality parameters 7. Plans nation-wide programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution 8. Laboratories for analysis of water, sewage or trade effluents State pollution control Board (SPCB): SPCB has similar functions as SPCB and governed by CPCB 1. SPCB advises state government with respect to location of any industry that might pollute 2. Lays standard for effluents to take samples from streams, wells or trade effluents or sewage passing through an industry. Samples taken are analyzed at recognized labs. If the sample is not confirming to the water quality std, then the unit is neglected 3. Every industry to obtain consent from PCB before commencing an effluent unit by applying in prescribed form with fee.

9. Twelve principles of green chemistry. (May - June 2016) (April-May 2017)(Nov-Dec 2017) (April- May2018) 1. Prevention It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been created. 2. Atom Economy Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. 3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment. 4. Designing Safer Chemicals Chemical products should be designed to affect their desired function while minimizing their toxicity. 5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when used. 6. Design for Energy Efficiency Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. If possible, synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure. 7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and economically practicable. 8. Reduce Derivatives Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/ deprotection, temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be minimized or avoided if possible, because such steps require additional reagents and can generate waste. 9. Catalysis Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents. 132

10. Design for Degradation Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they break down into innocuous degradation products and do not persist in the environment. 11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances. 12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires.

10. Write notes on (i) Floods (ii) Cyclones (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (iii) Earth quake (Nov-Dec 2013) (May/June 2014) (Nov-Dec 2014) (Nov-Dec 2015) (OR) State the different natural calamities/disaster and explain any one in detail (or) Discuss some natural disasters and the measures to be taken to cope up with them (Nov- Dec 2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) Natural calamities/disaster: 1. Flood 2. Cyclone 3. Earthquake 4. Landslide 5. Tsunami (i) Floods: A flood is an overflow of water from its natural course due to their reduced carrying capacity by sediments and heavy rains.

Causes of Floods 1) Heavy rainfall, melting of snow, sudden release of water from dams 2) Overflowing of lakes and rivers during rainy season 3) Reduction in carrying capacity of water courses due to sediments or blocking of drainage channels carrying the water (buildings and structures coming up) 4) Deforestation, over grazing, uncontrolled mining, 5) Deforestation Effects of Flood 1) Submergence of land 2) Erosion, silting and sedimentation affecting cultivable land 3) Extinction of species 4) Death of human and livestock and damage to property Preventive measures 1) Construction of dams and reservoirs 2) Canal management-embankments 3) Removal encroachments adjacent to water courses which are subject to floods 4) Flood warning 5) Check dams, percolation ponds (ii) Cyclone Causes: 1. An atmospheric closed circulation, rotating anti- clock wise in the northern hemi sphere and clock wise in southern hemisphere . 2. Cyclone is an area of low pressure in the centre and high pressure outside. Powerful swirling storm that measures from 300- 500 km in diameter. The wind in the centre of cyclone blows in the speed of 120km/hr. 3. The main requirement of formation of tropical cyclone is that the sea surface temperature (SST) must be below 25ºC. The tropical cyclone move like a spinning top at the speed of 10-30 Km/hr. 133

4. In India cyclone originates from Bay of Bengal are more in number and intensity. Relatively less south-west Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea. In India cyclones occur during October-December or April- May. Effects: 1. Damage to human life, crops, roads, transport, and communication could be heavy. 2. Cyclone slows down developmental activities of the area. Management: 1. Meteorological Departments forecast by satellite images the weather conditions which reveal the strength and intensity of the storm. 2. Radar systems is used to detect cyclone and cyclone warning. 3. The effect of cyclone is minimized by planting more trees on the coastal belts, constructional dams, wind breaks etc. (iii) Earthquake: Sudden vibration occurs in the earth crust. Causes: 1. Earthquakes are caused due to disequilibrium in any part of the earth crust. 2. It is caused by hydrostatic pressure of reservoirs, dams, lakes 3. Underground nuclear testing 4. Decrease of underground water level

Severity of an earthquake S.No Richter Severity of an earthquake . Scale 1 Less than 4 Insignificant 2 4-4.9 Minor 3 5-5.9 Damaging 4 6-6.9 Destructive 5 7-7.9 Major 6 More than 8 Great Effects: 1. It causes landslides 2. It collapses houses and people die in thousand if severity is major. 3. It results in deformation of ground surface. 4. Tsunami, the seismic waves caused by earthquakes, causes great loss of life and property. Management: 1. By constructing earthquake resistant buildings 2. Wooden houses are p[referred in earthquake prone areas. 3. Seismologist indicates the possibility of occurrence of earthquakes

11. Write the factors influence the unsustainable to sustainable development. Or Discuss the recent approaches to achieve sustainable development. (Apl-May 2019) Or Suggest important measures to be adopted in achieving sustainable development. (May-june 2013) (May-June 2016) (Nov-Dec 2019)

Sustainable development is defines as meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the requirement of future generation.

Sustainable development aims at:  Optimum use of natural resources.  High degree of reusability  Minimum wastage 134

 Least generation of toxic by products/pollutants  Maximum productivity Significance of sustainable development  Promoting equality  Economic efficiency  Ecological harmony  Sustaining our natural resources  Improving the quality of life The above goals can be achieved through the following equality. a) Inter generational equality- It states that we should handover a healthy environment to our future generation b) Intra generational equality- It emphasizes that the technological development of rich countries should support the economic growth of the poor countries and help to improve their wealth. Approaches for sustainable development:  Conserving all non renewable sources by recycling and reuse  Controlling and avoiding pollution  Developing appropriate technologies with minimum environmental hazards  The stock and supply of natural resources are to be known by the people  Degradation of resources should be avoided by educating the people  Providing environmental education and awareness, the attitude of the people towards our earth and resources can be changes  Economic policies are to be framed as so to protect and develop farm, sustainable agriculture and fertile soil. 12. Discuss the phenomenon of global warming and the factors contributing to it. (Nov-Dec 2013) (Apl- May 2018) (Nov-Dec 2019) Or Outline the effects of global warming. (Nov-Dec 2019) (Apl-May 2019) Definition The raise of earth‘s surface temperature due to intense green house effect is called global warming. Causes: The level of carbon dioxide in the atm has increased by 25%, the level of nitrous oxide by 19% and the level of methane by 100%. Effects of global warming 1. Sea level increases as result of melting and thermal expansion of ocean. 2. High CO2 level in the atmosphere have a long term negative effect on crop production and forest growth. 3. Global rainfall pattern will change .Drought and floods will become more common. Raising temperature will increase domestic water demand. 4. Many plants and animal species will have a problem of adapting. Many will be at the risk of extinction, more towering verities will thrive. 5. As the earth becomes warmer the floods and drought becomes more frequent. There would be increase in water-borne diseases. Measures to check global warming: 1. CO2 emission can be cut by reducing the use of fossil fuel. 2. Plant more rees. 3. Shifting from coal to natural gas. 4. Stabilize population growth. 5. Remove efficiently CO2 from smoke stocks. 6. Removal atmospheric CO2 by utilizing photo synthetic algae. 13. Distinguish between natural and enhanced green house effect. (Nov-Dec 2019) S.No Natural green house effect Enhanced green house effect 135

1 The green house effect is the trapping of heat under When green house gases the atmosphere, which is a natural effect. concentrations are too high, they trap too much heat and increase the temperature on earth by human activities causing the enhanced greenhouse effect. 2 The natural green house gases are CO2 and water The enhanced green house gases vapour which contributes to average global are CFC, CH4, NO, HCFC temperature of about 15.C . increases the average global temperature beyond 15.C 3 Heat trapped by green house gases in the It causes global warming, raise in atmosphere keeps the planet warm enough to allow sea level, affects agriculture, us and other species to exist. affects human health.

UNIT V HUMAN POPULATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1. Explain the population explosion on the environment. (Nov-Dec 2013) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) The enormous increase in population, due to low death rate (mortality) and high birth rate (natality) is termed as ‗the population explosion‟. Causes: 1. Invention of modern medical facilities reduces the death rate and increase the birth rate. 2. Increae o life expectancy is another important reason for the population explosion. Effects: 1. Poverty: Infant mortality is one of the most tragic indicators of poverty. There are still 34 developing countries where 1 in 10 children die before the age of 5 due to poverty. 2. Population explosion leads to environmental degradation. 3. Population explosion causes over exploitation of natural resources which lead to scarcity. 4. The economic inequity, communal war and increase in disease are arises due to population explosion. 5. Unemployment, low living standard, development of slums, scarcity in basis amenities are also due to population explosion. 2. Explain variation of population among nations. At present the world‘s population has crossed 6 billion. Less developed countries have 80% of the total world population and developed countries have 20% of the world population.

Variation of population based on age structure: Age structure of population can be classified into three classes. (i) Pre-productive population (0-14 years) (ii) Reproductive population (15-44 years) (iii) Post productive population (above 45 years) Variation of population is now explained based on the above three classes.

1. Pyramid shaped variation of population: (increase) Ex: India, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Nigeria etc. 136

The above figure shows that the pre-productive population is more, indicated at the base of the pyramid, and post productive population is less, and indicated at the top of the pyramid. But the less number of old age people indicates less loss of population due to death.

2. Bell shaped of population (stable)

Ex: USA, UK, Canada etc.,

The above figure shows the pre productive population and reproductive population are more or less hence the population growth is stable.

3. Urn shaped variation of population (decrease): Ex: Germany, Italy, Sweden, Japan etc.,

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The above figure shows that the pre-productive population is smaller than the reproductive population. In the next 10 years, the number of people in the reproductive age group is less than the before, resulting in a decrease of population growth.

3. Describe in detail about the family planning programme. (Nov-Dec 2013) (May-Jun 2014) Family planning provides educational and clinical services that help people to design their family. Such programmes provide information on birth spacing, birth control and health care for pregnant and infants; but it may vary from culture to culture. Objectives: 1. Reduce the infant mortality rate to below 30 to 1000 infants. 2. Acheive 100% registration of births, deaths , marriage and pregnancy. 3. Encourage late marriage and later child bearing. 4. Encourage breast feeding. 5. Enables to improve women‘s health, education and employment. 6. Prevent and control of communicable diseases like AIDS. 7. Making school education up to age 14 compulsory and free. 8. The family norms for the small family is strongly promoted. Family planning methods: The ‗traditional method‟ includes taboos and folk medicine. The following ‗modern methods‟ have also been followed; a)Permanent method: In this method the family planning is done by a minor surgery. i) Tubectomy: It is female sterilization done by tying the ovary tubes. ii) Vasectomy: It is male sterilization done by tying the tubes carry the sperm. Both the above methods are,  Very simple  Painless  No post operative problems. 138 b) Temporary method: i) Using condoms:- used by male to prevent the movement of sperm to uterus. ii) Using Copper Ts:- Used by female to prevent the movement of ovum. iii) Oral contraceptive pills and injectable drugs: used both by male and female. Family planning programme in India  The family planning programme was started in the year 1952.  The family planning campaign by Indian Government in 1970s.  In 1978, the Government raised the minimum legal age for marriage as 21 for male and 18 for female.  In 1981, the funding for the family planning programme was raised dur to population explosion. 4. Write a detailed account on human rights. (Apr-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Apr-May 2019) Human rights are the fundamental rights which are possessed by all human beings irrespective of their caste, nationality, sex and language. These are natural rights and cannot be taken back by any act or legislation. Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The declarations of human rights by UN were established in 1948. 1) Human Right to Freedom- every citizen has the right to express their views. 2) Human Right to Property- has the right to earn their own property. 3) Human Right to Freedom of religion-all the religion is equal before the law. 4) Human Right to Freedom of culture and education- have equal rights both in culture and cultivation. 5) Human Right to Constitutional remedies- the court has the power to protect the basic fights of the citizens. 6) Human Right to Equality-all are equal before law. 7) Human Right to Against exploitation-to fight against exploitation, eg. Child labour. 8) Human Right to Right to food and environment-have the right to get sufficient, safe and hygeinic food, water. 9) Human Right to Good health - to have physical and mental health. 5. Explain the need and importance of value education. (May-Jun 2013) (Nov-Dec 2014) (Apr-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (Apr-May2018) Value education is a tool used to analyze our behavior and provide proper direction to our youths. It teaches them what is right and wrong; teaches them to be compassionate, helpful, loving, generous and tolerant. Objectives of value education: (1) Improve integral growth of human beings (2) Improve attitudinal improvements towards sustainable lifestyle. (3) Awareness on notational history, culture, heritage, constitutional rights, national integration, community development and environment protection. (4) Awareness about values and their significance and role. (5) Understand environment and linkages between air, water and land. (6) Know about living and non-living things and their interaction with environment. Concept of value education: (1) Why to use less resources and energy? (2) Why to keep surroundings clean? (3) Why to use less fertilizers and pesticides and instead use biofertilizers? (4) Why to save water? (5) Why to separate biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes? Methods imparting value education: (1) Telling – own narration of the situation. (2) Modeling – individual perceived as ideal values as models. (3) Role playing – acting out of true feelings. 139

(4) Problem solving –decision making (5) Studying biographies of great men- to elicit good deeds and thoughts for emulation. Types of values: (1) Universal/Social values- not to spit in the street (2) Cultural values- not to wear chapels inside temples (3) Individual values- related to individual goals and objectives. (4) Global value- don‘t emit pollutants (5) Spiritual value-leave all desire.

6. Describe the causes, preventive measures and effects of HIV/AIDS: (May-Jun 2013) (Nov-Dec 2013) (May-Jun-2014) (Apr-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May-Jun 2016) (Apr-May 2017) (Apr-May 2017) (Apr- May2018) (Nov-Dec 2018) AIDS-Acquired immuno deficiency syndrome HIV-Human immune deficiency virus. It was discovered in 1983. It was spread from Africa through African Monkeys. The virus may spread through HIV contaminated polio vaccine prepared from monkeys. It was spread through hepatitis-B viral vaccine in Los Angels and New York. Also spread through small pox vaccine program from Africa. Facts: 1) 90% AIDS affected people in developing countries. 2) 13% affected people live in Africa 3) All countries in Africa affected. 4) 3 million people so far died. 5) India ranks 2nd with 5.1 million affected people. 6) Largest in India is in Maharashtra and TamilNadu. 6) In TamilNadu 24667 cases identified. Factors influencing the transmission of HIV: 1) Spreads through blood contact (during unprotected sex with infected person) 2) The HIV virus spread through the usage of contaminated needles and syringes. 3) Infected Mother to baby during pregnancy, delivery and mother feeding. 4) Blood transfusion from infected person. 5) male to female transmission is 4 times powerful 6) Women at the age group of 18-20 are more vulnerable. AIDS not transmitted by: Food, tears, air, cough, handshake, mosquito, flies, insect bites, urine, saliva, sharing of utensils, clothes, toilet, bathroom etc. Functions of HIV in body: 1) Death occurs due to weakening of immune system (not by the disease itself). 2) White blood cells form antibodies called T-helper cells. T-helper cells fight diseases (and responsible for immunity). HIV destroys T-helper cells-hence even cancer can easily develop. 3) Normally no symptom-some get fever, head ache and fatigue. 4) HIV is present in large amounts in semen and vaginal fluid. 5) HIV very active in human body and readily multiplies and kills more and more T—cells. 6) Consumption of alcohol increases the susceptibility 7) Remains infected throughout life 8) No vaccine available. Minor symptoms: 1) Persistent cough for more than 1 month 2) General skin disease 140

3) Viral infection 4) Fungus infection in mouth and throat 5) Frequent fever, headache and fatigue Major symptoms: 1) Fever for more than 1 month 2) Diarrhea for more than 1 month. 3) Cough & TB for more than 6 months 4) Fall of hairs 5) 10% weight loss within a short period

CONTROL/PREVENTION: 1) Health education to the public. 2) Prevention of blood borne HIV transmission. 3) Primary health care through voluntary health agencies and health workers 4) Counseling to infected persons. 5) Drug treatment, nutrient diet, less stress. Effects of HIV/AIDS: 1) Larger death which affects the environment and natural resources 2) Loss of man power and production loss due to larger death. 3) More water is to be used by AIDs infected persons to maintain hygienic. 4) Will live as unproductive persons (loss of human resource) SCREENING TEST FOR AIDS The purpose of screening is early diagnosis and treatment. Screening tests are usually administered to people without current symptoms, but who may be at high risk for certain diseases or conditions. Screening Tests People who are at increased risk of HIV infection may be screened for the virus. Screening tests include:  ELISA test -This test is used to detect HIV infection. If an ELISA test is positive, the Western blot test is usually performed to confirm the diagnosis. The ELISA test may be negative if you were recently infected with HIV. Many people with HIV (95%) will have a positive test within three months of the time they became infected. Most people with HIV (99%) will have a positive test within six months. If an ELISA test is negative, but you think you may have HIV, get tested again in 1-3 months.  Western Blot -This test is very specific at identifying HIV. It is used to confirm a positive ELISA test result.  OraQuick Rapid HIV-1 antibody test-This is a preliminary test using saliva. This test should be confirmed by an ELISA test.

7. What is EIA? Explain the objectives, benefits and process of EIA. (May-Jun 2016) (Apr-May 2017) EIA is Environmental Impact Assessment; it is defined as a formal process of predicting the environmental consequences of any development projects. Objectives: 1. To identify the main issues and problems of the parties. 2. To identify who is the party. 3. To identify what are the problems of the parties. 4. To identify why the problems are arise. Benefits: 1. Cost and time of the project is reduced. 2. Performance of the project is improves. 3. Biodiversity is maintained. 4. Human health is not much affected.

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5. Usage of natural resources minimized. Process of EIA: 1. Scoping: It is used to identify the key issues of the planning process at the earliest and to identify the possible alternatives. 2. Screening: It is used to decide whether an EIA is required or not based on the information collected. 3. Identifying and evaluating alternatives: It involves knowing alternatives sites and techniques and their impacts. 4. Mitigating measures dealing with uncertainty: It reviews the action taken to prevent or minimize the adverse effects of a project. 5. Environmental statements: It reports the findings of the EIA 8. Describe in detail about the women welfare and child welfare. (Nov-Dec 2013) (May-Jun 2014) (Nov- Dec 2014) (Apr-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2015) (May-Jun 2016) (Apr-May 2018) WOMEN WELFARE Women are suffering a lot as they are soft, weak, helpless and economically dependent. Need for women welfare: As the Women facing the problems, it is essential to reform the policies and awareness. 1) Women suffer gender discrimination (devaluation at home, at workplace, in matrimony, in public life and power) 2) High incidences of dowry deaths, rape, domestic violence, criminal offences and mental torture to women 3) Male dominates society violates women‘s rights 4) In policy making at home and in society women are neglected. Objectives of women welfare: 1) To provide education 2) To impart vocational training 3) To generate awareness about environment 4) To improve employment opportunities 5) To awareness of problems of having more children and preventive measures 6) To restore dignity, status, equality and respect for women.

NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR WOMEN A national commission for women has been created by the Government of India. The objectives are, 1)To examine constitutional and legal rights of women 2) To review existing legislations 3) To sensitize enforcement and administrative machinery to women‘s causes. Schemes for women welfare: 1) National network for women and mining (NNWM) - it is fighting for a ‗gender audit‘ of India‘s mining companies. 2) UN decade for women- the inclusion of women welfare issues. 3) International convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW)- for the protection and promotion of women‘s socio economic upliftment. 4) NGOs and Mahila mandals- creates awareness in village women-on education and make them economically independent. 5) Ministry for women and child development- creates awareness by giving education. CHILD WELFARE Children are the assets of a society. But most of the children are involved in working as child labors in industries. 142

Reasons for child labor: 1) Poverty 2) Head of the family not alive 3) Both parents leave the children/die 4) Want of money. Schemes for child welfare: 1) UN conventions on rights of child (or) International law:  Right to survival  Right to Participation  Right to development  Right to protection. 2) World summit on children- It targets mainly on the well being of children. 3) Ministry of Human Resources Development (MHRD): It concentrates on the Child‘s health, education, nutrition, safe drinking water, sanitation and environment 4) Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) Children are more susceptible than adult in environmental contamination; need better and cleaner environment. 9. Describe the role and applications of IT in human health. (Nov-Dec 2013 and 2014) (Apr-May 2015) (Nov-Dec 2016) (Apr-May 2017) (Nov-Dec 2017) (Apr-May 2018) (Nov-Dec 2018) Information Technology (It) means Data collection, processing, reporting and dissemination of information. The tools used are Internet (WWW), Geographical Information system (GIS) etc. APPLICATION OF IT: 1) Remote sensing: It can be used to gather information. The main applications are  in agriculture – provide valuable information for land and water development.  in forestry- provide information on density of forest, biomass encroachment etc.  in land cover- provide mapping , spatial resolution etc.,  in water resources- provide information about flood monitoring, irrigation water management, inventorying surface water bodies etc monsoon activity. 2) Data base: The data base can be easily manageable and quickly retrieved. Applications:  The Ministry of Environment & Forest: database on biotic system, database on dieases.  National management information system (NMIS):data base for R&D  Environment Information system (ENVIS): data base for pollution control, environmental management etc. 3) Geographical Information system (GIS): It is a technique of superimposing various thematic maps using digital data on a large number of inters related aspects. Application:  thematic maps containing water resources, soil type, forest land, cropland, grass land as superimposed layers-  Interpretation of polluted zones, degraded lands.  To check unplanned growth and environmental problems 4) Satellite data:  Provide reliable data about forest cover  Gives information about monsoon pattern, ozone layer depletion, smog etc. IT AND HUMAN HEALTH Information Technology plays a vital role in human health. The Health services involves, 1) Finance and accounting 2) Pathology 3) Patient administration and clinical systems Application of IT in Health Services: 1) Data on birth rate, death rate, immunization and sanitation programs, water supply etc. are maintained accurately. 143

2) To monitor the health of the patient 3) Outbreak of epidemics can be easily conveyed. 4) Consulting on-line consultancy with expert doctors 5) Centralized control of hospitals 6) Drugs purchase administration

10. Explain the applications of remote sensing in environment management (Nov-Dec 2019) 1. In agriculture: In India, the agriculture sector sustains the livelihood of around 70% of the population and contributes to about 35% of the net national product. We require judicious and optimal management of both land and water resources along with the use of high yielding variety seeds, optimal fertilizer input, postcentral etc., Remote sensing can provide valuable information for land and water management. 2. In forestry: Sustainable forest management requires reliable information on the type, density and extent of forest cover, wood volume and biomass, forest fire, pest and disease induced losses, encroachment etc., Remote sensing provides all such information clearly. 3. In land cover: Spatial information on land use is required at different scales depending upon use. Remote sensing data is converted to map, the spatial resolution plays a role on the scale of mapping. 4. Water resources: Remote sensing data has been used in many applications related to water resources such as surface water body mapping, ground water targeting, wetland, inventory, flood monitoring, reservoir sedimentation, water quality, run-off modeling, snowcover monitoring, irrigation water management and many more. One of the most simple applications is inventorying surface water bodies.

Question Bank – CS8251 - Programming in C

UNIT I BASICS OF C PROGRAMMING

1. What are the different programming paradigms?  Imperative: Programming with an explicit sequence of commands that update state.  Declarative: Programming by specifying the result you want, not how to get it.  Structured: Programming with clean, goto-free, nested control structures.  Procedural: Imperative programming with procedure calls.  Functional (Applicative): Programming with function calls that avoid any global state.  Function-Level (Combinator): Programming with no variables at all.  Object-Oriented: Programming by defining objects that send messages to each other.

Objects have their own internal (encapsulated) state and public interfaces. Object orientation can be: o Class-based: Objects get state and behavior based on membership in a class. o Prototype-based: Objects get behavior from a prototype object.

 Event-Driven: Programming with emitters and listeners of asynchronous actions.  Flow-Driven: Programming processes communicating with each other over predefined channels.  Logic (Rule-based): Programming by specifying a set of facts and rules. An engine infers the answers to questions.  Constraint: Programming by specifying a set of constraints. An engine finds the values that meet the constraints.  Aspect-Oriented: Programming cross-cutting concerns applied transparently. 144

 Reflective: Programming by manipulating the program elements themselves.  Array: Programming with powerful array operators that usually make loops unnecessary.

2. Define programming paradigm.

Programming paradigms are a way to classify programming languages based on their features. Languages can be classified into multiple paradigms. Some paradigms are concerned mainly with implications for the execution model of the language, such as allowing side effects, or whether the sequence of operations is defined by the execution model. Other paradigms are concerned mainly with the way that code is organized, such as grouping a code into units along with the state that is modified by the code. Yet others are concerned mainly with the style of syntax and grammar.

3.What is C language?

The programming language C was developed in the early 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Laboratories to be used by the UNIX operating system. It was named 'C' because many of its features were derived from an earlier language called 'B'.

4.Uses of C.  C language is primarily used for system programming. The portability, efficiency, the ability to access specific hardware addresses and low runtime demand on system resources makes it a good choice for implementing operating systems and embedded system applications.  C has been so widely accepted by professionals that compilers, libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C.  C is widely used to implement end-user applications.

5.Why is C language is Popular?

 C is a robust language.  Programs written in C can be reused.  Program written in C are fast and efficient.  It is machine independent and highly portable language.  C language allows manipulation of bits, bytes and addresses.  C is relatively small programming language. C has only 32 keywords.  C encourages users to write additional library function of their own.  Many other high level languages have been developed based on C. For example C++ and PERL.

6.Structure of a C Program.

Documentation Section :- The documentation section usually consists of a set of comments lines demonstrating Name of the program, Name of the author and other details about the program. Comments are non-executable statement of a C program. Comments can be of single line or multi line. For single line comments :- Use two slashes (//) begining of a comment line. For multi line comments :- Use a slash and an asterisk (/*) and ends with */. Example :- // Program Name is : hello_world.c /* This program prints hello world on screen

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Link section :- The link section provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from the system library such as using the #include directive. Example :- #include #include  Definition Section :- Sometime we require some fix values in the entire program, called as constants. The definition section defines all these symbolic constants. Example :- #define pi 3.14  Global declaration section :- Some variables are required in more than one function. These variable has to defined outside the main function, hence as global variable. Global declaration section defines these variables. Example :- int globalX; We will discuss more about variable, data types and their scope in upcoming sections.  main () function section :- Every C program must have one main() function section. As the execution of the program always begins with the first executable statement of the main function. This section contains two parts; declaration part and executable part.

o Declaration part declares all the variable used in the executable part.

o Executable part consists of at least one statement and these two parts must appear between the opening and the closing braces. Example :- void main() { int a=10; // declaration part printf("%d",a); // executable part } 7. Enlist Keywords in C. 146

C has a set of reserved words often known as keywords. These cannot be used as an identifier. All keywords are basically a sequence of characters that have a fixed meaning. By convention all keywords must be written in lowercase letters. following table contains a list of keywords in C.

auto break case char const continue default

double else enum extern float for goto

int long register return short signed sizeof

struct switch typedef union unsigned void volatile

do if static while

When you complete this tutorial, the meaning and utility of each keyword will automatically become clear.

8.Write short notes on Compilation and Linking of C program.

Each high-level language needs a compiler or interpreter to translate instructions written in the HLL in to machine language that a computer can understand and execute.

During the execution of C program, three process are involved. They are :-

 Compilation - Carried out by Compiler.  Linking - Carried out by Linker.  Loading - Carried out by Loader.

Here we will discuss each process briefly.

 Compilation :- Compilation refers to the processing of source code files (.c, .cpp) and the creation of an object file. This step doesn't create anything the user can actually run. The object code contains the machine instructions for the CPU and calls to the operating system application programming interface (API). Object file has .obj extension.  Linking :- Linking refers to the creation of a single executable file ( .exe ) from multiple object files.  Loading :- Loading is the process of put the executable file (.exe) into memory prior to execution.

The complete compilation and execution process is shown in following figure.

 First a program written in c, called source code and the file is known as source file. It has .c extension. 147

 Then the source code is compiled by a Compiler. If there exists some syntax error(s), it won't generate the object code. Go to editor and rectify the error(s). Otherwise, it create a new file, called as object file (.obj).  Then a special program called linker is involved to link the object file with some library files and other object files. The result of linking is saved into a new file called as an executable file (.exe).  Now this executable file is loaded into primary memory for execution by a special component of OS known as Loader.

9. State basic tasks of Compiler, Linker and Loader

Basic tasks of compiler

 It translates one language to another.  Takes source program as input and produces an equivalent target program typically in assembly or machine language.  It generates object files.  Reports error messages as part of the translation process.

Basic tasks of Linker

 It combines object modules to form a executable file.  It searches the program to find library routines used by program , eg. printf(), math routines etc.  Determines the memory location that code from each module will occupy and relocates its instructions by adjusting absolute references.  Resolves references among files.

Basic tasks of Loader

 Bring an executable file residing on disk into memory and start it running.  It creates new address space for the program before executing.  Copies instructions and data into address space.  Copies arguments passed to the program on the stack.

10. What is error?

An error is anything in our code that prevent a program from running correctly. In the computer world, program errors are also called bugs and the art of pinpointing a bug and fixing it is called debugging. When all the bugs are out, the program is correct.

11. Enlist types of error.

Errors can be broadly classified into following types :-

 Compile time errors  Linker errors  Runtime errors  Logical errors

12. What is Data type?

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Data types are means to identify the type of data along with set of rules for permissible operations. The data type of a variable determines how much space it occupies in storage (memory) and how the bit pattern stored is interpreted.

13. Classify Data types in C.

The two major aspects of data in C are data type and storage class . C language is rich in its data types. It provides a predefined set of data types for handling the data of different types such as character, integer, real, string etc. Data in C belongs to one of the following types :-

 Fundamental types  Derived types

Fundamental Data Types

C language provides very few basic data types. Following table lists the data type, their size, range, and usage.

Data type Keyword Used Size in bytes Range Use

Character char 1 -128 to 127 To store characters

Integer int 2 -32768 to 32767 To store integer numbers

Floating point float 4 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38 To store floating point numbers

Double double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308 To store big floating point numbers

Valueless void 0 Valueless Used in functions and pointers

Derived Types

The data type that has been constructed from the fundamental data types is called as derived data type. The derived data types in C classified into two groups. They are :-

 Built-in types  User-defined data types

Following is the list of built-in derived data types in C.

1. Arrays 2. Pointers 3. Structure 4. Union

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There are some derived data types that are defined by the user. These are called as user defined derived data types. These are :-

1. typedef 2. enum

14. Define Compilation process. Compilation refers to the processing of source code files (.c, .cc, or .cpp) and the creation of an 'object' file. This step doesn't create anything the user can actually run. Instead, the compiler merely produces the machine language instructions that correspond to the source code file that was compiled.

15. What do you meant by linking? Linking refers to the creation of a single executable file from multiple object files. In this step, it is common that the linker will complain about undefined functions (commonly, main itself). During compilation, if the compiler could not find the definition for a particular function, it would just assume that the function was defined in another file. If this isn't the case, there's no way the compiler would know it doesn't look at the contents of more than one file at a time. The linker, on the other hand, may look at multiple files and try to find references for the functions that weren't mentioned.

16. Define Constants in C. Mention the types.

The constants refer to fixed values that the program may not alter during its execution. These fixed values are also called literals. Constants can be of any of the basic data types like an integer constant, a floating constant, a character constant, or a string literal. There are also enumeration constants as well. The constants are treated just like regular variables except that their values cannot be modified after their definition.

17. What are the different data types available in „C‟? There are four basic data types available in ‗C‘. a. int b. float c. char d. double

18. What is meant by Enumerated data type. Enumerated data is a user defined data type in C language. Enumerated data type variables can only assume values which have been previously declared. Example : enum month { jan = 1, feb, mar, apr, may, jun, jul, aug, sep, oct, nov, dec };

19. What are Keywords?

Keywords are certain reserved words that have standard and pre-defined meaning in ‗C‘. These keywords can be used only for their intended purpose.

20. What do you mean by variables in „C‟? A variable is a data name used for storing a data value. It can be assigned different values at different times

150 during program execution. It can be chosen by programmer in a meaningful way so as to reflect its function in the program.

21. Difference between Local and Global variable in C. Local

These variables only exist inside the specific function that creates them. They are unknown to other functions and to the main program. As such, they are normally implemented using a stack. Local variables cease to exist once the function that created them is completed. They are recreated each time a function is executed or called. Global

These variables can be accessed (ie known) by any function comprising the program. They are implemented by associating memory locations with variable names. They do not get recreated if the function is recalled. 22. What are Operators? Mention their types in C.

An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical manipulations. C language is rich in built-in operators and provides following type of operators: a. Arithmetic Operators b. Relational Operators c. Logical Operators d. Bitwise Operators e. Assignment Operators f. Misc Operators

23. What is the difference between „=‟ and „==‟ operator? Where = is an assignment operator and == is a relational operator. Example: while (i=5) is an infinite loop because it is a non zero value and while (i==5) is true only when i=5.

24. What is type casting? Type casting is the process of converting the value of an expression to a particular data type.

Example: int x,y; c = (float) x/y; where a and y are defined as integers. Then the result of x/y is converted into float. 25.What is the difference between ++a and a++?

++a means do the increment before the operation (pre increment) a++ means do the increment after the operation (post increment) Example: a=5; x=a++; /* assign x=5*/ y=a; /*now y assigns y=6*/ x=++a; /*assigns x=7*/

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26. Distinguish between while..do and do..while statement in C.

While DO. while (i) Executes the statements within the while (i) Executes the statements within thwhile block block if only the condition is true at least once. (ii) The condition is checked at the starting of (ii) The condition is checked at the end of the the loop loop

27. Mention the various Decisions making statement available in C.

Statement Description if statement An if statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one or more statements. if...else statement An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes when the boolean expression is false. nested if You can use one if or else if statement inside another if or else if statements statement(s). switch statement A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of values.

28. What do you meant by conditional or ternary operator? ? : If Condition is true ? Then value X : Otherwise value Y

29. What is the use of sizeof() operator in C. Sizeof operator is used to return the size of a variable. Example: sizeof(a), Where a integer, will return 4.

30. Define Looping in C. A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times and following is the general from of a loop statement in most of the programming languages:

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31. What are the types of I/O statements available in „C‟? There are two types of I/O statements available in ‗C‘. 1. Formatted I/O Statements 2. Unformatted I/O Statements 32. Write short notes about main ( ) function in ‟C‟ program. (MAY 2009) 1. Every C program must have main ( ) function. 2. All functions in C, has to end with ‗( )‘ parenthesis. 3. It is a starting point of all ‗C‘ programs. 4. The program execution starts from the opening brace ‗{‗ and ends with closing brace ‗}‘, within which executable part of the program exists. 33. Define delimiters in „C‟. Delimiters Use : Colon ; Semicolon ( ) Parenthesis [ ] Square Bracket { } Curly Brace # Hash , Comma

34. Why header files are included in „C‟ programming? This section is used to include the function definitions used in the program. · Each header file has ‗h‘ extension and include using ‘# include‘ directive at the beginning of a program.

35. What is the difference between scanf() and gets() function? In scanf() when there is a blank was typed, the scanf() assumes that it is an end. gets() assumes the enter key as end. That is gets() gets a new line (\n) terminated string of characters from the keyboard and replaces the ‗\n‘ with ‗\0‘.

36. What is the difference between if and while statement? If While (i) It is a conditional statement (i) It is a loop control statement (ii) If the condition is true, it executes (ii) Executes the statements within the some statements. while block if the condition is true. (iii) If the condition is false then it stops (iii) If the condition is false the control is the execution the statements. transferred to the next statement of the loop.

37.Differentiate between formatted and unformatted you input and output functions? Formatted I/P functions: These functions allow us to supply the input in a fixed format and let us obtain the output in the specified form. Formatted output converts the internal binary representation of the data to ASCII characters which are written to the output file. Unformatted I/O functions: There are several standard library functions available under this category-those that can deal with a string of characters. Unformatted Input/Output is the most basic form of input/output. Unformatted input/output transfers the internal binary representation of the data directly between memory and the file. 38. What are the pre-processor directives? 153

1. Macro Inclusion 2. Conditional Inclusion 3. File Inclusion 39. What are conditional Inclusions in Preprocessor Directive? Conditional inclusions (#ifdef, #ifndef, #if, #endif, #else and #elif)

These directives allow including or discarding part of the code of a program if a certain condition is met. #ifdef allows a section of a program to be compiled only if the macro that is specified as the parameter has been defined, no matter which its value is.

For example: 1 #ifdef TABLE_SIZE 2 int table[TABLE_SIZE]; 3 #endif

40. What you meant by Source file Inclusion in Preprocessor directive? Source file inclusion (#include) This directive has also been used assiduously in other sections of this tutorial. When the preprocessor finds an #include directive it replaces it by the entire content of the specified file. There are two ways to specify a file to be included: 1 #include "file" 2 #include

UNIT II ARRAYS AND STRINGS

1. What is an array? An array is a group of similar data types stored under a common name. An array is used to store a collection of data, but it is often more useful to think of an array as a collection of variables of the same type. Example: int a[10]; Here a[10] is an array with 10 values.

2. What are the main elements of an array declaration? 1. Array name 2. Type 3. Size

3. How to initialize an array? You can initialize array in C either one by one or using a single statement as follows: double balance[5] = {1000.0, 2.0, 3.4, 17.0, 50.0}; The number of values between braces { } cannot be larger than the number of elements that we declare for the array between square brackets [ ]. Following is an example to assign a single element of the array:

4. Why is it necessary to give the size of an array in an array declaration? When an array is declared, the compiler allocates a base address and reserves enough space in the memory for all the elements of the array. The size is required to allocate the required space. Thus, the size must be mentioned.

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5. What is the difference between an array and pointer? Difference between arrays and pointers are as follows. Array Pointer Array allocates space automatically 1.Pointer is explicitly assigned to point to an allocated space. 2.It cannot be resized. 2.It can be resized using realloc (). 3.It cannot be reassigned. 3.Pointers can be reassigned. 4.Size of(array name) gives the number 4.Sezeof(pointer name) returns the number of bytes of bytes occupied by the array. used to store the pointer variable.

6. List the characteristics of Arrays. All elements of an array share the same name, and they are distinguished form one another with help of an element number. Any particular element of an array can be modified separately without disturbing other elements.

7. What are the types of Arrays? 1. 1.One-Dimensional Array 2. Two-Dimensional Array 3. Multi-Dimensional Array

8. Define Strings. Strings: The group of characters, digit and symbols enclosed within quotes is called as Stirng (or) character Arrays. Strings are always terminated with ‗\0‘ (NULL) character. The compiler automatically adds ‗\0‘ at the end of the strings. Example: char name[]={‗C‘,‘O‘,‘L‘,‘L‘,‘E‘,‘G‘,‘E‘,‘E‘,‘\0‘};

9. Mention the various String Manipulation Functions in C.

S.NO. FUNCTION & PURPOSE strcpy(s1, s2); Copies string s2 into string s1. strcat(s1, s2); Concatenates string s2 onto the end of string s1. strlen(s1); Returns the length of string s1. Returns 0 if s1 and s2 are the same; less than 0 if s1s2. Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of character ch in strchr(s1, ch); string s1. Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of string s2 in string strstr(s1, s2); s1.

10. What is the use of atoi() function? C allows us to manipulate characters the same way we do with numbers. Whenever a character constant or character variable is used in an expression, it is automatically converted into integer value by the system. 155

For eg, if the machine uses the ASCII representation, then, x = „a‟; printf(“%d \n”,x); will display the number 97 on the screen. The C library supports a function that converts a string of digits into their integer values. The function takes the form

11. Write syntax and example for two dimensional array in c? Synatx: data-type arr_name[num_of_rows][num_of_col];

Array declaration, initialization and accessing Example

Array declaration syntax: Integer array example: data_type arr_name int arr[2][2]; [num_of_rows][num_of_column]; int arr[2][2] = {1,2, 3, 4}; Array initialization syntax: data_type arr_name[2][2] = arr [0] [0] = 1; {{0,0},{0,1},{1,0},{1,1}}; arr [0] ]1] = 2; Array accessing syntax: arr [1][0] = 3; arr_name[index]; arr [1] [1] = 4;

12. What is meant by Sorting? Sorting refers to ordering data in an increasing or decreasing fashion according to some linear relationship among the data items. Sorting can be done on names, numbers and records.

13. What are the types of sorting available in C? a. Insertion sort. b. Merge Sort. c. Quick Sort. d. Radix Sort. e. Heap Sort f. Selection sort g. Bubble sort

14. Define Heap Sort. A sorting algorithm that works by first organizing the data to be sorted into a special type of binary tree called a heap. The heap itself has, by definition, the largest value at the top of the tree, so the heap sort algorithm must also reverse the order. It does this with the following steps:

1. Remove the topmost item (the largest) and replace it with the rightmost leaf. The topmost item is stored in an array. 2. Re-establish the heap. 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until there are no more items left in the heap.

15. Define Bubble sort. A simple but popular sorting algorithm. Bubble sorting is used frequently as a programming exercise because it is relatively easy to understand. It is not, however, particularly efficient. Other sorting algorithms, such as heap sorts, merge sorts and quick sorts, are used more often in real applications.

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16. Define Searching. Searching for data is one of the fundamental fields of computing. Often, the difference between a fast program and a slow one is the use of a good algorithm for the data set. Naturally, the use of a hash table or binary search tree will result in more efficient searching, but more often than not an array or linked list will be used. It is necessary to understand good ways of searching data structures not designed to support efficient search.

17. Mention the various types of searching techniques in C 1. Linear search 2. Binary search

18. What is linear search? In Linear Search the list is searched sequentially and the position is returned if the key element to be searched is available in the list, otherwise -1 is returned. The search in Linear Search starts at the beginning of an array and move to the end, testing for a match at each item.

19. What is Binary search? A binary search, also called a dichotomizing search, is a digital scheme for locating a specific object in a large set. Each object in the set is given a key. The number of keys is always a power of 2. If there are 32 items in a list, for example, they might be numbered 0 through 31 (binary 00000 through 11111). If there are, say, only 29 items, they can be numbered 0 through 28 (binary 00000 through 11100), with the numbers 29 through31 (binary 11101, 11110, and 11111) as dummy keys.

20. Write syntax and example for one dimensional array in c? Synatx: data-type arr_name[array_size]; Array declaration, initialization and accessing Example

Integer array example: int age [5]; int age[5]={0, 1, 2, 3, 4}; Array declaration syntax: data_type arr_name [arr_size]; Array initialization syntax: Character array example: data_type arr_name [arr_size]=(value1, value2, char str[10]; value3,….); char str[10]={‗H‘,‗a‘,‗i‘}; Array accessing syntax: (or) arr_name[index]; char str[0] = ‗H‘; char str[1] = ‗a‘; char str[2] = ‗i;

UNIT III 157

FUNCTIONS AND POINTERS

1. Write definition of function. Indicate types of functions available in C.

A function is a self-contained block or a sub-program of one or more statements that performs a special task when called.  Without arguments or return values. Eg. abc()

 With arguments but without return values. Eg. abc (int x)

 With arguments and return values. Eg. int abc(int x)

 Without argument but with return values. Eg. int abc().

2. Write the difference between pre-defined (library) function and user defined function.

Library(Pre-defined) function User defined function Contains Pre-defined set of functions The user defined the functions User cannot understand the internal working User can understand internal working Source code is not visible Source code is visible User cannot modify the function User can modify the function

3. Write the Syntax of function call. Syntax of function call

functionName(argument1, argument2, ...);

function call is made using addNumbers(n1,n2); statement inside the main().

4. What are the advantages of unions over structures?

 Union save memory space as the size of a union variable is equal to its largest sized member. In contrast, the size of a structure variable is equal to the sum of the sizes of all its individual member elements.

 Unions are particularly useful in situation where there is a need to use only one of its member elements at any given point of time.

5. What is a pointer?

A pointer is a memory variable that stores a memory address. It can have any name that is legal for another variable and it is declared in the same fashion like other variables but it is always denoted by pre fixing ‗*‘ operator.

Pointer Declaration: datatype * variable-name;

Example: int *x, c=5; x=&a;

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6. Write the features of a pointer. Features:

 Pointers save memory space.

 Execution time with the pointer is faster because data is manipulated with the address, direct access to memory location.

 The memory is accessed efficiently with the pointers.

 Pointers are used with data structures.

 We can access elements of any type of array irrespective if its subscript range.

 Pointers are used in file handling.

7. What are the uses of Pointers?  Pointers are used to return more than one value to the function  Pointers are more efficient in handling the data in arrays  Pointers reduce the length and complexity of the program  They increase the execution speed  The pointers save data storage space in memory.

8. Write the syntax for function definition.

returnType functionName(type1 argument1, type2 argument2, ...)

{

body of the function

}

9. Differentiate call by value and call by reference.

Call by value Call by reference Only values of the variables are passed as Pointer or reference to the variable is passed as parameters parameter. Any change made to the value will not Any change made to the variables gets reflected in the variable storage location reflected at the original location of the variable

10. What is the difference between Array and Pointer?

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Array Pointer Array allocates space automatically Pointer is explicitly assigned to point to an allocated space It cannot be resized It can be resized using realloc() It cannot be reassigned It can be reassigned Size of array name gives the number of bytes Size of pointer name returns the number of occupied by the array pointer used to store the pointer variable.

11. What are the various dynamic memory allocation functions?

 malloc() - Used to allocate blocks of memory in required size of bytes.

 free () - Used to release previously allocated memory space.

 calloc() - Used to allocate memory space for an array of elements.

 realloac() - Used to modify the size of the previously allocated memory space.

12. Write a C program for factorial using recursion function.

Following is an example which calculates factorial for a given number using a recursive function:

#include int factorial(unsigned int i) { if(i <= 1)

{ return 1;

} return i * factorial(i - 1);

} int main() { int i = 15; printf("Factorial of %d is %d\n", i, factorial(i)); return 0;

} When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: Factorial of 15 is 2004310016 13. State the advantages of user defined functions over pre-defined functions.

 A user defined function allows the programmer to define the exact function of the module as per 160

requirement. This may not be the case with predefined function. It may or may not serve the desired purpose completely.

 A user defined function gives flexibility to the programmer to use optimal programming instructions, which is not possible in predefined function.

14. Write the syntax for pointers to structure.

Struct S

{

char datatype1;

int datatype2;

float datatype3;

};

Struct S *sptr //sptr ia pointer to structure S

15. Write the advantages and disadvantages of recursion.

Recursion makes program elegant and cleaner. All algorithms can be defined recursively which makes it easier to visualize and prove.

If the speed of the program is vital then, you should avoid using recursion. Recursions use more memory and are generally slow. Instead, you can use loop.

Check out these examples to learn more:  Find the Sum of Natural Numbers using Recursion  Find Factorial of a Number Using Recursion  Find G.C.D Using Recursion

16. What is meant by Recursive function?

If a function calls itself again and again, then that function is called Recursive function.

Example: void recursion() { recursion(); /* function calls itself */ } int main()

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{ recursion(); }

17. Is it better to use a macro or a function?

Macros are more efficient (and faster) than function, because their corresponding code is inserted directly at the point where the macro is called. There is no overhead involved in using a macro like there is in placing a call to a function. However, macros are generally small and cannot handle large, complex coding constructs. In cases where large, complex constructs are to handled, functions are more suited, additionally; macros are expanded inline, which means that the code is replicated for each occurrence of a macro.

18. List any five-library functions.

 ceil(x)  sqrt(x)  log(x)  pow(x,y)  sin(x)

19. List the header files in „C‟ language.

 contains standard I/O functions  contains character handling functions  contains general utility functions  contains string manipulation functions  contains mathematical functions  contains time manipulation functions

20. What are the steps in writing a function in a program?

 Function Declaration (Prototype declaration): Every user-defined functions has to be declared before the main().

 Function Callings: The user-defined functions can be called inside any functions like main(), user-defined function, etc.

 Function Definition: The function definition block is used to define the user-defined functions with statements.

UNIT IV STRUCTURES

1. Compare arrays and structures.

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Comparison of arrays and structures is as follows. Arrays Structures A structure is a collection of data items of An array is a collection of data items of same different data types. Structures can be declared data type. Arrays can only be declared. and defined.

There is no keyword for arrays. The keyword for structures is struct. An array cannot have bit fields. A structure may contain bit fields. An array name represents the address of the A structure name is known as tag. It is a starting element. Shorthand notation of the declaration.

2. Compare structures and unions.

Structure Union Every member has its own memory. All members use the same memory. The keyword used is struct. The keyword used is union. All members occupy separate memory location, Different interpretations for the same memory hence different interpretations of the same location are possible. Conservation of memory

memory is location are not possible. Consumes more space possible compared to union.

3. Define Structure in C. C Structure is a collection of different data types which are grouped together and each element in a C structure is called member.

If you want to access structure members in C, structure variable should be declared.

Many structure variables can be declared for same structure and memory will be allocated for each separately.

It is a best practice to initialize a structure to null while declaring, if we don‘t assign any values to structure members. 4. What you meant by structure definition? A structure type is usually defined near to the start of a file using a typedef statement. typedef defines and names a new type, allowing its use throughout the program. typedefs usually occur just after the #define and #include statements in a file. Here is an example structure definition. typedef struct { char name[64]; char course[128]; int age; int year; } student;

This defines a new type student variables of type student can be declared as follows. student st_rec;

5. How to Declare a members in Structure?

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A struct in C programming language is a structured (record) type[1] that aggregates a fixed set of labeled objects, possibly of different types, into a single object. The syntax for a struct declaration in C is: struct tag_name { type attribute; type attribute2; /* ... */ }; 6. What is meant by Union in C? A union is a special data type available in C that enables you to store different data types in the same memory location. You can define a union with many members, but only one member can contain a value at any given time. Unions provide an efficient way of using the same memory location for multi-purpose. 7. How to define a union in C. To define a union, you must use the union statement in very similar was as you did while defining structure. The union statement defines a new data type, with more than one member for your program. The format of the union statement is as follows: union [union tag]

{ member definition; member definition; ... member definition; } [one or more union variables];

8. What are storage classes? A storage class defines the scope (visibility) and life time of variables and/or functions within a C Program. 9. What are the storage classes available in C? There are following storage classes which can be used in a C Program 1. auto 2. register 3. static 4. extern 10. What is register storage in storage class? Register is used to define local variables that should be stored in a register instead of RAM. This means that the variable has a maximum size equal to the register size (usually one word) and cant have the unary '&' operator applied to it (as it does not have a memory location).

{ register int Miles; }

11.What is static storage class? Static is the default storage class for global variables. The two variables below (count and road) both have a static storage class. static int Count; int Road; {

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printf("%d\n", Road); }

12. Define Auto storage class in C. auto is the default storage class for all local variables.

{ int Count; auto int Month;

} The example above defines two variables with the same storage class. auto can only be used within functions, i.e. local variables.

13. Define Macro in C. A macro definition is independent of block structure, and is in effect from the #define directive that defines it until either a corresponding #undef directive or the end of the compilation unit is encountered.

Its format is: #define identifier replacement Example: #define TABLE_SIZE 100 int table1[TABLE_SIZE]; int table2[TABLE_SIZE];

14. What is Line control? Line control (#line) When we compile a program and some error happens during the compiling process, the compiler shows an error message with references to the name of the file where the error happened and a line number, so it is easier to find the code generating the error. The #line directive allows us to control both things, the line numbers within the code files as well as the file name that we want that appears when an error takes place. Its format is: #line number "filename" Where number is the new line number that will be assigned to the next code line. The line numbers of successive lines will be increased one by one from this point on.

15. What is the use of „typedef‟‟? It is used to create a new data using the existing type. Syntax: typedef data type name; Example: typedef int hours: hours hrs;/* Now, hours can be used as new datatype */ 16. Write the syntax for pointers to structure. Struct S

{ char datatype1; int datatype2; float datatype3;

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};

Struct S *sptr; //sptr ia pointer to structure S

17. Define self referential data structure A self referential data structure is essentially a structure definition which includes at least one member that is a pointer to the structure of its own kind. A chain of such structures can thus be expressed as follows. struct name { member 1; member 2; . . . struct name *pointer; }; The above illustrated structure prototype describes one node that comprises of two logical segments. One of them stores data/information and the other one is a pointer indicating where the next component can be found. .Several such inter-connected nodes create a chain of structures. 18. What is singly linked list? A linear linked list is a chain of structures where each node points to the next node to create a list. To keep track of the starting node's address a dedicated pointer (referred as start pointer) is used. The end of the list is indicated by a NULLpointer. In order to create a linked list of integers, we define each of its element (referred as node) using the following declaration. struct node_type { int data; struct node_type *next; }; struct node_type *start = NULL; Note: The second member points to a node of same type. A linear linked list illustration:

19. What are the various dynamic memory allocation functions?  malloc() - Used to allocate blocks of memory in required size of bytes.  free () - Used to release previously allocated memory space.  calloc() - Used to allocate memory space for an array of elements.  realloac() - Used to modify the size of the previously allocated memory space.

20. How to create a node in linked list? The basic thing is to create a node. It can be done by using the malloc function. start = (node*) malloc(sizeof(node)) This statement creates the starting node of list. A block of memory whose size is equal to the sizeof(node) is allocated to the node pointer start. Typecasting is used because otherwise malloc will return pointer to character. UNIT V FILE PROCESSING 1. Why files are needed?  When a program is terminated, the entire data is lost. Storing in a file will preserve your data even if the program terminates.

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 If you have to enter a large number of data, it will take a lot of time to enter them all. However, if you have a file containing all the data, you can easily access the contents of the file using few commands in C.

 You can easily move your data from one computer to another without any changes. 2. Types of Files When dealing with files, there are two types of files you should know about: 1. Text files 2. Binary files Text files Text files are the normal .txt files that you can easily create using Notepad or any simple text editors. When you open those files, you'll see all the contents within the file as plain text. You can easily edit or delete the contents. They take minimum effort to maintain, are easily readable, and provide least security and takes bigger storage space.

Binary files Binary files are mostly the .bin files in your computer. Instead of storing data in plain text, they store it in the binary form (0's and 1's). They can hold higher amount of data, are not readable easily and provides a better security than text files. 3. Enlist the File Operations. In C, you can perform four major operations on the file, either text or binary: 1. Creating a new file 2. Opening an existing file 3. Closing a file 4. Reading from and writing information to a file Working with files When working with files, you need to declare a pointer of type file. This declaration is needed for communication between the file and program. FILE *fptr; 4. How to open a file? Opening a file is performed using the library function in the "stdio.h" header file: fopen(). The syntax for opening a file in standard I/O is: ptr = fopen("fileopen","mode") 5. List the opening modes in standard I/O

File Meaning of Mode During Inexistence of file Mode r Open for reading. If the file does not exist, fopen() returns NULL. rb Open for reading in binary mode. If the file does not exist, fopen() returns NULL.

If the file exists, its contents are overwritten. If the file w Open for writing. does not exist, it will be created.

If the file exists, its contents are overwritten. If the file wb Open for writing in binary mode. does not exist, it will be created.

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File Meaning of Mode During Inexistence of file Mode

Open for append. i.e, Data is added to end a If the file does not exists, it will be created. of file.

Open for append in binary mode. i.e, Data ab If the file does not exists, it will be created. is added to end of file. r+ Open for both reading and writing. If the file does not exist, fopen() returns NULL.

Open for both reading and writing in rb+ If the file does not exist, fopen() returns NULL. binary mode.

If the file exists, its contents are overwritten. If the file w+ Open for both reading and writing. does not exist, it will be created.

Open for both reading and writing in If the file exists, its contents are overwritten. If the file wb+ binary mode. does not exist, it will be created. a+ Open for both reading and appending. If the file does not exists, it will be created.

Open for both reading and appending in ab+ If the file does not exists, it will be created. binary mode. 6. How to close a file? The file (both text and binary) should be closed after reading/writing. Closing a file is performed using library function fclose(). fclose(fptr); //fptr is the file pointer associated with file to be closed. Reading and writing to a text file For reading and writing to a text file, we use the functions fprintf() and fscanf(). They are just the file versions of printf() and scanf(). The only difference is that, fprint and fscanf expects a pointer to the structure FILE. 7. What are two main ways a file can be organized? 1. Sequential Access — The data are placed in the file in a sequence like beads on a string. Data are processed in sequence, one after another. To reach a particular item of data, all the data that proceeds it first must be read. 2. Random Access — The data are placed into the file by going directly to the location in the file assigned to each data item. Data are processed in any order. A particular item of data can be reached by going directly to it, without looking at any other data. 8. What is file? A file is a semi-permanent, named collection of data. A File is usually stored on magnetic media, such as a hard disk or magnetic tape. Semi-permanent means that data saved in files stays safe until it is deleted or modified. Named means that a particular collection of data on a disk has a name, like mydata.dat and access to the collection is done by using its name.

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9. State Report Generation.

A very common data processing operation is report generation. This is when the data in a file (or files) is processed by a program to generate a report of some kind. The report might be a summary of the financial state of a corporation, or a series of bills for its customers, or a series of checks to be mailed to its employees. Large corporations have very large databases kept on many high capacity disks and processed by programs running on large computers called mainframe 10. State Transaction Processing. As data flows into an organization, the files that keep track of the data must be updated. For example, data flows into a bank from other banks and ATM machines. Often this data is gathered as it occurs into a transaction file. Periodically (often overnight) the data in the transaction file is used to update the main file of data.

The picture shows the main file and the transaction file as input to a program. The output is a new, updated main file. The previous version of the file can be kept as backup. Management information science is the field that studies how to organize and manage the information of a corporation using computers and files. Usually the business school of a university has a management information science department. 11. List the Types of Files. There are two main ways a file can be organized: 1. Sequential Access — The data are placed in the file in a sequence like beads on a string. Data are processed in sequence, one after another. To reach a particular item of data, all the data that proceeds it first must be read. 2. Random Access — The data are placed into the file by going directly to the location in the file assigned to each data item. Data are processed in any order. A particular item of data can be reached by going directly to it, without looking at any other data. A sequential file works like a reel of tape. (In fact, sequential files are often stored on reels of magnetic tape.) Data in a sequential file are processed in order, starting with the first item, the processing the second, then the third and so on. To reach data in the middle of the file you must go through all the data that preceeds it. A random access file works like a sampler box of chocolate. You can access a particular item by going directly to it. Data in a random acess file may be accessed in any order. To read data in the middle of the file you can go directly to it. Random access files are sometimes called direct access files.

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You might think that all files should be random access. But random access files are much more difficult to imp. 12. What is command line arguments? It is possible to pass some values from the command line to your C programs when they are executed. These values are called command line arguments and many times they are important for your program especially when you want to control your program from outside instead of hard coding those values inside the code. The command line arguments are handled using main() function arguments where argc refers to the number of arguments passed, and argv[] is a pointer array which points to each argument passed to the program. 13. Write an example program for command line arguments. #include int main( int argc, char *argv[] ) { if( argc == 2 ) { printf("The argument supplied is %s\n", argv[1]); } else if( argc > 2 ) { printf("Too many arguments supplied.\n"); } else { printf("One argument expected.\n"); } } 14. Write the functions for random access file processing. 1. fseek() 2. ftell() 3. rewind()

15. Write short notes on fseek(). fseek(): This function is used for seeking the pointer position in the file at the specified byte. Syntax: fseek( file pointer, displacement, pointer position); Where file pointer ---- It is the pointer which points to the file. displacement ---- It is positive or negative.This is the number of bytes which are skipped backward (if negative) or forward( if positive) from the current position.This is attached with L because this is a long integer. Pointer position: This sets the pointer position in the file. Value pointer position 0 Beginning o 1 Current position 2 End of file 16. Give an example for fseek().

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1) fseek( p,10L,0) 0 means pointer position is on beginning of the file,from this statement pointer position is skipped 10 bytes from the beginning of the file. 2) fseek( p,5L,1) 1 means current position of the pointer position.From this statement pointer position is skipped 5 bytes forward from the current position. 3) fseek(p,-5L,1) From this statement pointer position is skipped 5 bytes backward from the current position.

17. Give an example for ftell(). ftell() This function returns the value of the current pointer position in the file.The value is count from the beginning of the file. Syntax: ftell(fptr); Where fptr is a file pointer. 18. Give an example for rewind(). rewind() This function is used to move the file pointer to the beginning of the given file. Syntax: rewind( fptr); Where fptr is a file pointer. 19. State Block read/write. It is useful to store the block of data into the file rather than individual elements. Each block has some fixed size, it may be of structure or of an array. It is possible that a data file has one or more structures or arrays, So it is easy to read the entire block from file or write the entire block to the file. There are two useful functions for this purpose 20. Write short notes on fwrite(). This function is used for writing an entire block to a given file. Syntax: fwrite( ptr, size, nst, fptr); Where ptr is a pointer which points to the arrayof struture in which data is written. Size is the size of the structure nst is the number of the structure fptr is a filepointer. Example program for fwrite():

21. Write short notes on fread(). This function is used to read an entire block from a given file. Syntax: fread ( ptr , size , nst , fptr); Where ptr is a pointer which points to the array which receives structure. Size is the size of the structure nst is the number of the structure fptr is a filepointer.

22. Write short notes on fprintf (). This function is same as the printf() function but it writes the data into the file, so it has one more parameter that is the file pointer. Syntax: fprintf(fptr, "controlcharacter",variable-names); Where fptr is a file pointer Control character specifies the type of data to be printed into file. Variable-names hold the data to be printed into the file.

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23. Write short notes on fscanf (). This function is same as the scanf() function but this reads the data from the file, so this has one more parameter that is the file pointer. Syntax: fscanf(fptr, "control character", &variable-names); Where fptr is a file pointer Control character specifies the type of data to be read from the file. Address of Variable names are those that hold the data read from the file.

24. Write short notes on fscanf (). The macro feof() is used for detecting whether the file pointer is at the end of file or not.It returns nonzero if the file pointer is at the end of the file otherwise it returns zero. Syntax: feof(fptr); Where fptr is a file pointer . 25. Write short notes on ferror(). ferror() The macro ferror() is used for detecting whether an error occur in the file on filepointer or not.It returns the value nonzero if an error,otherwise it returns zero. Syntax: ferror(fptr); Where fptr is a file pointer. ******************************************************************************

Question Bank – CS8251 - Programming in C

UNIT I BASICS OF C PROGRAMMING

1. Describe the structure of a C Program. [UN] 2. List the different data types available in C. [RE] 3. What are constants? Explain the various types of constants in C. [UN] 4. Explain the different types of operators available in C. [UN] 5. Describe the various looping statements used in C with suitable examples. [UN][AP] 6. Explain in detail about various decision making statements available in C with illustrative programs. [UN][AP] 7. Write the operations of compilation process. [AP] 8. Write a C program to print the Fibonacci series of a given number. [AP] 9. Write a C program to solve the quadratic equation and to find a Factorial of a given number. [AP] 10. Write a C program to check whether a given number is prime number or not. [AP]

UNIT II ARRAYS AND STRINGS

1. What is an array? Discuss how to initialize a one dimensional and two dimensional arrays with suitable example? [RE][UN] 2. Write a C program to search an element in a given array using linear and binary search. [AP] 3. Write a C program for sorting an array of numbers using selection sort. [AP] 4. Write a C program to addition, subtract and multiply two matrices. [AP]

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5. Write a C program to scaling transformations of a matrix. [AP] 6. Write a C program to determinant a matrix. [AP] 7. Write a C program to transpose a matrix. [AP] 8. Write a C program to find mean, median and mode. [AP] 9. Explain in detail about string and list the various string operations with example. [RE][UN] 10. Write a C program to find out the length and reverse of the string without using built-in function. [AP][AN]

UNIT III FUNCTIONS AND POINTERS

2. What is a function in C? Explain the steps in writing a function in C program with example. [RE][UN] 3. Classify the function prototypes with example C program for each. [UN] 4. What is recursion? Write a C program to find the sum of the digits, to find the factorial of a number and binary search using recursion. [RE][AP] 5. Write a C program to design the scientific calculator using built-in functions. [AP] 6. Explain about pointers and write the use of pointers in arrays with suitable example. [RE][UN] 7. Explain the concept of pass by value and pass by reference. Write a C program to swap the content of two variables using pass by reference. [RE][AP]

UNIT IV STRUCTURES

1. What is a structure? Create a structure with data members of various types and declare two structure variables. Write a program to read data into these and print the same. Justify the need for structured data type. [RE][AP] 2. Write a C program to store the employee information using structure and search a particular employee using Employee number. [AP] 3. Define and declare a nested structure to store date, which including day, month and year. [RE][UN] 4. Explain about array of structures and pointers in structures with example program.[RE] 5. Write a C program to create mark sheet for students using self referential structure.[AP] 6. Discuss about dynamic memory allocation with suitable example C program. [RE] 7. Explain about singly linked list with suitable example C program. [RE]

UNIT V FILE PROCESSING

1. Explain about files and with it types of file processing. [RE] 2. Compare sequential access and random access. [AN] 3. Write a C program to finding average of numbers stored in sequential access file and random access file. [AP] 4. Write a C program for transaction processing using random access files. [AP] 5. Describe command line arguments with example C program. [RE]

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VSB ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KARUR BE 8255 BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND MEASUREMENT ENGINEERING TWO MARK QUESTIONS UNIT I- ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ANALYSIS 1. What is charge? The charge is an electrical property of the atom particles of which matter consists. The unit of charge is coulomb. 2. Define current. The flow of free electron in a metal is called electric current. The unit current is ampere. Current (I) = Q / t Where, Q is the total charge transferred in coulomb. t is the time required to transfer the charge. 3. Define voltage. The potential difference between two points in an electric circuit called voltage. The unit of voltage is the volt. Voltage represented by V or v. 4. Define power. The rate of doing work by electrical energy or energy supplied per unit time is called the power. Its unit is watts P = V I; P = I2R; P = E2 / R. P = Energy / time = W/t 5. Define resistance. Resistance is the property of a substance, which opposes the flow of electric current. Also it can be considered as electric friction. Whenever current flows through a resistor, a voltage drop occurs in it and it is dissipated in the form of heat. Unit of resistance is ohm. Symbol is measured with a help of ohmmeter 6. What is meant by electrical energy? Energy is the total amount of work done and hence is the product of power and time. W = Pt = EIt = I2Rt = E2 / Rt Joules (watt – second) 7. Write down the expression for effective resistance when three resistances are connected in series and parallel. For series connection (for three resistors) R= R1 + R2 + R3 For parallel connection (for two resistors) R = R1 R2 /(R1 + R2) 8. State Kirchhoff‟s current law The sum of currents flowing towards the junction is equal to the sum of the currents flowing away from it. 9. State Kirchhoff‟s voltage law In a closed circuit, the sum of the potential drops is equal to the sum of the potential rises. 10. What is series circuit? When the resistors connected in a circuit such that the current flowing through them is same is called as series circuit. 11. What is parallel circuit? When resistors are connected across one another so that same voltage applied to each, then they are said to be in parallel the circuit is called as parallel circuit. 12. State Ohm‟s law. (April/May 2018). When t e m p e r a t u r e remains constant, current flowing through a circuit is directly proportional to potential deference across the conductor. V= I*R (Volts) 13. Define apparent power.

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The maximum power consumed by the circuit is called apparent power. The unit VA. S = VI. 14. Define capacitance. A capacitor is a circuit element that, like the inductor, stores energy during periods of time and return the energy during others. In the capacitor, storage takes place in an electric field unlike the inductance where storage is magnetic field. Two parallel plates separated by an insulating medium form a capacitor. The emf across the capacitor is proportional to the charge in it i.e q or e = q/C, Where, C is constant called capacitance. 15.What is star and Delta connection One end of each resistance is connected at a point called star and other three terminals are connected to A,B,C.This is called star connection.When three resistances are connected end to end to form delta shape is called delta connection. 16.State Thevenins theorem.( April/May 2019). It states that that any two terminal linear network having a number of voltage sources,current sources and resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single voltage source in series with a resistance. 17.State Nortons theorem. It states that any two terminal linear network with current sources,voltage sources and resistances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance. 18.State superposition theorem. . (April/May 2018) It states that in any linear network containing two or more sources,the response in any element is equal to the algebric sum of the responses caused by individual sources acting alone while other sources are non operative. 19.State Maximum power transfer theorem. It states that maximum power is delivered from a source to a load when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance. 20. Write down the formula for a delta connected network is converted into a star network? R1=(RARB+RBRC+RCRA)/RC ,R2=(RARB+RBRC+RCRA)/RB, R3=(RARB+RBRC+RCRA)/RA 21. Define line currents and phase currents? The currents flowing in the lines are called as line currents The currents flowing through phase are called phase currents. 22. Define line voltage and phase voltage? The voltage across one phase and neutral is called line voltage & the voltage between two lines is called phase voltage 23. Give the phase value & Line value of a star connected system. VL= 3Vph 24. Give the phase value and line valued of a delta connected system. IL= 3Iph 25. What is the power equation for a star connected system? P= 3I V cosΦ L Watts 26. What is the power equation for a delta connected system? P= 3I V cosΦ L Watts 27. What is meant by Real power? Real power means the useful power transfer from source to load. Unit is watts. 28. What is meant by apparent power? Apparent power is the product of voltage and current and it is not true power. Unit is VA. 29. What is reactive power? If we consider the circuit as purely inductive the output power is reactive power. Its unit is VAR 30. Distinguish between a mesh and a loop of a circuit. A mesh is a loop that does not contain other loops. All meshes are loop, but all loops are not meshes. A loop is any closed path of branches.

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31.Distinguish between a Branch and a node of a circuit. A pair of network which connects the various points of the network is called branch A point at which two or more elements are joined together is called node. 32.An inductive circuit has an inductance of 0.4 Henry and takes a current of 0.5 Amp when connected to 200V ,50Hz supply. Determine the resistance of the circuit.(April/May 2019). Z=√ (R2+Xl2) X L=2∏FL=125.66 Z=V/I=400 Therefore R=379.7ohm 33.The resistance of two wires is 25ohm when connected in series and 6ohm when connected in parallel. Calculate the resistance of each wire. (Nov/Dec2019). R1+R2=25 equation 1 (R1xR2)/(R1+R2) = 6 equation 2 By Solving equation 1 & 2 will get R1=15 ohm and R2=10ohm 34.Calculate the value of Norton‟s current (IN) for the circuit shown in figure 2. (Nov/Dec 2019). Short circuit load resistance and apply Use Mesh inspection method to two loops and find I2. UNIT II - ELECTRICAL MACHINES 1. What is an electric generator? An electrical machine, which converts mechanical energy into electrical Energy, is called as electric generator. 2. What is an electric motor? An electrical machine, which converts electrical energy into mechanical Energy, is called as electric motor. 3. What is meant by magnetic flux? The magnetic lines of force existing around a magnet is called magnetic flux. It‘s unit is Weber. 1wb=10 8 magnetic flux lines 4. State faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction. Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic lines of force an emf is induced in it. 5 .What is the use of commutator? A device is used in a dc generator to convert the alternating emf into unidirectional emf is called commutator. 6. What is the function yoke? It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the dc machine. So that the insulating material gets protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and various gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc. It provides mechanical support to the poles. 7. What is the choice of material for the following? 1. Yoke 2. p o l e 3. Field winding 4.Armature winding 1. Yoke: It is prepared by using cast iron because it is cheapest. 2. Pole: It is made up of cast iron or cast steel. 3. Field winding: It is made up of aluminium or copper. 4. Armature winding: It is made up of cast iron or cast steel. 8. Give the emf equation of dc generator. E= ZϕNP/60A E⇒ Generated emf in volts where ϕ⇒Flux produced per pole in Weber 176

Z⇒Total no. of conductors N⇒Speed of armature in rpm E= ZϕN/60 for lap winding A=P E= ZϕNP/120 for wave winding A=2 9. What are all the two types of excitation? i. Separate excitation When the field winding is supplied from external, separate dc supply i.e. Excitation of field winding is separate then the generator is called separately excited generator. ii. Self excitation When the field winding is supplied from the armature of the generator itself then it is called as self-excitation. 10. What is meant by residual magnetism? Practically though the generator is not working, without any current through field winding, the field poles posses some magnetic flux. This is called as residual magnetism. 11. State that the Fleming‟s left hand rule. The rules states that outstretch the three fingers of the left hand namely the first finger, middle finger and thumb such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. Now point the first finger in the direction of magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the current then the thumb gives the direction of the force experienced by the conductor. 12.What is Lenz‟s law? Lenz‘s law states the direction of induced emf is always so as to oppose the cause producing it 13. List the different types of DC motor. DC series motor DC Shunt motor DC Compound motor Long shunt compound motor Short shunt compound motor 14.what do you meant by speed regulation? The speed regulation of a DC motor is defined as the ratio of change in speed corresponding to no load and full load condition to speed corresponding to full load. It‘s expressed as Speed regulation=Nno load-Nfull load Nfull load 15.List out the characteristics of DC motor. i. Torque-Armature current characteristics (T vs Ia) ii. Speed-Armature current characteristics (N vs Ia) 16. What are all the applications of DC motor? Blowers and fans Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps Lathe machines Machine tools Milling machines Drilling machines 17.What is the necessity of starter? To restrict high starting armature current, a variable resistance is connected in series with the e armature at start. This resistance is called starter. 18. What are all the factors affecting the speed of a DC motor? The flux The voltage across the armature The applied voltage 19. List out the applications of various types of generators. 177

Separately excited generator As a separate supply is required to excite the field, the use is restricted to some special applications like electroplating, electro refining of materials etc Shunt generator Commonly used in battery charging and ordinary lighting purposes. Series Generators Commonly used as boosters on dc feeders, as a constant current generators for welding generator and arc lamps. Cumulatively compound generators These are used for domestic lighting purposes and to transmit energy over long distance. Differential compound generator The use of this type of generators is very 20.What is stepper motor? (April/May 2019). A stepper motor is a digital actuator whose input is in the form of programmed energization of the stator windings and whose output is in the form of discrete angular rotation. 21. Define step angle. Step angle is definrd as the angle through which the motor rotates for each command pulse.it is denoted as β. β=(Ns-Nr/Ns.Nr)360 (or)360/(mNr) 22.Mention some applications of stepper motor I.floppy disc drives ii. qurtz watch iii. camera shutter operation iv. dot matrix and line printers v. small tool application vi. robotics 23.What are the advantages and disadvantages of stepper motor? Adv: 1. it can be driven in open loop without feedback 2. it is mechanically simple 3. it requires little or no maintenance. Disadv: 1.low efficiency 2.fixed step angle 3.limited power output 24. why is the PMBLDC motor called electronically commulated motor? The PMBL DC motor is also called electronically commutated motor because the phase windings of PLMBL DC motor is energized by using power semiconductor switching circuits.here the power semiconductor switching circuits act as a commutator. 25. what are the classification of BLPM DC motor? BLPM square wave motor BLPM sine wave motor 26. What is step down transformer? The transformer used to step down the voltage from primary to secondary is called as step down transformer. (Ex: 220/110V). 27. Give the basic principle behind the working of transformer. The transformers works in the principle of mutual induction between two coils which are electrically isolated but magnetically coupled. 28. Define voltage regulation of transformer. The voltage regulation of a transformer is the arithmetic difference (not phasor difference) between

178 the no-load secondary voltage (0V2) and the secondary voltage V2 on load expressed as percentage of no-load voltage. 29. What are the properties of an ideal transformer? An ideal transformer has the following properties:  No winding resistance  No flux leakage  No coreloss  Magnetize at zero current 30. What is All day efficiency? (April/May 2019)/ (April/May 2018) The ratio of output in kWh to the input in kWh of a transformer over a 24-hour period is known as all-day efficiency i.e All day Efficiency = (Output kWh for 24Hrs / Input kWh for 24 Hrs)*100 31. list the factors affecting the EMF generated in DC Machine. . (April/May 2018) Number of poles Flux/pole Speed Parallel paths in armature 32.State double field revolving theory.(Nov/Dec 2019). Any alternating quantity can be resolved into two equal components rotating in opposite direction and have half of the magnitudes.The interaction with two rotating fluxes produces torque in opposite direction leading net torque to zero. 33.Why an induction motor is called a rotating transformer?(Nov/Dec 2019) The operating principle of an induction motor is similar to that of a transformer. The stator side is equivalent to the primary winding and rotor winding is equivalent to the short circuited secondary winding of the transformer. In transformer the secondary winding is stationary but in case of induction motor it can rotate. Therefore an induction motor is called a rotating transformer. UNIT III- UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER 1. What are the sources of energy?(AU-NOV/DEC‟08) Electrical energy is produced from energy available in various forms in nature. The sources of energy are • The Sun • The wind • Water • Fuels • Nuclear energy 2. What is solar cell? The solar cells operate on the principle of photo voltaic effect, which is a process of generating an emf as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation .It is possible to convert solar energy directly into electrical energy by means of silicon wafer photo-voltaic cells, also called the solar cells, without any intermediate thermodynamic cycle. 3. What are the types of collectors used in solar power generation? Types of collectors are • Flat plate collectors(60°C) • Cylindrical parabolic concentrator (100-200°C) • Paraboloids, Mirror Arrays( <200°C) 4. What is the basic principle of wind power generation? Winds are essentially caused by the solar heating of the atmosphere. They carry enormous quantity of energy. Wind as a source of power is very attractive because it is plentiful, inexhaustible, renewable and non-polluting. There is no depletion of scarce resources. 5. What is meant by Refrigeration? Refrigeration is defined as an art of producing and maintaining the temperature in a closed space below atmospheric temperature. 6. What is meant by air conditioning? 179

Air conditioning is defined as the simultaneous control of the temperature of air, humidity of air, purity of air and motion of air for the purpose of human comfort, food processing and other industrial purpose. 7. Define luminous flux. It is defined as the total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous body. It is represented by symbol F and is measured in lumens. The conception of luminous flux helps us to specify the output and efficiency of a given light source. 8. What are the laws of illumination? Illumination at appoint is inversely proportional to square of its distance from the point source and directly proportional to the luminous intensity (CP) of the source of light in that direction. If a source of light emits light equally in all directions be placed at the Centre of a hollow sphere, the light will fall uniformly on the inner surface of the sphere. If the sphere be replaced by one of the larger radius, the same total amount of light is spread over a larger area proportional to the square of the radius. 9. Lambert‟s cosine law The illumination at a point on a surface is proportional to cosine of the angle which ray makes with the normal to the surface at that point. 10. What is meant by luminance? It is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of either a surface source of light or a reflecting surface and is denoted by L. 11. What is stroboscopic effect of fluorescent tubes? (AU-NOV/DEC‟11) With a.c. supply frequency of 50 cycles per second, discharge through the lamp becomes zero, 100 times in a second. Due to the persistence of vision, our eyes do not notice this. If this light falls on moving parts, they may appear to be either running slow or in the reverse direction or even may appear stationary. This effect is called stroboscopic effect. 12. What are the advantage and disadvantage of sodium vapour lamp? Advantage: Efficiency is higher. Has long life Disadvantage: Bright yellow light is not suitable for indoor lightning For full output, the delay time is 10-15 minute. 13 What are the application of mercury vapour lamp . Used in streetlightning, cricket stadium lightning. 14. Compare the lead acid, lithium ion and nickel cadmium batteries. lead acid lithium ion nickel cadmium Anode Lead Peroxide Carbon Cadmium Cathode Sponge Lead Lithium cobalt oxide Nickel hydroxide Lithium salt dissolved in Electrolyte Dilute Sulphuric Acid Potassium hydroxide solvent • Longest life • Less weight •Reliable Advantage • Available in all shape and • Fast charging and •Good performance size. discharging rate characteristics • Pb is more heavier • More expensive • Most expensive component Disadvantage • Not available in • Toxic material is • Efficiency need to be standard cell type involved improved 15. What is meant by fuse, earthing and circuit breaker? Fuse It is a short piece of metal. It is inserted in the circuit which melts when excessive current flow 180 through it and breaks the circuit. Earthing A power system is earthed at a suitable point by a suitable method Circuit breaker A Circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. 16. Define tariff The rate at which energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff. Tariff rate the different methods of charging the consumers. Write down the general tariff 17 equation . Z=ax+by+c Where Z= Total amount of bill for the period x=Maximum demand y=Energy consumed in kwh a=Rate per kW b=Energy rate per kWh c=Constant amount charged to the consumer. 18. What is two part tariff When the rate of electrical energy is changed on the basics of maximum demand on a consumer and the units consumed, then it is called two part tariff. 19. How can we calculate the cost of electricity? • Sum all the operating expenses for each year of operation- fuel, consumable, etc. • Add the carrying cost of capital- Total Capacity * Fixed Charge Rate • Divide by Kwh‘s produced in the year. • Yield average annual cost of Electricity THB/Kwh 20. Mention the role of Energy Audit An energy audit establishes both where and how the energy is being used and the potential for energy saving. 21.How does a sodium vapour lamp works? (April/May 2019). When passing electric current through sodium gas it makes the gas to emit light.This effect is called photo electric effect. 22.What are renewable energy resources? (April/May 2019). Wind ,coal,biomass,solar 23.Sketch the fluorescent lamp connection arrangement. (April/May 2018) 24.List the different types of tariff calculation in electrical system. . (April/May 2018) Simple tariff Flat rate tariff Block rate tariff Two part tariff Maximum demand tariff Power factor tariff Three part tariff Peak load tariff. 25.Mention the types of energy tariff for domestic loads. (Nov/Dec 2019) 26.Write the most commonly used materials for fuse element. (Nov/Dec 2019) Tin, Lead, Silver, Copper, Zinc, aluminum and a alloy of lead and tin UNIT IV- ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS 1. What is a PN Junction diode

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There are two electrodes each from p-type and n-type materials and due to these two electrodes; the device is called a diode. It conducts only in one direction. 2. Differentiate between zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown. (April/May 2019). Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown The temperature coefficient The temperature coefficient is negative is Positive occurs for zener diodes with Occurs for zener diodes with Vz less than 6V Vz greater than 6V 3. Define static and dynamic resistance of a PN diode. The forward resistance of p-n junction diode when p-n junction is used in d.c Circuit and the applied forward voltage is d.c. is called static resistance. The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode under a.c. conditions is called dynamic Resistance of diode. 4. What are the different types of transistor configuration CE- Common Emitter CB- Common Base CC- Common Collector 5. Among CE,CB and CC configurations, which one is the popular? Why? The CE configuration is widely used because it provides both voltage gain as well as current gain greater than unity. 6. Draw the circuit of NPN transistor in CB configuration? 7. Name the operating modes of a transistor? 1.Cut off 2.Active 3.Saturation 8. Define an operational amplifier. An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled, high gain amplifier consisting of one or more differential amplifier. By properly selecting the external components, it can be used to perform a variety of mathematical operations. 9. List out the ideal characteristics, and draw the equivalent diagram of an OP-AMP Open loop voltage gain is infinity. *Input impedance is infinity. *Output impedance is zero. *Bandwidth is infinity. *Zero offset. 10. Define Virtual ground property of an OP-AMP A virtual ground is a ground which acts like a ground. It may not have physical connection to ground. This property of an ideal op-amp indicates that the inverting and non-inverting terminals of op-amp are at the same potentials. The non-inverting input is grounded for the inverting amplifier circuit. This means that the inverting input of the op-amp is also at ground potential. 11. Draw the voltage follower circuit of an OP-AMP 12.What are the limitations of an ideal active differentiator? At high frequency, differentiators may become unstable and break into oscillation. The input impedance i.e. (1/ωC1) decreases with increase in frequency, thereby making the circuit sensitive to high frequency noise. 13.How does the precision rectifier differ from the conventional rectifier? These rectifiers are used to rectify very small voltages or currents for which the diode never gets forward biased in the conventional one. i.e. voltage or currents are always less than .7V which can not be rectified by normal rectifiers. This rectifier doesn‘t give any kind of drop in output since diodes are previously biased using op-amp. 14.Draw the circuit of an integrator. 182

15. List the drawbacks of binary weighted resistor technique of D/A conversion. a) Wide range of resistor values needed b) Difficulty in achieving and maintaining accurate ratios over a wide range of variations 16. What is the advantage and disadvantages of flash type ADC? Flash type ADC is the fastest as well as the most expensive. The disadvantage is the number of comparators needed almost doubles for each added bit (For a nbit convertor 2(n-1) comparators, 2n resistors are required). 17.The basic step of a 9 bit DAC is 10.3 mV. If 000000000 represents 0Volts, what is the output for an input of 101101111? The output voltage for input of 101101111 is = 10.3 mV (1*28+0*27+1*26+1*25+0*24+1*23+1*22+1*21+1*20) = 10.3 * 10-3 * 367 = 3.78 V 18.What are the advantages and disadvantages of R-2R ladder DAC. Advantages: a) Easier to build accurately as only two precision metal films are required. b) Number of bits can be expanded by adding more sections of same R/2R values. Disadvantage: a) In this type of DAC, when there is a change in the input, changes the current flow in the resistor which causes more power dissipation which creates non-linearity in DAC. 19.What are the types of ADC and DAC. Types of ADC: 1. Flash (comparator) type converter 2. Counter type converter 3. Tracking or servo converter 4. Successive approximation type converter Types of DAC: 1. Weighted resistor DAC 2. R-2R Ladder 3. Inverted R-2R Ladder 20.Define following performance parameters of D/A converters: a) Resolution The resolution of a converter is the smallest change in voltage which may be produced at the output or input of the converter. Resolution (in volts)= VFS/2n-1=1 LSB increment. The resolution of an ADC is defined as the smallest change in analog input for a one bit change at the output. b) Accuracy Absolute accuracy: It is the maximum deviation between the actual converter output & the ideal converter output. Relative accuracy: It is the maximum deviation after gain & offset errors have been removed. The accuracy of a converter is also specified in form of LSB increments or % of full scale voltage. c) Monotonicity A monotonic DAC is one whose analog output increases for an increase in digital input. d) Conversion time It is defined as the total time required to convert an analog signal into its digital output. It depends on the conversion technique used & the propagation delay of circuit components. The conversion time of a successive approximation type ADC is given by T(n+1) where T---clock period Tc---conversion time n----no. of bits 21.Why do BJTs are called Bipolar transistors? (April/May 2019).

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The transistor action is due to the movement of both electrons and holes so it is called bipolar transistor 22.Draw the circuit arrangement of Op amp based differentiator. (April/May 2018) 23.What is diffusion current?(Nov/Dec 2019) The movement of charge carriers due to concentration gradient in a semiconductor is called diffusion. When charge carriers move the current is constituted in a bar. This current due to diffusion is called diffusion current. 24.When should a transistor be biased?Name two common biasing circuits. (Nov/Dec 2019). The transistor can be biased when it is needed to function or operate.The two common biasing as Forward biasing and reverse biasing. UNIT V- ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT 1. Give the expression for torque in moving coil instruments. Deflecting torque Td = NBldI=GI Controlling Torque Tc=Kθ 2. What are the causes of creeping in an energy meter? • Over compensation for friction • Excessive voltage across the potential coil • Vibrations • Stray magnetic fields 3. List the different types of wattmeter. • Ferro dynamic wattmeter • Low power factor wattmeters ( Electrodynamometer wattmeters) •Thermocouple wattmeter (Thermal watt converter) 4. Define measurement. Measurement involves an instrument as a physical means of determining a quantity or variable. 5. Define instrumental error and limiting error. Circuit components are guaranteed within a certain % of their rated value. The limits of these deviations from the specified values are known as limiting errors. Instrumental error is error inherent in measuring instruments because of their mechanical structure. 6. Define random error and probable error. Random errors are due to unknown causes & occur even when all systematic errors have been accounted for. Probable error = + or - 0.6745 7. state two sources of error in MI instrument. Temperature error, hysteresis error, stray magnetic field error, frequency error, eddy current error. List out the errors in PMMC instrument. Weakening permanent magnet due to ageing, temperature effects. Weakening control spring due to ageing, temperature effects. 8. State the application MC and MI instruments Moving Coil Instrument - DC measurements only Moving Iron Instrument - both AC and DC 9. What are the major functional blocks of CRO? Cathode ray tube, electron gun, vertical & horizontal plates, time base circuit, trigger circuit. 2. 10. 10. What are the major components of CRT? Cathode ray tube, electron gun, vertical &horizontal plates 11. Why is a delay line used in the vertical section of the oscilloscope? The electronics circuit causes a certain amount of time delay in transmission of signal voltages to deflection plates. To allow the operator to observe the leading edge of signal waveform, the signal drive for the vertical CRT plates must be delayed by at least the same amount of time. 12. What is sampling oscilloscope? The input waveform is reconstructed from many samples taken during recurrent cycles of input waveform.

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13. What are the uses of Oscilloscopes? For the development of electronic circuit& that allows the amplitude of electrical signals, voltage or current or power to be displayed as a function of time. 14. What are the advantages of digital storage oscilloscope? It is the superior method of trace storage; the waveform to be stored is digitized, stored in a digital memory & retrieved for display. The stored waveform is continually displayed by repeatedly scanning. 15. Write the main static characteristics? The main static characteristics are: • Accuracy • Sensitivity • Reproducibility • Drift • Static error • Dead zone • Resolution • Precision • Repeatability • Stability 16. List the functional elements of the measurement systems. The three main functional elements of the measurement systems are: • Primary sensing element • Variable conversion element • Data presentation element 17. Write the different types of systematic errors. These types of errors are divided into three categories: • Instrument Errors • Environmental Errors • Observational Errors 18. What is standard? What are the different types of standards? A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. The term standard is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical quantity. Types of Standards • International Standards (defined based on international agreement ) • Primary Standards (maintained by national standards laboratories) • Secondary Standards ( used by industrial measurement laboratories) • Working Standards ( used in general laboratory) 19. What is the importance of dynamic characteristic of systems? When the quantity under measurement changes rapidly with time, it is necessary to find the dynamic relations existing between input and output. These types of characteristics are called as Dynamic Characteristics. 20. Why the PMMC instruments are not used for a.c measurement? When the PMMC instruments are connected to a.c, the torque reverse as the current reveres and the pointer cannot follow the rapid reversals. Hence the deflection corresponding to mean torque is zero thus making the PMMC instrument not suitable for a.c measurements. 21. What is the basic principle PMMC instrument? A current carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field experiences a force proportional to the current it carries. 22. For which type of measurements PMMC devices are suitable. These are suitable only for D.C. In A.C torque produced on coil is reversing which cannot give

185 accurate reading. 23. List the possible causes of errors in moving iron instruments. Hysteresis error • Temperature error • Stray magnetic field error • Frequency error • Eddy current error 24. State the essential torques required for successful operation of an instruments. • Deflecting torque • Controlling torque • Damping torque. 25. Which torque is absent in energy meter? Why? The controlling torque is not present in energy meter. As the disc of energy meter has to rotor continuously and there is no need to reset its position any time, the controlling torque is not required. 26. State the advantages of Moving iron type instruments Less expensive Can be used for both dc and ac Reasonably accurate 27. Write the function of transducer It converts one type of energy into another. 28. Define the primary and secondary transducers? Primary Transducer: When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon is converted into electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the primary transducer. Secondary Transducer: When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output being of some from other than input signals is given as input to a transducer for conversion into electrical form, then such a transducer falls in the category of secondary transducers. 29. How do you classify transducers? • On the basis of transduction form used. • As primary and secondary transducers. • As active and passive transducers. • As analog and digital transducers. • As transducers and inverse transducers. 30. What is piezo-electric effect? A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain surfaces of the crystal if the dimensions of the crystals are changed by the application of a mechanical force this potential is produced by the displacement of charges . This effect is reversible. This phenomenon is known as piezoelectric effect. 31. What is meant by strain gauge? What for it is used? It is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires. 32. Which are the materials used in piezo-electric transducer? • Rochelle salt • Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (ADP). • Quartz. • Ceramic made with barium titanate, • dipottasium tartrate, • potassium dihydrogen phosphate • and lithium sulphate. 33.What is the basic requirement of a transducer? (April/May 2019).

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• Ruggedness • Linearity • Good dynamic response • Repeatability • High reliability 34.Compare moving coil and moving iron instruments based on any two salient features. (April/May 2019). MC MI 1.Used only for DC 1.Used for both DC and AC measurement measurement 2. deflection is proportional 2.Deflection is proportional to square of the to current current 35. Name the different types of errors in measurement system. . (April/May 2018) Gross error Systematic errors Instrumental errors Environmental errors 36. Write the functions of LDR. (April/May 2018) A light dependent resistor is also called photoresistor.when light intensity flow on the LDR it changes the resistance value.If the light intensity decreases then resistance of LDR increases. 37.Define reproducibility(Nov/Dec 2019) It is the closeness of agreement among repeated measurements of the output for the same value of input . 38.What causes errors in moving iron instruments? (Nov/Dec 2019) 1)Error occurs when used for both AC and DC measurement i)Varying flux density,Temperature error,Operating field is weak and 2)When used for AC only Frequency error 3)Eddy current error

BE 8255 BASIC ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONICS AND MEASUREMENT ENGINEERING 16 MARK QUESTIONS UNIT I ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ANALYSIS 1. State and explain the Kirchoff‘s Law. 2. Derive the equation for equivalent resistance of number of resistor connected in parallel. Find the current through each branch by network reduction technique. 3. Calculate a) the equivalent resistances across the terminals of the supply, b) total current supplied by the source and c) power delivered to 16 ohm resistor in the circuit shown in figure. d)Determine the current in 16 ohm resistor for the given circuit by mesh method.(April/May 2018) 4. In the circuit shown, determine the current through the 2 ohm resistor and the total current delivered by the battery. Use Kirchhoff‘s laws. 5. (a) In the network shown below, find the current delivered by the battery. (b) Discuss about voltage and current division principles. 6. Using the node voltage analysis, find all the node voltages and currents in 1/3 ohm and 1/5

187 ohm resistances of figure. 7. Define (a) real power, (b) reactive power and (c) Apparent Power. 8. Explain about the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem and Superposition Theorem. 9. Find the current through the 10 ohm resistor in the following figure 11.b)using Thevenins theorem.(Nov/Dec 2019) 10. For the circuit shown in fig 11.a) find the (i) currents in different branches,(ii) current supplied by the battery,(iii) potential difference between the terminals A and B.(Nov/Dec 2019). 11. Derive expressions for star connected arms in terms of delta connected arms and delta connected arms in terms of star connected arms. 12. In the circuit shown in figure (i) find the current in the load resistance Rl=200ohm.(Nov/Dec 2019) 13. Find the value of R and the current flowing through it in the circuit shown when the current in the branch OA is zero. 14. Consider a resistive circuit having two meshes with one voltage source in each mesh and derive the steps involved in solving through.(i)Mesh analysis ii)Superposition theorem (April/May 2019) 15. Construct a resistive circuit on your own and assign the values of resistances and voltages. Evaluate the current in the load resistor(assume) of the circuit using thevenin‘s theorem and compare the result using mesh analysis technique(by direct inspection method) (April/May 2019). 16. Finding the equivalent resistance in a circuit. 17. In the circuit shown in fig 16.b(ii),find the value of R for maximum power transfer.Also calculate the maximum power.(Nov/Dec 2019) 18. Series and parallel combination of R,L,C components and their formulas. 19. Calculate the current in the 4 ohm resistor in the given figure 16.b i) using super position theorem.(Nov/Dec 2019) 20. Find the voltage across 5ohm resistor for the circuit shown in fig 16.a) using source transformation technique and verify the results using mesh analysis.(Nov/Dec 2019) UNIT II ELECTRICAL MACHINES 1. Explain parallel operation of single phase transformer. And derive the emf equation of transformers. (April/May 2019) (Nov/Dec 2019). 2. Explain generated voltage in AC and DC machines. 3. Explain the principle of operation of DC motor and derive the torque equation(April/May 2019) 4. Explain and derive the torque in round rotor machines in terms of flux and flux density. 5. Explain the methods speed control of DC shunt motor. 6. Explain the methods speed control of DC series motor. 7. Derive the equation for induced EMF of a DC Machine 8. Explain the construction and working of Brushless DC motor(BLDC) 9. Explain the principle of operation of single phase Induction Motor. 10. Explain the Construction and working of single phase Induction Motor. 11. Explain the different types of Induction Motor. 12. Explain the construction and working of transformer and derive the EMF Equation. (April/May 2018) 13. With neat diagram explain the construction and working principle of DC generator. (April/May 2018) 14. Explain the construction and principle of operation of stepper motor. (Nov/Dec 2019) 15. Find the all day efficiency of 500 KVA distribution transformer whose copper loss and iron

188 loss at full load are 4.5KW and 3.5KW respectively.during a day of 24 hours it is loaded as under(April/May 2018) NUMBER OF HOURS LOADING IN KW POWER FACTOR 6 400 0.8 10 300 0.75 4 100 0.8 4 0 - UNIT III UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER 1. Discuss laws of illumination and its limitations in actual practice 2. Explain the operation of fluorescent lamp in details 3. Explain the construction and working of mercury vapour lamp 4. Explain the working principle of various types of concentrating solar collectors with neat sketch(April/May 2018). 5. Evaluate the suitability of various types of generators for wind power generation 6. Describe the Charge and Discharge Characteristics of the • NiCd • Pb Acid • Li ion–Charge batteries. 7. Explain about the • Fuses (April/May 2019) • Circuit Breaker (April/May 2019) • Earthing (April/May 2018)/ (April/May 2019) 8. Explain in detail about the Energy Tariff Calculation. 9. Explain the construction and working of Domestic refrigerator(April/May 2019). 10. Draw the electric circuit of air conditioner and Explain. 11. Write a technical note on solar panel. (April/May 2018). 12. What is the importance of earthing, fuses and circuit breakers in an electrical circuit. (April/May 2019) 13. Define Bitz limit. Explain the characteristics of wind power(Nov/Dec 2019) 14. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of concentrating collectors over flat plate solar collector(Nov/Dec 2019) UNIT IV ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS 1. With a neat diagram explain the working of a PN junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias and show the effect of temperature on its V-I characteristics. (April/May 2019) (Nov/Dec 2019) 2. Explain V-I characteristics of Zener diode. (April/May 2019) 189

3. Why the Zener diode is called as regulator 4. Describe the static input and output characteristics of CB configuration of a transistor with neat circuit diagram. 5. Derive the expression for current gain, input impedance and voltage gain of a CE Transistor Amplifier(April/May 2018). 6. Explain with a neat diagram about Hartley oscillator and derive the expression for frequency of oscillation and necessary conditions for oscillation(Nov/Dec 2019) 7. Explain the principle of operation and derive the expression for wein bridge oscillator. 8. Explain the principle of operation and derive the expression for colpitts oscillator. 9. Derive the expression and characteristics of oscillator i. RC Phase shift. ii. Hartley. 10. Explain the following terms in an OP-AMP. • Bias current • Thermal drift • Input offset voltage and current • Thermal drift 10. With circuit and waveforms explain the application of OPAMP as (1) Integrator. (April/May 2018) (2) differentiator 11. With an example and diagrams explain the working principle of successive approximating type ADC and also explain the important DAC specifications. (April/May 2019) 12. Explain the following application of operational amplifier. (1) peak detector (2) Functions of flash type A/D converter 13. With neat diagram, explain the working principle of (a) R-2R ladder type DAC (April/May 2019) (b) Weighted resistor DAC 14. Explain the operation of 555 Timer in astable mode with neat circuit and wave forms. Derive the expression for frequency of output voltage in it. 15. Draw and explain the functional block diagram of a 723 voltage regulator and how this IC can be used as High voltage regulator. 16.Explain the construction and working of BJT(April/May 2018). 17.Describe the working principle of full wave rectifier with necessary waveform(April/May 190

2018). UNIT V ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT 1. Discuss in detail various types of errors associated in measurement and how these errors can be minimized? 2. Discuss in detail the various static and dynamic characteristics of a measuring system. 3. Explain in detail the types of static error. 4. With a neat diagram explain the construction and working of electrodynamometer type instruments. Also derive its torque equation. 5. Describe the construction and working and torque equation of • moving coil and moving iron meters, (April/May 2018) • Energy meter and watt meter(April/May 2019) 6. Explain the block diagram of oscilloscope with a neat sketch 7. Describe the basic components of a CRT. 8. Explain the construction and working of LVDT with a neat sketch(April/May 2018)/ (April/May 2019) (Nov/Dec 2019) 9. Describe briefly with a neat diagram, the working of piezoelectric transducer. (Nov/Dec 2019). 10. Describe the piezoelectric transducer and give the formula for coupling coefficient. 11. Explain the working principle of PMMC also derive the torque developed(April/May 2018) 12. With suitable circuit diagram explain how strain gauge is used to measure pressure? (April/May 2018) 13. Write short notes on LDR(April/May 2019).

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