COMPAMTIVE STUDIES 09V - THYSICAL, COEMICA-L AND BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OE SOME ERE-SW/TAR BODIES IN GOA AND MielVAMSIITM.
Thesis submitted to the
GOA UNIVERSITY
• p, Z.) /- for the degree .(°
of
DOCTOR OF PHILOS01411' , in
ZOOLOGY
by Vikrant Oalkrisfina Berrie
Department of Zoology, Goa University, Goa. 403 206 5 9 0 a-EA /a6m- July 2004 GOA UNIVERSITY Sub. P. 0. Goa University, Taleigao Plateau, Goa - 403 206
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Vikrant Balkrishna Berde has worked on the thesis entitled "Comparative studies on physical, chemical and biological components of some freshwater bodies in Goa and Maharashtra" under my supervision and guidance.
This thesis, being submitted to the Goa University, Taleigao Plateau, Goa, for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Zoology, is an original record of the work carried out by the candidate himself and has not been previously submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma of this or any other
University in India or abroad.
Date: 2.4 Ir Place: Research Guide
PHONES: Vice-Chancellor:451576, Registrar 451376 OFFICE : . PBX No. 451375, 451345, 451346, 451347, 451348 GRAMS : UNIGQA FAX:+91-832-451184 E-MAIL:[email protected] STATEMEKT
I state that the thesis entitled,
"Comparative studies on physical, chemical and biological components of some freshwater bodies in Goa and Maharashtra"
is my original contribution and the same has not been submitted on
any previous occasion for any other degree or diploma of this or any
other university/institute. The literature conceiving the problem
investigated has been cited and due acknowledgements have been
made wherever facilities and suggestions have been availed of
•
Place: Goa University (Vikrant Balkrishna Berde) ficknoideigement
'With deep gratitude, I acknowledge the great de6t I owe to my guide, Dr. I. X Pal, whose valitaffe guidance aruf constructive criticism has always amply rewarded me. It has 6een a pleasure to work and Thant various dimensions of the subject from I am grateful- to Prof. Dr. P V Desai, Professor and .7fead, 'Department of Zoology and Prof. Dr. D. 3. Ohat, Dean of Life Sciences, for the facilities rendered throughout my research work. I thank Dr. S. X cDu6ey, EXC evert, for his critical - evcduations and suggestions during my Ph. CD. workperiod (The advice and cooperation rendered 6y (Dr. A. B. Shan5agh, Dr S. R Shyarna and Dr. Wiry throughout the work period is ackpowiedged gratefully. I am grateful- to Dr. 7(unnur, Librarian, Goa 'University for aCfhis help. I must express my indebtedness to Prof &riga Wfddy, Naga tuna 'University, Nagaluna Nagar, Andhra Pradesh; Prof. John IfaveC S. Missouri State 'University; Prof Langeland, 'University of Oslo, Worway; Prof. S. Karaytug, The Natural- .7fistory Museum, London; Prof. B. X Sharma, .91rorth Eastern gaff 'University, Shillong; Dr. S. G. TatiC Zoological- Survey of India, Pune and Prof. Dr S. X Oattish for kind Help in various ways. I profoutuffy thank 'Dr. Sandeep Garg, Department of Microbiology, Dr. V M. Matta, Department of Marine Sciences, Dr. A. N Mahapatra, Department of Mathematics andWr. Gad (Warden, Boys hosteOfor air their help. My sincere gratitude to the Mr. Dashrath, 11r. ganu, Mr. &ma, Mr. Sudesh, Mrs. Sangeeta and Mrs. Gufabi of the Department of Zoology, for assistance rendered from time to time. My warm thanks to Shrikant and Suresh, their love and care wilt afways 6e remem6ered Special- thanks. go to (Dr. Sameer Terdalkar, Or. Woghu and calio for their unconditional- help, as and when required: I would also like to thank, Drs. Vpar, Nandint- Shand, Sonaii, Trivikram, Trupti, Judith, Shashikumar, Sharda and Kgshavfor their help and cooperation. I will always remain inde6ted to Sachin, Pa:4 Sachin Anupama, finish and Atatufar. I wish to thank my friends Suphala, WosiCa, Weenar and Kalpana from my department; Yaveen, Wasika, Vimtufu, (Deeps, Brahma and Wadan of the Aticro6iorogy department; Wovichand from Department of BiotechnoCogy; Prateek aniNagma from W.B.A and my hosterfriends for their moral - support, which counts a Cot. Special-thanks to my frierufarufcofleague geethafor her heti, and company. I evress my indeptedness to Chanda and her family for being encouraging and motivating throughout my research 6e ever inde6ted and run short of words in thanking my sister and 6hauji for not only encouraging me to continue my studies 6ut also for 6eing supportive throughout. I thank mama, mami, .91ritin-dada, vahini, finand; ?Cedar, Ann, Apu, Shardur and Tanvi; their Cove, moral- support and encouragement wilT remain in my heart forever. And fast but not the feast I thankmy Aai and - fiau with whose blessing have successfutty comp leted my thesis.
12ikrant Berle ,4_ CONTENTS
List of tables and figures i - iv
Preface I - V
Introduction
Literature review 23
Plan of Research 34
Aim and scope of the work 37
Materials and Methods 38
Results and Discussion
Chapter 1 Seasonal variations of physico-chemical factors and zooplanktonic population of 45 freshwater bodies in Goa and Maharashtra
Chapter II Species composition and distribution of zo. ()plankton in water bodies of Goa and 95 Maharashtra
Chapter III Diversity and distribution patterns of zooplanktonic communities in water 124 bodies of Goa and Maharashtra
Summary 142
Bibliography 146 List of Tables
A. Meteorological conditions of Goa and Maharashtra for the years 2000 - 2001
B. Morphometry of the freshwater bodies of Goa and Maharashtra during 2000 2001
1.1 Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton
abundance in Kalamba lake
1.2 Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton
abundance in Rajaram lake
1.3 Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton
abundance in Rankala lake
1.4 Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton
abundance in Sadoba pond
1.5 Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton
abundance in Someshwar temple tank
1.6 Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton
abundance in Waghbil lake
1.7 Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton
abundance in Mayem lake
1.8 Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton
abundance in Pilar lake
1.9 Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton
abundance in Santacruz lake
1.10 Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton
abundance in Vaddem lake
2.1 Species composition and percentage distribution of Rotifers in the fresh water bodies of
Maharashtra
2.2 Species composition and percentage distribution of Rotifers in the freshwater bodies of
Goa
2.3 Species composition and percentage distribution of Cladocera in the freshwater bodies
of Maharashtra
2.4 Species composition and percentage distribution of Cladocera in the freshwater bodies
of Goa
2.5 Species composition and percentage distribution of Copepoda in the freshwater
bodies of Maharashtra
2.6 Species composition and percentage distribution of Copepoda in the freshwater bodies of Goa
3.1 Indices for zooplankton abundance in Kalamba lake 3.2 Indices for zooplankton abundance in Rajaram lake 3.3 Indices for zooplankton abundance in -Rankala lake 3.4 Indices for zooplankton abundance in Sadoba pond 3.5 Indices for zooplankton abundance in Someshwar temple tank 3.6 Indices for zooplankton abundance in Waghbil lake 3.7 Indices for zooplankton abundance in Mayem lake 3.8 Indices for zooplankton abundance in Pilar lake 3.9 Indices for zooplankton abundance in Santacruz lake 3.10 Indices for zooplankton abundance in Vaddem lake
ii List of Figures
A. Map of India showing Goa and Maharashtra 1.1.1 Physico-chemical parameters of Kalamba lake
1.1.2 Physico-chemical parameters of Rajaram lake 1.1.3 Physico-chemical parameters of Rankala lake 1.1.4 Physico-chemical parameters of Sadoba pond 1.1.5 Physico-chemical parameters of Someshwar temple tank 1.1.6 Physico-chemical parameters of Waghbil lake 1.1.7 Physico-chemical parameters of Mayem lake 1.1.8 Physico-chemical parameters of Pilar lake 1.1.9 Physico-chemical parameters of Santacruz lake 1.1.10 Physico-chemical parameters of Vaddem lake
1.2.1 Zooplankton abundance in Kalamba lake 1.2.2 Zooplankton abundance in Rajaram lake 1.2.3 Zooplankton abundance in Rankala lake 1.2.4 Zooplankton abundance in Sadoba pond 1.2.5 Zooplankton abundance in Someshwar temple tank 1.2.6 Zooplankton abundance in Waghbil lake 1.2.7 Zooplankton abundance in Mayem lake 1.2.8 Zooplankton abundance in Pilar lake 1.2.9 Zooplankton abundance in Santacruz lake 1.2.10 Zooplankton abundance in Vaddem lake 1.3.1 Zooplankton biomass (ml/m 3) of the freshwater bodies of Maharashtra during 2000 - 2001
1.3.2 Zooplankton biomass (ml/m 3) of the freshwater bodies of Goa during 2000 - 2001 2.1 Monthly variations in the species distribution of Kalamba lake 2.2 Monthly variations in the species distribution of Rajaram lake 2.3 Monthly variations in the species distribution of Rankala lake 2.4 Monthly variations in the species distribution of Sadoba pond 2.5 Monthly variations in the species distribution of Someshwar temple tank 2.6 Monthly variations in the species distribution of Waghbil lake
2.7 Monthly variations in the species distribution of Mayem lake 2.8 Monthly variations in the species distribution of Pilar lake
iii 2.9 Monthly variations in the species distribution of Santacruz lake
2.10 Monthly variations in the species distribution of Vaddem lake
3.1.1. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Kalamba lake
3.1.2. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Rajaram lake
3.1.3. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Rankala lake
3.1.4. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Sadoba pond
3.1.5. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Someshwar temple tank
3.1.6. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Waghbil lake
3.1.7. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Mayem lake
3.1.8. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Pilar lake
3.1.9. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Santacruz lake
3.1.10. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Vaddem lake
3.2.1 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Kalamba lake
3.2.2 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Rajaram lake
3.2.3 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Rankala lake
3.2.4 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Sadoba pond
3.2.5 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Someshwar temple tank
3.2.6 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Waghbil lake
3.2.7 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Mayem lake
3.2.8 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Pilar lake
3.2.9 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Santacruz lake
3.2.10 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Vaddem lake
iv
(Preface
Water is one of the most abundant substances on the earth. It covers approximately 71`)/0 of the globe surface with the majority held by oceans. It is estimated that 97 `)/0 of the total quantity of water is in oceans and 3 `)/0 is freshwater. However, only a small portion of the freshwater is available to humans, animals and plants. Most of the 3 `)/0 of the freshwater supply is held frozen in polar icecaps. The freshwater in lakes, rivers and ground water is only 0.3 % of the total freshwater source of the earth. This freshwater forms the bulk of the water for drinking
(10 %), industry (21 `)/0) and agriculture (69 `)/0).
Freshwater available to humans, animals and plants is not evenly distributed on the earth's surface. Sharp differences exist in the amount of total annual precipitation in different parts of the world and also varies from one season to another during the year. In areas with low precipitation and in urban and industrial areas, there is increasing competition for water uses, which requires changes in water resources management. Lakes, water reservoirs and streams, which are the most valuable sources of drinking water for the world's population are vulnerable to pollution and degradation of water quality, particularly to eutrophication. The freshwater bodies of the world are collectively undergoing high rates of degradation leading to eutrophication.
In view of all this, considerable attention is now being paid towards the study of inland waters by scientists, technologists and engineers. The inland water bodies are closed ecosystems
• in which zooplanktons hold a key position in the metabolism of water bodies, trophic levels, food chains and energy flow.
Planktons, both producers and consumers, play an important role in the transformation of energy from one trophic level to the next higher trophic level ultimately leading to fish production which is the final product of the aquatic environment. From ecological point of view, rotifers, Preface cladocerans and copepods are considered to be the most important components, which play a vital role in energy transformation. The occurrence and abundance of zooplankton in freshwater ecosystem depends on its productivity, which in turn is influenced by physico-chemical parameters and level of nutrients. Further, the diversity and density of zooplankton populations occur in succession depending upon interspecific and intraspecific interactions and predation potential (Fernando, 1980a).
It has been said that Blankaart (1768, cf. Ward and Wipple, 1918) was the first to observe the freshwater organisms. Swammerdan (1769) and Muller (1785) revealed valuable information about the rotifera and cladocera. In 1886, Hudson and Gosse wrote an invaluable monograph on rotifers. Contributions of Sars (1901) were more than that of any other researcher in the field of freshwater biology, especially cladocers. From 1900-1950, in a period of half century, quiet good work has been done on the freshwater organisms of temperate regions.
According to Fernando (1980b), the species composition and distribution of freshwater zooplankton is poorly known in tropical inland waters. Probably, Daday's (1898) paper on systematics and distribution of cladocers is the earliest one on tropics. Later on several faunal expeditions have been carried out by many scientists (Brehm, 1933a and b, 1936, 1938; Kiefer,
1936, 1939; Hauer, 1938; Edmondson, 1945) in the geographical areas of Philippines,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Jawa, Sumatra, Bali, etc.
Some of the early studies on freshwater zooplankton systematics of the Indian region were by Carter (1885), Sars (1900), Gurney (1906) and Arora (1931). From 1950 to 2000, quite a large number of research papers have been published on the systematics of zooplankton. Preface
The study of temporal and spatial distribution of zooplankton in relation to various physico-chemical factors forms an important aspect of the freshwater ecology aimed at understanding life in water. Most of the developing and under-developed countries come under tropical and equatorial regions. It may be for this reason that studies on tropical and equatorial
inland waters are relatively few compared to those of temperate regions.
In India, considerable work has been done on the ecology and seasonal distribution of
plankton than other tropical and subtropical countries. The first ecological study in India has been
made by Prasad (1916), who worked on the seasonal conditions governing the pond life in
Punjab. Pruthi (1933) and Sewell (1934) have studied the binomics in freshwaters in relation to
changes in physico-chemical conditions of a tank at Calcutta. From 1930 to 1980, several workers in different parts of the country have contributed to this field. Many of these pertain to the
ecology of plankton and water chemistry in fish ponds, particularly in relation to fish culture
(Ganapathi, 1940; Nora, 1951; Das, 1961; Rao, 1971; Khan and Siddiqui, 1974; Sharma and
Michael, 1987; Battish, 1992; Steiner and Roy, 2003).
There are some reports on the seasonal studies of plankton in relation to physico-
chemical factors of tanks and lakes of Indian region (Das and Srivastav, 1956; Gouder and
Joseph, 1961; Vasisht and Dhir, 1970; Chandrashekar and Kodarkar, 1994; Dhanapathi and Rama
Sarma, 2000).
The populations of zooplankton are subjected to extreme fluctuations, the causes of which
have not been adequately understood. Though a good deal of information is available on the
distribution of plankton, no comprehensive study seems to have been carried out earlier, to
understand correlation between zooplanktonic populations and the abiotic factors. An objective
III (Preface evaluation of the relationship of the population and the ambient conditions can however be made using the statistical tools.
Apart from the above there are no comparative studies on physical, chemical and biological components of freshwater bodies into distinctly visible agro-climatically different environmental conditions.
The present work not only deals with the studies of a few freshwater bodies in the states of
Goa and Maharashtra but also provides a comparative and contrasting study with regard to altitude, geographical locations and similar other variations.
The thesis has been divided into three chapters, apart from general introduction, literature review, plan of research, materials and methods, as well as summary and bibliography.
The text of the thesis is as follows:
Chapter I
The first chapter includes a comparative data on the seasonal variations of physico- chemical factors and zooplanktonic population of freshwater bodies in Goa and Maharashtra and its statistical analyses to correlate the inter-relationship between the factors and zooplanktonic species and to find out which of the factors influence the zooplanktonic populations?
Chapter II
In the second chapter, the systematic study, species composition and distribution of
Rotifera, Cladocera and Copepods occurring in four water bodies of Goa and six in Maharashtra, which include reservoir, lakes, irrigation tank and temporary water bodies is presented.
Iv Preface
Chapter III
In this chapter, diversity and distribution patterns of zooplanktonic communities are studied by using diversity indices and similarity matrices inorder to understand, what controls the diversity of zooplankton species? It is important to know, how individual animals and populations of selected species interact with physical, chemical and biological components of freshwater bodies.
Introduction
Limnology is the study of fresh or saline waters contained within continental boundaries.
Although many limnologists are freshwater ecologists, physical, chemical and engineering limnologists, all participate in this branch of science. Limnology covers study of lakes, ponds, reservoirs, streams, rivers, wetlands and estuaries and has evolved into a distinct science only in the past two centuries, with the improvements in microscopes, thermometer and the invention of the silk plankton net. Today, limnology plays a major role in water use and distribution as well as in wildlife habitat protection.
A basic feature of the earth is abundance of water, which extends over 71% of its surface to an average depth of 3800 m. Relatively small amount of water, occurs in freshwater lakes and rivers. It has fundamental importance in maintenance and survival of terrestrial life. The ubiquity of water in biota as the fulcrum of biochemical metabolism, rests on its unique physical and chemical properties.
These characteristics of water regulate the lake metabolism. The unique thermal-density properties, high specific heat and liquid-solid characteristics of water, allow the formation of stratified environment that controls extensively the chemical and biotic properties of lakes.
Coupled with a high degree of viscosity, these characteristics have enabled biota to develop many adaptations that improve sustained productivity.
Natural lakes and reservoirs are distributed worldwide and exhibit variety in their limnological characteristics. Lakes are extremely heterogeneous or patchy and their physical, chemical and biological characteristics are extremely variable. They vary physically in terms of light levels, temperature and water currents; chemically in terms of nutrients, major ions and contaminants; biologically in terms of structure and function as well as static versus dynamic Introduction.
variables such as biomass, population numbers and growth rates. However, even with varying dimensions, they are highly structured. From the perspective of eutrophication, several limnological aspects are of particular importance. Physical factors of importance are size and depth, flushing rate and patterns of stratification and mixing.
The major classes of tropical lakes include shallow, low land lakes; deep, high altitudinal lakes; rain forest lakes and man-made lakes. Basic ecological processes are similar in temperate and tropical lakes. The productivity of reservoir ecosystem is dependent on several characteristics of water, of these, most important ones are the nutrient availability for phytoplankton production. This in turn determines the level of animal production in the reservoirs
(Hutchinson, 1967). Thus, for proper understanding of these ecosystems and its production potential, it is necessary to study the inter-relationships and interactions among physico- chemical and biological factors of the environment.
Physico-chemical factors:
In summer, the surface water heats up and therefore it decreases in density. When the temperature of the surface water equals the bottom water, very little wind energy is needed to mix the lake completely. As the temperature rises, the upper water layer becomes lighter than the water below. The temperature differences between upper and lower water layers, making deep lakes physically stratified. This stratification acts as a physical barrier that prevents mixing of the upper and lower layers for several months during the summer. The depth of mixing depends in part on the exposure of the lake to wind
2 Introduction
The chemical composition of a lake is fundamentally a function of its climate and its basin geology. Each lake has an ion balance of major anions and major cations. These ions are usually present at concentrations expressed as mg/L or ppm whereas other ions such as phosphate, nitrate and ammonium are present at tug& or ppb levels.
Humans can have profound influences on lake chemistry. Excessive landscape disturbance causes higher rates of leaching and erosion due to removal of vegetation cover, soil exposure and increased water runoff velocity. Lawn fertilizers, wastewater and urban storm water inputs, all add micronutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, major ions such as chloride and potassium and in the case of highway and parking lot runoff, oils and heavy metals. Ions such as
H+, SO4-2 and NO-3, are associated with acid rains. Mercury (Hg) is another significant air pollutant affecting aquatic ecosystems and can bioaccumulate in aquatic food webs, contaminating fish and causing a threat to human and wildlife health.
Lakes with high concentrations of calcium (Ca+ 2) and magnesium (Mg+ 2) are called hardwater lakes, while those with low concentrations of these ions are called softwater lakes.
Concentrations of these ions are associated with bicarbonate concentrations. The ionic concentrations influence the lake's ability to assimilate pollutants and maintain nutrients in solution. Both the concentration of total dissolved salt and the relative ratios of different ions influence the species of organisms that can best survive in the lake.
Biological factors:
Photosynthetic activity is driven by solar energy thus giving biological activity peaks. The dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration in the epilimnion or upper layers remains high throughout
3 Introduction
the summer because of photosynthesis and diffusion from the atmosphere. In eutrophic lakes, DO in deeper layers of water declines during the summer because of stratification, while organisms continue to respire and consume oxygen and may eventually become anoxic. In the winter, oligotrophic lakes generally have uniform conditions. As microorganisms continue to decompose material in the lower water column and in the sediments, they consume oxygen and the DO is depleted.
Nutrients from the upper layers are utilised by plankton and are redistributed from the upper water to the lake bottom as the dead plankton gradually sink to lower depths and decompose. The redistribution is partially offset by the active vertical migration of the plankton.
Additional inputs of nutrients from upstream tributaries after rainstorms, die-offs of aquatic plants, direct runoff of fertilizer, leaky lakeshore septic systems, etc into the upper water may trigger a
"bloom" of algae. Nitrogen and phosphorus may also come from dust, fine soil particles, and fertilizer from agricultural fields.
The biological communities within lakes are organized into food chains and food webs forming the ecological pyramid. The primary producers supports overlying levels of herbivores
(zooplankton), planktivores and carnivores. Further, consumers in particular often shift levels throughout their life cycle.
Zooplankton being the primary consumers that graze on algae, bacteria, and detritus.
Secondary consumers, such as planktivorous fish or predaceous invertebrates, eat zooplankton
(Jack and Thorp, 2002). Unlike phytoplankton and plants that are limited to the sunlit portions of lakes, consumers can live and grow in all lake zones, although the lack of oxygen may limit their abundance in bottom waters and sediments. The benthic organisms migrate to upper waters at
4 Introduction night to feed on zooplankton. The best-known group of aquatic consumers is fish. They primarily eat zooplankton. Tertiary consumers that prey on the smaller fish, include larger fish and other carnivorous animals.
Since the early part of the 20th century, lakes have been classified according to their trophic/ nutrition/ growth state. A eutrophic lake has high nutrients and good plant growth. An oligotrophic lake has low nutrient concentrations and low plant growth. Mesotrophic lakes lie between eutrophic and oligotrophic lakes. Trophic status is a useful means of classifying lakes and describing lake processes in terms of the productivity of the system. Basins with infertile soils are less productive lakes. Watersheds with rich organic soils or agricultural regions enriched with fertilizers, yield much higher nutrient loads, resulting in more productive, eutrophic lakes.
Three main factors regulate the trophic state of a lake:
1.Rate of nutrient supply
Bedrock geology of the watershed, soils, vegetation, human land uses and management.
2.Climate
Amount of sunlight, temperature, hydrology.
3.Shape of lake basin (morphometry)
Depth (maximum and mean), volume and surface area, watershed to lake surface area ratio (Aw Ao).
Eutrophication, the progress of a lake from young, oligotrophic lake toward an aging, eutrophic condition. Active biological communities develope and lake basins become shallower and more eutrophic as decaying plant and animal material accumulate at the bottom. Shallow
5 Introduction
lakes are more productive than deep lakes because they do not stratify and have a smaller lake volume, so nutrient loading has a larger impact. Eventually, the aged lake "dies". Eutrophication affects the specific composition of zooplankton through physical and chemical alterations of the environment. These changes also affect the phytoplankton composition, promoting changes in the quality and quantity of available food for the zooplankton population.
Water Quality Impacts Associated With Eutrophication:
Noxious algae
Excessive macrophyte growth
Loss of clarity
Low dissolved oxygen
Excessive organic matter production
Blue-green algae inedible by some zooplankton
"Toxic" gases such as ammonia, H2S in bottom water
Bioindicators for assessment of water quality:
Bioindicators of environmental pollution have been given considerable emphasis in recent years due to the great role they play in early detection and monitoring of pollution. There are different ways to signalise the presence of substance or the biological effect of substances occuring in the environment as a result of human activity. Physical and chemical methods are very important, nevertheless, the best methods are the biological ones, because they use biological objects in the detection and evaluation of the pollutants effect which are in nature the target of the undesirable harmful influences. The organisms in water integrate the effect of sum
6 Introduction total of human activities on an ecosystem and act as "bioindicators" of various levels and kinds of
pollution. A number of organisms inhabiting the ecosystem can be used to detect the level and
kind of pollution (Khatavkar and Trivedy, 1993).
In India, the total number of natural lakes and small and large reservoirs in India, propably
exceeds one million (UNEP-IETC, 2000). Many of these are very old and have been in service for
over a thousand years. They are located in diverse geoclimatic regions and spread over on
different types of soils and are exposed to various agroclimatic conditions. When natural flow of water is obstructed by creation of dams, reservoirs and lakes, the physical, chemical and
biological factors are bound to change. These changes are useful for fishermen in the better
management of fish resources: Because of the fish culture that was systematically developed in
many of these, the water bodies have the same prestigious status in the socio-economic setup as the prosperous agricultural lands.
All of these old lakes are now facing new challenges because of the fast changes that are taking place in the society around them. Industrial effluents, chemically active run-off from the agricultural fields, unchecked erosion of hill sides in watershed by encroachment or deforestation and city wastes, are causing increased silting and loading of nutrients in the otherwise stable old water bodies, which faired well for a long time in the earlier settings.
Lack of scientific data on reservoir ecosystem has become the main problem in exploiting the water bodies for profitable fish yields. A suitable environment is essential for every organism since life depends upon continuous and proper exchange of essential nutrients and energy between organisms and their surrounding environment.
7 Introduction
Planktology:
Planktology is regarded as a discipline of ecology called syn-ecology, concerned with the ecology of population and community. Planktology, like other disciplines of biological sciences, has witnessed a rapid growth with regard to their ecology, physiology and biochemistry. This advancement has caused a marked change in this field of study.
The plankton is known as an important ecological community with complicated species composition and containing phytoplankton as well as zooplankton. The investigation of their distribution and their fluctuations in abundance is one of the important aspect of limnological surveys (Zheng etal. , 1989; Wetzel, 1992).
While, limnoplanktology is concerned with variation of species composition, abundance and distribution in relation to the physical and chemical factors of freshwater environment. It also includes seasonal variations and collection among physical, chemical and biological components.
The zooplankton is of fundamental importance to the proper understanding of freshwater ecosystem. Their habitat and depth distribution, geological distribution and occurrence also help in the classification of plankton.
Zooplankton are either herbivorous, feeding on phytoplankton, or carnivorous, feeding on other zooplankton. They themselves are fed upon by fish and is thus the vital transition between primary production (phytoplankton) and fish. Without these primary consumers, herbivore and other levels of food chain would collapse (Wetzel, 2001).
Further, zooplankton is ecologically and economically important heterogenous group of tiny aquatic animals that are at the mercy of water currents as they have weak power of
8 Introduction locomotion. Their ecology is closely related to fishery limnology, oceanography and meteorology. Also, temporal and spatial changes in zooplankton abundance and composition reflect the dynamic nature of both physical and biological factors of freshwater resources.
Plankton forms an important food source for all economic fishes including Baleen whales.
During the feeding season, these fishes migrate in schools to the feeding grounds, rich in zooplankton and therefore can be used as indicators for finding the migratory routes and fish potential areas (Zheng et.al., 1989). Besides this, diatoms, dinoflagellates, copepods, rotifers, etc. are reared in large quantities for feeding shrimps and fishes. Thus, zooplankton plays an important role in the development of aquaculture. Further, some zooplankton like Rhopilema
(Scyphozoa), Acetes and Euphausila of crustacea can be used directly as human food and become new fishing object called Plankton Fishery.
One of the principle differences between marine and freshwater zooplankton is their mean size. In lakes and rivers, it is rare to find zooplankton species larger than 5 mm in total length.
However, in the freshwater environment greater densities in marine systems are encountered. In freshwater systems, the zooplankton species perform diel vertical migration.
Most freshwater zooplankton species are crustaceans. Some common freshwater zooplankton taxonomic groups are:
• Rotifers
• Cladocera - are some of the largest zooplankters
• Copepods - which include the three types are cyclopoids, calanoids and harpactacoids.
Zooplankton of freshwaters are extremely diverse, and include representatives of nearly all phyla. The planktonic protozoa have limited locoMotion, but the rotifers, cladoceran and copepod
9 Introduction microcrustaceans often move extensively in quiescent water. Many pelagial protozoa (5-300 pm) • are meroplanktonic and forms spend the rest of their life cycle in the sediments. Many protozoans feed on bacteria-sized particles and thereby utilize a class of bacteria and detritus generally not utilized by large zooplankton. Although most rotifers (150 pm-1mm) are sessile and are associated with the littoral zone, some are completely planktonic, these species form major components of the zooplankton. Most rotifers are nonpredatory and omnivorously feed on bacteria, small algae and detrital particulate organic matter. Most cladoceran zooplankton are small (0.2 to 3.0 mm) and have a distinct head, the body is covered by a bivalve carapace.
Locomotion is accomplished mainly by means of the large second antennae. Planktonic copepods (2 - 4 mm) consist of two major groups, the calanoids and the cyclopoids. These two groups are separated on the basis of body structure, length of antennae and legs.
Filtration of particles is the most common means of food collection by rotifers and cladocerans. Filtering rates tend to increase with both increasing body length and increasing temperatures. Size of particles ingested is generally proportional to body size. Rates of assimilation are low when zooplankton are feeding on detritus particles and generally highest when they are feeding on algae.
Many zooplankton, particularly the Cladocera, exhibit marked diurnal vertical migrations as a mechanism to avoid predation by fish. This visual process requires light. The horizontal spatial distribution of zooplankton in lakes is often uneven and patchy. Pelagial cladocerans and copepods also migrate away from littoral areas by behavioral swimming responses to angular light distributions. Water movements tend to cause non-random dispersion of zooplankton.
1 0 Introduction
Seasonal polymorphism or cyclomorphosis, is observed among many zooplankton.
Adaptive significance of cyclomorphic growth inorder to reduce predation involves continued growth of peripheral transparent structures, while the central portion of the body remains unchanged. Small cladocerans which increase size by cyclomorphic growth reduce capture success by invertebrate predators like copepods. A combination of environmental parameters such as temperature, turbulence, photoperiod and food influence differential growth in daphnid cladocerans. Cyclomorphosis is lacking in copepods in which rapid, evasive swimming movements help in defense.
Planktivorous fish can be important in regulating the abundance and size structure of zooplankton populations. Planktivorous fish select large zooplankters, although the gill rakers of certain fish collect some zooplankton as water passes through the mouth and across the gills.
The production rate (= net productivity) of zooplankton is the sum of all biomass produced in growth. Assimilation and respiration rates generally increase at higher trophic levels and production decreases. Emigration and immigration of zooplankton from streams and other lakes are usually negligible. A general, positive correlation exists between the rates of production of phytoplankton and of zooplankton. Separation of the niche hyperspace with relatively small regions of species overlap minimizes interspecific competition and contribute to the large diversity of population interactions that have evolved to permit coexistence in limnetic zooplankton communities.
11 • Introduction
Characteristics of zooplankton groups:
(a) Rotifers:
First discovered in the 1600s by Leeuwenhoek, they were originally called "wheel animalcules" or "wheel animals" because their coronas look like turning wheels. This appearance is caused by rippling waves of tiny beating cilia that draw food into their mouths and provide a means of locomotion (Battish, 1992).
Rotifers are the smallest multicellular animals and occur worldwide in primarily freshwater habitats. They are important in freshwater ecosystems as they occur in all biotypes.
About 95 % of the rotifers are encountered in freshwaters, while 5 % are from brankish or marine waters and most are free living.
All rotifers are distinguished into three classes, comprising about 120 genera and about
2000 species, The classes are: Monogononta, Bdelloidea and Seisonidea. These soft bodied invertebrates have been treated in details by Hyman (1951), Hutchinson (1967), Ruttner-Kolisko
(1972), Pennak (1978), Dumont and Green (1980), Wallace and Snell (1991).
Rotifers are multicellular animals with body cavities that are partially lined by mesoderm.
These organisms have specialized organ systems and a complete digestive tract. Since these characteristics are all uniquely animal characteristics, rotifers are recognized as animals, even though they are microscopic. They are pseudocoelomate microscopic organisms about 200 to
500 pm long. However a few species, such as Rotaria neptunia may be longer than a millimeter.
Nearly all rotifers have chitinous jaws called trophi that grind and shred food. Rotifers are primarily omnivorous, their diet most commonly consists of dead or decomposing organic materials, as well as unicellular algae and other phytoplankton that are primary producers in
12 Introduction
aquatic communities. Rotifers are in turn prey to carnivorous secondary consumers, including
shrimp and crabs. Some species have been known to be cannibalistic, such as Asplanchana,
preying on protozoa, other rotifera and microzoa.
Many rotifer species have no males, females reproduce parthenogenetically. But in some
rotifer species, stress can cause females to produce eggs that hatch as males. The appearance of
males is followed by sexual reproduction.
The species are tremendously varied and exhibit a range of morphological variations and
adaptations. Most rotifers have one eye, some have two and some sessile ones are eyeless. The
bodies of some species have telescopic segments and they can expand or retract like a
telescope, whilst others have slight segmentation. Some have a hardened skin, the lorica, while
others build themselves a tube to live in.
Like the other zooplanktons, rotifers also form a link in the aquatic food chain. They have a rapid turnover and high metabolic rates and feed on detritus. These organisms serve as bio-
indicators to depict water quality and are extensively cultured for use as fish feed.
(b)Cladocera:
The Cladocerans are mostly found in freshwater, although eight species belonging to marine water and about 25 species belonging to family Polyphemidae, reported from Caspian
Sea (Michael and Sharma, 1988). They usually inhabit every type of habitat in the littoral,
limnetic or benthic zones of freshwater lakes and ponds. Intolerance to high salt concentrations in the medium, though there are species that frequently occur in brackish water habitat.
The Cladocera invariably constitute a dominant component of freshwater zooplankton and play an important role in the aquatic foodchain and also contribute significantly to zooplankton
13 Introduction
dynamics, secondary productivity and energy flow in freshwater ecosystem. This is due to their rapid turnover rates, metabolism and capacity to build-up populations in short duration. They serve as food for both fry and adult fish and hence is cultured as supplementary food in aquacultures.
The crustaceans of order Cladocera is an interesting group not only for taxonomic or distributional studies but also in view of the ecological and reproductive strategies employed in their life cycles, with alternating gamogenetic and parthenogenetic phases. Various species of
Cladocera are regarded as bioindicators of water quality (Rao et.al., 1981; Anbuganapathi et.al.,
1998). They are used in environmental toxicological studies, bioassay experiments, experimental models in ecological, embryological and population genetics studies. The family Chydoridae of cladocera, due to its exoskeleton, remains well preserved and hence is used in studying the developmental history of lakes and reservoirs (Jairajpuri, 1991).
The chief characteristic of the water fleas is that the main part of the body is enclosed in a kind of shell, with the appearance of two lids, but made of one piece. Their sizes differ from several hundred microns to more than five millimetre for the larger species. Most species are transparent, especially those which inhabit the open waters, while others found among the weedbeds of littoral and benthic zones are darkly pigmented with shades of yellow, brown or red.
They reproduce in summer mostly parthenogenetic, i.e. the eggs develop without undergoing fertilization. At the end of the summer, some of the eggs develop into the smaller males, capable of fertilizing the eggs in females, which then develop into the so called 'winter eggs', mostly only one or two are present in the females. These eggs can also be found in populations under stress, such as during the drying up of a pond (Michael and Sharma, 1988).
14 Introduction
These aquatic crustaceans belonging to four orders of the Branchiopoda, i.e.
Branchiopoda, Anostraca, Notostraca and Conchostraca. These are collectively known as
Phyllopoda. Among these orders, the cladocera are known to be related with bivalved
Conchostraca. The Cladocera are only remotely related to other crustacean subclasses like the copepoda, Ostracoda and Cirripedia (Scourfield and Harding, 1966). This order has 11 families
(Smirnov, 1971) and is known to contain about 400 species distributed throughout the world
(Frey, 1995).
Ninety cladocera species (93 taxa) belonging to 37 genera have now been reported from
India. The reported Indian taxa comprises of about 1/4 th of the world's cladoceran fauna. Out of these, the freshwater species represent eight out of eleven presently distinguished families of this order. Further, the distribution of many species are based on the examination of parthenogenetic females, and in some cases also on ephippial females. The males of eleven taxa are also documented from India.
The cladoceran fauna of India shows a number of polar, arctic and temperate elements such as Leptodora kindli, Polyphemus pediculus, Diaphnosoma brachycurum, Sida crystallina,
Daphniopsis tibetana, Daphnia magna, Daphnia longispina, Ceriodaphnia quadrangula, Macrothrix laticornis, Macrothrix gronlandica, AloneIla exigua, Pleuroxus aduncus, P. denticulatus, lndialona ganapati seem to be endemic. In addition, and not surprisingly, tropical, subtropical and cosmopolitan species are well represented in the Indian fauna.
(c) Copepods:
Copepods are aquatic crustaceans, smaller relatives of the crabs and lobsters. In terms of their size, abundance and diversity of way of life, they can be regarded as the insects of the seas
15 Introduction
(Ranga Reddy, 2001). Calanoid copepods are small crustaceans, 1-5 mm in length, commonly found as part of the free-living zooplankton in freshwater lakes and ponds (Williamson, 1991).
The copepods are the largest and most diversified group of crustaceans. They comprise
70- 80 % of the total zooplankton population. At present they include over 14,000 species,
2,280 genera and 210 families, inhabiting sea and continental waters, semiterrestrial habitats or living in symbiotic relationships with other organisms. Copepods have colonised virtually every habitat from 10,000 m down in the deep sea to lakes 5,000 m up in the Himalayas, and every temperature regime from subzero polar waters to hot springs. They are considered the most plentiful multicellular group on the earth, outnumbering even the insects.
Calanoids are recognized by the position of the body articulation. They usually have an elongated body, long 1st antennae and well-developed 5 th legs. These and other characteristics separate them from the other fresh-water copepod groups, the cyclopoids and harpacticoids
(Wilson, 1958; Williamson, 1991).
They virtually can parasitize or be the intermediate hosts of all the animal groups including mammalians and man. Copepods that parasitise fish skin and gills are serious pests of commercial importance in both marine and freshwater fish farms.
The systematics of copepods has been subjected to numerous revisions. At present, according to Nuys and Boxshall (1991), ten orders are recognized, viz., Misophrioida,
Monstrilloida, Mormonilloida, Siphonostomatoida, Poecilostomatoida, Platycopioida, Calanoida,
Harpacticoida, Gelyelloida and Cyclopoida.
Calanoids, cyclopoids and harpacticoids show a remarkable ecological interest since these orders form the first link of the aquatic food chains, from the microscopic phytoplanktonic
16 Introduction algae up to the fishes and mammalians. Calanoids are an essential part of the aquatic food chain and important as both predators and prey.
An increasing number of harpacticoid and cyclopoid species are actually revealing their noteworthy importance as "pollution markers" in the environmental control of aquatic habitats, such as lakes, springs, rivers and superficial ground waters. The monitoring of species change in calanoids can detect environmental changes resulting from acidification or toxification (Marmorek and Korman, 1993), The ratio of calanoid/cyclopoid — cladocera is used as water quality indicator in limnological studies whereby, high values show oligotrophic conditions, while low values indicate hypertrophy (Ranga Reddy, 2001).
Cyclopoids such as Microcyclops, Megacyclops and Mesocyclops are used in mosquito control as biological agents. Paracyclops find use in control of plant-parasitic nematodes.
Copepods play a role as chitin producers in the planktonic and benthic ecosystems (Rajendra,
1973; Ranga Reddy, 2001).
Statistical analysis of ecological data :
Earth's species, including humans, comprise an intricate fabric, a fabric that has shaped the atmosphere, climate, soil, water and other ecological features of the planet that are essential for the very existence of life. Though about 1.4 million living species of all kinds of organisms have been identified, the picture is still very incomplete, as many major habitats have not been explored fully. Based on the above facts, Wilson and Peter (1988) has made rough estimate of this number to be somewhere between 5 - 30 million.
17 Introduction'
The diversity of life is displayed by a diversity of structural and functional elements. Many aspects of this diversity are critical for maintaining the healthy functioning both within short and long time scales. Highly diverse features of nature arise simply from the heterogenous patterns, that comprise the way of the nature, which contributes to the beauty and quality of life (Miller,
1994).
The contracted form `Biodiversity' was coined by W. G. Rosen in 1985 (Harper and
Hawksworth, 1996). Now it has become a wide spread practice to define biodiversity, in terms of genes, species and ecosystem corresponding to three fundamental and hierarchically related levels of biological organization. Perhaps, because the living world is most widely considered in terms of species, biodiversity is very commonly used as a synonym of species diversity, as species level is generally regarded as the most natural one, at which to consider whole organism diversity (Groombridge, 1992).
Biodiversity can be defined as species richness (plants, animals and microorganisms) occurring as an interacting system in a given habitat. There are two main functions of biodiversity, firstly, it depends on the stability of the biosphere which in turn leads to stability in climate, water, soil, chemistry of air and overall health of the biosphere. Secondly, biodiversity is the source of species on which human race depends for food, fodder, fuel, fiber, shelter, medicine, etc. This, by and large, exist in the 12 vaislovian centers of diversity. Biodiversity is not only an important resource, but also the strength of developing countries. The problem of biodiversity is essentially one of conflict resolution between the human kind on one side and living organisms occurring on land, in freshwater bodies and marine environment on the other (Khoshoo, 1995).
18 Introduction
Further, biological diversity must be treated more seriously as global resource, which has to be indexed, used and above all, preserved judiciously because of exploding human population which are degrading the environment at an accelerating rate, to discover new uses of biological diversity and to save them from being irreversibly lost through extinction caused by destruction of natural habitats (Wilson and Peter, 1988).
In recent decades, a large number of multivariate techniques have been developed to aid the interpretation of complex data sets. These techniques typically identify groups of samples that have similar community composition based on the abundance or biomass of different taxa. Dominant patterns of community variation can then be correlated with physical, chemical and biological parameters to further aid interpretation.
Individual organisms and the populations formed by them live as an assemblage of species population in any given area, forming a community. A community may be of any size.
Communities have characteristics, which can be measured and studied. These are species diversity, growth form and structure dominance of some species of the community, relative abundance of different species which form the community, the food relationships and succession.
Communities subjected to harsh or unfavourable environmental situations where physical conditions are severe continuously, occasionally or periodically, tend to be composed of small number of species which are abundant. In mild or favourable environments, the number of species is large, but none of them is very abundant. Species diversity may be taken to denote the number of species in given area or as the number of species among the total number of individuals of all the species present. This relationship may be expressed numerically, as the
19 Introduction
diversity index. The number of species in a community is important ecologically, since the species diversity seems to increase as the community becomes more stable. Several disturbances cause a marked decline in the diversity. A great diversity also indicates the availability of large number of niches.
The concept of association of species is based on the similar responses of individual species to variation in natural properties of the environment. The recurrence of an association is asumed to indicate predictable interactions among species and between species and their environment. By investigating the similarities of species associations between samples at different locations and times, it may be possible to deduce characteristics of the physico- chemical and/or biological environments of the waters investigated. Generally, grouping involves
2 steps; the first step is to measure the degree of similarity (association) between the samples (or species) to be grouped and the second step is to determine the groups of similar samples (or species) by applying a cluster analysis using a correlation matrix.
Correlation of occurrence between species is generally expressed by a numerical index for each pair. Consider data set consisting of counts of 's' species from 'n' different sampling stations. The data can be represented as 'n x s' matrix in which each element is species count for a sample. There are 2 methods, by forming either an 's x s' matrix of correlation between species or an 's x s' matrix of correlations between samples. The first type is R analysis and is commonly used to reveal species groups within particular habitats, whereas the second type, or Q analysis, is instructive in helping to group samples with similar communities and indicate common ecological conditions between samples from the relative distribution of species (Ludwig and
Reynolds, 1988).
20 Introduction
Cluster analysis is a term used to describe a set of numerical techniques in which the main purpose is to divide the objects of study into discrete groups (Everitt, 1980). Cluster analysis is used in many scientific disciplines and a wide variety of techniques have been developed to suit different types of approaches. The most commonly used ones are the agglomerative hierarchical methods. Hierarchical methods arrange the clusters into a hierarchy so that the relationships between the different groups are apparent. The results of this type of analysis are generally presented in a tree-like diagram called a dendrogram. The term agglomerative means that the dendrogram is produced by starting with all the objects to be clustered separate, then successively combining the most similar objects and / or clusters until all are in a single, hierarchical group.
The agglomerative clustering algorithm proceeds as follows:
a) First the similarity between each pair of cases must be calculated and placed in a matrix.
There are numerous types of similarity and distance measures that can be used.
b) This matrix is then scanned to find the pair of cases with the highest similarity (or lowest distance). These will be the most similar cases and should be clustered most closely together.
c) The cluster formed by these two cases can now be considered a single object. The similarity matrix is recalculated so that all the other cases are compared with this new group, rather than the original two cases.
d) The modified matrix is then scanned (as in step b) to find the pair of cases or clusters that now have the highest similarity. Steps b and c are repeated until all the objects have been combined into a single group.
21 Introduction
The result is a dendrogram, which shows the most similar cases linked most closely together. The level of the vertical lines joining two cases or clusters indicates the level of similarity between them. It is important to note that, the branching hierarchy and the level of similarity are the only important features of the dendrogram. The exact order of the cases along the vertical axis is not significant. The dendrogram can be envisaged as a mobile that allows the individual clusters to rotate around.
A dendrogram is the most common method of displaying the results of a cluster analysis.
The branching pattern of the dendrogram illustrates the similarity between the various objects being clustered. The closer they are linked, the more similar they are.
When interpreting a dendrogram, it is important to remember that the only aspects of the graph that count are the branching order and the lengths of the branches.
22 T:q Literature review.
The study on inland water bodies has gained immense importance in the recent years because of their multiple uses for human consumption, agriculture and industry. Thus, the demand for water has increased with the increase in human activities. Water requirements are met by creating more and more water resources such as reservoirs, lakes, dams, etc. At the same time, these water resources are under increasingly greater stress from numerous human activities and therefore, have been the subject of detailed scientific investigation. Several of the important concepts in ecology have been developed from studies of aquatic ecosystems and organisms.
For example, the studies of Mobius (1877), Forbes (1887), Gause (1932), Lindeman (1942) and
Odum (1957) represent the most important milestones in the overall development of the science of ecology. The aquatic ecosystem presents a great contrast to terrestrial ecosystem and aquatic organisms display such a wide range of adaptations that they continue to attract the attention of the biologists, even today.
Planktons, both producers and consumers, play an important role in the transformation of energy from one trophic level to the next higher trophic level ultimately leading to fish production, which is the final product of the aquatic environment. From ecological point of view, rotifers, cladocerans and copepods are considered to be the most important components that play a vital role in energy transformation. The occurrence and abundance of zooplankton in freshwater ecosystem depends on its productivity, which in turn is influenced by physico- chemical parameters and level of nutrients. Further, the diversity and density of zooplankton
populations occur in succession depending upon interspecific and intraspecific interactions and
predation potential (Fernando, 1980a).
23 Literature review
It has been said that Blankaart (1768) was the first to observe the freshwater organisms.
Swammerdan (1769) and Muller (1785) revealed valuable information about the rotifera and cladocera. In 1886, Hudson and Gosse wrote an invaluable monograph on rotifers. Contributions of Sars (1901) were more than any other researcher in the field of freshwater biology, especially cladocers. From 1900 -1950, in a period of half century, quiet good work has been done on the freshwater organisms of temperate regions.
Scott (1927) investigated the limnology of the Lake Seersiaville while, Fish (1929) made the preliminary survey report on the Lake Erie. Deevay (1940) perhaps presented one of the early records of the limnological studies pertaining to specific regional water bodies. Pennak (1945) introduced limnological study of water bodies of Northern Colorado in USA. Later works of pioneer in this field include Welch (1952) and Hutchinson (1967), and their enormous contributions need no emphasis. Later, the field of limnology has gained much more importance by the valuable contributions made by other workers (Round, 1953; Wright, 1954; Evans, 1958;
Davis, 1973; Lin, 1973).
Creation of man-made lakes and reservoirs offer an opportunity to biologists to develop new environmental resources and to plan their careful exploitation (White, 1977). The implementations of these man-made resources on environment have been discussed (McConnell and Worthington, 1965).
Data collected as .part of the international programme (IBP) from 43 lakes and 12 reservoirs, distributed from the tropics to the arctic, was subjected to statistical analyses to establish which factors are important in controlling production and how they are related
(Brylinsky and Mann, 1973). From this data, it was concluded that the solar energy input has a
24 Literature review
greater influence on production, than nutrient levels. However, they also found that in lakes within
a narrow range of latitude nutrient related variables assume greater importance. Limnological
studies of the Volta lake, largest man-made lake in the world have been investigated by Tomislav
(1971).
The study of zooplankton population of New Zealand lakes was undertaken by Chapman
(1972) and Green (1976). In the Central Amazon, the relationship between water level and
zooplankton population was researched by Brandorff and de Andrade (1973). Bakker et.al. (1977)
did studies on the copepoda biomass of S. W. Netherlands.
There are numerous reports on research findings from different parts of the world. To
name a few: Africa (Hart and Allanson, 1976; Rayner, 1994), Cuba (Smith and Fernando, 1978),
Antartica (Waghorn, 1979; Clarke et.al., 1989; Bayly, 1994), Philippines (Lai, 1979), Argentina
(Dussart and Frutos, 1985), Brazil (Reid, 1985), Israel (Dimentman and Por, 1985), Australia
(Mitchell, 1986; Green and Shiel, 1999), New Zealand (Burns, i992; Jamieson, 1998), Europe
(Einsle, 1993), Nigeria (Oronsaye, 1993), Canada (Patalas et.al., 1994), Ecuador (Peck, 1994),
Japan (Ishida, 1995), Mexico (Dos-Santos-Silva et.al., 1996), China (Zhuge et.al., 1998),
Thailand (Dumont et.al., 1996; Sanoamuang, 2001), Iceland (Scher et.al., 2000), Ukraine
(Samchishina, 2001), U.S.A. (Xie et.al., 2001) and others.
The tropical water bodies, however, remain greatly unexplored. Most of the developing and under-developed countries come under tropical and equatorial regions. It may be for this
reason that studies on tropical and equatorial inland waters are relatively few compared to those
of temperate regions.
25 Literature review
Probably, Daday's (1898) paper on systematics and distribution of cladocers is the earliest one, on tropics. Later on, several faunal expeditions have been carried out by many scientists in the geographical areas of Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Jawa, Sumatra, Bali, etc.
(Brehm 1933a,b, 1936, 1938; Kiefer 1936, 1939; Hauer, 1938; Edmondson, 1945). From Africa,
191 species of cyclopoida have been reported out of which 23 are found in Lake Tanganyika.
Most of the copepoda species are present in Madagascar (Dussart et.al., 1984). According to
Fernando (1980b), the species composition and distribution of freshwater zooplankton is poorly known in tropical inland waters, especially in the North Temperate zone. Systematic work has been covered in most tropical regions, but gaps exist in Australia, Burma, Asia, tropical Africa and Caribbean.
Studies of zooplankton systematics and their geographic distribution in tropical America are relatively few. In Brazil, Peru, Columbia, so also most regions in central America, copepoda have been studied well but cladocera are almost unknown. Among the copepoda species, the number of cyclopoida species is higher than that of calanoida (Dussart et.al., 1984). Gorham eta'. (1983), while studying the waterbodies of North Central America have discussed the role of conductivity and ionic composition in determining the status of lakes. Ryan and Wakeham (1984) presented a detailed account of the physico-chemical features of New Foundland. During the same year, Michael and Frey (1984) have reported studies on cladocera. Overall, the cladoceran species recorded from different parts of the world were 107 from Cuba, 150 from Europe, 130 from Australia and 130 species from the subcontinent of India (Callado et.al., 1984).
The scene remains the same for Australia, where zooplankton studies are few. Daday
(1901) gave a systematic report on zooplankton of New Guinea followed by some data from other
26 Literature review workers. From the distribution studies, it was observed that rotifers and cladocers were of
comparable diversity in Australia as compared to other tropical regions, although of different species composition, while the copepoda were less diverse (Dussart et.al., 1984).
The Indian subcontinent (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) lying between
6 °N and 37 °N and occupying 4.5 million km 2 land, is rich in its water resources (Rao, 1975).
Besides several large and small river systems, there are numerous natural ad man-made lakes,
reservoirs and ponds. The rainwater collects in innumerable large and small depressions
scattered all over the country. These temporary, semi-permanent and permanent water bodies
represent a special condition where aquatic and terrestrial habitats alternate each other. In this
part of the world, Sri Lanka seems to be the first to initiate the work on various aspects of water
reservoirs. A total of 130 species of cladocera are known from the subcontinent (Fernando and
Kanduru, 1984). Some of the early studies on freshwater zooplankton systematics of the Indian
region were by Carter (1885), Sars (1900), Gurney (1906), Arora (1931). Sri Lanka, Indonesia
and Malaysia have complete monographs as a result of early and extensive work (Rajapaksa and
Fernando, 1984).
In India, the work is fragmantary though some monographs on Indian Cladocera are
published (Michael and Sharma, 1984). In the Philippines, calanoida were monographed (Lai and
Fernando, 1978; Lai etal, 1979), while Hossain (1982) has monographed the zooplankton in
Bangladesh. Reports by Swar and Fernando (1979, 1980) have given an insight of the species
from Nepal. Limited data is available from Thailand such as the reports of Bricker et.al. (1978)
and Lai and Fernando (1981). Very little is known about the zooplankton fauna of Myanmar, Laos
27 . Literature review and Pakistan. The rotifers and cladocers in Asia are of typical tropical composition. Cyclopoida and calanoida are not very diverse while ostracoda occur in Asia (Dussart et.al., 1984).
Considerable work has been done on the ecology of India and seasonal distribution of plankton as compared to other tropical and subtropical countries. The first ecological study in
India has been made by Prasad (1916), who worked on the seasonal conditions governing the pond life in The Punjab. Pruthi (1933) and Sewell (1934) have studied the binomics in freshwaters in relation to changes in physico-chemical conditions of a tank at Calcutta.
Chemical environment and chemical processes which are of significance in the Para
Krama Samudra lake ecosystem have been reported (Fernando and Ellepola, 1969; Gunatilaka and Senaratna, 1981), Studies on the distribution of cladocera in lakes and ponds in Pokhara
Valley in Nepal was reported by Swar and Fernando (1979). This study reported 23 species of cladocers, which included 11 new records.
From 1930 till date, several workers in different parts of the country have contributed to this field. Many of these pertain to the ecology of plankton and water chemistry in fish ponds, particularly in relation to fish culture (Ganapathi, 1940; Hora, 1951; Das, 1961; Rao, 1971; Khan and Siddiqui, 1974; Sharma and Michael, 1987; Battish, 1992; Chandrashekhar and Kodarkar,
1996; Steiner and Roy, 2003).
The inland water bodies in India, except those situated at high altitude, exhibit distinct seasonal fluctuations in their physical, chemical and biological features. The physico-chemical factors influence the distribution, abundance and type of organisms of the reservoirs and these factors vary from one region to another. Dorai Rajah (1954 - 1955) studied the hydrology of
Bhavani Sagar reservoir and found fluctuations in the physico-chemical factors. Ganapati (1960)
28 Literature review discussed about changes in the temperature and absence of nitrites and nitrates affecting biological productivity in some reservoirs of South India. Diurnal variations in the zooplankton community and physico-chemical factors was studied by Michael (1966) in three freshwater ponds. He observed a marked variation pattern in rotifers and copepods. Mishra and Yadav
(1968) made some important investigations on the concepts of aquatic habitats relevant to Indian
conditions. Crustaceans contributed to the night volume of plankton. Similar studies were carried out by Vijayaraghavan (1971) in Teppakulam lake. Cladocera and copepoda species were
dominant and their surface abundance increased at night, when temperature decreased.
There are some reports on the seasonal studies of plankton in relation to physico-
chemical factors of tanks and lakes of Indian region (Das and Srivastav, 1956; Gouder and
Joseph, 1961; Vasisht and Dhir, 1970; Chandrashekar and Kodarkar, 1994; Dhanapathi and Rama
Sarma, 2000). Research on the effects of physico-chemical parameters on plankton was carried
out on Nangal Lake by Tandon and Singh (1972). The limnological study on freshwater lakes in
Kerala state and the influence of water temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen on its productivity
have been reported (John, 1975). Relationship between hydrobiological parameters and plankton
community in West Bengal was reported by Tiwari and Sharma (1977) and Datta et.al. (1984).
They found a direct relationship between temperature and salinity; pH and alkalinity, while the
silicate concentration was responsible for high diatom abundance. Calanoida and cyclopoida
fauna of south India have been described by Ranga Reddy and Radhakrishna (1984). Twenty-four
reservoirs in central India (Madhya Pradesh) were investigated for physico-chemical and
biological features by Unni (1985). He found that these reservoirs differed in their size, physical
features, chemical composition and vegetation. Similarly, seasonal variations in physico-
29 Literature review chemical factors and plankton of tropical lakes in Madhya Pradesh and their interrelationships have also been reported (Mathew, 1985). Adoni and Joshi (1987) studied the geomorphological and physico-chemical features of three reservoirs, in and around Sagar (Madhya Pradesh).
In north India, study was conducted, on the effect of physico-chemical factors on seasonal abundance, in a pond in Ludhiana. Abundance of some cladocera species with relation to factors such as transparency, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, etc., showed that food availability and temperature governed the population densities (Battish and Kumar', 1986). At the same time, Datta et.al. (1984, 1986) reported a similar study from West Bengal, wherein lower values of temperature, phosphate, salinity and higher values of dissolved oxygen favoured abundance. Limnological survey of the Mansarovar reservoir in Bhopal has been reported Adholia
and Vyas (1991). Hague and Khan (1994) carried out an extensive study on the distribution of zooplankton in a freshwater pond in Aligarh and discussed the physico-chemical factors
responsible for the variations. Pandey et.al. (1994) observed a majority of rotifers in rainy season,
while during summer, cladocers and copepods were abundant. During this study, which was
carried out on the zooplankton fauna of Kosi swamp, they concluded that Keratella sp. was an
indicator of eutrophication.
A perennial alkaline water tank in Gwalior exhibited a bimodal pattern for seasonal
variation of zooplankton and rotifers were the dominant zooplankton (Kaushik and Sharma, 1994).
Sharma (1995) has reported limnological studies carried out in a small reservoir in Meghalaya. A
study on the diel variation and effect of physico-chemical parameters on zooplankton was
reported from a pond in Tamil Nadu. Nineteen species belonging to five groups were identified.
(Maruthanayagam et.al., 2001).
30 Literature review
Seasonal variations in temperature, nutrients and biological productivity of Badhu reservoir in Bihar state have been studied by Verma and Dutta Munshi (1984). The seasonal variations of the zooplankton associated with the fluctuations of physico-chemical characteristics of the perennial water tank Matsya Sarovar, Gwalior, have been reported (Kaushik and Sharma,
1994). Similarly, studies on various aspects of freshwater bodies in Uttar Pradesh (Khan and
Siddiqui, 1974; Sharma and Pant, 1984a), Kashmir (Yousuf and Quadri, 1984, 1985; Ticku and
Zutshi, 1994), Delhi (Bagde and Verma, 1985), Kerala (Nasar and Nayar, 1969; Khatri, 1988),
Rajasthan (Nasar, 1968; Khatri, 1992), Orissa (Pati and Sahu, 1993), West Bengal (Chakrabarthy and Saha, 1993; Bhumik, 1994), Himachal Pradesh (Sanjeev Kumar, 1994) and Assam (Hazarika and Dutta, 1994; Sharma and Hussain, 2001) have been reported. Apart from these, Goudar and
Joseph (1961), David et.al. (1974), Ayyappan and Gupta (1980) and Rao (1985) have reported a few I imnological aspects of some ponds and tanks of Karnataka. Birasal etal. (1987) investigated a few hydrological parameters of Supa reservoir in Western Ghat region. Seasonal variations in the zooplanktonic population of Rangasagar lake of Udaipur was reported by Rao and Durve
(1992), while the seasonal fluctuations in zooplankton abundance of Lake Tasek in Garo Hills were reported by Das et.al. (1996).
A comparative study of the major reservoirs in Tamil Nadu state has also been carried out by Sreenivasan (1970). He pointed out that polluted reservoirs were more productive than non- polluted ones. Studies on planktons of Chilwa lake, situated near a fertilizer factory in Gorakhpur, were conducted by Sahai et.al: (1986). Similar studies on other polluted water bodies have been conducted (Chandini, 1987; Kulshrestha et.al., 1991; Gaur and Khan, 1996 ; Baruah and Das,
31 Literature review
2001). Rotifers and microcrustaceans, along with annelids and molluscs have been included under pollution indicator fauna (Saksena and Mishra, 1990).
Diversity of cladoceran fauna in some freshwater bodies of Rajasthan was studied by
Nayar (1971) and Rao and Durve (1989). Similar studies on zooplankton species in other parts of
India were undertaken by Nasar (1975, 1977) in Bihar, Nasar (1975) and Chakravarty (1990) in
Bhagalpur, Sharma and Pant (1984b) in Uttar Pradesh, Mahoon et.al. (1985) in Punjab, Saha and
Bhattacharya (1991, 1992) and Venkataraman (1995) in Tripura, Venkataraman (1991, 1992,
1999) in Andaman and Tamil Nadu, Chauhan (1993) in Himachal Pradesh, Kaushik and Saksena
(1994) and Sharma and Sharma (1990) in central India, Vyas and Adholia (1994) in Bhopal. A study of the wetland zooplankton of Howrah in West Bengal was undertaken by Venkataraman and
Das (1993, 2001). Another report on the cladoceran community of Banori pond in West Bengal was given by Chandrasekhar (1998). Zooplankton abundance from a reservoir in Virla village
(Madhya Pradesh) and their systematic account was surveyed by Pathak and Mudgal (2002). The zooplanktonic community studies of a dam in Isapur village and the seasonal variations affecting the same were carried out by Pulle and Khan (2003).
Comparative study on zooplankton in Sagar and engineering lakes were reported by Bais and Agrawal (1995). Taxonomic studies on zooplankton have been reported from different parts of
India by various workers. Sharma and Pant (1984a,b) studied the structure of zooplanktonic communities of lakes in Uttar Pradesh. Similar studies were done by Patil (1976) in northern
India, Sharma (1978a,b; 1979 a,b) in West Bengal, Battish (1978, 1981) in the Punjab, Sharma
(1980) in Orissa, Rane (1983, 1985, 1987); Rane and Jatri (1990) in Madhya Pradesh. Some
32 Literature review recent works on freshwater bodies in India are reported by Kaur etal. (1996), Khare (1998), Altaff et.al. (2002) and, Soruba and Ebansar (2003).
New species were identified and reported from deltaic regions of Krishna river by Durga-
Prasad et.al. (1986), Sikkim lakes by Venkataraman (1998) and from Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu
by Korinek et.al. (1999). Thirty-eight species of cladocera, including three new records to West
Bengal and one new record to India were reported from four perennial lakes and ponds of W.
Bengal (Venkataraman and Das, 2001).
Various ecological aspects of zooplankton have been a topic of study by several workers
including Kadar et.al. (1978), Dey and Mishra (1978), Verma and Dutta Munshi (1987), Khan
(1992), Rekha Sharma and Diwan (1997), Malathi et.al. (1998), Wagh (1998), Annapurna and
Chatterjee (1999), Balamurugan etal. (1999).
Inspite of the above, as there are hardly any reports on the studies of lakes of Goa and
Maharashtra, the present studies have been undertaken.
33 Plan of Research
The structure and composition of zooplanktonic communities are influenced by several environmental factors. Among them, the abiotic factors such as temperature, light, depth, oxygen,
CO2, pH, alkalinity, hardness and other mineral concentrations are of importance. Many freshwater organisms pose taxonomic difficulties because of the tendency of species to split into numerous, little-differentiated microgeographic races in part resulting from a high degree of morphological plasticity inherent in them.
Inadequate understanding of the aquatic ecosystem and unscientific management of reservoir fisheries have been the main factors responsible for under utilization of these resources for obtaining optimum fish yield. The role of freshwater plankton, which is extremely important in fisheries culture, has not been seriously appreciated so far in India. Obviously, inadequate attention has been devoted to the subject and only limited information is available on the physico-chemical complexes in relation to the dynamic production of the aquatic biomass
(Mathew, 1975).
The population of zooplankton is subjected to extreme fluctuations, the cause of which has not been adequately understood. While a good deal of information is available on the distribution of plankton, no comprehensive study seems to have been made to investigate the relationship of populations to the ambient conditions and to have a comparative study of environment having totally different climatic conditions. Only qualitative and quantitative studies have been carried out earlier to understand the correlationship between zooplanktonic
34 populations and the abiotic factors. An objective evaluation of the relationship of the population and the ambient conditions can however be made using the statistical tools.
Though, quite considerable amount of research work has been carried out in other parts of the world, in the Indian subcontinent, a good deal of information is available on the distribution of plankton from various states of northern and southern India. But, no comprehensive study seems to have been carried out earlier, to understand correlation between zooplanktonic populations and the abiotic factors of freshwater bodies into distinctly visible and agroclimatically different environmental conditions, such as the states of Goa and Maharashtra.
Goa is one of the smallest states of India. The biodiversity has given Goa a unique status due to the presence of Western Ghats. Diversified environmental conditions and seasonal fluctuations made Goa, a happy home for variety of terrestrial and aquatic animals as well as plants. Though there are some reports on limnology of some freshwater bodies, no major study has been carried out on zooplanktons of different water bodies. The limnological studies on the limited freshwater bodies of the state, to the best of my knowledge, are confined to a couple of publications (Desai, 1987, 1995; Desai et.al., 1995; Bandiwadekar and Desai, 1998; Walia,
2000). All these studies were of relatively short duration of about a year, each with slant on the effect of pollution due to mine effluents. While Maharashtra, one of the biggest states of India, where the limnological studies are again a very few (Trivedy et.al., 1983, 1985, 1988; Angadi,
1985; Trivedy, 1990; Chaporkar, 1996; Gikwad, 1996; Patil, 1997). Most of the water bodies in both the states, remain unexplored.
In the present study, an attempt has been made to to fill this lacuna of information by studying the various physico-chemical factors in ten water bodies of Goa and Maharashtra. Apart
35 from the above, the zooplankton diversity and distribution pattern in these areas was also studied, which may help in locating the potential population centers of commercial zooplankton such as copepods, cladocers and rotifers. A compact evaluation of various diversity indices, numbers and evenness of zooplankton has also been studied, apart from similarity matrices and dendrograms, based on them.
36 Aim and scope of the work
1. Analysis of some freshwater bodies from Goa and Maharashtra for their physico-chemical
characteristics to understand the nature of these water bodies.
2. Freshwater bodies of both temporary and permanent nature in the state of Goa were not only
analysed for their physico-chemical and biological components, but were also compared
with similar kind of water bodies in Maharashtra, to understand the role of varied
agroclimatic and edaphic factors on the states of these water bodies.
3. To understand the role of altitudes on the structure of freshwater bodies as well as diversity,
distribution and composition of zooplankton, freshwater bodies of coastal area were
compared with those present at higher altitudes.
4. In all water bodies under study, zooplanktons were analysed for their diversity, community
structure, distribution and species composition.
5. All the water bodies under study were analysed for their physical, chemical and biological
components during various seasons of the year.
6. New records for the region and the two states are also reported.
37 4'
< niateriaa andWetfiods
For physico-chemical analysis of the water bodies, water from three predesignated sites from each of the ten water bodies under study was collected. Among these, six were from
Maharashtra and rest four was from Goa. Collections were made by using plastic containers of two litre capacity. The plastic containers were rinsed thoroughly before use. The collected samples were analysed by following standard methods (APHA, 1989) and by using water testing kits manufactured by C. P. R. Foundation, Chennai, India. Water temperature at each sampling point was recorded on the day of collection using a centigrade thermometer. The hydrogen ion concentration (pH) was measured at three sampling stations using a grip pH meter (Systronics).
The alkalinity, hardness, calcium, chlorides, iron, magnesium, phosphates and sulphates were estimated using water testing kits generated by C. P. R. Foundation, Chennai, India.
Zooplankton samples were collected by means of a plankton hand net of bolting nylon cloth (mesh size 45 pm). The net was prepared according to the design given by Welch (1952).
Samples were collected by filtering 50 litres of water through net, from each water body in early morning hours (between 8 to 11 a.m.), once a month for a period of two years i.e. February 2000 to December 2001.
The procedures for collection, storage and analysis of samples were followed as described in standard methods (APHA, 1989). Inorder to collect the zooplankton species adhering to the weeds, weeds were taken into a bucket and rinsed vigorously. The water from the bucket was seived through the bolting nylon cloth. The zooplankton samples were preserved in
4% neutral formalin solution. The samples were tagged for biomass, taxonomical and numerical studies. The individual species of zooplankton were sorted out and their whole mounts were stained with borax carmine, Lugol's iodine or methylene blue, according to the requirements.
38 Water-la& and 9Vetfiods
Some species were dissected for taxonomically important body parts and were processed in a similar manner. Pointed entomological forceps and needles were used for handling and dissecting the zooplankton. Camera lucida drawings of the entire body or body parts were made under suitable magnifications for detailed studies. At the same time, some species were subjected for microscopic photography under suitable magnifications of stereoscopic microscope, inverted and trinacular microscope.
For the numerical estimation, the organisms were observed under light microscope using
"Sedgwick Rafter Cell" as per the procedure given in the standard methods (APHA, 1989).
Average of 5 to 10 counts for each sample were taken into account and results are expressed as number of organisms per litre by using the formula:
n = (a x 1000) c T.
Where, n = number of plankters per litre of water
a = average number of plankters in 1 ml of subsample
L = volume of original water sample in litre
c = ml of plankton concentrate
The biomass of zooplankton was determined by displacement method (APHA, 1989) and results are expressed in terms of ml of biomass per 100 ml of water filtered.
Zooplankton was identified upto species level, using standard literature (Pennak, 1953;
Dumont and Tundisi, 1984; Michael and Sharma, 1988; Battish, 1992; Edmondson, 1992;
Dhanapathi, 2000).
39 Materials atter Wetfiois
Further, the data was subjected for richness and various diversity indices, which are units of number of species termed as "effective numbers" of species present in a sample (Ludwig and
Reynolds, 1988). These effective numbers measure the degree to which the proportional abundance is distributed among the species. Hence, data was calculated for following diversity evaluations:
1. Margalef's diversity index (1951), D = S-1/ In (N)
2. Margalef's richness index (1958), R 1 = S-1/ In (No)
3. Menhinick's richness index (1964) (cf: Ludwig and Reynolds, 1988), 1:32 = 5/ Vn
4. Simpson's index (1949) (cf: Ludwig and Reynolds, 1988), X, = ni(ni-1)/ n(-1)
5. Hill's first diversity number, N 1 =
6. Hill's second diversity number (1973) (cf: Ludwig and Reynolds, 1988), N2 = 1/X,
7. Shannon's index, H' = [(ni/ n) In(ni/ n)] •
While evenness indices, El to E5, were calculated as follows,
El (familiar to Pileou's J')= In(N)/ In(N o)
E2 (exponentiated form of E l , Sheldon, 1969) = N1/ No
E3 (proposed by Heip, 1974) (cf: Ludwig and Reynolds, 1988) = N 1 -1/ N0-1
E4 (proposed by Hill, 1973, explains the ratio of numbers of very abundant species to
abundant species) (cf: Ludwig and Reynolds, 1988) = N2/ N1
E5 (modified Hill's ratio) (cf: Ludwig and Reynolds, 1988) = N 2-1/ N 1-1
The correlation of physico-chemical parameters with zooplankton abundance, in general,
as well as individual species, in particular, was carried out by subjecting data to Pearson's
bivariate correlation using SPSS-10 software. Average values (pooled data of five replicates) of
40 • r9lateriafs atteWetfioes
physico-chemical parameters were considered and only significant zooplankton groups have been mentioned in the results. Similarity matrices were also calculated using the same software.
A similarity matrix describes the relationships between all the pairs of samples within the matrix.
Similarities usually range from zero to one (increasing values indicating high similarity of two samples) and are calculated between every pair of samples by using a similarity coefficient.
The similarity matrices were subjected to cluster analysis using SPSS-10. It is known that directly detecting a pattern from the resulting lower triangular similarity matrix (Pearson's correlation similarity) can often be difficult. The solution is to create a graphical display linking samples that have mutually high levels of similarity.
Study Area
Quite considerable amount of work has been carried out on zooplankton in other areas of the world. On the contrary, in Indian inland waters, in general, and the states of Goa and
Maharashtra, in particular, research activities on zooplankton could not be carried out on par with other parts of the world. This was due to various reasons like non-availability of expertise, lack of funds, lack of infrastructure facilities, etc., and has thus left a lacuna with regard to information on zooplankton and their world.
Hence, to fill this lacuna of information, an attempt to study physico-chemical characteristics and biological diversity in ten water bodies of Goa and Maharashtra, was carried out (Hg. A).
India has several freshwater reservoirs, small, medium and large, receiving enormous amounts of water from land drainage. The rich and productive water bodies in Maharashtra state,
41 Waterier& and Wetfioes
out of the 15,11,471 hectar total freshwater bodies, 89 % are constituted by small tanks and ponds. Such small and shallow freshwater masses have been found to be much more productive than the larger impoundments.
Kolhapur was selected as study area in Maharashtra. It is located between latitude 16° 42'
N and longitude 74° 14' E. The district is bound by Sangli district at the north, Belgaum district of
Karnataka state at the south and east, while Ratnagiri and Sindhudurga districts at the west. The area of the district, containing 12 talukas, is 7633 sq.km and its population, is more than
20,03,953.
The main part of the district is traversed by the Sahyadri mountains in the west. Major portions of the district are 300 - 600 msl. The principle rivers of Kolhapur district are the Krishna, the Warna, Panchganga, Doodhganga, Vedganga and the 1-iirenyakashi. The Warna river, which has fairly south-eastern trend, serves as boundry between Sangli and Kolhapur district. The
Panchganga is formed by the four tributaries namely, the Kesari, the Kumbhi, the Tulsi and the
Bhagwati. The Panchganga falls into the Krishna at Narsobawadi in Shirol taluka. The south - western region of the district is carried by Doodhganga river.
There are about 229 tanks and reservoirs in Kolhapur district (213 village and zilla parishad tanks, 14 minor irrigation tanks and 2 reservoirs), covering 3569 hectars of water area.
Among 213 tanks, 86 are perennial having maximum water spread area of 3362 hectars and minimum of 958 hectars, the average being 2016 hectars. Around the Kolhapur city, about 10 tanks are present, of varying sizes (5 hectars to 200 hectars). These are used for minor irrigation, washing and bathing purposes.
42 Materials and gfrietliods
The forest area in Kolhapur district is refined to the western half of the district. The total forest area being more than 1,46,575 hectars. With respect to soil, Kolhapur district has three broad zones, the western part is covered with lateritious soil, the central part has fertile brownish well-drained soil, while the eastern zone is covered with alluvial, medium to deep black soil.
The rainfall is not evenly distributed in the district and varies from place to place. The district receives rains from the south-west, as well as from south-east monsoon. The main rainy season is from June to October.
The climate gets hotter and drier towards the east and humidity goes on increasing towards the west. The maximum temperature ranges between 31.1 °C in July to 41.5 °C in April.
Similarly, the minimum temperature ranges from 10.3 °C in December to 21.5 °C from April to
June. The percentage humidity at 3.30 hrs varies from 54 % in March to 37 % in August.
Similarly, at 17.30 hrs, the percentage humidity varies from 30 % in April to 69 % in July. The temperature and rainfall have profound effects on climate.
While Goa, one of the smallest state along the central west coast of India, is known
nationally and internationally as a tourist destination because of the natural beauty of its sandy
beaches, lush green hills, water bodies, culture and people. Goa is also known at national level as
leading iron and manganese ore exporter. Goa is bound by Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra on
the north, North Kanara district of Karnataka state on the south, Western Ghats on the east and
Arabian Sea on the west. It has a coastal stretch of 100 kms, lying between the Western Ghats and Arabian Sea.
The area of the state containing two districts is approximately 3702 sq. kms. The
maximum length and width being 105 kms (north-south) and 60 kms (east-west), respectively.
43 1 interiafr and niettiods
The state is situated between 73° 40' - 74° 20' E and 14°53' - 15°47' N. A total of nine rivers flow through Goa. Of these, Mandovi (61.6 km long) and Zuari (62.4 km long) rivers are most important. Their basins occupy 69 % of the total area. Along the coastal plains, cultivated fields, khazan lands and ponds are common. The soil type differs from place to place. Laterite soil is present along Ghats, red gravel along river banks and alluvial soil from coastal belt.
The climate of Goa, a subtropical region, can be divided into four seasons. Summer from
March to May, pre-monsoon season with occasional showers at the end of May, south-west monsoons from June to September, post-monsoon season from October to November and winter season from December to February. About an average of 3000 m of rainfall is received from south-west monsoon. The temperature is maximum between 35 - 37 cC during March to May and minimum between 15-16 °C during January. The temperature profile shows another temperature peak during October. Humidity in the state varies between 70- 95 %. The average wind speed is about 13 km/ hr blowing from the west in monsoons, east in summer and north-east during winter.
Seasonal variations in the climatological parameters of Goa and Maharashtra, during the
present study period, are given in Table A. Morphometry of the ten water bodies from the two
states are tabulated in Table B. Photographs of water bodies sampled are given in Plates 1, 2, 3.
44 •Sadoba Pond • Someshwar Tank • Waghbil Lake
• Rankala- : Lake em Lake • Kalan-iba Lake • Rajaram Lak Age.' ant Cruz Lake • Pilar Lake dem Lake
Map of Goa and Maharashtra showing location of the water bodies studied Table A. Meteorological conditions of Maharashtra and Goa for the years 2000 and 2001
Maharashtra Goa
Rainfall Rainfall Months Temperature ( °C) Relative humidity (%) Temperature ( °C) Relative humidity (%) (mm) (mm) 2000 Max Min Average Max Min Average Max Min Average Max Min Average Jan 30.6 16.1 23.4 74.0 44.0 59.0 - 32.7 20.7 26.7 77.0 59.0 68.0 - Feb 30.5 16.3 23.4 76.0 37.7 56.8 - 31.2 20.4 25.8 82.0 59.0 70.5 - Mar 34.5 15.9 25.2 62.0 30.0 46.0 2.9 31.7 22.2 26.9 81.0 64.0 72.5 - Apr 36.6 22.3 29.6 78.0 47.0 62.5 1.9 33.0 25.9 29.5 77.0 64.0 70.5 2.3 May 32.5 22.5 27.5 82.0 62.0 72.0 84.7 32.0 25.2 28.6 84.0 74.0 79.0 288.7 Jun 28.6 22.3 25.6 87.7 77.0 82.3 97.0 29.5 25.1 27.3 91.0 86.0 88.5 1176.2 Jul 26.5 21.3 23.9 91.4 82.6 87.0 217.0 28.3 23.9 26.1 94.0 87.0 90.5 1361.7 Aug 26.8 21.4 24.1 92.0 81.0 86.5 152.5 28.5 24.1 26.3 94.0 88.0 91.0 496.6 Sep 29.6 21.1 25.3 90.4 74.1 82.2 131.1 30.1 24.4 27.3 92.0 82:0 87.0 119.5 Oct 30.5 21.2 25.8 91.2 67.5 79.3 106.7 31.5 24.6 28.0 91.0 83.0 87.0 61.6 Nov 30.8 18.3 24.5 76.2 49.4 62.8 11.2 33.6 22.7 28.2 79.0 65.0 72.0 4.5 Dec 29.9 14.7 22.3 66.0 40.0 53.0 0.2 32.8 19.8 26.3 71.0 55.0 63.0 0.5
2001 Jan 29.9 16.7 23.3 79.0 45.0 62.0 1.2 32.3 20.7 26.5 83.0 59.0 71.0 8.4 Feb 33.8 16.8 25.3 69.0 32.0 50.5 - 31.5 20.7 26.1 87.0 62.0 74.5 - Mar 35.2 19.3 27.2 72.8 33.6 53.2 - 31.4 22.3 26.8 83.0 64.0 73.5 - Apr 35.9 22.5 29.2 74.0 44.0 59.0 30.2 32.9 25.9 29.3 79.0 69.0 74.0 6.3 May 33.7 22.5 28.1 81.5 57.0 69.2 23.5 33.2 26.0 29.6 80.0 72.0 76.0 167.6 Jun 28.6 22.4 25.5 88.0 79.0 83.5 143.0 30.5 25.5 28.0 87.0 81.0 84.0 527.0 Jul 26.1 21.4 23.7 94.0 87.0 90.5 200.7 28.8 24.3 26.5 93.0 98.0 95.5 832.4 Aug 26.4 21.3 23.8 95.0 85.2 90.1 142.6 28.9 24.3 26.6 94.0 88.0 91.0 414.4 Sep 28.9 21.1 25.0 91.0 75.0 83.0 144.4 30.8 24.3 27.5 92.0 81.0 86.5 96.3 Oct 30.3 20.6 25.4 82.0 64.0 73.0 56.7 31.4 24.0 27.7 91.0 79.0 85.0 70.1 Nov 31.4 19.4 25.4 69.0 49.0 59.0 3.8 34.0 23.1 28.5 81.0 65.0 73.0 5.6 Dec 29.8 16.7 23.2 70.0 46.0 58.0 - 33.3 21.3 27.3 72.0 58.0 65.0 Trace SOURCE: Meteorological Department Table B. Morphometry of the freshwater bodies of Goa and Maharashtra
Rajaram Ran kala Kalamba Sadoba Someshwar Waghbil Pilar Mayem Santacruz Vadeem Parameters lake lake lake pond temple tank lake lake lake lake lake Water spread during post 0.5 m2 x 106 1.6 m2 x 106 64.0 ha 0.5 ha 1.7 ha 51.3 ha 4.2 ha 5.0 ha 3.2 0.9 monsoon Water spread 52.0 85.0 46.0 area (ha) 0.7 1.5 54.0 4.2 4.6 4.0 0.9 Average water 40.0 42.0 0.5 spread area (ha) 70.0 1.5 39.0 3.34 3.9 1.2 0.8 Maximum depth 5.7 12.0 9.0 1.5 3.5 6.5 2.0 6.0 2.4 2.0 (m) Mean depth (m) 3.5 4.06 4.9 0.4 2.6 4.2 1.7 3.2 1.2 1.2 Total water 4.26 m3 2.75 m3 - 1.94 m3 x 1.03 m3 x 2.05 m3 . holding capacity x 106 x 106 106 104 Maximum length 520 1400 1281 64 104 1040 290 540 230 78 (m) Latitude 16° 42'N 16° 42'N 16° 42'N 16° 50'N 16° 50'N 16° 46'N 15° 26'N 15° 28'N 15° 54'N 15° 23'N
Longitude 74° 14'E 74° 14'E 74° 14'E 75° 10'E 75° 10'E 75° 01'E 73° 54'E 73° 51'E 73° 56'E 73° 49'E
Altitude (msL) 584 570 589 968 958 604 132 160 128 145
Transparancy 25 - 68 30 - 80 19 - 72 15 - 30 10 - 35 27 - 40 18 - 40 25 - 80 10 - 30 10 - 15 (cm) Dissolved 1.7 - 10.0 4.6 - 20.0 2.5 - 7.9 1.5 - 7.0 0.8 - 4.2 6.0 - 11.8 1.2 - 10.2 3.5 - 12.8 0.9 - 3.5 0.6 - 1.8 Oxygen (ng!L) Water colour Bluish Greenish Greenish Bluish Bluish Blue Green Blue Blue Green Premonsoon brown brown brown green green Brownish Brownish Reddish Reddish Greenish Reddish Reddish Reddish Reddish Greenish Monsoon red blue brown brown brown brown brown brown brown brown Greenish Greenish Greenish Bluish Bluish Bluish Postmonsoon Blue Bluish brown Green Green brown brown brown brown green brown PLATE 1
_.....6614ataes PLATE 2 4
-ydrp.-(51AUIL [VA= PLATE 3 r
n
r. Seasonaivariations ofphysico-chemicaf factors and zoopranktonic popufation of freshwater bodies in Goa and Maharashtra Chapter I
Zooplankton are susceptible to variations in a wide number of environmental factors including water temperature, light, chemistry (particularly pH, oxygen, salinity, toxic contaminants), food availability (algae, bacteria) and predation by fish and invertebrates. It is generally desirable to have as much information on these variables. However, some variables are relatively easy to measure (e.g. temperature), but others are more difficult (e.g. fish predation intensity, toxic contaminants). Many environmental factors affect zooplankton only at extreme levels (e.g. toxic contaminants, salinity, oxygen) and will not be important in all lakes.
Abiotic factors such as temperature, pH, alkalinity, chlorides, etc. along with suitable food availability are related to abundance and occurrence of zooplankton. It is believed that, single factor never acts independently as limiting factor but, only with interraction with others. Species, which can tolerate highly variable biotopes are known as 'Eurytopic', while those capable of tolerating limited range are termed 'Stenotopic'.
Temperature affects the embryonic development and thus significantly influences the population dynamics of. zooplankton (Hofmann, 1977). Seasonal succession arid specific adaptations are seen in the tropics with changing temperatures. Environment tends to change towards optimal conditions and result in increase in population size. The results of study on abiotic factors in relation to biotic factors in ten freshwater bodies of Goa and Maharashtra is presented in this chapter.
Fig.1.1.1 depicts the physico-chemical data for Kalamba lake. As seen in the figure, maximum temperature of 32.4 °C was recorded in April '01 and minimum of 20.7 °C was recorded in December '01. The pH ranged between 6.5 in the months of August '00, September
45 Cfiapter I
'00, April '01, August '01 and 8.0 in October '00. Alkalinity was recorded maximum at 300 ppm in May '01 and minimum at 124 ppm in February '00. A minimum concentration of 90 ppm was observed for hardness in November '00, while in May '00, maximum concentration of 175 ppm was noted. The calcium content in the lake water ranged between 42 ppm measured in December
'00 and 88 ppm in May '00. Chlorides were minimum in September '01 with the concentration being 12 ppm, while maximum concentration of 75 ppm was seen in June '00. Magnesium content was in the range of 34 and 94 ppm in June '01 and October '00, respectively. Maximum iron concentration was measured at 0.7 ppm in August '01 and the minimum concentration was found in March, April and December '00 at 0.2 ppm. The phosphates showed its lowest concentration at 0.1 ppm in the months of May, July, August '00 and June '01, while in
September '01, its content was maximum at 0.6 ppm. Sulphates ranged between 100 and 200 ppm measured in July '01 and August '00, respectively.
As per the data on biomass of Kalamba lake, highest value of biomass of 5.3 m1/100 ml of filtrate was obtained in May '00 and 4.8 m1/100 ml of filtrate in May '01 (Fig. 1.3.1). During
May '00, the dominant zooplankton species were rotifers and cyclopoids, while during May '01, cyclopoids were most dominant. The biomass was high during the months of September,
November and December '01 with the values being 4.5, 4.6 and 4.5 ml/100 ml of filtrate, respectively. The zooplankton density however was highest during November '00 and December
'01, with rotifers, cladocerans and copepoda larvae being the major contributing groups. During the months of November '00 and December '01, highest number of zooplankton, i.e., 6655 and
46 Cfiapter I
5912 individuals/L, respectively, were encountered. Lowest number were seen in July '00 and
March '01 with the count being 2702 and 2095 individuals/L, respectively.
The zooplankton species encountered during the period from 2000 - 2001 in the lake were rotif era, cladocera, cyclopoida, calanoida, copepoda larvae, harpacticoida and ostracoda.
Fig. 1.2.1 shows zooplankton abundance in Kalamba lake for 2000 - 2001.
In the year 2000, rotifers were found in the range of 768 (April) to 2921 (December) individuals/L. They were found throughout the year and density peaks were observed in January,
June, August and December. Cladocerans were between 546 (July) and 2072 (September) individuals/L and unlike in other lakes, they were found throughout the year in Kalamba lake and in high numbers. The density being lower during the first seven months and on the higher side from September onwards. Cyclopoids ranged between 67 (October) and 1920 (May) individuals/L and were totally absent during July '00. Calanoids ranged between 162 (December) and 266 (March, November) individuals/L and was also found in September. Copepoda larvae were present in the range of 96 (April) to 1760 (November) individuals/L and were present throughout the year with higher numbers being present in March, June, July, October and
November. Harpacticoids ranged between 76 (April) and 185 (February) individuals/L and density was fairly low. They were also seen in May, October and November. Ostracods were present in the range of 49 (September) to 205 (October) individuals/L and showed occurrence in low numbers. Ostracods were absent in water samples analysed in the months of February, May,
August and November '00. Thus, highest density was of rotifers and lowest density was of harpacticoids. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order:
47 Cfiapter I
rotifera (37.42 %) > cladocera (29.37 %) > copepoda larvae (14.32 %) > cyclopoida (14.08
%) > others (below 10 %)
During the year 2001, the range of rotifera, cladocera, cyclopoida, calanoida, copepoda larvae, harpacticoida and ostracoda was between 215 (April) to 3210 (July), 384 (June) to 2150
(November), 260 (November) to 1272 (May), 85 (December) to 320 (August), 45 (September) to 1271 (December), 65 (May) to 120 (July) and 25 (May) to 265 (August) individuals/1_,
respectively. Rotifers, cladocerans and copepoda larvae were present throughout the year.
Abundance of rotifers was seen during monsoons and winter season. Cladoceran density,
however, was low in rainy season and high during summer, from January to May and after rains, from August onwards. During January, May, August and December, cyclopoida density was
maximum, Calanoids were found only in January, August, November and December. A gradual
rise and fall in density of copepoda larvae was observed with peak values seen in the months of
February, June and December. Harpacticoida and ostracoda densities were fairly low. Thus, the
highest density was of rotifers, while the lowest being of harpacticoids. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (37.18 %) > cladocera
(31.51%) > copepoda larvae (13.65 %) > cyclopoida (13.13 %) > others (below 10 %).
Pearson's bivariate correlation for Kalamba lake, as indicated in Table 1.1, was
statistically significant (P<0.01) between temperature, rotifers and K. tropica, while weak
correlation (P<0.05) was observed between B. caudatus and B. forficula. Simocephalus vetulus and Eucyclops agalis were correlated strongly with pH, whereas the correlation was low with
Anuroeopsis fissa, Trichocera arithadis and Btachionus angularis. Apart from low correlation of
48 Cfiapter I
alkalinity with Trichocera anthadis, strong correlation was seen with Simocephalus vetulus and
Eucyclops agalis. With regard to hardness, rotifers, Rhinediaptomus indicus and K tropica were weakly correlated and Asplanchana priodonta along with H. viduus had a significant correlation.
Calcium exhibited strong correlation with H. viduus and Rhinediaptomus indicus, apart from low correlation for cladocerans and calanoids, in general and Asplanchana priodonta and Moina branchiata, in particular. Iron and B. forficula exhibited significant correlation with each other.
Phosphates displayed a weak correlation with K. tropica, while magnesium also showed weak correlation with Diaphanosoma sarsi. Sulphate content of the lake water was correlated weakly with Cyclops exilis, while demonstrating a strong correlation with lndialona ganapati. Chlorides showed no correlation with the zooplankton analysed.
The physico-chemical parameters of Rajaram lake are given in Fig.1 .1 .2. Lowest temperature of 21.1 °C was recorded in December '00, while the highest temperature recorded was 32.4 °C in May '01. Range of pH was, between 7.2 and 8.2 in July '00 and August '01, and
May '00, respectively. Alkalinity ranged from 109 ppm in the month of July '00 to 310 ppm in
April '01 and hardness was in the range of 87 ppm and 160 ppm recorded in August '01 and May
'00, respectively, Maximium concentration of calcium seen was 98 ppm in December '00 and the minimum being 47 ppm in August '01. The concentration of iron ranged between 0.1 ppm in
November '00, December '00 and August '01, and 0.4 ppm recorded in May '00. As for magnesium, the minimum concentration was 34 ppm in the months of June '00 and November
'01, while maximum concentration was 82 ppm in May '01. Phosphate was present in the range of 0.1 and 0.7 ppm in February '00, April '00, May '00, April '01, May '01 and September '00,
49 Chapter I respectively. Sulphate showed minimum presence at 75 ppm in May '00, December '00 and
February '01, while maximum content of 160 ppm was present in the month of December '01.
As depicted in Fig. 1.3.1, biomass of Rajaram lake was high during August '00 at 1.3 m1/100 ml of filtrate, followed by a decrease and a sudden peak at 2.8 m1/100 ml of filtrate, in the month of November '00. The dominant zooplankton species during this month were rotifers and copepoda larvae. Highest density of zooplankton during the year 2000 was seen in September followed by November. The major contributors being rotifers and copepoda larva. The biomass during the year 2001 was highest at 2.5 m1/100 ml of filtrate in August, followed closely by
September at 2.4 m1/100 ml of filtrate, the dominant species being cladocerans during August and cladocerans with rotifers, during September. During this year, the highest density of zooplankton were encountered in December, with 4024 individuals/L of rotifers and 1840 individuals/L of cyclopoida species forming the major species.
The total number of species was highest during December '00 and '01 with the count of
6542 and 5969 individuals/L, respectively. Lowest zooplankton count was found during July '00 and June '01 with 810 and 683 individuals/L, respectively. Fig. 1.2.2 shows zooplankton abundance in Rajaram lake for 2000 - 2001. The zooplankton species found in this lake water were rotifers, cladocerans, cyclopoids, calanoids and copepoda larvae.
In the year 2000, rotifers were found in the range of 140 (August) to 4520 (December) individuals/L. The density of rotifers showed three peaks in February, September and December and were absent in July. Cladoceran population ranged between 96 (March) and 354
(September) individuals/L. Apart from these months, they were found in August and October.
50 Chapter I
Cyclopoids ranged between 95 (September) and 1560 (December) individuals/L. From February to June, they were present but in lower numbers. During July and August '00, no cyclopoida species were seen. Calanoida population was between 145 (February) and 1740 (August) individuals/L. The density was seen to increase from February, peak in March and fall in April.
During May - June, October '00, calanoids were not present. Their density again rose from July to peak in August and fall again. Copepoda larvae were present in the range of 127 (March) to 1830
(November) individuals/L and were encountered in higher numbers from August till December.
Thus, the density of rotifers was highest and that of cladocerans was lowest. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (50.37 %) > copepoda larvae (17.5 %) > calanoida (14.96 %) > cyclopoida (14.39 %) > others (below 10 %).
During the year 2001, rotifers were found in the range of 405 (August) to 4024
(December) individuals/L. The count was higher in March and April followed by a period of low density. November and December again. showed higher rotifer numbers. Cladocerans were ranging between 79 (March) and 420 (November) individuals/L and appeared in good numbers only during August, September and November. For the rest of the year, either their number was too low or they were absent. Cyclopoids ranged between 50 (September) and 2005 (March) individuals/L. The density was seen to increase steadily from January till March and reduce again till May. During June and October, no cyclopoida species were seen. A considerably high count was obtained in December. Calanoids were in the range of 245 (January) to 1941 (August) and were encountered from July to October. Unusually, a low count of calanoids was obtained in
January. Copepoda larvae were present in the range of 97 (June) to 1621 (May) individuals/L,
51 Cfiapter I their abundance being low or nil throughout the year, except in May and September. They were absent during April, July - August, October - December '01. Thus, the highest density in the lake was that of rotifers, while cladocerans. were least dense. The percentage of zooplankton abundance was found in the following descending order: rotifera (48.97 %) > cyciopoida (21.24
%) > calanoida (15.64 %) > others (below 10 %).
The values obtained for Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical parameters and zooplankton abundance in the Rajaram lake are given in Table 1.2. Anuroeopsis fissa and
Heliodiaptomus cinctus demonstrated weak correlation with temperature. Heliodiaptomus cinctus exhibited strong correlation with pH, while Paradiaptomus greeni was weakly correlated.
Correlation was strong in the case of alkalinity with Heliodiaptomus cinctus and low with
Eosphora anthadis and Paradiaptomus greeni. Hardness also showed strong correlation with
Heliodiaptomus cinctus and was weakly correlated with M. dybowskii and Paradiaptomus greeni.
Calcium exhibited strong correlation with cyclopoids and Heliodiaptomus cinctus apart from having low correlation with rotifers and Paradiaptomus greeni. Except for weak correiatiOn between chlorides and copepoda larvae, Brachionus caudatus, Keratella tropica and H. cinctus, no other correlation was encountered. Iron showed only weak correlation with Asplanchana brightwelli, Horaella brehmi and M. dybowskii. Magnesium and B. diversicornis were weakly correlated with each other. A statistically significant correlation was recorded between phosphates and clacocera, in general and Diaphanosoma senegal, in particular, while with C. pulchella, Moina branchiata and H. viduus, the correlation was low. Calanoids and B. rubens showed weak correlation with sulphates.
52 Cfiapter
Fig.1.1.3 shows the physico-chemical parameters recorded for Rankala lake during 2000
- 2001. A pH range of 6.2 and 7.8 was noted in November '00 and May '00, respectively, while temperature was maximum at 32.5 °C in May '00 and minimum at 20.8 °C in December '01.
Alkalinity ranged from 98 ppm recorded in July '01 to 280 ppm in May '00, while hardness was in the range of 90 ppm in November '00 and 190 ppm in August '01. Calcium was present maximally at 120 ppm concentration as calculated in the month of August '01 and was minimum at 50 ppm in the month of August '00. Lowest concentration of chlorides was 37 ppm in the month of August '00, while highest concentration was 110 ppm in October '00. Iron showed its maximum presence at 0.5 ppm in October '00, November '00, July '01 and October '01, while a minimum of 0.1 ppm was present during March '01 and September '01. Maximum phosphates were found at 0.6 ppm concentration in November '00, December '00 and August '01 whereas, minimum concentration of 0.2 ppm of the same was noted in February '00, May '00, February
'01 and April '01. Magnesium and sulphate ranged between 17 ppm in June '01 to 90 ppm in
June '00 and 105 ppm in January '01 to 190 ppm in June '01, respectively.
The data on Rankala lake revealed a sudden increase in the biomass in August and
September of '00, which peaked in the month of DeceMber '00 at 2 m1/100 nil of filtrate (Fig.
1.3.1). The population density of zooplankton was also the highest in this month (5606 individuals/L), contributed by rotifer population of 1750 individuals/L, cyclopoida population of
1250 individuals/L and copepoda larvae population of 1720 individuals /L. A similar pattern was observed for '01, where the biomass showed a peak in November at 1.9 m1/100 ml of filtrate and the dominant fauna were rotifers. However, the zooplankton density was highest with 4830
53 Cfiapter I individuals/L in December and the groups contributing to this density were rotifer population of
1735 individuals/L and cyclopoida population of 1340 individuals/L. Lowest zooplankton count was found during July '00 and October '01 with 1477 and 1807 individuals/L, respectively.
Fig. 1.2.3 shows zooplankton abundance in Rankala lake for 2000 - 2001. In the year
2000, rotifers were found in the range of 120 (July) . to 2890 (November) individuals/L. Its population peaked during November. The density was high in February followed by gradual decrease upto May. Thereafter rising again :till September. A sudden drop in density was observed in October just before the peak density. Cladoceran population ranged between 196
(April) and 1420 (August) individuals/L, appearing from June onwards. The density was seen to increase steadily and peak at 1420 individuals/Lin August. Cladocerans were not detected during
March and May '00. Cyclopoids ranged between 80 (May) and 1250 (December) individuals/L., showing a peculiar pattern of monthly alternating high and low population from May to
November. The density peaked in December with 1250 individuals/L. Cyclopoids were absent during September '00. Calanoids ranged between 190 (December) and 422 (August) individuals/L. Other than these months, calanoids were present in July and November only.
Copepoda larvae were present in the range of 40 (August) to 1720 (December) individuals/L and showed three peaks in May (1452 individuals/L), September (1247 individuals/L) and December.
Copepoda larvae were absent in June '00. Harpacticoids ranged from 45 (June) to 123 (August) and ostracods ranged from 72 (July) to 165 (September). Harpacticoids were not encountered during February - May, July, '00, September '00, November - December '00 and ostracods were absent in water samples analysed in the months of February - June '00.
54 Cfiapter I
Thus, the density of rotifers was highest and that of harpacticoids was lowest. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (40.41 ` 3/0)
> copepoda larvae (21.18 `3/0) > cladocera (17.36 `3/0) > cyclopoida (14.36 %) > others
(below 10 %).
During the year 2001, rotifers were found in the range of 285 (May) to 2420 (June)
individuals/L. From 2290 individuals/L in January, the count of rotifers decreased gradually till
May, with a sudden peak in June followed by a drop in July. Thereafter the density was again
high. Cladocerans were between 78 (April) and 1250 (August) individuals/L. Their density rose
from April to August, where it was maximum. Cladocerans were not detected during March.
Cyclopoids ranged between 130 (May) and 1340 (November) individuals/L. As observed during
the previous year, a pattern of rise and fall in density of cyclopoids during alternating months was
noted throughout the year. Cyclopoids were absent during October. Calanoids were in the range
of 40 (October) to 210 (August) and were totally absent during the months of January - March,
May - June, September, December. Copepoda larvae were present in the range of 85 (February) to 1576 (September) individuals/L with the density being high in March (1270 individuals/L) and
December (1510 individuals/L) also. Copepoda larvae were absent in April, July - August.
Harpacticoida density ranged from 95 (August) to 242 (May) individuals/L and apart from these
two months, were found in March and April. Ostracods ranged from 48 (October) to 205
(September) and were present from April till November.
Thus, the highest density in the tank was of rotifers, while calanoids were least dense.
The percentage of abundance of zooplankton was found in the following descending order:
55 Chapter 1 rotifera (45.99 %) > copepoda larvae (18.04 %) > cyclopoida (15.11 %) > cladocera (15.01
%) > others (below 10 %).
Pearson's bivariate correlation was analysed for physico-chemical parameters and zooplankton abundance in the Rankala lake and the results are given in Table 1.3. A strong correlation was observed between temperature and cladocerans, while weak correlation was seen with harpacticoids and Heliodiaptomus cinctus. Water pH showed statistically sigilificant correlation with rotifers and weak correlation with Anuroeopsis fissa, B. patulus and
Heliodiaptomus cinctus. Alkalinity showed a weak correlation with cyclopoids, Strong correlation was seen for hardness with K tropica and Moina branchiata, whereas the correlation was weak with rotifers, B. patalus, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Daphnia pulex, Eucyclops agalis and Mesocyclops leuckarti. Calcium exhibit only weak correlation with Daphnia pulex, Moina branchiata and
Cyclops bicolor, while chlorides had weak correlation with calanoids, Eucyclops agalis and
Heliodiaptomus cinctus. No correlation, was noted between iron and zooplankton fauna.
Magnesium demonstrated strong correlation with rotifers, B. angularis, B. patulus and K. tropica, apart from having a weak correlation with Eucyclops agalis and Mesocyclops leuckarti.
Cladocerans, calanoids, ostracods and Heliodiaptomus cinctus demonstrated strong correlation with phosphates, while D. negrensis was weakly correlated with the same. Suphate content
showed low correlation with harpacticoids and Heliodiaptomus cinctus.
Physico-chemical parameters for Sadoba pond are displayed in Fig.1.1.4. In the month of
May '00, maximum temperature of 34.2 °C and pH of 7.9 were recorded, while minimum
temperature of 20.5 °C was noted in August '01 and minimum pH of 6 in the month of June '01.
56 Cfiapter I
Alkalinity ranged between 30 ppm in June - July '00 and 145 ppm in August '00, whereas
hardness was in the range of 50 ppm in June '01 and 160 ppm in May '01. A minimum content of 22 ppm of calcium was obtained in October '00, while maximum was in May '01 at 72 ppm.
The analysis showed 32 ppm of chlorides in February '00 and February '01, and 175 ppm in May
'00. Minimum iron content of 0.2 ppm was found in February and November '01, while in July
'00, its content was maximum at 1 ppm. Magnesium content ranged between 20 ppm in the
months of June '01, August '01 and 88 ppm in May '01. Concentration of phosphates was in the range of 0.2 ppm in November and December '00, and 0.9 ppm in June '00. Sulphates were
maximally present in June '01 at 280 ppm, whereas in February '00, November '00, February '01,
November '01 and December '01, its presence was minimum at 140 ppm.
Biomass data of Sadoba pond showed two peaks in August and December of both years
(Fig. 1.3.1). In August and December '00, the biomass was 4.7 and 4.5 m1/100 ml of filtrate, respectively and during August and December '01, it was 4.6 and 3.8 ml/100 ml of filtrate, respectively. Rotifers and calanoids were found to be the most dominant zooplankton fauna during these months. Zooplankton density in the year 2000 was also highest during August, while in 2001, it was in March with rotifers (3675 individuals/L) contributing most to the density. The zooplankton abundance of Sadoba pond is shown in Fig. 1.2.4 and indicates the presence of all species in the pond water. In August '00 and March '01, highest number of zooplankton i.e. 5366 and 5471 individuals/L, respectively, were encountered, whereas the least number were seen in
April '00 at 2770 individuals/L and September '01 at 2230 individuals/L.
•
57 Chapter 1.
In the year 2000, rotifers were found in the range of 468 (October) to 3258 (March) individuals/L. Except for June, rotifers were present all year round with peak densities in March,
May, August and December. Cladocerans were between 130 (July) and 1280 (February) individuals/L. After February, the number of cladocerans fell considerably and a rise was seen only in August. Cyclopoids ranged between 212 (February) and 936 (December) individuals/L and were absent during March and June '00 with the density almost constant in the remaining months. The range of calanoids was between 205 (February) to 1696 (December) individuals/L.
Calanoids were totally absent during the month of November. Its density increased from February till March, followed by a gradual fall and sudden rise in August. Copepoda larvae were present in the range of 175 (March) to 1830 (November) individuals/L, being absent in August '00. The density was seen to increase gradually from March till July and thereafter remained constant upto
October. Harpacticoids were maximum in May with 273 individuals/L and lowest in July with 75 individuals/L. They were not detected during most of the months except in February, May -
August and October. Ostracods were present in the range of 78 (February) to 220 (August) individuals/L and were absent in water samples analysed in the months of April - June '00,
September '00, December '00. Harpacticoida and ostracoda densities were lower than the other zooplankton.
Thus, the density of rotifers was highest and that of ostracoda was lowest. The percent occurrence of zooplankton showed the following pattern: rotifera (44.53 %) > calanoida (17.54
`)/0) > copepoda larvae (14.28 %) > cyclopoida (12.69 %) > others (below 10 %).
58 chapter I
In 2001, the range of rotifers was from 530 (April) to 3675 (March) individuals/L. The density was high from January till March and towards the end of the year. Cladocerans were found in the range of 263 (May) to 943 (August) individuals/L and their density was high during rains. However, cladocerans were not detected during February - March, June and December '01.
Cyclopoids were found between 177 (October) and 872 (January) individuals/L. They were observed throughout the year except in November '01. While, range of calanoids was between 82
(October) and 1105 (August) individuals/L. Calanoids were totally absent during the months of
January and July '01. Copepoda larvae ranged between 172 (September) and 850 (July) and detected all year round. A very slow rise in density was observed from January to July followed by a dip in density. In November, another peak in abundance of copepoda larvae was observed.
Harpacticoids were in the range of 79 (March) to 108 (February) and ostracods ranged from 40
(November) to 452 (August) individuals/L with both groups occurring in scarce numbers.
The density of rotifers was highest as per the count in March while lowest density was that of harpacticoids. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (45.84 %) > cyclopoida (13.82 %) > copepoda larvae (13.46 %) > calanoida
(12.81 %) > cladocera (10.29 %) > others (below 10 `70).
The data of physico-chemical parameters and zooplankton abundance of Sadoba pond were subjected to Pearson's bivariate correlation and the results of the same are given in Table
1.4. Except for weak correlation of temperature with ostracods and Filinia longiseta, of pH with B. caudatus, K. tropica and Biapertura karua, no other correlation was obtained. Similarly, phosphates and sulphates demonstrated weak correlation with Filinia terminalis and Pleuroxus
59 Cfiapter I similis, respectively. Hardness and magnesium showed low correlation with Filinia longiseta.
Chlorides also demonstrated weak correlation for Filinia longiseta and Biapertura karua. In case of iron content of the pond, a strong correlation was seen of the same for Pleuroxus similis, apart from a low correlation with H. viduus. Alkalinity and calcium exhibited no correlation with zooplankton abundance.
The physico-chemical parameters of Someshwar temple tank are depicted in Fig.1.1.5.
Temperature of the water body ranged between 19.8 °C in August '01 and 33.0 °C in May '01, while its pH was in the range of 6.7 in August '00 to 8.2 in April '01. Range of alkalinity was between 96 ppm in the month of December '01 and 310 ppm in May '01. Hardness was recorded minimum in July '01 at 80 ppm and maximum at 180 ppm in October '01. April '01 showed lowest incidence of calcium at 40 ppm concentration while the highest was in October '00 at 90 ppm. Chloride content ranged between 42 and 90 ppm in July '01 and September '01. respectively. Minimum concentration of 0.3 ppm of iron was encountered in February '00, March
'00, September '00, November '00 - April '01, while it was maximum at 0.6 ppm in the months of June '00, July '00, May '01 and July '01. Magnesium concentration recorded was maximum in
September '01 at 84 ppm and minimum in August '01 at 25 ppm. Phosphate content was seen to vary between 0.2 ppm for February - April '00, December '00 and 0.6 ppm for the month of
August '00. Minimum sulphate content was present in November '01 at a concentration of 140 ppm while maximum content was found in September '00 and May '01 at 200 ppm.
As seen from Fig. 1.3.1, four peaks were observed during biomass estimation of
Someshwar temple tank in March, August, September and December '00. The biomass was 0.1
60 Cfiapter I
m1/100 ml of filtrate, with the dominant zooplankton being rotifers. The density of zooplankton in this tank during '00 was highest in April with cyclopoids (352 individuals/L) and copepoda larvae
(343 individuals/L) contributing maximally. Similarly, biomass was 0.1 m1/100 ml of filtrate in
August 01 and highest zooplankton density was observed in December '01 with 743 individuals/L of rotifers being the main contributors. The total number of species was highest during April '00 and December '01 with the count of 1129 and 1306 individuals/L, respectively.
Lowest zooplankton count was found during November '00 and October '01 with 507 and 387 individuals/L, respectively.
Fig. 1.2.5 shows zooplankton abundance in Someshwar temple tank for 2000 - 2001. The zooplankton species found in this tank water were rotifera, cladocerana, cyclopoida and copepoda larvae. In the year 2000, rotifers were found in the range of 72 (October) to 630 (August) individuals/L with peak densities in February, August and December. Cladoceraris were between
45 (October) and 260 (March) individuals/L and apart from these two months were also detected in April, July and December. Cyclopoids ranged between 137 (December) and 405 (May) individuals/L. Its density increased gradually from February to May. During July '00. November
'00, no cyclopoida species were seen. A peak was observed again in September. Copepoda larvae were present in the range of 109 (September) to 343 (April) individuals/L. During May,
August and December '00, copepoda larvae were not present. Thus, the density of rotifers was highest and that of cladocerans was lowest. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (44.83 %) > cyclopoida (24.24 %) > copepoda larvae
(22.32 %) > cladocera (8.6 %).
61 Chapter I
During the year 2001, rotifers were found in the range of 169 (April) to 743 (December) individuals/L. Except in May '01, rotifers were present throughout the year. Cladocerans were between 56 (November) and 205 (June) individuals/L, while their density was nil during April,
July, September and October '01. Cyclopoids ranged between 61 (November) and 346
(December) individuals/L with density increasing from March to May. No cyclopoida species were seen during February and June. From July, their density was almost constant with a peak appearing again in December. Copepoda larv,ae were present in the range of 45 (December) to
295 (September) individuals/L. During May, July and October, copepoda larvae were not present and during the remaining months, an alternating high and low density pattern was seen. Thus, the highest density in the tank was of rotifers, while cladocerans were least dense. The percentage of zooplankton abundance was found in the following descending order: rotifera (44.88 `)/0) cyclopoida (25.05 `)/0) > copepoda larvae (18.82 `)/0) > cladocera (11.24 %).
Table 1.5 gives the Pearson's bivariate correlation applied for the data of Someshwar temple tank. As seen in the table, temperature showed strong correlation with rotifers and B. caudatus, whilst with B. bidentata, a weak correlation was observed. Weak correlation was seen between pH and rotifers. Alkalinity showed significant .correlation with rotifers, cyclopoids and C. dentatimanus. Except for a weak correlation with Paracyclops fimbriatus, no other correlation was observed for hardness and chloride content. A strong correlation was exhibited by magnesium for rotifers, while the correlation was weak for cladocerans, B, bidentata and Paracyclops fimbriatus.
Cladocerans and C. dentatimanus demonstrated a statistically significant correlation between their abundance and the phosphate content, while with copepoda larvae and Monostyla bulla,
62 • Cfiapter I
phosphates were weakly correlated. No correlation was observed between calcium, iron, sulphates and the zooplankton analysed.
Fig.1.1.6. includes the physico-chemical parameters for Waghbil lake. As the figure depicts, temperature was highest in May '01 measuring 32.9 °C, lowest being 20.8 °C in August
'01. The range for pH was found to be between 6.5 and 7.6 in the months of September '00 and
March '01, respectively. Alkalinity was in the range of 85 ppm in August '00 and 230 ppm in May
'00, while hardness was in the range of 72, and 136 ppm for November '00 and March '00, respectively. Highest content of calcium was seen in May '00 at 82 ppm and lowest was in
January '01 at 30 ppm. Chloride concentration ranged from 23 ppm measured in June '01 to 62 ppm in April '01. Minimum iron content was found in the month of April '01 at 0.1 ppm concentration, while maximum amount of 0.4 ppm was encountered in September and October
'00. In November '00, minimum concentration of magnesium was recorded at 2 ppm, whereas in
January '01, it was maximum at 80 ppm. Phosphates were present minimally at 0.1 ppm concentration in March - May '00, February '01 and maximally at 0.5 ppm in September '00. The sulphate content ranged between 80 and 165 ppm measured in November '00 and August '00, respectively.
Peak values of biomass concentration were obtained in September of the year 2000 (3.2 ml/100 ml of filtrate) as well as 2001 (2.4 m1/100 ml of filtrate) for the Waghbil lake (Fig.1.3.1.).
In September '00, the dominant zooplankton were rotifers and calanoids, while in September '01, rotifers and cladocerans were dominant. It was observed that biomass values remained high till
December. The zooplankton density in the year 2000 was highest in December with rotifer
63 Cfiapter I concentration of 4621 individuals& while in 2001, the density was highest in November at 3451 individuals of rotifers/L.
The zooplankton abundance in .Waghbil lake is shown in Fig. 1.2.6. Except for harpacticoids, all other species were found during the samplings carried out in 2000 and 2001.
Highest number of zooplankton i.e. 6373 and 4812 individuals/L while lowest number i.e. 1429 and 1223 individuals/L, were present during 2000 and 2001, respectively.
During 2000, the range of rotifera, cladocera, cyclopoida, calanoida, copepoda larvae and ostracods was between 521 (March) to 4621 (December), 82 (October) to 1520 (August), 152
(November) to 2140 (June), 65 (November) to 1250 (September), 73 (June) to 2140
(November) and 92 (May) to 205 (November) individuals/L, respectively. The densities of rotifers were on the lower side from February till August and higher thereafter. Cladoceran abundance was markedly low during all the months except in August, when the density was maximum.
Cyclopoids were encountered throughout the year with a peak seen in June and abundance fairly high in February, May and December. Calanoids and ostracods were observed during only a few months. Copepoda larval density was low upto April and nil in May followed by two peaks in
August and November. Thus, the rotifers were most abundant while the lowest abundance was that of ostracods. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (48.64 %) > copepoda larvae (17.24 %) > cyclopoida (13 %) > cladocera
(12.94 %) > others (below 10 %).
In the year 2001, the range of rotifera, cladocera, cyclopoida, calanoida, copepoda larvae and ostracoda was between 415 (March) to 3451 (November), 107 (October) to 1059
64 Chapter I
(September), 67 (July) to 947 (December), 194 (October) to 485 (March), 185 (April) to 1260
(August) and 45 (October) to 210 (August) individuals/L, respectively. As seen in 2000, the rotifera density was low upto July and increased then on till September. Maximum density was observed in November. Significant cladoceran density was found in August and September, while nil count was obtained during February and May. In July '01, cyclopoids were not encountered and apart from the peak in December, May and October, showed quite high densities. Densities of almost constant values were obtained for calanoids in March, July and September, while abundance was nil during January - February, April, June, November - December '01. In the water samples analysed during March and June, copepoda larvae were absent. Abundance was low during first half of the year and subsequently increased showing two peaks in August and
December. Ostracods were found in February and March apart from October and August, which shows lowest and highest abundance, respectively. Thus, the highest density was of rotifers, while the lowest being of ostracods. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (51.15 %) > copepoda larvae (17.99 %) > cyclopoida
(16.05 %) > others (below 10 %).
The physico-chemical parameters and zooplankton of Waghbil lake were subjected to
Pearson's bivariate correlation and the results are given in Table 1.6. As per the table, apart from strong correlation between temperature and Simocephalus vetulus, a weak correlation was observed between temperature and cladocerans, copepoda larvae and lndialona ganapati. The correlation between pH and B. calyciflorus was also weakly significant. Alkalinity was strongly correlated with B. calyciflorus. So also, alkalinity showed weak correlation with cladocerans, in
65 Chapter I general and B. falcatus, lndialona ganapati and Daphnia pulex, in particular. Hardness demonstrated low correlation with copapoda larvae and Simocephalus vetulus. Except for a weak correlation with Cyclops bicolor and Rhinediaptomus indicus, respectively, calcium and sulphate showed no other correlation. Calanoids and Simocephalus vetulus were strongly correlated with iron content, while rotifers, copepoda larvae and N. lidenbergi showed weak correlation with the same. Phosphate content showed significant correlation with calanoids, while weak correlation was observed between phosphates, cladocerans, Alona pulchella, Rhinediaptomus indicus,
Simocephalus vetulus, N. lidenbergi and H. viduus. Only weak correlation was demonstrated by magnesium for copepoda larvae. No correlation was seen between chlorides and zooplankton abundance.
The physico-chemical parameters of Mayem lake are given in Fig.1.1.7. Lowest temperature of 23.2 °C was recorded for the lake in December '00, while the highest temperature recorded was 33.8 °C in May '01. Range of pH was between 5.8 and 7.5 in August '00 and April
'00, respectively. Range of alkalinity was between 35 ppm in the month of February '00, January
'01- and 104 ppm in August '01. Hardness was recorded minimum in March '00, April '00,
October '00, January '01, July '01, September '01 at 30 ppm and maximum at 42 ppm in May
'00. The month of August '00 showed lowest incidence of calcium at 15 ppm concentration, while the highest was in February '00 at 26 ppm. Chlorides were minimum in December '00 with the concentration being 20 ppm, while maximum concentration of 56 ppm was seen in May '01.
Iron was in the range of 0.3 ppm in February - April '00, March '01 and December '01 to 0.6 ppm in August '00, October '00, July '01 and October '01. Magnesium content was in the range of 9
66 Cliapter I
ppm and 20 ppm in February '00 and October '01, respectively. The phosphates showed its lowest concentration at 0.2 ppm in the months of March '00 - June '00, November '00, February
'01, March '01 and September '01, while•in July '01 and October '01, its content was maximum at 0.4 ppm. Sulphates ranged between 70 ppm in March '01 and July '01 and 120 ppm measured in February '00.
Biomass concentration of Mayem lake was seen to increase more after monsoons during both the years (Fig. 1.3.1). In August 2000, a peak of 0.09 m1/100 ml of filtrate was noticed and the zooplankton density was also maximum during this month. Rotifers (620 individuals/L) were found to be the dominant zooplankton group. The next peak was seen in December at 0.1 m1/100 ml of filtrate and here too, rotifers predominated the other groups. Biomass was highest in
November 2001 at 0.08 ml/100 ml of filtrate, while density of zooplankton was recorded maximum in August with rotifers contributing maximally. Most number of zooplankton i.e. 1067 and 1192 individuals/L were analysed during August '00 and '01, respectively. The least number i.e. 531 and 371 were seen in April '00 and March '01, respectively.
The zooplankton abundance in Mayem lake is shown in Fig. 1.2.7. The zooplankton species encountered were rotifers, cladocerans, cyclopoids and copepoda larvae. In the year
2000, the range of rotifera, cladocerana, cyclopoida and copepoda larvae was between 80 (April) to 860 (July), 67 (July) to 270 (November), 64 (February) to 253 (September) and 89 (July) to
245 (October) individuals/L, respectively. Thus, the highest density was that of rotifers, while the lowest was of cladocers. Rotifera density was high from June to September with the peak value in
December. From April to September, the cladoceran density was low and peaked in November.
67 Cfiapter I
The density of cyclopoids was highest in March and September. Copepoda larvae were of almost
same densities from February to May and also after October, the peak month. The percentage of
zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (55.11 %) > copepoda
larvae (17.36 %) > cyclopoida (16.2 %) > cladocera (11.32 %) > others (below 10 %).
During 2001, the range of rotifera, cladocera, cyclopoida and copepoda larvae was
between 126 (March) to 706 (December), 42 (September) to 225 (April), 68 (June) to 216
(September) and 120 (May) to 276 (August) .individuals/L, respectively. The abundance. pattern
for rotifers was almost same as in the year 2000. Though cladocers were found during rains upto
November, the highest peak value was obtained in April. Cyclopoids were present throughout
except in March and July. Copepoda larvae density was seen to increase from January to March,
with zero density in April. The density again rose from May and plateaued during August and
September with gradual decrease. Thus, the highest density was that of rotifers while the lowest
being that of cladocers. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following
decreasing order: rotifera (52.78 %) > copepoda larvae (20.65 %) > cyclopoida (15.17 %) >
cladocera (11.38 %) > others (below 10 %).
The values obtained for Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical parameters
and zooplankton abundance in the Mayem lake are given in Table 1.7. Temperature showed
statistically significant correlation with rotifers, while weak correlation was observed with
Diaphanosoma sarsi. Rotifers and Diaphanosoma sarsi exhibited strong correlation towards pH,
whereas B. falcatus were weakly correlated with it. Alkalinity was seen to have statistically
significant correlation with K. quadrata, apart from a weak correlation with Ceriodaphnia cornuta.
68 Chapter
Other than a weak correlation between hardness and Diaphanosoma sarsi, a significant correlation
was encountered with Cyclops exilis. Chloride content had a good correlation with Diaphanosoma sarsi, while the phosphates demonstrated a weak correlation with C. strenuus. The correlation of
magnesium content was found to be weak for Brachionus falcatus and quite significant for
Cyclops exilis. No correlation was observed between calcium, iron, sulphates and the zooplankton abundance.
The physico-chemical parameters of one morelake, namely, Pilar lake, are depicted in
Fig.1.1.8. Temperature of the lake ranged between 25.6 °C in August '01 and 36.2 °C in April '00, while its pH was in the range of 6.1 measured in September and November '01 to 7.8 in March
'00. Alkalinity ranged from 25 ppm in the month of February '00 to 172 ppm in May '00 and hardness was in the range of 30 and 120 ppm recorded in July 01 and February '01, respectively. Minimum calcium content was found in the month of June '00 at 12 ppm concentration, while maximum amount was at 57 ppm encountered in February '01. In May '00, minimum concentration of chlorides was recorded at 32 ppm, whereas in March '01, it was maximum at 135 ppm. Iron was measured in the range of 0.3 ppm in February - April '00,
November '00, January '01, September '01 and December '01, to 0.6 ppm recorded in August
'00 and July '01. Highest magnesium concentration was seen in February '01 at 63 ppm and lowest was in the month of July '01 at 7 ppm. Phosphates were present minimally at 0.2 ppm concentration in March '01 and maximally at 0.7 ppm in June '00. The sulphate content ranged between 70 and 165 ppm measured in April '00 and June '00, respectively.
69 Cfiapter l
Biomass concentration for the year 2000 was recorded highest in the month of November at 2.4 m1/100 ml of filtrate, while in the year 2001, biomass peak was seen in December at 2.8 m1/100 ml of filtrate (Fig.1.3.2). Rotifers dominated among the zooplankton fauna during both months.
Zooplankton abundance of Pilar lake is depicted in Fig. 1.2.8 and shows the presence of all groups of zooplankton under study, from 2000 to 2001. Zooplankton density of Pilar lake during both the years was maximum during August months with rotifers being the dominating group. The count was 1845 and 1820 individuals/L for the years 2000 and 2001, respectively.
Largest number of zooplankton was 4696 and 4625 individuals/L analysed during August '00 and
'01, respectively. The least number i.e. 1244 and 1455 were seen in October '00 and '01, respectively.
The range of rotifera, cladocera, cyclopoida, calanoida, copepoda larvae, harpacticoida and ostracoda during 2000 was between 541 (July) to 2536 (December), 150 (March) to 725
(November), 82 (October) to 952 (August), 98 (February) to 421 (August), 153 (September) to
650 (February), 96 (February) to 251 (November) and 75 (February) to 476 (September) individuals/L, respectively. Thus, the rotifers were most abundant, while the lowest abundance was that of harpacticoids. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (45 `)/0) > cyclopoida (18.09 %) > copepoda larvae (13.4 %) > cladocera (11.33 %) > others (below 10 %).
Month-wise observation however indicated the absence of cladocers during September -
October '00. Rotifers showed a decline in density from February onwards and a sudden peak was
70 Cfiapter observed in August. Second peak was seen in December, which was the maximum density peak.
Similarly, cladocerans also showed high values in August and December, with peak density in
November. Cyclopoids also showed high density values in August and November. Copepoda larvae were found in all monthly samples except in March, while calanoids were absent during summer. The density of calanoids was high during July - August. Harpacticoids and ostracods were present during few months and in low numbers.
During the year 2001, the range of rotifera, cladocera, cyclopoida, calanoida, copepoda larvae, harpacticoida and ostracoda was between 554 (November) to 2242 (December), 120
(March) to 845 (November), 114 (October) to 840 (August), 120 (January) to 421 (September),
146 (October) to 752 (August), 65 (December) to 169 (August) and 92 (February) to 421
(August) individuals/L, respectively. The density pattern for rotifers was similar to that observed in the previous year. Cladocerans showed three peaks in February, July and November.
Cyclopoids also showed three density peaks in March, August and December. The abundance of copepoda larvae was low throughout except in August, which was the highest density noted. The densities of calanoids, harpacticoids and ostracods were low and these groups were not encountered during most of the months. Thus, the rotifers were most abundant, while the lowest abundance was that of harpacticoids. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (47.99 %) > cyclopoida (16.28 %) > cladocera (12.89 %)
> copepoda larvae (11.96 %) > others (below 10 %).
The bivariate correlation for Pilar lake is given in Table 1.8. Statistically significant correlation was demonstrated by temperature for cladocerans, calanoids and H. viduus, while
71 Chapter I weak correlation was observed for cyclopoids and Ceriodaphnia cornuta. Calanoids, in general and B. plicatilis and H. viduus, in particular, showed weak correlation with pH. Brachionus falcatus and Ceriodaphnia cornuta were weakly correlated with alkalinity, while Filinia longiseta and
Neodiaptomus diaphorus were correlated weakly with hardness, calcium and magnesium contents. Except for a weak correlation, no other correlation was shown by iron for Lecane lung. A strong correlation was observed between B. plicatilis and the chloride content. Correlation was weak between sulphates and Anuroeopsis f,issa, Brachionus falcatus and B. plicatilis. The zooplankton analysed exhibited no correlation between their abundance and phosphate content of the lake.
Fig.1.1.9. depicts the physico-chemical data for Santacruz lake. A range of temperature between 23.2 °C and 38.1 °C was noted in November '01 and April '00, respectively, while pH was maximum at 7.4 in May '01 and minimum at 6.1 in October '00 and June '01. Alkalinity ranged between 35 ppm in June '00 and 236 ppm in May '00. Minimum hardness was encountered in May '00 at 43 ppm, while maximum concentration of 185 ppm was found in
March '00. Range of calcium content was between 25 and 98 ppm in the months of May '00 and
April '01, respectively. Maximum chlorides at 295 ppm were encountered in November '00 and lowest concentration of 38 ppm was measured in February '00. The concentration of iron ranged between 0.3 ppm in February '00, April - June '00, March '01 and December '01, and 0.6 ppm recorded in August '00. Magnesium concentration recorded was maximum in November '00 at
92 ppm and minimum in August '00 at 17 ppm. Phosphate content varied between 0.2 ppm for
72 Chapter I
February '00 and 0.6 ppm for the month of July '00. October '00 witnessed maximum sulphate content of 145 ppm, while a minimum of 65 ppm was measured in September '01.
The biomass concentration data of Santacruz lake during the year 2000 reveals a peak in
November at 1.3 ml/100 ml of filtrate with rotifers being dominant (Fig.1.3.2). Density of zooplankton was highest in December with the maximum number being of rotifers (1248 individuals/L). Whereas in 2001, two peaks of biomass were obtained in August and December at
1.2 and 1.5 m1/100 ml of filtrate, respectively. The zooplankton density was also maximum in
December. Rotifers were dominant during both the months.
Zooplankton abundance of Santacruz lake is depicted in Fig. 1.2.9 and almost all species were present. During the two year's survey, highest number of zooplankton was 3068 and 3234 individuals/L during December of 2000 and 2001, respectively. Whereas, the lowest number being 1320 and 1129 individuals/L, seen during June '00 and April '01, respectively. Calanoids, harpacticoids and ostracods were found in low numbers and were absent in the water samples of some months, during both the years.
In 2000, the range of rotifera, cladocera, cyclopoida, calanoida, copepoda larvae, harpacticoida and ostracoda was between 295 (June) to 1570 (November), 156 (August) to 684
(November), 68 (November) to 583 (October), 80 (October) to 280 (September), 125 (June) to
654 (July), 35 (April) to 131 (August) and 56 (October) to 148 (August) individuals/L, respectively. Rotifer density was high in February, which gradually decreased upto June and started to increase again to give a peak in August. Maximum density was obtained in November.
Cladoceran abundance was high during May - June with peak density value in November. The
73 Cfiapter I density of calanoids was high during the rains while copepoda larvae showed the alternating monthly high - low pattern. Thus, the rotifers were most abundant while the lowest abundance was that of harpacticoids. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (40.92 %) > copepoda larvae (17.52 %) = cladocera (17.51 %) > cyclopoida (16.10 %) > others (below 10 %)
The range of rotifers, cladocerans, cyclopoids, calanoids, copepoda larvae, harpacticoids and ostracods in 2001 was between 610 (April) to 1647 (December), 125 (August) to 670
(November), 74 (November) to 731 (July), 86 (May) to 180 (September), 88 (October) to 510
(September), 46 (January) to 153 (September) and 24 (December) to 124 (July) individuals/L, respectively. The density pattern of rotifers was similar to that seen during 2000. Abundance of cladocerans was maximum during January, July and November, while in October, this group was not detected. Cyclopoids were most abundant during rains and totally absent in March. The density of copepoda larvae was high during June, September and December, with peak value being in September. Thus, the most abundant species were rotifers, while the least abundant were ostracods. The percentage of zooplankton abundance showed following pattern of occurrence: rotifera (49.62 %) > cyclopoida (16.23 %) > cladocera (15.56 %) > copepoda larvae (12.25 %) > others (below 10 %).
Table 1.9 gives the Pearson's bivariate correlation, applied for the above data of Santacruz lake. Strong correlation was shown by temperature for rotifers and B. angularis. With cladocerans,
B. falcatus, Asplanchana intermediate and Alona excisa, temperature showed weak correlation.
Weak correlation was exhibited by pH for cyclopoids, B. calyciflorus, Horaella brehmi, Macrothrix
74 Cliapter I laticornis and Cyclops bicuspidatus apart from a strong correlation with B. falcatus. Alkalinity was strongly correlated with Horaella brehmi and Asplanchana intermediata, while it was weakly correlated with B. calyciflorus and B. falcatus. Other than weak correlation of hardness with
Macrothrix laticornis, calcium with B. caudatus and magnesium with B. calyciflorus, no other correlation was seen. Rotifers, in general and Brachionus angularis and Trichotria cylindrica, in particular, were weakly correlated with chlorides, apart from having significant correlation with L. luna and D. sarsi. Iron showed strong correlation with harpacticoids and ostracods, while sulphate was strongly correlated with harpacticoids, C. strenuus, M. leuckarti and weakly correlated with F. longiseta. Phosphate content of this lake showed no correlation with the zooplankton abundance.
The physico-chemical parameters of Vaddem lake is depicted in Fig.1.1.10. As seen in the figure, lowest temperature recorded was 24.4 °C in December '01, while highest was 34.3 °C in April '01. The months of July - September '00, August '01 and September '01 showed lowest pH of 7.2 and in March '00, highest pH of 8.2 was recorded. Alkalinity ranged between 73 ppm in
September '00 and 352 ppm in May '00. Hardness was also maximum in the month of May '00 at 670 ppm, whereas lowest concentration was recorded in June '00 at 96 ppm. Range of calcium content was between 50 and 310 ppm in the months of August '00 and April '01, respectively. Maximum chlorides at 365 ppm were encountered in April '00 and lowest concentration of 85 ppm was measured in July '00. Iron was present minimally at 0.2 ppm concentration in February '00, April '00, August '00, September '00, August '01 and maximally at
0.5 ppm in June '00, December '00, May '01 and November '01. Magnesium concentration varied between 38 and 225 ppm in July and November '00, respectively. The phosphates showed
75 Cfiapter I its lowest concentration at 0.3 ppm in the months of August '00, January '01, February '01, July
'01 and August '01, while in May '01, its content was maximum at 0.9 ppm. Sulphate showed minimum presence at 145 ppm in September '00 and September '01, while a maximum of 320 ppm was seen in the month of April '00.
As depicted in Fig.1.3.2, Vaddem lake also shows dual peaks for biomass concentration.
Biomass concentration was 1.4 and 4.5 m1/100 ml of filtrate during August and December '00, respectively. The dominant zooplankton spec,ies during August were rotifers and cyclopoids, while in December, rotifers and copepoda larvae were dominant. However, the zooplankton density was maximum in September (4721 individuals/L) with dominant plankton being rotifers at
2685 individuals/L. During 2001, the two peaks were obtained in September and December with biomass being 2.6 and 2.4 ml/100 ml of filtrate, respectively. The zooplankton density was maximum in the month of December and a count of 4058 individuals/L with the dominant group being rotifers.
Fig. 1.2.10 shows zooplankton abundance in Vaddem lake for 2000 — 2001. In 2000, the range of rotifera, cladocera, cyclopoida, calanoida, copepoda larvae and ostracoda was between
261 (July) - 2685 (September), 215 (August) - 380 (July), 210 (July) - 1277 (August), 270
(August) - 942 (November), 195 (June) - 1054 (December) and 125 (April) - 273 (September) individuals/L, respectively. Rotifers were present throughout the year and maximum density was encountered in September, October and December. Cladoceran count was relatively lower and they were not detected during some months. Cyclopoids also showed its presence during a few months with high density in May, August and September. Copepoda larvae were detected in high
76 Cfiapter I numbers in April, September and December, with peak density being in December. They were present throughout except in the month of August. Calanoids and ostracods were relatively lower in numbers and occurred less frequently. Thus, the rotifers were most abundant, while the lowest abundance was of ostracods. The percentage of zooplankton occurrence was in the following decreasing order: rotifera (43.82 %) > copepoda larvae (20.08 %) > cyclopoida (16.06 %) > others (below 10 %). During 2000, codominance was observed between rotifers and copepods.
The range of rotifera, cladocera, cyclopoida, calanoida, copepoda larvae and ostracoda in
2001 was between 295 (June) - 2051 (October), 124 (November) - 410 (August), 249 (August)
- 850 (September), 165 (April) - 856 (November), 140 (July) - 1370 (December) and 100
(October) - 264 (July) individuals/L, respectively. Rotifera density was high in the beginning of the year and decreased gradually till June - July. Density was seen to rise again and peak abundance was noted in October with high densities in September, November and December.
Cladocerans, cyclopoids, calanoids and ostracods were comparatively fewer in number and occurred during some months only. Copepoda larvae were most abundant in June, September and December, with peak density being in December and nil density in March and April. Thus, the most abundant species were rotifers, while, the least abundant were ostracods. The percentage of zooplankton abundance showed following pattern of occurrence: rotifera (46.41 %)
> copepoda larvae (17.19 %) > calanoida (1317 %) > cyclopoida (12.01 %) > others
(below 10 %). In general, codominance was observed between rotifers and copepods, as was also observed during the year 2000.
77 Chapter I
Table 1.10 gives the data on Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Vaddem lake. As seen from the table, temperature was strongly correlated with Ceriodaphnia cornuta, however, its correlation with cladocerans, Lecane ovalis and H. cinctus was weak. Ostracods indicated a strong correlation with pH, whereas K. tropica,
Chydorus sphaericus and Macrocyclops distinctus showed weak correlation. Alkalinity was
strongly correlated with cladocerans, while demonstrating low correlation with B. angularis, K tropica and Chydorus sphaericus. Keratella tropica exhibited weak correlation between their
abundance and hardness. Weak correlation was also shown by calcium and chlorides towards K tropica and Macrocyclops distinctus, respectively. Ostracods showed strong correlation with iron
content and low correlation with B. angularis, B. caudatus and Chydorus sphaericus. While,
phosphate was correlated weakly with calanoids and ostracods. With regard to sulphate, rotifers,
K tropica and Macrocyclops distinctus demonstrated strong correlation and Brachionus angularis
and Rotaria neptunia, were weakly correlated With the same. Except for low correlation of
magnesium with ostracods, K tropica, Chydorus sphaericus and Phyllodiaptomus blanci, no other
correlation was observed.
With reference to the data on physico-chemical parameters collected from February 2000
to December 2001 (Table 1.11), lowest temperature of 19.8 °C was recorded for Someshwar
temple tank in August '01 and highest temperature was 38.1 °C recorded in April '00 for
Santacruz lake. Mayem lake water (August '00) had lowest pH of 5.8, while Rajaram lake (May
'00) and Someshwar temple tank (April '01) water was most alkaline with pH of 8.2. Minimum
alkalinity of 25 ppm was recorded for Pilar lake (February '00), while Vaddem lake (May '00) had
78 Chapter I maximum alkalinity recorded at 352 ppm. Amongst all the waterbodies, Pilar (July '01) and
Mayem (March, April, October '00; January, July, September '01) lakes had minimum hardness of 30 ppm, while Vaddem lake (May '00) water had maximum hardness of 670 ppm. Calcium concentration was least in waters of Pilar lake (June '00) at 12 ppm and highest in Vaddem lake water (April '01) at 310 ppm. Vaddem lake (April '00) also showed highest chloride concentration of 365 ppm, while lowest was recorded at Kalamba lake (September '01) at 12 ppm. Rajaram (November, December '00; August '01), Rankala (March, September '01) and
Waghbil (April '01) lakes showed minimum presence of iron at 0.1 ppm concentration as compared to 1 ppm present in Sadoba pond (July '00). A minimum concentration of 2 ppm of magnesium was found in Waghbil lake (November '00) and maximum concentration of 225 ppm was present in Vaddem lake water (November '00). Phosphate was found to be minimum in three lakes, namely, Rajaram (February, April, May '00; April, May '01), Kalamba (May, July, August
'00; June '01) and Waghbil (March, April, May '00; February '01) at 0.1 ppm. Maximum phosphate was present in Sadoba pond (June '00) and Vaddem lake (May '01), both having a concentration of 0.9 ppm. The sulphate concentration was least in Santacruz lake (September
'01) at 65 ppm and in Vaddem waters (April '00), the highest concentration of 320 ppm was recorded, amongst all water bodies.
79 Chapter I
Discussion
The study of physico-chemical parameters and their effects on the biological parameters are important in understanding the trophic state of a water body. Each factor plays its role in regulating the ecosystem of the water body. The concentration of the various constituents along with factors such as rainfall, agricultural runoffs are also of equal importance. The changes in one factor is directly or indirectly related to the other factors.
Temperature is considered an important factor controlling the functioning of the aquatic ecosystem. In all the water bodies studied, temperature was highest in summer, followed by monsoon and winter, as reported earlier by Mansoori et.al. (1993). The temperature of the water bodies in Maharashtra showed a greater temperature difference between winter and summer temperatures than the water bodies in Goa. Temperature of water in freshwater bodies of Goa was on the higher side during summer than the temperature of water bodies of Maharashtra, while the
Maharashtrian water bodies had winter temperature lower than that of water bodies of Goa. Goa being in the subtropical belt and most of the water bodies sampled in Maharashtra being on high altitude, which may be reason for such a temperature difference. Temperature had a correlation with zooplankton species in all the water bodies, thus showing that it has an influence on the biological components of the water bodies (Sahai and Sinha, 1969). Temperature controls development, growth, reproduction, shape of body and distribution of the species (Caramujo and
Boavida, 1999; Xie and Chen, 2001).
80 Chapter I
The pH of tropical water bodies is influenced by its surroundings and hence differs from one water body to another. W.H.O has recommended water of pH range of 6.5 - 8.5 suitable for drinking purposes. Whereas, higher pH values above 9.5 are reported to cause zooplankton mortality (O'Brien and de Noyelles, 1972). Freshwater has weaker buffering capacity as compared to saline water. The pH of water body is dependent or is regulated by carbon dioxide - bicarbonate - carbonate system (Zafar, 1966). Water tends to be alkaline when these ions are present in high quantities. Hazarika and Dutta (1994) have reported the probable reason for alkaline pH to be calcium carbonate concentration.
Natural waters rich in dissolved organic matter tend to have low pH values. Humic and fulvic acids released from dead and decaying organic matter contribute to the acidic nature of water during summer, along with reduced water volume due to evaporation (Philips, 1964).
Studies have shown that organic acids can alter the acidity as well as modify the changes due to strong acid inputs, thus offering a large, buffering capacity (Lydersen, 1998). Aquatic life is favoured by a pH range between 6.1 to 6.63 (Trivedi and Raj, 1992). At lower pH values between
5.0 and 5.5, though growth rates were higher, reproductive parameters such as fecundity, frequency of reproduction, brood size, size at maturity, etc., were reduced as compared to the same at neutral to alkaline pH (Chandini, 1987).
During summer, all the water bodies in Goa and Maharashtra were found to be on the alkaline side, while during winter, the pH was acidic. The pH was mostly near neutral during the rainy season. This is in accordance with earlier report of Sreenivasan (1974). Vaddem lake water being most alkaline among the water bodies in Goa, was neutral during winter, when all other
81 Chapter I
water bodies were found to be acidic. Waghbil lake had least alkaline water among the water
bodies of Maharashtra while, most alkaline water was found to be that of Rajaram lake and
Someshwar temple tank. High pH is normally associated with high photosynthetic activities
(Khatavkar, 1986). However, washing of clothes in the water bodies is one of the probable
reasons for the increased pH.
Mayem lake was the most acidic of the water bodies of Goa followed by Pilar and
Santacruz lakes. High acidity of Mayem lake water during post-monsoon i.e. August, may be due
to runoff from the mining regions. Other factors contributing to the low pH may be nitrification of
ammonia, manganese oxidation, ferrous oxidation and sulphate oxidation (Galloway et.al., 1984;
Davison, 1987). The acidic to neutral pH of the Pilar lake has been reported earlier by Walia
(2000). Rasool etal. (2003) have also recorded alkaline pH of the water of Rankala lake.
Similarly, Sadoba pond was the most acidic among water bodies of Maharashtra. Water of
Sasthamcatta lake in Tamil Nadu had acidic pH of 6.5 - 6.8 as reported by Prakasan and Joseph
(2000).
The water bodies of Maharashtra were found to be more alkaline, while those of Goa were
more acidic in nature. Number of workers have pointed out that protected water bodies have pH
towards alkaline side and support good algal growth (Philips, 1964; Mishra and Yadav, 1968;
Ayyappan and Gupta, 1980). Alkaline pH was found to be favourable for good plankton growth
(Bhatt and Negi, 1985; Mahajan and Kanhere, 1995; Rasool et.al., 2003). Due to photosynthetic activities, CO2 get depleted (Stabel, 1986; Kuchler-Krischun and Kleiner, 1990). As a result,
bicarbonates (HCO3) are converted to carbonates (CO 3) which leads to a rise in pH (Khatri, 1985;
82 Chapter I
Wetzel, 2001). Alkaline pH of water bodies thus indicates its unpolluted nature. The neutral to alkaline pH is optimal for fish rearing, thus Vaddem lake, Someshwar temple tank and Rajaram lake, which are alkaline, as well as Santacruz lake and Rankala lake can be used for pisciculture
(Choudhary etat, 2002; Ail, 1972).
Water colour is another parameter that determines the state of the water body. Variations in colour of freshwater bodies have been reported by Sinha, et.al. (1990) and Mahajan and
Kanhere (1995). As seen from Table B. given in Materials and methods, most of the waterbodies were bluish to greenish in colour before and after rains, while during monsoon, the colour of the water turned muddy or reddish brown. Greenish blue colour indicates heavy growth of phytoplankton. Inputs of water during rains makes the water reddish brown in colour.
Alkalinity or more recently referred acid neutralizing capacity is the buffering capacity of carbonate system or the capacity to neutralise strong inorganic acids. Hydroxides, borate, silicate, phosphate and sulfide, though present in small quantities in freshwater, form the sources of alkalinity. The total alkalinity of freshwater lakes is often very low, thus making them poorly buffered and succeptable to acidification (Wetzel, 2001). Eutrophic water bodies have high values of alkalinity. W.H.O. has prescribed 120 mg/L as the alkalinity level, which shows signs of nutrient richness.
Hardness of water is related to the calcium and magnesium salts. These together with bicarbonates and carbonates give rise to temporary hardness, whereas with sulphates, chlorides and other anions constitute the permanent hardness (Wetzel, 2001).
83 Cfiapter
Higher values of alkalinity and hardness were found during summer and decreased during
monsoons. These values coincided with pH changes. Similar results have been reported earlier
by others (Tucker, 1957; Bozniak and Kennedy, 1968; Mathew, 1975; Daborn, 1976; Saran and
Adoni, 1984; Singh, 1985; Singhal et.al., 1986; Saha et.al., 2001). The freshwater bodies of
Maharashtra had higher levels of alkalinity and hardness as compared to the water bodies of Goa.
Thus, the buffering capacity of the water bodies of Maharashtra being more, the pH of these water
bodies was also on the higher side. However, among all the freshwater bodies taken together,
Vaddem lake showed highest alkalinity and hardness values. Lowest alkalinity and hardness values were recorded for Sadoba pond in Maharashtra and Pilar lake in Goa. The higher values
may be due to reduction in water quantity due to evaporation, while the lower values during rainy
season may be due to dilution of the water bodies with rain water.
As observed by Gupta and Sharma (1994), bicarbonates are responsible for the alkalinity of the water body, while pollution due to organic matter was found to be responsible for high alkalinity values by Phillips (1977). Most of the water bodies studied receive domestic waste and and are used for washing clothes. Increase in hardness may be due to detergents in these waters
(Saha et.al., 2001).
. Calcium is one of the major ions influencing the biotic fauna of freshwater bodies and is very reactive, exhibiting marked seasonal dynamics. Calcium affects growth and population of freshwater flora and fauna. Crustaceans and invertebrates with calcified exoskeletons require
calcium and form a determining factor in zooplankton community structure (Hessen, 2003).
However, the amount taken up by the biota is so less that it cannot be detected by routine
84 Cfiapter I
analyses methods (Wetzel, 2001). In the present study, it was observed that calcium content was higher during summer followed by early winter. High values may be attributed to decomposition of macrophytes and allochthonous supply. So also, due to high temperature resulting in evaporation of water, there is concentration of the ionic content. Yet another possibility is the contribution of molluscans, in the process of synthesising shells. Low values in monsoons are probably due to dilution of water bodies. In the tropics, the amount of rainfall plays an important role, wherein it influences the chemical makeup of the water body.
Chloride is an important factor among the essential ions determining the freshwater body status. In all the water bodies, the chlorides were in higher concentration during summer and lower during rains. The reasons may be the same as discussed for calcium. High chlorides is taken as an indication of pollution arising from animal origin (Munawar, 1970). Another possibility may be chlorinated runoff from industries or municipal waste water discharge into the water bodies and in case of passage of runoff water over limestone, dolomite or gypsum.
The estimation of heavy metals helps in determining the extent of metal pollution in a water body. Most heavy metals are essential micro-elements for plankton community and iron is one of them. It plays a role in plankton growth (Mullick and Konar, 1991). An interesting observation was made in the iron content of the water bodies during the study period. An increase in concentration of iron was noted during monsoons upto early winter, in all water bodies except
Vaddem lake of Goa and Sadoba pond along with Rajaram lake of Maharashtra. In these freshwater bodies, the pattern was similar to that of other ions. The sudden rise in iron content after rains may be accounted for runoff from mining regions, as in the case of Mayem lake, or
85 Cfiapter I
industrial discharge, which is rich in this metal. Khan and Siddiqui (1974) have indicated rain, drainage and surface runoff to be the main sources of major ions. The high values of iron indicate that these water bodies are polluted during monsoons.
Magnesium is required by plants as a micronutrient universally. It is more soluble than calcium. A similar pattern of high values in summer and winter was observed which may be due to the water level being low in summer followed by winter and low values due to dilution in monsoons.
Phosphate is an indicator of pollution and involved in the eutrophication process of water bodies (Wetzel, 2001). Phosphate enters freshwater bodies as phosphorus from atmospheric precipitation, ground water and surface runoff. During the present study, except for Someshwar temple tank, all water bodies showed high concentration of phosphates during monsoons and in winter, while the levels were low during summer. Contrary to this observation, Singh and Singh
(1999) found an increase in phosphateS during summer and attributed it to high rate of evaporation resulting in concentration. The probable reason for the high values in monsoons, is addition of nutrients due to domestic sewage, surface runoff from agricultural land containing fertilizers and industrial waste (Desai etal., 1995), while the low levels during summer may be due to utilisation of the phosphates by plankton fauna and macrophytes. The increase in phosphates in winter may be accounted for release of the ions from dead cells of algae and concentration of zooplankton excreta (Jajhria, 2002). As observed by Campbell (1978), surface runoff can be a major source of enrichment to water bodies. Low phosphate levels indicate the water bodies to be eutrophic (Sharma and Rajput, 1994).
86 Cfiapter I
The Pilar lake, included in the present study, has a crematorium in the vicinity, which may be the major source of phosphates. Winter increase may be attributed to the runoff during rains and excreta of migratory birds (Walia, 2000). Someshwar temple tank being an enclosed water body, the level of nutrient addition from surrounding areas may be low, therefore the low concentration of phosphate during rains and winter. Evaporation of water leading to decreased water level and organic enrichment due to decomposition may be responsible for the high phosphate values in summer.
The sulphate content varied from one water body to another. Low levels were seen during winter in Mayem lake and Vaddem lake. Similarly, during summer, low concentration of sulphate was noted in Pilar lake and Rajaram lake, while in Santacruz lake, Waghbil lake and Kalamba lake, values were low during rains. These variations may be due to topographical differences. High values may be due to addition of nutrients due to surface runoff from surrounding agricultural land or from mine drainage waste, containing high amounts of sulphate such as pyrite containing ore (Desai et.al., 1995). Effluents from industries and agricultural runoff are a common source of sulphates (Wetzel, 2001).
High values of chlorides, phosphates and sulphates in the Rankala lake have been also reported recently by Rasool et.al. (2003). Water inflow along with organic matter, so also, decomposition of aquatic plants and organisms contribute to the chloride content. Biological oxidation, detergents, fertilizers, leaching into the water results in increased amount of phosphates in this water body.
87 Chapter I
Overall, the ionic concentrations were higher in the freshwater bodies of Maharashtra as compared. to the water bodies of Goa, except for Vaddem lake that had highest measured concentrations of most of the parameters,. indicating it to the most nutrient-rich water body.
An important aspect in the study of inland waters is its zooplankton biomass, which gives an index of fertility. The seasonal fluctuations in the biomass are well known and profiles differ from region to region (Khatri, 1985; Vijayakumar et.al., 1991). Temperature, light, nutrient levels are usually the influencing factors, with temperature having the greatest effect. All the water bodies studied showed higher biomass values during winter followed by summer. Most of the physico-chemical components were optimal during these periods, ambient temperature and the resultant high phytoplankton density may be responsible for the higher productivity in zooplankton (Spodniewska, 1969). Warmer temperature has been reported to increase productivity by number of workers (Effords, 1967; Sreenivasan, 1970; Khan and Siddiqui, 1971).
Whereas, increase in the water level leading to dilution of nutrient concentrations and less sunlight might be responsible for reduced biomass.
Rotifers were found to be dominant in all the freshwater bodies studied and dominance was seen during winter as well as monsoons except in Vaddem lake, where high densities were detected from September to December. However, rotifers persisted during all the months. Similar results of bimodal pattern were reported by Khan and Siddiqui (1974), Zutshi et.al. (1980),
Mishra and Saksena (1990). Rotifer dominance was also noted by Dagaonkar and Saksena
(1992), Kaushik and Sharma (1994), Pandey et.al. (1994), Bais and Agrawal (1995), Sanjer and
88 Cliapter I
Sharma (1995) and Goswami (1997) during their limnological studies. This observation shows that lower temperature and availability of nutrients favours rotifer population.
The density of natural rotifer population appears to be governed by the amount of available food (Pennak, 1978). This is in corraboration with the findings of Green (1960), Vasisht and Dhir (1970), Seda and Devetter (2000). The rotifera community of the water bodies was strongly correlated with temperature. Vasisht and Sharma (1976) have reported the abundance of
rotifer to be related temperature changes. This zooplankton group has shown positive correlation with pH, alkalinity, hardness, iron and magnesium also, in the present study. The effect of these factors on rotifer community has been studied by various workers (Saksena, 1987; Pant et.al,
1979; Sreenivasan et.al., 1997). Summer dominance of rotifers was reported by Rao and Durve
(1992). Walia (2000) has reported similar findings.
Summer and monsoon had rotifer dominance as observed by Chandrasekhar (1996) and temperature, turbidity, transperancy, dissolved oxygen were important factors controlling diversity and density of .rotifers. In the present study, low rotifer density during summer may be due to
suppression by Daphnia or due to close association with plants. Association with plants have
been observed in littoral rotifers (Edmondson, 1945; Wallace, 1978). High summer mortality can
be also due to active predation by small fish and predaceous insect larva such as midge
(Goulden, 1971; Jack and Thorp, 2002).
The high abundance of rotifers, as compared to the other zooplankton groups, in all the
water bodies can be correlated to the presence of macrophytes in these water bodies. A number
of studies have shown macrophytes to provide protection from plaktivorous fish as well as serve
89 craprerl as food on decaying (Hrback eLal., 1961; Junk, 1977). Predation of zooplankton is reduced markedly in lakes rich in macrophytes (Jeppesen eLal., 1997; Persson and Crowder, 1998; Jack and Thorp, 2002). Favourable temperature and food availability are the factors responsible for rotifer abundance (Edmondson, 1965). Thus, in general, it was observed that water bodies rich in macrophyte growth are rich in rotifer fauna.
The second most abundant zooplankton group in all the water bodies was copepoda
(copepoda larvae, cyclopoida and calanoida)„ except for Kalamba lake which had abundance of cladocerans. Among the copepoda population, cyclopoids were observed during February -
March, May and November - December. It can be inferred from this data that the copepoda group has adapted to the changes occurring throughout the year in the water bodies and thus found during all the seasons.
Calanoids were mostly seen during winter and during the rest of the year, an alternating rise and fall in density was observed in, most of the lakes. This irregular occurrence can be indicative of no distinct correlation being present with temperature of water. Such behaviour was also observed by Mathew (1985). While copepoda larvae were detected mostly during winter and
in some lakes during April. During winter, the abundance of calanoids and copepoda larvae may be due to the temperature being favourable. Presence of certain nutrients in higher concentrations in summer or high temperature tolerance may be the reasons for the appearance of copepod larvae in April. All the physico-chemical factors were strongly or weakly correlated with copepoda population.
90 Chapter I
Sporadic occurrence of calanoids and presence of cyclopoids throughout the year has been reported earlier by Sharma and Saksena (1983). Copepod abundance was reported by Xie and Chen (2001). Low abundance of copepods during some periods may be due to predation by fish. Large pigmented eye or gut filled with pigmented food makes the copepods visible prey
(Wetzel, 2001).
Cladocerans were the third abundant group, which showed its peak abundance during
July - August except in Someshwar temple tank, which had highest cladoceran population in
June. Three types of abundance patterns were seen. Abundance during rains was observed in
Rankala, Waghbil and Rajaram lakes. January - February and July - August abundance was found in Sadoba pond. In the rest of the water bodies, three peaks were noted during January/ March,
July and December. Similar observations of cladoceran densities during January, March and
August were made by Battish and Kumari (1986), while Hague and Khan (1994) recorded three peaks of cladocers during May, August and December. Datta, et.al. (1986), Kaushik and Sharma
(1994), Saunders etal. (1999) and, Pulle and Khan (2003) reported cladoceran dominance during winter, thus supporting the present findings and the factors favouring this abundance are temperature and availability of abundant food in the form of bacteria, nanoplankton and detritus.
While, dominance of cladocers in summer has been reported earlier by Adholia and Vyas (1991).
Chakravarty (1990) on the other hand, reported numerical superiority of cladocerans in summer and rainy season.
Temperature, pH, alkalinity, calcium, iron and phosphate were the factors found to influence cladoceran population. Datta etal. (1986) have related the cladoceran abundance to
91 Cfiapter I lower water temperature, phosphate and salinity. High densities during rains may be due to availability of certain nutrients entering via the runoffs. Cladocerans are known to be abundant in water bodies with good littoral vegetation, while ponds and lakes without vegetation have fewer cladoceran species (Idris and Fernando, 1981). Decay of this vegetation during summer may serve as food, thus the maxima during that period. Low densities during the other periods may be due to predation by copepod (Hessen, 2003). Another reason may be the positive phototactic swarming from littoral areas to pelagic zone (Kairesalo and Penttila, 1990).
Copepods are known not to be present, when cladoceran abundance occurs (Kinsley and
Geller, 1986), which explains the presence of cyclopoids and copepoda larvae during summer.
The dominance of calanoid copepods and sparce or absence of cladocerans was reported by
Burns and Schallenberg (1998). Balseiro et.al. (1997) noticed the dominance of calanoids in winter, followed by cladocerans in mid-summer and rotifers in late summer. Copepods were found to be dominant among zooplankton , in Idukki reservoir (Khatri, 1988) and Lake Tasek (Das et.al., 1996). Dominance of copepods as well as the presence of rotifers throughout the year, has been reported by Jerling and Cyrus (1999). Similarly, Ayyapan and Gupta (1980) and, Vyas and
Adholia (1994) have reported copepod dominance during limnological studies of freshwater bodies.
As noticed in the present study, Rao and Durve (1989) and, Pulle and Khan (2003) also observed dominance of rotifers, followed by copepoda and then by cladocerans, while Sharma and Pant (1984a,b), Schmitz and Osborne (1984), Vyas and Adholia (1994), Pandey et.al. (1994) and Sharma (1995) recorded dominance of zooplankton in the following order: rotifera >
97 Cfiapter I
cladocera > copepoda. The presence of fish in the water bodies result in lower cladoceran and copepoda counts and hence rotifers dominate the zooplankton community (Patil, 1987; Whitman et.al., 2002).
Harpacticoids and ostracods were present in very low numbers and were not frequently detected throughout the study period. Chourasia and Adoni (1987) have also reported similar findings.
Of the water bodies studied in Goa, Mayem lake had the least zooplankton abundance followed by Vaddem lake, while among the freshwater bodies of Maharashtra, Someshwar temple tank and Rajaram lake had lower zooplankton abundance than the other water bodies. All the groups of zooplankton were encountered in Pilar lake, Santacruz lake, Kalamba lake and Sadoba pond. Presence of all groups of zooplankton have been reported in Chilwa lake which is polluted with fertilizer factory effluent (Sahai et.al., 1986). The round-the-year presence of zooplankton and rich population in these lakes make th'em suitable for pisciculture.
The species that were strongly correlated with temperature were Brachionus caudatus, B. angularis, Keratella tropica, Simocephalus vetulus and Ceriodaphnia cornuta. Water pH had positive correlation with B. falcatus, Simocephalus vetulus, Diaphanosoma sarsi, Eucyclops agalis and Heliodiaptomus cinctus. Alkalinity and Simocephalus vetulus, C. dentatimanus, Horaella brehmi, Asplanchana intermediata, K quadrata, Eucyclops agalis and H. cinctus had direct correlation with each other. Strong correlation was found between hardness and zooplankton species namely, K. tropica, Moina branchiata, Asplanchana priodonta, H. cinctus, H. viduus and
Cyclops exifis.
93 Chapter I
Calcium showed direct correlation with Rhinediaptomus indicus, H. cinctus and H. viduus.
While, chlorides was correlated positively with Diaphanosoma sarsi, L. tuna and B. plicatilis. Iron and magnesium demonstrated correlation with B. forficula. Pleuroxus similis, Simocephalus vetulus and B. angularis, B. patulus, K. tropica, C. exilis, respectively. Similarly, phosphates and sulphates were strongly correlated with Diaphanosoma senegal, H. cinctus, C. dentatimanus and
1. ganapati, K tropica, Macrocyclops distinctus, C. strenuus, Mesocyclops leuckarti. Thus, zooplankton abundance is dependent on the physico-chemical parameters of the water bodies.
Various physico-chemical factors like water temperature, free CO 2, pH and chloride were found to be in positive correlation with different zooplankton groups, as observed by Sadguru etal. (2001).
The high altitude lakes, namely, Sadoba pond and Someshwar temple tank, differered from other low altitude lakes, only in temperature. They behaved similar to other lakes with respect to other parameters. Differences were observed between the two water bodies, in that,
Sadoba pond has most acidic pH and Someshwar temple tank has alkaline water pH. Also,
Sadoba pond had high nutrient level and species diversity, while Someshwar temple tank had lowest nutrient concentration and least species diversity. Thus, the physico-chemical and biological parameters of water body are dependent on its surroundings and not its altitude.
High zooplankton densities in general, during winter may be due to abundance of detritus. While, low densities in rains may be due to dilution effects due to heavy rains, low nutrients and phytoplankton (Bais and Agarwal, 1995). The abundance and distribution pattern of each and every species show direct relation to seasonal effect (Maruthanayagam and Subramanian, 2001).
94 -T"
Table 1.1: Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Kalamba lake during 2000-2001 Temperature pH Alkalinity Hardness Ca+2 Fe+3 mg+2 (0C) CH PO4 SO4 Average values 25.8 7.14 175.3 137.2 79.0 69.6 0.34 59.6 0.368 142 Rotifera -0.774** -0.588 -0.463 -0.719* -0.560 -0.045 -0.061 -0.558 0.331 -0.371 Cladocera -0.109 -0.087 -0.256 -0.315 -0.639* -0.506 -0.162 0.045 0.587 -0.171 Cyclopoida 0.283 -0.028 0.298 -0.358 0.395 -0.025 0.198 0.175 -0.348 0.187 Calanoida -0.034 -0.140 -0.196 -0.580 -0.667* - -0.541 -0.469 -0.286 0.423 -0.151 Copepod larva 0.015 0.348 0.004 -0.280 -0.207 0.099 0.126 -0.210 0.284 -0.228 Harpacticoida 0.307 0.541 0.118 -0.041 -0.031 -0.393 -0.096 -0.029 0.186 -0.281 Ostracoda 0.153 0.312 0.238 0.235 -0.075 0.028 -0.149 0.371 0.389 0.136 Anuroeopsis fissa -0.376 -0.429* -0.274 0.024 -0.199 0.018 0.158 0.162 -0.054 0.037 Trichocera -0.132 -0.450* -0.430* -0.059 0.136 -0.029 0.011 -0.157 -0.100 -0.104 anthadis Asplanchana -0.218 0.129 0.043 -0.527** -0.423* 0.033 -0.134 -0.354 0.162 -0.242 priodonta Brachionus -0.301, -0.459* -0.310 0.008 0.062 0.016 0.200 -0.032 angularis 0.003 0.231 B. caudatus -0.419* 0.056 -0.096 -0.281 -0.299 -0.145 -0.311 -0.146 0.148 -0.144 B. forficula 4444* -0.372 -0.385 -0.123 0.049 -0.039 0.810** -0.174 0.250 0.089 Keratella tropica -0.602** -0.170 -0.023 -0.417* -0.040 0.396 0.218 -0.477* 0.118 -0.346 Moina branchiata -0.225 -0.181 -0.186 -0.327 -0.443* -0.388 -0.106 -0.099 0.212 0.298 Diaphanosoma -0.090 0.149 -0.027 0.075 0.010 -0.051 0.168 0.089 0.448* 0.017 sarsi I. ganapati 0.026 -0.027 0.003 -0.080 -0.170 -0.205 0.014 0.019 0.111 0.552** Simocephalus -0.374 -0.719** -0.531** -0.250 -0.232 -0.019 0.135 -0.149 0.214 0.197 vetulus Cyclops exilis 0.257 -0.022 0.149 0.071 0.150 -0.233 -0.028 -0.009 • -0.039 0.497* Eucyclops agalis 0.026 -0.653** -0.559** -0.038 0.250 -0.030 0.302 -0.202 -0.097 0.326 H. viduus -0.274 -0.142 -0.136 -0.632** -0.604** -0.281 -0.058 -0.360 0.156 0.192 Rhinediaptomus -0.269 -0.198 -0.211 -0.439* -0.626** -0.345 -0.292 -0.113 0.181 0.227 indicus Key: * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.0 Except for temperature and pH, all parameters are in ppm Table 1.2: Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Rajaram lake during 2000-2001
Temperature pH Alkalinity Hardness Ca*2 CI-1 Fe*3 M *2 g PO4 SO4 (°C) Average values 25.3 7.58 202.2 127.9 69.9 57.3 0.21 58 0.31 107 Rotifera -0.205 -0.169 0.431 0.410 0.639* 0.417 -0.572 0.062 0.008 -0.612 Cladocera -0.115 0.706* -0.181 -0.047 -0.497 -0.087 0.121 0.319 0.798** 0.543 Cyclopoida -0.384 -0.251 0.076 0.336 0.864** 0.512 -0.506 -0.211 -0.378 -0.599 Calanoida -0.433 0.217 -0.317 -0.584 -0.616 -0.329 -0.190 -0.298 0.529 0.618* Copepod larva -0.134 -0.071 -0.122 0.370 0.138 0.625* -0.237 0.393 0.422 0.186
Anuroeopsis fissa - 0.427* -0.180 0.120 -0.044 0.092 0.298 -0.200 -0.137 0.043 0.009 Asplanchana 0.167 0.381 0.179 0.175 - 0.006 - 0.283 0.442* 0.245 - 0.095 - 0.029 brightwelli
Keratella tropica - 0.276 - 0.090 0.122 - 0.004 0.113 0.522* - 0.043 - - 0.098 - 0.029 0.218 Brachionus - 0.211 - 0.079 0.026 0.108 0.269 0.482* - 0.284 - 0.073 - 0.244 - 0.082 caudatus B. diversicornis 0.263 0.196 0.311 0.326 0.004 0.084 0.092 0.445* -0.058 -0.038 B.rubens -0.022 0.314 0.026 0.260 0.109 -0.160 0.111 0.267 -0.120 -0.481* Horaella brehmi -0.200 -0.025 -0.036 0.091 0.215 0.006 -0.507* -0.051 0.057 -0.388 Eosphora 0.203 0.024 0.512* 0.104 - 0.247 - 0.007 0.060 0.346 0.202 - 0.045 anthadis C.pulchella 0.011 -0.054 -0.245 -0.001 -0.274 -0.072 -0.134 0.224 0.483* 0.054 Moina branchiata 0.115 0.232 0.312 0.217 -0.071 0.177 0.142 0.355 0.437* 0.008 Diaphanosoma - 0.231 - 0.270 - 0.380 - 0.285 - 0.227 - 0.152 - 0.014 - 0.205 0.563** 0.359 senegal
M. dybowskii 0.045 0.129 0.379 0.465* 0.377 0.140 - 0.453* 0.328 0.013 - 0.325 Heliodiaptomus - 0.336 - 0.303 - 0.270 - 0.372 - 0.311 - 0.282 - 0.285 - 0.254 0.461* 0.137 viduus
H. cinctus - 0.462* - 0.594** - 0.668** - 0.638** - 0.584** - 0.489* - 0.409 - 0.395 0.328 0.275 . Neodiaptomus - - 0.131 - 0.093 - 0.204 - 0.066 - 0.008 0.074 - 0.258 - 0.084 0.023 0.093 diaphorus Paradiaptomus - 0.305 - 0.417* - 0.451* - 0.470* - 0.505* - 0.237 - 0.378 - 0.231 0.332 0.109 greeni
Key: * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 Except for temperature and pH, all parameters are in ppm Table 1.3: Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Rankala lake during 2000-2001
Temperature pH Alkalinity Hardness Ca+, Cl'- Fe+, mg+2 PO4 SO4 (0C) Average 25.8 7.14 175.3 137.2 79.0 69.6 0.34 59.6 0.368 142 values Rotifera -0.383 -0.707** -0.341 -0.478* 0.130 -0.106 0.010 -0.635** 0.304 -0.196 Cladocera -0.540** -0.312 -0.390 0.333 0.171 -0.180 0.330 0.238 0.599** -0.107 Cyclopoida -0.285 -0.112 -0.416* -0.322 0.062 -0.003 -0.225 -0.410 0.082 -0.151 Calanoida -0.395 -0.375 -0.375 -0.184 -0.281 -0.424* 0.198 0.001 0.668** -0.275 Copepod 0.057 -0.169 0.213 -0.140 -0.161 0.113 0.361 0.046 0.144 -0.035 larva Harpacticoida 0.474* 0.108 0.304 0.234 0.129 -0.057 -0.255 0.132 -0.159 0.422* Ostracoda -0.188 -0.228 0.002 0.179 -0.040 0.156 0.070 0.196 0.627** -0.144 Anuroeopsis -0.178 -0.454* -0.163 -0.129 0.105 -0.05 -0.067 -0.206 0.012 -0.010 fissa K. tropica -0.167 -0.056 -0.287 -0.572** -0.042 0.175 -0.142 -0.623** 0.089 -0.059 Brachionus 0.000 -0.26 0.086 -0.38 -0.003 -0.237 -0.227 -0.527** -0.193 -0.404 angularis B. patulus -0.275 -0.513* -0.265 -0.502* 0.023 -0.313 0.047 -0.569** 0.219 -0.167 Ceriodaphnia -0.187 -0.205 -0.034 0.469* 0.377 0.102 0.234 0.209 0.173 -0.001 comuta Daphnia -0.176 -0.316 -0.022 0.522* 0.466* 0.069 0.281 0.187 0.369 -0.065 pulex Moi na -0.124 -0.206 -0.155 0.541** 0.461* 0.061 0.115 0.218 0.412 -0.108 branc hiata Cyclops -0.077 -0.129 0.073 0.166 0.441* 0.187 0.211 -0.209 0.164 -0.236 bicolor Eucyclops -0.312 -0.236 -0.311 -0.472* -0.083 -0.452* -0.358 -0.476* -0.008 -0.388 agalis Mesocyclops 0.107 -0.178 0.172 -0.465* -0.125 -0.21 -0.408 -0.448* 0.047 -0.369 leuckarti Heliodiaptom - 0.441* -0.462* -0.282 -0.237 -0.211 -0.444* 0.296 -0.128 0.709** -0.461* us cinctus
Key: * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 Except for temperature and pH, all parameters are in ppm Table 1.4: Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Sadoba pond during 2000-2001
Temperature (0c) pH Alkalinity Hardness Ca+2 CH Fe+3 Mg+2 PO4 SO4
Average values 25.9 6.83 63.7 81.2 42.6 73.4 0.49 38.6 0.48 178.4
Rotifera 0.056 0.278 0.015 0.005 0.004 -0.234 -0.198 0.004 -0.336 -0.349 Cladocera -0.321 -0.019 0.065 -0.107 0.068 -0.274 -0.112 -0.196 -0.116 -0.087 Cyclopoida -0.148 0.024 0.183 0.011 -0.020 -0.167 0.157 0.028 -0.161 -0.254 Calanoida -0.266 -0.078 -0.111 0.006 0.206 -0.129 0.123 -0.117 -0.266 -0.190 Copepod larva -0.045 0.058 0.145 -0.068 -0.285 -0.104 0.051 0.074 -0.301 -0.166 Harpacticoida 0.197 0.372 -0.085 0.257 0.259 0.126 0.044 0.217 0.008 0.107 Ostracoda -0.419* -0.361 -0.305 -0.302 -0.069 -0.184 0.018 -0.398 0.130 0.148 Brachionus 0.012 0.475* -0.133 0.002 -0.194 0.070 -0.050 0.120 -0.297 -0.152 caudatus Filinia terminalis -0.005 0.277 -0.124 0.128 -0.064 0.077 -0.102 0.225 -0.460* -0.139
Filinia longiseta 0.515* 0.085 -0.184 0.500* 0.409 0.531* 0.145 0.484* -0.297 0.240
Keratella tropica 0.337 0.485* -0.019 0.091 0.119 -0.020 -0.383 0.061 -0.128 -0.171
Biapertura karua 0.375 -0.436* -0.145 0.157 0.089 0.463* 0.256 0.176 0.164 0.414
Pleuroxus similis 0.240 -0.333 -0.228 0.273 0.242 0.405 0.611** 0.252 0.000 0.511*
H. viduus -0.125 0.003 -0.034 -0.159 -0.176 0.235 0.454* -0.125 0.111 0.245
Key: *P < 0.05, **P< 0.01 Except for temperature and pH, all parameters are in ppm Table 1.5: Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Someshwar temple tank during 2000-2001
Temperature pH , Alkalinity Hardness Ca+2 CH Fe+3 mg+2 PO4 SO4 (0C)
Average values 25.5 7.38 168.9 123.8 67.3 65.4 0.40 52.9 0.37 170.1
Rotifera -0.658** -0.439* -0.584** -0.297 -0.111 -0.241 -0.208 -0.532** -0.135 -0.237
Cladocera -0.036 0.050 • -0.111 -0.328 0.052 -0.141 -0.146 -0.461* -0.538** -0.234 Cyclopoida 0.325 0.261 0.578** 0.028 -0.097 0.144 0.062 0.124 0.246 0.229 Copepod larva 0.116 0.159 -0.073 -0.066 -0.179 0.078 -0.138 0.152 -0.423* -0.166 Brachionus - - 0.369 0.461* - 0.149 - 0.383 - 0.281 - 0.111 0.233 - 0.509* - 0.080 0.145 bidentata Monostyla bulla -0.244 -0.055 :0.253 -0.049 0.193 -0.024 -0.386 -0.135 -0.496* -0.096 -0.014 B. caudatus - 0.532** -0.137 -0.409 -0.066 -0.037 0.113 0.001 -0.381 -0.074 Cyclops 0.399 0.333 0.534** 0.141 -0.088 -0.046 0.125 0.251 0.563** -0.040 dentatimanus Paracyclops 0.204 0.053 0.392 0.417* 0.349 0.428* - 0.029 0.449* 0.284 0.264 fimbriatus
Key: * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 Except for temperature and pH, all parameters are in ppm A
Table 1.6: Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Waghbil lake during 2000-2001
Temperature pH Alkalinity Hardness Ca" CI-1 Fe" Mg" PO4 SO4 (0C) Average values 26.03 7.1 157.7 101 53.7 42.4 0.24 47.7 0.23 119.6
Rotifera -0.294 -0.368 -.0055 -0.127 0.113 0.251 0.490* -0.264 0.310 -0.133
Cladocera -0.474* -0.284 -.0464* -0.383 -0.315 -0.285 0.343 -0.182 0.455* 0.215 Cyclopoida 0.005 0.129 -0.049 0.153 0.261 -0.133 -0.159 -0.059 -0.159 0.042 Calanoida -0.156 -0.346 -0.107 0.063 0.034 -0.194 0.536** 0.129 0.631** 0.381 Copepod larva -0.474* -0.330 -0.228 -0.450* -0.036 0.131 0.415* -0.505* 0.192 0.274 Ostracoda -0.109 -0.167 ' 0.114 -0.102 0.172 0.014 0.246 -0.245 0.120 -0.235 Brachionus 0.073 -0.472* 0.558** 0.045 0.271 0.017 0.369 -0.201 0.218 0.000 calyciflorus B. falcatus -0.412 -0.205 -0.424* -0.338 -0.136 0.152 0.244 -0.274 0.283 -0.249 Alona pulchella -0.355 -0.038 -0.251 -0.269 -0.300 -0.370 0.185 -0.043 0.520* 0.119 1. ganapati 0.467* -0.006 0.516* 0.223 0.334 -0.219 -0.366 0.009 -0.327 0.044 Daphnia pulex -0.320 -0.268 -0.463* -0.263 -0.171 -0.034 0.220 -0.162 0.258 -0.103 Simocephalus -0.593** -0.328 -0.348 -0.459* -0.330 -0.321 0.535** ; 0.262 0.516* 0.284 vetulus Cyclops biclor 0.174 -0.100 0.210 0.363 0.484* -0.149 0.005 0.005 -0.131 0.007 N. lidenbergi 0.108 -0.221 0.027 0.206 0.107 -0.128 0.498* 0.160 0.486* 0.215 Rhinediaptomus -0.077 -0.254 0.043 0.109 -0.117 -0.019 0.237 0.224 0.508* 0.421* indicus H. viduus -0.134 -0.245 -0.212 -0.013 -0.047 -0.189 0.398 0.077 0.510* 0.360
Key: * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 Except for temperature and pH, all parameters are in ppm Table 1.7: Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Mayem lake during 2000-2001
Temperature pH Alkalinity Hardness Ca*2 CH Fe+3 mg+2 PO4 SO4 (°C) Average values 28.6 6.56 59.0 34.1 20.1 30.7 0.46 13.9 0.27 84.8 Rotifera -0.590** -0.632** -0.227 -0.240 -0.263 -0.098 0.330 -0.201 0.084 -0.340
Cladocera 0.042 0.000 0.236 0.151 0.151 -0.102 0.199 0.143 0.063 -0.183
Cyclopoida 0.134 0.077 -0.078 -0.048 -0.078 0.098 0.032 -0.021 -0.243 -0.227
Copepod larva -0.229 -0.135 -0.212 -0.255 -0.284 -0.211 -0.020 -0.211 0.059 -0.012 Brachionus - 0.322 - 0.430* 0.224 0.254 - 0.180 0.012 0.161 0.417* 0.311 - 0.275 falcatus
K. quadrata - 0.030 - 0.190 0.542** - 0.194 - 0.014 - 0.307 0.141 - 0.192 0.126 - 0.131 Ceriodaphnia - 0.233 - 0.178 0.457* - 0.079 0.105 - 0.297 0.154 - 0.170 0.099 - 0.152 cornuta Diaphanosoma 0.516* 0.645** 0.025 0.424* 0.146 - 0.687** - 0.141 0.320 - 0.247 0.187 sarsi Cyclops exilis 0.132 0.344 -0.161 0.575** 0.073 0.359 -0.262 0.540** -0.199 0.057
C. strenuus 0.191 0.055 -0.238 -0.381 -0.013 -0.213 -0.065 -0.387 -0.458* 0.292
Key: * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 Except for temperature and pH, all parameters are in ppm Table 1.8: Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Pilar lake during 2000-2001
Temperature pH Alkalinity Hardness Ca+2 CM Fe' mg+2 PO4 SO4 (°C) Average values 29.8 6.77 54.4 61.4 34.1 64 0.40 27.3 0.41 107.3 Rotifera -0.176 -0.006 -0.060 0.199 0.066 0.252 -0.029 0.248 0.145 -0.019 Cladocera -0.598** -0.406 0.063 0.252 0.273 0.174 0.169 0.180 -0.170 0.091 Cyclopoida -0.503* -0.251 -0.298 -0.138 -0.076 0.137 -0.058 -0.151 -0.013 -0.059 Calanoida -0.651** -0.468* -0.191 0.102 0.202 -0.111 0.101 0.008 -0.069 -0.042 Copepod larva -0.354 -0.335 -0.162 -0.147 0.016 -0.257 0.455* -0.205 0.069 0.339 Harpacticoida -0.407 -0.181 -0.361 -0.063 0.155 -0.114 0.036 -0.204 -0.101 0.004 Ostracoda -0.299 -0.130 -0.360 -0.237 0.014 -0.175 -0.055 -0.363 -0.480 0.091 Anuroeopsis fissa 0.171 0.266 0.150 0.306 0.241 0.342 0.033 0.284 -0.331 -0.467* Brachionus 0.070 -0.057 0.426* 0.104 -0.010 0.094 -0.232 0.161 0.164 -0.419* falcatus B. plicatilis 0.400 0.416* 0.138 0.228 0.166 0.562** 0.060 0.222 -0.322 -0.431* Filinia longiseta -0.261 -0.194 -0.214 0.505* 0.446* 0.163 0.084 0.434* -0.325 0.308 Lecane tuna 0.049 0.204 -0.082 0.125 0.121 0.108 0.425* 0.100 -0.320 -0.105 Cetiodaphnia -0.487* -0.303 0.461* 0.299 0.338 0.198 0.108 0.205 -0.164 -0.070 cornuta
- - - - - 0.166 0.206 0.166 0.040 0.108 H. viduus -0.591** - 0.511* - 0.161 0.127 0.032 Neodiaptomus -0.359 -0.066 -0.171 0.488* 0.417* 0.071 -0.051 0.430* -0.346 0.036 diaphorus . -
Key: * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 Except for temperature and pH, all parameters are in ppm Table 1.9: Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Santacruz lake during 2000-2001
Temperature pH Alkalinity Hardness Ca+2 CH Fe+3 Mg+2 PO4 SO4 (0C) Average 28.7 6.66 95.6 103 51.5 123.3 0.40 49.0 0.43 103.2 values Rotifera -0.667** -0.241 -0.403 0.050 0.139 0.471* 0.121 0.059 -0.132 -0.238 CI adocera -0.419* -0.223 -0.122 0.004 0.018 0.284 -0.378 0.053 -0.246 -0.082 Cyclopoida -0.163 -0.427* -0.403 -0.253 -0.259 -0.235 0.348 -0.254 -0.150 -0.082 Calanoida -0.132 -0.205 -0.216 0.073 0.014 0.238 0.258 0.036 0.040 -0.097 Copepod larva -0.127 -0.166 -0.039 -0.170 -0.195 -0.039 -0.029 -0.330 0.047 -0.206 Harpacticoida -0.258 -0.399 -0.316 -0.369 -0.244 -0.050 0.548** -0.394 0.259 -0.659** Ostracod a -0.133 -0.384 -0.327 0.052 0.048 0.141 0.591** -0.083 0.196 0.017 Brachionus -0.617** -0.257 -0.313 0.080 0.109 0.509* 0.112 0.151 -0.023 -0.178 anguOris B. calyciflorus -0.376 -0.473* -0.429* -0.399 -0.199 -0.253 0.407 -0.502* 0.121 -0.314 B. caudatus -0.220 -0.044 -0.110 0.244 0.467* 0.358 -0.139 0.127 -0.390 0.094 B. falcatus 0.432* 0.544** 0.418* 0.208 -0.013 -0.071 -0.033 0.230 0.352 0.088 Asplanchana 0.492* 0.323 0.586** -0.320 -0.302 -0.177 -0.356 -0.250 0.015 0.069 intermediata Filinia longiseta -0.271 -0.076 -0.175 -0.032 0.106 0.219 0.259 -0.172 -0.195 -0.435* Horaella brehmi 0.190 0.522* 0.551** 0.163 0.169 0.047 -0.406 0.227 0.066 0.133 Lecane luna -0.329 -0.206 -0.307 0.156 0.168 0.626** 0.109 0.179 0.087 -0.238 Trichottia -0.291 0.045 -0.185 0.278 0.326 0.415* -0.254 0.223 -0.235 0.249 cylindrica Alona excisa -0.430* -0.310 -0.235 -0.018 0.081 0.300 -0.016 -0.039 -0.056 -0.077 Diaphanosoma -0.319 -0.238 -0.319 0.175 0.125 0.586** -0.014 0.287 0.150 -0.136 sarsi Macrothrix 0.164 0.454* 0.236 0.491* 0.314 0.087 -0.095 0.310 -0.274 -0.029 laticomis Cyclops -0.290 -0.476* -0.328 -0.297 -0.392 -0.121 0.214 -0.120 0.101 -0.061 bicuspidatus 0.601** C.strenuus 0.206 -0.040 0.150 0.110 0.078 0.141 0.002 0.109 0.091 -0.554** M. leuckarti -0.196 -0.091 -0.321 -0.058 -0.008 -0.085 0.236 -0.229 -0.195 Key: * 1') < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 Except for temperature and pH, all parameters are in ppm Table 1.10: Pearson's bivariate correlation for physico-chemical factors and zooplankton abundance in Vaddem lake during 2000-2001
Temperature pH Alkalinity Hardness Ca+2 CH Fe+3 mg+2 Po-4 s0-4 (°C) Average values 28.5 7.60 166.1 317.4 169.3 218.7 0.32 120.9 0.478 225
Rotifera -0.266 ..-0.235 -0.358 -0.304 -0.268 -0.143 -0.037 -0.175 -0.213 -0.660** Cladocera -0.523* -0.260 -0.530** -0.409 -0.249 -0.342 -0.318 -0.354 -0.301 -0.203 Cyclopoida -0.282 0.006 -0.111 -0.014 -0.023 0.031 0.115 0.283 -0.261 -0.113 Calanoida -0.299 -0.294 -0.065 -0.128 -0.167 -0.281 -0.224 -0.131 -0.415* -0.343 Copepod larva -0.366 -0.100 -0.105 0.048 0.025 0.034 0.162 0.163 0.023 -0.284 Ostracoda -0.204 -0.643** -0.332 -0.406 -0.342 -0.271 -0.548** -0.499* -0.510* -0.113 Brachionus -0.077 -0.278 -0.423* -0.356 -0.303 -0.121 -0449* -0.361 -0.015 -0.446* angularis Keratella tropica -0.161 -0.442* -0.428* -0.490* -0.505* -0.317 -0.099 -0.468* -0.072 -0.644** B. caudatus -0.030 0.173 0.099 0.145 0.050 -0.008 0.448* 0.316 0.115 -0.244 -0.248 -0.072 Lecane ovalis - 0.414* -0.213 -0.143 -0.274 -0.264 -0.201 -0.032 -0.200
Rotatoria neptunia -0.307 -0.211 -0.241 -0.221 -0.188 -0.265 0.038 -0.189 -0.262 -0.485* Ceriodaphnia -0.548** -0.206 -0.321 -0.157 -0.065 -0.217 -0.022 -0.059 -0.212 -0.312 cornuta Chydorus -0.253 -0.501* -0.428* -0.408 -0.358 -0.331 -0.466* -0.473* -0.224 -0.238 s haericus Macrocyclops -0.380 -0.421* -0.340 -0.372 -0.390 -0.414* -0.116 -0.328 -0.255 -0.571** distinctus Heliodiaptomus -0.460* -0.051 -0.136 -0.113 -0.076 0.038 0.296 0.058 -0.234 -0.308 cinctus Phyllodiaptomus -0.271 0.121 -0.071 0.093 0.035 -0.093 0.259 0.443* -0.109 -0.087 blanci
Key: * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01 Except for temperature and pH, all parameters are in ppm
40 400
300 `03
as 200
100 zc-
0 F111'1'1,11 111111 0 < 2 n < N 0 Z a 4 X .0 X n < m 0 z 0 2 2
0.8
0. 0 6
0.4
8 8 02
0
Months
Fig, 1.1.1. Physico-chemical parameters of Kalamba lake during 2000 - 2001 0, Temperature; fl, pH; A, Alkalinity; 0, Hardness; 0, Sulphate; 0, Chlorides; 0, Calcium; A, Magnesium; 0, Phosphate; 0, Iron ao - - 400
< U, o z 0 aa-1 .-).cinozo
200 -
0
m) (pp ion t tra n e Conc
Months
Fig. 1.1.2. Physico-chemical parameters of Rajaram lake during 2000 - 2001 0, Temperature; CI, pH; A, Alkalinity; 0, Hardness; 0, Sulphate; 0, Chlorides; 0, Calcium; A, Magnesium; .0, Phosphate; 0, Iron 40 — 400
ez, 30 300 C. so
Xcx, —E 20- 200
10 — 100 <
< 2 -I < to 0 2 0 u. a < -, ") < 0 2 0
300
E a 200
100 8
0
m) p (p ion t tra Concen
LL Months
Fig. 1.1.3. Physico-chemical parameters of Rankala lake during 2000 - 2001 0, Temperature; : , pH; A, Alkalinity; 0, Hardness; 0, Sulphate; 0, Chlorides; 0, Calcium; A, Magnesium; 0, Phosphate; 0, Iron
•
40 200
30 150 a) a) 12) 20 100
a) 1 0
I I I I $< ", < 0 O Z • < 2 < Z
0.8 Ea 0.6 O
0.4
8 02
0
Fig. 1.1.4. Physico-chemical parameters of Sadoba pond during 2000 - 2001 0, Temperature; : pH; A, Alkalinity; 0, Hardness; 0, Sulphate; 0, Chlorides; 0, Calcium; A, Magnesium; 0, Phosphate; 0, Iron 40 - - 400
300 -
200
C .2
C 100 C C 8 0 2< 2 c co 0 ZO u► 2 a 2 <,0 0 Z 0 LL
0.8
0 2 O
Months
Fig. 1.1.5. Physico-chemical parameters of Someshwar temple tank during 2000 -2001; 0, Temperature; i pH; A, Alkalinity; 0, Hardness; 0, Sulphate; 0, Chlorides; 0, Calcium; A, Magnesium; 40., Phosphate; ❑, Iron 40 - - 300
U 30 E 200 c z 0. E 20 0. E 1-- 1 0
1. I fi If 11 0 2 < 2 ', 200 150 cr. 0 100 8 0 50 0 0 0.6 0 < a -, -, < 00zo i 2< 2 -4 < 0 Z 0 u. Months Fig. 1.1.6. Physico-chemical parameters of Waghbil lake during 2000 - 2001 0, Temperature; i pH; D, Alkalinity; 0, Hardness; 0, Sulphate; 0, Chlorides; 0, Calcium; A, Magnesium; .0, Phosphate; 0, Iron 40 - 150 3° V 20 7 a E 12 10 0 Ilf 11'111'11 0 g 1"ag" < cl) 0 Z 0 u- < 2 "2 < 0 0 a 0.8 - E 0.6 - g 0.4 - 02 - 0 111111. 1 E$ 2 < 2 -= -= autozo g Ls. 2 < ''' ", < CA 0 Z 0 Months Fig. 1.1.7. Physico-chemical parameters of Mayem lake during 2000 - 2001 0, Temperature; : pH; A, Alkalinity; 0, Hardness; 0, Sulphate; 0, Chlorides; 0, Calcium; A, Magnesium; *, Phosphate; 0, Iron 40 - 200 30 150 t., dness r Ha 20 100 S. ; ity 0 lin 10 50 Alka 0 I r I I I 144 g eL .41 < v1 0 Z 0 200 0 ) m n(pp tio a tr Concen Months Fig. 1.1.8. Physico-chemical paraMeters of Pilar lake during 2000 - 2001 ❑, Temperature; LI, pH; A, Alkalinity; 0, Hardness; 0, Sulphate; 0, Chlorides; 0, Calcium; A, Magnesium; d, Phosphate; 0, Iron 4 50 — — 300 40 - IS 200 E co 0 30 — z E 0. 0. 20 — E 100 it` a) Zt" 1 0 0 MI I 1' I + ' + r 1 I I 1-‘ I 0 2 < 2 < V) 0 2 0 t- U 2< 2 < 0 0 2 0 Or 0.8 - m) 0.6 - (pp ion t 0.4 - tra cen 0.2 Con 0 2< 2 < 0 0 2 0 t• I.- < 2 < 0 0 2 0 Months Fig. 1.1.9. Physico-chemical parameters of Santacruz lake during 2000 - 2001 0, Temperature; pH; A, Alkalinity; 0, Hardness; 0, Sulphate; 0, Chlorides; la Calcium; A, Magnesium; *, Phosphate; 0, Iron 14. Fig. 1.1.10.Physico-chemical parametersofVaddemlakeduring2000-2001 0, Temperature; 0, Chlorides;Calcium; pH; Months A, A, Alkalinity; 0,Hardness; Sulphate; Magnesium; 0, Phosphate; 0, Alkalinity ; Hardness Iron 3000 2000 :0 c 1000 ■ 0 L Feb- Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 00 4000 3000 :0 2000 1000 ■ 0 I 1b1 Jan- Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 01 Months Fig. 1.2.1. Zooplankton abundance in Kalamba lake during 2000 - 2001 N, Ratifera;111, Cladocera; : Cyclopoida; Calanoida; Copepoda larvae; NI, Harpacticoida; I, Ostracoda 5000 - 4000 - .14 3000 co :0.5; 2000 1000 0 I Pio n. n m Feb- Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 00 5000 - 4000 - 7-1 3000 - ti 2000 - C 1000 0 Li 1 LI j .11 Jan- Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 01 Months Fig. 1.2.2. Zooplankton abundance in Rajaram lake during 2000 - 2001 ▪ Rotifera; Cladocera; Cyclopoida;11, Calanoida; • , Copepoda larvae 3000 - 2000 - q cu ti •a la 1000 - 0 I L., Feb- Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 00 2500 - 2000 y)m 1500 - = ti 1000 c 500 - 0 Jan- Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 01 Months Fig. 1.2.3. Zooplankton abundance in Rankala lake during 2000 - 2001 0, Rotifera; 0, Cladocera; : *, Cyclopoida; Calanoida; Copepoda larvae; II, Harpacticoida; U, Ostracoda 4000 - 3000 - J : 03 :a 2000 - 5 C 1000 - si 0 LILLLFeb- Mar Apr May Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 00 4000 - 3000 To- V 2000 - C 1000 - 0 Jan- Feb Mar Apr May Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 01 Months Fig. 1.2.4. Zooplankton abundance in Sadoba pond 2000 - 2001 Rotifera; Cladocera; , Cyclopoida; Calanoida; Copepoda larvae; M, Harpacticoida; I, Ostracoda 800 600 co 400 V c • 200 0 Feb- Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 00 800 600 7'aj 0J 73 400 5 — 200 0 Jan- Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 01 Months Fig. 1.2.5. Zooplankton abundance in Someshwar temple tank during 2000 - 2001: 0, Rotifera; 0, Cladocera; . , Cyclopoida; ❑, Copepoda larvae 5000 - 4000 - 3000 2000 - 1000 - 0 Ida 1,1 Lin Feb- Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 00 4000 - 3000 i3 2000 - C 1000 0 Jan- Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 01 Months Fig. 1.2.6. Zooplankton abundance in Waghbil lake during 2000 - 2001 Rotifera; I, Cladocera; , Cyclopoida; Calanoida; Copepoda larvae; Ill, Ostracoda 1000 - 800 - /L ls 600 - a idu div 400 - In 200 n (1 1 1' 1 0 F Feb- Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 00 750 - 500 5 Cg 250 - Jan- Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 01 Months Fig. 1.2.7. Zooplankton abundance in Mayem lake during 2000 - 2001 0, Rotifera; 0, Cladocera; : Cyclopoida; 0, Copepoda larvae 3000 - 2500 2000 1500 2 1000 - 500 - 0 .1.1- NIL 11 I L • Feb- Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 00 2500 - 2000 - J 1500 - 1000 500 - 0 Jan- Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 01 Months Fig. 1.2.8. Zooplankton abundance in Filar lake during 2000 - 2001 R, Rotifera; Cladocera; : , Cyclopoida; U, Calanoida; Copepoda larvae; II, Harpacticoida; I, Ostracoda 1750 - 1500 - 1250 - /L ls a 1000 - idu iv 750 - d In 500 - 250 - 0 11 Feb- Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 00 1750 - 1500 - 1250 - /L s 1000 - dua i iv 750 - d In 500 - 250 - 0 11 l -111 Jan- Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 01 Months Fig. 1.2.9. Zooplankton abundance in Santacruz lake during 2000 - 2001 0, Rotifera; 0, Cladocera; : Cyclopoida; Calanoida; 0, Copepoda larvae; It Harpacticoida; 0, Ostracoda 3000 - —1 2000 - "a I . Y 1000 - 0 0.014. Feb- Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 00 2500 2000 - 51 To 1500 - 1000 500 - 0 1011 Jan- Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 01 Months Fig. 1.2.10. Zooplankton abundance in Vaddem lake during 2000 - 2001 ■, Rotifera; Cladocera; Cyclopoida; I , Calanoida; ▪ Copepoda larvae; I, Ostracoda Fig. 1.3.1 Zooplankton biomass of the freshwater bodies of Maharashtra: Kalamba lake (b), Rajaram lake (0), Rankala lake (•) during 2000 - 2001 1-Jan Deo lip Feb r Oct isA"AIIIII- -4111111b- "FA 8 y ' !'OOP •00110W• Jul Fig. 1.3.1 Zooplankton biomass of the freshwater bodies of Maharashtra: Sadoba pond (*), Someshwar temple tank (*), Waghbil lake(*) during 2000 - 2001 Fig. 1.3.2 Zooplankton biomass of the freshwater bodies of Goa: Mayem lake (0), Pilar lake (0), Santacruz lake (0), Vaddem lake (0) during 2000 - 2001 4- Species composition and distri6ution of zooprankton in water 6oizes of Goa and Maharashtra Chapter II The present knowledge of freshwater rotifera in India is incomplete due to lack of statewise or regional studies. Extensive studies have been carried out in West Bengal (Sharma and Michael, 1980). Some studies have also done in Orissa, Punjab and, Jammu and Kashmir (Vasisht and Gupta, 1967; Mahoon et.al., 1985; Pati and Sahu, 1993; Ticku and Zutshi, 1994). The zooplanktonic fauna of other parts of the country needs to be investigated, to complete the picture. Rotifer communities from tropical ponds and tanks contribute greatly to the literature in Indian rotifera. Species composition and ecology of Kashmir lakes was studied by Yousuf and Quadri (1981), Yousuf et.al. (1986), Vass (1989), etc. Kamaun lakes were investigated by Sharma and Pant (1984 a,b). The limnological studies of some freshwater lakes in Goa and Maharashtra were undertaken and the physico-chemical status of these water bodies has already been discussed earlier. As far as biological components are concerned, zooplankton were studied in all the study area and the list of Rotifera taxa recorded during the study period is as follows: Family: Brachionidae 1. Anuroeopsis fissa (Gosse, 1851) 2. Brachionus angularis (Gosse, 1851) 3. B. caudatus f. vulgatus (Ahlstrum, 1940) 4. B. caudatus var personatus (Ahlstrum, 1940) 5. B. diversicomis (Daday, 1883) G 6. B. forficula (Wierzejski, 1891) 7. B. calyciflorus f. borgerti (Apstein, 1907) 8. B. bidentata (Anderson, 1889) 95 Chapter II 9. B. falcatus (Zacharias, 1898) 10. B. plicatilis (Muller, 1786) 11. B. quadridentatus (Hermann, 1783) 12. B. quadridentatus sp. mirabilis (Daday, 1897) 13. B. urceolaris (Muller, 1773) 14. B. mirabilis (Daday, 1874) 15. B. rubens (Ehrenberg, 1838) 16. B. durgae (Dhanapathi, 1974) G8'm 17. B. quadricornis (Ehrenberg, 1832) 18. B. patulus (Muller, 1786) 19. B. budapestitensis (Daday, 1885) G8'm 20. Keratella cochlearis (Gosse, 1851) 21. K. tropica (Apstein, 1907) 22. K. quadrata (Muller, 1786) G 23. Platyias patulus (Muller, 1786) 24. Platyias quadricornis (Ehrenberg, 1882) Family: Euchlanidae 25. Euchlanis dilatata (Ehrenberg, 1832) 26. E. oropha (Gosse, 1887) G 27. Dipleuchlanis propatula (Gosse, 1886) Family: Mytilinidae 28. Mytilina acanthophora (Hauer, 1938) 29. Mytilina ventrlis (Ehrenberg, 1832) G6M Family: Trichotridae 30. Trichotria tetractis (Ehrenberg, 1830) G6m 31. Macrochaetus sericus (Thorpe, 1893) m Family: Colurellidae 32. Colurella bicuspidata (Ehrenberg, 1832) 96 Chapter II 33. Lepadella ovalis (Muller, 1786) G" 34. L. ovalis f. larga (Sharma, 1978b) 35. L. rhomboides (Gosse, 1884) G 36. L. ehrenbergi (Perty, 1850) G" Family: Lecanidae 37. Lecane (Lecane) eontina (Turner, 1892) 38. L. (Lecane) ludwigi (Eckstein, 1883) 39. L. (Lecane) luna (Muller, 1776) 40. L. (Lecane) nana (Murray, 1913) 41. L. (Lecane) aspasia (Murray, 1913) G 42. L. (Monostyla) ungulata (Gosse, 1887) 43. L. (Monostyla) bulla (Gosse, 1851) 44. L. (Monostyla) furcata (Murray, 1913) 45. L. (Monostyla) quadridentata (Ehrenberg, 1832) Family: Proalidae 46. Proales decipiens (Ehrenberg, 1831) G&M Family: Notommatidae 47. Cephalodella gibba (Ehrenberg, 1832) G 48. Eosphora anthadis (Harring and Myers, 1924) G Family: Scarididae 49. Scaddium longicaudum (Muller, 1786) Family: Trichocercidae 50. Trichocera longiseta (Schrank, 1802) 51. T. cylindrica (Imhof, 1891) G&M 52. T. anthadis (Ehrenberg, 1832) 53. T. rattus (Muller, 1776) 97 Chapter II Family: Asplanchnidae 54. Asplanchana brightwelli (Gosse, 1850) 55. A. priodonta (Gosse, 1850) G&M 56. A. intermediata (Hudson, 1886) Family: Synchaetidae 57. Synchaeta pectinata (Ehrenberg, 1832) G&M 58. Polyarthra vulgaris (Carlin, 1943) Family: Flosculariidae 59. Sinantherina spinosa (Thorpe, 1893) G, 8'f\A Family: Conochilidae 60. Conochiloides dossuarias (Hudson, 1885) m 61. Conochilus madurai (Michael, 1966) Family: Hexarthridae 62. Hexarthra sp. (Schmarda) Family: Filinidae 63. Filinia longiseta (Ehrenberg, 1834) 64. F. opoliensis (Zacharias, 1898) 65. F. terminalis (Plate, 1886) Family: Testudinellidae 66. Testudinella patina (Hermann, 1783) Family: Trochosphaeridae 67. Horaella brehmi (Donner, 1949) G&M Family: Philodinidae 68. Rotaria neptunia (Ehrenberg, 1832) G 69. Paracolurella aemula (Myers, 1832) G 70. Philodina flaviceps (Bryce, 1906) G&M Key: G, New record to Goa; M, New record to Maharashtra; G&M. New record to Goa and Maharashtra 98 Chapter II Tables 2.1 and 2.2 illustrates the species composition and distribution of rotifers in the individual water bodies of Maharashtra and Goa. Of the 70 rotifer species identified, 56 species were found present in the water bodies of Goa, while, 64 species were encountered in the waters of Maharashtra. The identified rotifers belonged to 16 families of which, family Brachionidae species were more in numbers i.e. 24, followed by family Lecanidae comprising of nine species. During this study, 23 species of rotifers from Goa and 16 from Maharashtra are new records from the study areas. The species, which were present in all the water bodies of Goa, were Brachionus angularis, B. calyciflorus, B. falcatus, Keratella tropica, Lecane tuna and Filinia longiseta. Among the species found in 75 % of the water bodies were Anuroeopsis fissa, B. caudatus, B. diversicornis, B. bidentata, B. patulus, B. budapestitensis, Monostyla bulla, Monostyla quadridentata, Asplanchana brightwelli and Polyarthra vulgaris. B. calyciflorus and Keratella tropica were detected in all the water bodies of Maharashtra, while B. caudatus, B. angularis, B. bidentata, B. falcatus, B. plicatilis, Lecane !una and Filinia longiseta were also most frequently encountered. The species found in about 2/3 1d of the freshwater bodies of Maharashtra were B. budapestitensis, B. rubens, B. falcatus, Filinia opoloensis, A. brightwelli, Monostyla bulla, Trichotria tetractis and P. patulus. The total number of rotifer species identified from Kalamba lake was 39. As seen from Figs. 2.1.1 and 2.1.2, the most populous rotifer species in the Kalamba lake was Keratella tropica. The second highest density was of Brachionus caudatus. 99 Chapter II Rotifera population, which comprised of 30 species in Rajaram lake is depicted in Figs. 2.2.1, 2.2.2 and 2.2.3. Brachionus caudatus was the most populous during 2000 with a count of 1640 individuals/L in November. Whereas, during 2001, the population of Keratella tropica was more with peak density of 1820 individuals/L in December. Brachionus plicatilis was found to be the most populous species among the 37 species, identified from the waters of Rankala lake, with peak density being in November '00, while during 2001, Brachionus patulus, B. caudatus and Keratella tropica were among the most abundant rotifers in this lake ranging between 640-690 individuals/L. The incidence of rotifers in Rankala lake is seen in Figs. 2.3.1 and 2.3.2. Variations in the rotifer population of Sadoba pond are depicted in Figs. 2.4.1 and 2.4.2. During the year 2000, Keratella tropica in March and Brachionus caudatus in November, with counts of 1420 individuals/L and 1325 individuals/L, respectively, were the most populous species encountered. While Brachionus calyciflorus was most abundant during 2001 with highest number (1429 individuals/L) recorded during March. A total of 31 species were encountered in this freshwater body. In Someshwar temple tank, having only 10 rotifera species, Monostyla bulla was most populous during both the years, with peak numbers being observed in December as seen in Figs. 2.5.1 and 2.5.2. The population of Keratella tropica was most abundant which is shown in Fig. 2.6.1 and maximum number of individuals were obtained during November - December of both the years. This water body had the least species diversity among the water bodies of Maharashtra. Among the water bodies of Goa, Mayem lake had the abundance of Brachionus species as depicted in Figs. 2.7.1 and 2.7.2. Brachionus angularis and B. plicatilis, the most populous 100 Chapter II species, were at peak density during July '00. in 2001, Brachionus caudatus was most abundant with peak number density of 265 individuals/L in August. With the presence of 19 species, Mayem lake had the least species diversity among the freshwater bodies of Goa. The rotifer population of Pilar lake was the most diverse with 37 species and is depicted in Figs. 2.8.1, 2.8.2 and 2.8.3 and shows abundance of Brachionus forficula and B. calyciflorus during 2000, while Keratella tropica was most abundant during 2001. The highest densities of these species were found during August - December. Variations in the rotifer population of Santacruz lake are shown in Figs. 2.9.1, 2.9.2 and 2.9.3. Out of the 29 species detected in this lake, Brachionus calyciflorus was most populous with highest individuals i.e. 570, during August '00. While, the most populous species during 2001 was Keratella tropica and its density peak was seen in December '01 with 605 individuals/L. In the Vaddem lake, the rotifer species found to be most abundant was Keratella tropica during September - October of the study period. As seen in Figs. 2.10.1, 2.10.2 and 2.10.3, Brachionus angularis and B. diversicornis were also found in high numbers. The number of rotifer species enumerated in this lake was 27. CLADOCEM Our knowledge about the cladoceran fauna of the indian subcontinent is based mostly on the on the studies from Lahore (Arora, 1931), Dharwad (Gouder and Joseph, 1961), Simla hills (Biswas, 1964), Rajasthan (Biswas, 1966, 1971; Nayar, 1971), Madurai (Michael, 1973), North- East India (Patil, 1976), Kashmir (Yousuf and Quadri, 1977; Quadri and Yousuf, 1978), West 101 Chapter II Bengal (Sharma, 1978a) and Punjab (Battish and Kumari, 1981, 1986). Most of these studies are based on the cladoceran from the northern region. Gouder and Joseph (1961) have mentioned the presence of four species of cladocera namely, Diaphanosoma sp., Daphnia longispina, Ceriodaphnia rigaudi and Moina rectirostris from water bodies around Dharwad. Michael (1973) recorded three species of Daphnia viz., Daphnia carinata, Dahpnia carinata var cephalata, Daphnia lumholtzi and the presence of genera Diaphanosoma, Ceriodaphnia, Moina, Simocephalus, Scapholeberis, Macrothrix and Leydigia from Madurai (Tamil Nadu). Except these, no comprehensive survey has been made on the cladocers of the south Indian region, the climatic conditions of which differ widely from those of the northern part. There is a lacunae relating to the statewise or regional zooplanktonic surveys (Sharma and Michael, 1987; Michael and Sharma, 1988). Caldoceran faunas of only six states i.e. Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka have been relatively well documented. The present work is an extensive survey of cladocers from two neighboring states, Goa and Maharashtra, which have agroclimatically different environmental conditions. List of Cladocera taxa recorded during the study period is as follows: Family: Sididae 1. Pseudosida bidentata (Herrick, 1884) G 2. Sida crystallina (Muller, 1776) 3. Latonopsis australis (Sars, 1888) G&M 4. Diaphanosoma sarsi (Richard, 1894a) 5. D. excisum (Sars, 1885) 6. D. senegal (Gauthier, 1951)G 102 Cfiapter II 7. Ceriodaphnia cornuta (Sars, 1885) 8. C. reticulata (Jurine, 1820) 9. C. quadrangula (Muller, 1776) 10. C. pulchella (Sars, 1862) Family: Daphniidae 11. Daphnia carinata (King, 1853) 12. D. lumholtzi (Sars, 1885) G8" 13. D. pulex (Leydig, 1860) 14. Scapholeberis kingi (Sars, 1903b) m 15. Simocephalus vetulus (Muller, 1776) 16. S. exspinosus (Koch, 1841) 17. S. acutirostratus (King, 1853) Family: Moinidae 18. Moina micrura (Kurz, 1874) 19. M. macrocopa (Straus, 1820) 20. M. branchiata (Jurine, 1820) Family: Bosminidae 21. Bosminopsis deitersi (Richard, 1895) G8" Family: Macrothricidae 22. Macrotrix spinosa (King, 1853) G 23. M. laticornis (Jurine, 1820) 24. Echinisca triserialis (Brady, 1886) G8" 25. Ilyocryptus spinifer (Herrick, 1882) G Family: Chydoridae 26. Pleuroxus aduncus (Jurine, 1820) M 27. P. similis (Vavra, 1900) 28. P. denticulatus (Birge, 1879) 103 Cfiapter II 29. AloneIla excisa (Fisher, 1854) 30. Chydorus sphaericus (Muller, 1776) G 31. C. parvus (Daday, 1898) 32. C. kallipygos (Brehm, 1934) G&M 33. C. ventricosus (Daday, 1898) G&M 34. C. barroisi (Richard, 1894) G8/I 35. C. ovalis (Kurz, 1874) m 36. Pseudochydorus globosus (Baird, 1843) G&M 37. Alona rectangula (Sars, 1862) 38. A. costata (Sars, 1862) 39. A. pulchella (King, 1853) 40. A. guttata (Sars, 1885) G&M 41. Leydigia acanthocercoides (Fisher, 1854) G 42. L. australis ceylonica (Daday, 1898) G&M 43. Biapertura karua (King, 1853) G&M 44. Kurzia longirostris (Daday, 1898) G&M 45. Indialona ganapati (Petkovski, 1966) G&M Family: Polyphemidae 46. Polyphemus pediculus (Linne, 1761) Family: Leptodoridae 47. Leptodora kindti (Focke, 1844) Key: G, New record to Goa; M, New record to Maharashtra; G&M, New record to Goa and Maharashtra Tables 2.3 and 2.4 illustrates the species composition and distribution of cladocers in the individual water bodies of Goa and Maharashtra. Of the 47 cladoceran species identified, 41 species were found present in the water bodies of Goa, while 43 species were encountered in the waters of Maharashtra. These species belonged to eight families and species of families 104 Chapter II Chydoridae and Sididae were more in numbers. Among the 47 species, 20 are new records from Goa, while from the water bodies of Maharashtra 16 species are new records to the area. The cladoceran species encountered in all the water bodies of Goa was Ceriodaphnia cornuta. The next frequently found species were Daphnia pulex, Moina branchiata, Sida crystallina and Simocephalus vetulus. Fifty percent of water bodies under study showed the presence of Alona costata, Ceriodaphnia pulchella, Chydorus parvus, C. sphaericus, Diaphanosoma sarsi, Leptodorida kindti, Macrothrix laticornis, M. spinosa, Moina micrura, Pleuroxus similus, Pseudocida bidentata and Simocephalus exspinosus. Ceriodaphnia pulchella, Daphnia pulex and Simocephalus vetulus were found in most of the freshwater bodies of Maharashtra, which is followed closely in distribution by Alona pulchella, Diaphanosoma senegal and Moina branchiata. Alonella excisa, Bosminopsis deitersi, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, C. reticulata, Chydorus parvus, Echinisca triserialis, Indialona ganapati and Pseudosida bidentata were detected in 50 % of the water bodies. Kalamba lake had 32 species of cladocerans, which were identified as A. pulchella, A. rectangula, Alonella excisa, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, C. pulchella, C. reticulata, C. quadrangula, Chydorus kallipygus, C. parvus, C. ventricosus, Daphnia carinata, D. lumholtzi, D. pulex, Diaphanosoma sarsi, Echinisca triserialis, lndialona ganapati, Latonopsis australis, Leptodorida kindti, Leydigia acanthocercoides, Moina branchiata, M. macrocopa, M. micrura, Macrothrix laticornis, Pleuroxus aduncus, P. similis, Pseudochydorus globulus, Pseudosida bidentata, Sida crystallina, Simocephalus acutirostratus, S. exspinosus and S. vetulus. As seen in Hg. 2.1.3 and Fig. 2.1.4, the cladoceran community of Kalamba lake was dominated by Chydorus parvus in the 105 Chapter II month of September '00 with 740 individuals/L, while Ceriodaphnia cornuta was the most populous species with 480 individuals/L in September '01. The 8 species found in Rajaram lake were Alona pulchella, Bosminopsis deitersi, Ceriodaphnia pulchella, C. quadrangula, D. pulex, Diaphanosoma senegal, S. vetulus and Moina branchiata. As seen in Fig. 2.2.4, the most populous cladoceran species in Rajaram lake during 2000 was Ceriodaphnia pulchella which was encountered in September '00, the count being 240 individuals/L. During November '01, the highest count (245 individuals/L) among cladoceran species was of Bosminopsis deitersi. Rankala lake and Sadoba pond had 20 and 17 species of cladocerans, respectively. The species encountered in Rankala lake were Alona costata, Alonella excisa, Chydorus ovalis, Alona gutttata, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, C. pulchella, C. reticulata, Chydorus parvus, Daphnia pulex, Diaphanosoma senegal, Indialona ganapati, Leydigia acanthocercoides, Macrothrix spinosa, Pleuroxus aduncus, Bosminopsis deitersi, Polyphemus pediculus, Pseudochydorus globulus, Pseudosida bidentata, Simocephalus acutirostratus and S. vetulus. In Rankala lake, cladocera species were at peak counts in August of both years with the most populous species being Simocephalus vetulus (455 individuals/L) during 2000 and Moina branchiata (540 individuals/L) during 2001, as shown in Fig. 2.3.3. While, the cladoceran species found in Sadoba pond were A. pulchella, Kurzia longirostris, Biapertura karua, Ceriodaphnia pulchella, C. reticulata, Daphnia carinata, D. lumholtzi, D. pulex, Diaphanosoma sarsi, Echinisca triserialis, Macrothrix laticornis, Moina branchiata, Pleuroxus similis, Pseudosida bidentata, Scapholeberis kingi, Simocephalus exspinosus and S. vetulus. The cladoceran species of Sadoba pond are depicted in Figs. 2.4.3 and 2.4.4. The most 106 Chapter II populous species during the year 2000 and 2001 was Ceriodaphnia reticulata with maximum count during February (410 individuals/L) and January (320 individuals/L), respectively. Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Chydorus parvus, M. branchiata and Diaphanosoma senegal were found in the Someshwar temple tank. The cladocera community of Someshwar temple tank is represented in Fig. 2.5.3, and shows the abundance of Ceriodaphnia .cornuta was seen during December '00 (145 individuals/L), while Chydorus parvus was abundant during June '01 (148 individuals/L). Similarly, 12 species, namely, Alona pulchella, Chydorus borroisi, Leydigia australis, Alonella excisa, Ceriodaphnia pulchella, Daphnia pulex, Diaphanosoma senegal, Echinisca triserialis, M. macrocopa, Sida crystallina, Simocephalus vetulus and lndialona ganapati were detected in Waghbil lake. As seen in Fig. 2.6.2, Simocephalus vetulus and Daphnia pulex were the most populous species encountered in Waghbil lake during August '00 (450 individuals/L) and September '01 (380 individuals/L), respectively. Among the freshwater bodies of Goa, Mayem lake had the least number of cladoceran species i.e. Ceriodaphnia cornuta, Chydorus kallipygus, C. parvus, C. borroisi, Diaphanosoma sarsi, M. micrura, Sida crystallina and S. vetulus. During November '00, Mayem lake showed the presence of Chydorus parvus in highest numbers i.e. 750 individuals/L (Fig. 2.7.3) while during the following year Ceriodaphnia cornuta was more populous. Filar lake had a maximum of 24 cladoceran species, which included Alona costata, Biapertura Iowa, Bosminopsis deitersi, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, C. pulchella, Chydorus sphaericus, C. ovalis, Leydigia australis, Daphnia carinata, D. lumholtzi, D. pulex, Diaphanosoma senegal, Ilyocryptus spinifer, Leptodorida kindti, Macrothrix laticornis, M. spinosa, Moina branchiata, M. 107 Chapter II macrocopa, M. micrura, Pleuroxus similis, Pseudosida bidentata, Sida crystallina, Simocephalus exspinosus and S. vetulus. The cladoceran population in Pilar lake is shown in Figs. 2.8.4 and 2.8.5. Ceriodaphnia cornuta was found in high numbers during July and November '00 and also in December '01. Alona costata and Moina branchiata were also quite abundant in this lake. A total of 21 species were identified from the Santacruz lake, which included Alona costata, AloneIla excisa, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, C. pulchella, Daphnia pulex, Echinisca triserialis, Chydorus parvus, C. ventricosus, Kurzia longirostris, Diaphanosoma sarsi, D. excisum, Leptodorida kindti, Latonopsis australis, Macrothrix spinusa, M. laticornis, S. vetulus, Moina branchiata, Pleuroxus denticulatus, P. similis, Pseudosida bidentata and Sida crystallina. In Santacruz lake, as seen from Figs. 2.9.4 and 2.9.5, Ceriodaphnia cornuta was the most populous species during the study period, with a density of 340 individuals/L in November '00. Eleven species were recorded from Vaddem lake. They were Alona rectangula, Ceriodaphnia reticulata, C. cornuta, Daphnia pulex, Chydorus sphaericus, Alona gutttata, Indialona ganapati, Leydigia acanthocercoides, Moina branchiata, S. exspinosus and Pseudochydorus globulus. Moina brachiata and Alona costata were found in highest numbers during the months of February of 2000 and January, August of 2001 in Vaddem lake as depicted in Fig. 2.10.4. COPEPODA The zoogeographical studies of the Indian region are a few. The distribution patterns and systematics studies have been dealt with in estuaries along the Cochin backwaters (Madhupratap, 1979; Hameed and Pillai, 1986; Menon et.al., 1996), Hugli-Matla estuarine along the east coast 108 Chapter II (Shetty et.al., 1961), Godavari estuary (Mohan, 1985). In Goa, the seasonal distribution and diversity studies of copepods were carried out in the Mandovi - Zuari estuary. These studies were based on the distribution of zooplankton in relation to hydrography of the estuary (Goswami, 1979, 1982). So far, there has been no report on the zoogeographical studies in freshwater systems of Goa and Maharashtra. The present study deals with seasonal distribution and diversity of copepoda in some freshwater lakes in Goa and Maharashtra. List of copepoda taxa recorded during the study period were as follows: CALANOIDA Family: Diaptomidae 1. Rhinediaptomus indices (Kiefer, 1936) 2. Heliodiaptomus pulchella (Gurney, 1907) 3. H. viduus (Gurney, 1916) 4. H. cinctus (Gurney, 1907) 5. Phyllodiaptomus blanci (Guerne and Richard, 1896) 6. P. annae (Apstein, 1907) 7. Paradiaptomus greeni (Gurney, 1906) G 8. Neodiaptomus diaphorus (Kiefer, 1935) G&M 9. N. lidenbergi (Brehm, 1952) M 10. N. satunus (Brehm, 1952) M 11. Diaptomus judayi (Marsh, 1907) 12. D. orientes•(Brady,1886) G&M CYCLOPOIDA Family: Cyclopidae 1. Eucyclops agar's (Koch, 1838) G6M 2. E. speratus (Lilljeborg, 1901)G &M 109 Chapter II 3. E. prionophorus (Kiefer, 1931) 8" 4. Macrocyclops fuscus (Jurine, 1820) G8" 5. M. distinctus (Richard, 1887) G 6. Paracyclops fimbriatus (Fischer, 1853) G 7. P. poppei (Rehberg, 1880) G8" 8. Tropocyclops prasinus (Fischer, 1860) 9. Cyclops bicolor (Sars, 1863) G8" 10. C. bicuspidatus thomasi (Forbes, 1882) 11. C. dentatimanus (Marsh, 1913) 12. C. exilis (Coker, 1934) 13. C. strenuus (Fischer, 1851) 14. C. vernalis (Fischer, 1853)8" 15. Acanthocyclops viridus (Jurine, 1820) M 16. Mesocyclops leuckarti (Claus, 1857) 17. M. dybowskii (Lande, 1890) G 18. M. hyalinus (Rehberg, 1880) G8" 19. Halicyclops sp. (Norman, 1936) G Key: G, New record to Goa; M, New record to Maharashtra; G&M, New record to Goa and Maharashtra Tables 2.5 and 2.6 illustrates the species composition and distribution of copepoda in the individual water bodies of Goa and Maharashtra. Calanoids were not encountered during most of the months. Of the 31 copepoda species identified, 19 were cyclopoida and 12 belonged to calanoida. In the water bodies of Goa, one cyclopoida species i.e. Cyclops viridis and four calanoida species, namely, Heliodiaptomus pulchella, N. lidenbergi, N. satunus and Phyllodiaptomus annae were absent. Whereas, in the freshwater bodies of Maharashtra, all 110 Chapter II copepods except Halicyclop sp., were found. A total of 15 species are new records for Goa while, 13 species of copepods are new records for Maharashtra. The copepoda species encountered in all the water bodies of Goa was Mesocyclops leuckarti, M. hyalinus, Paracyclops poppei, Cyclops vernalis, Eucyclops prionophorus and Tropocyclops prasinus. The next frequently found species were Cyclops exilis, Eucyclops agalis, Macrocyclops distinctus and Diaptomus judayi. Fifty percent occurrence was shown by H. viduus, N. diaphorus, P. greeni and Phyllodiaptomus bland among the calanoids and Cyclops bicuspidatus, C. strenuus, E. speratus, Macrocyclops fuscus, Mesocyclops dybowskii and Paracyclops fimbriatus among the cyclopoids. Heliodiaptomus viduus, Paracyclops poppei, Eucyclops prionophorus, Cyclops exilis, C. vernalis, M. leuckarti, M. hyalinus and T. prasinus were found in most of the freshwater bodies of Maharashtra, followed closely in distribution by Heliodiaptomus cinctus, Eucyclops agalis, M. dybowskii and Cyclops bicolor. Rhinediaptomus indicus, N. lidenbergi, Paracyclops fimbriatus, M. fuscus, Cyclops viridis, C. bicuspidatus, C. dentatimanus were detected in 50 % of the water bodies studied. Kalamba lake had 10 species of copepods during 2000-2001 and variations in their composition are depicted in Figs. 2.1.5 and 2.1.6. Among the calanoids, Heliodiaptomus cinctus was most abundant and found in highest numbers in August '01. Paracyclops fimbriatus was the most populous cyclopoida species with peak density in May '00. Copepoda species of Rajaram lake comprised of 10 species, making this lake the fourth highly diverse water body among the water bodies of Maharashtra. The variations in their composition are shown in Figs. 2.2.5 and 2.2.6. As seen from these graphs, Heliodiaptomus 111 Ciziapter ll viduus and Mesocyclops leuckarti are the most populous species with highest densities in August and May, respectively. Composition of copepoda species in Rankala lake are graphically presented in Figs. 2.3.4 and 2.3.5. A total of 12 species were detected from this lake. The most populous species of calanoida and cyclopoida detected during the study period were Heliodiaptomus cinctus, Heliodiaptomus viduus and Mesocyclops leuckarti. This lake had second highest copepoda diversity. Heliodiaptomus viduus and Paradiaptomus greeni were found abundantly in Sadoba pond with highest counts in December '00 (710 individuals/L) and September '01 (670 individuals/L), respectively, as seen in Fig. 2.4.5. The population of Cyclops bicolor was the highest among cyclopoids during the study period and is depicted in Fig. 2.4.6. This pond was the richest in species diversity with 13 species identified during the study period. The copepoda species of Someshwar temple tank were dominated by three species rim*, Cyclops dentatimanus, Mesocyclops dybowski and Paracyclops fimbriatus. All three species being equally populous as seen in Fig. 2.5.4. This freshwater body had least species diversity with a total of seven cyclopoida species. The other species, apart from the three mentioned above, detected were C. viridis, M. hyalinus, Paracyclops poppei, Cyclops vemalis and Eucyclops prionophonis. Calanoids were totally absent from the tank. The seasonal variations in the composition of copepoda species of Waghbil lake are shown in Figs. 2.6.3 and 2.6.4. The number of species identified from this lake amounted to 10. The most populous species during the study period were found to be Heliodiaptomus viduus and 112 Chapter II Cyclops exilis. The calanoids were more abundant during September, while cyclopoida, during June. Least number of copepoda species i.e. six, were identified from Mayem lake. All six species were cyclopoids and the variations in their composition during the study period are shown in Fig. 2.7.4. Abundance of Cyclops strenuus in the lake water was seen and highest numbers of this species were recorded in September '01 at 176 individuals/L. Calanoida species were not found in any of the water samples. Heliodiaptomus viduus was found to be the most populous species in the waters of Pilar lake with peak density being in August '00 at 260 individuals/L, while among cyclopoids, Mesocyclops leuckarti and Eucyclops agalis were among the most abundant in this lake ranging between 412 - 415 individuals/L. The incidence of copepods in Pilar lake is seen in Figs. 2.8.6 and 2.8.7. Pilar lake had the highest species diversity with 18 copepoda species being present. Variations in the copepoda population of Santacruz lake, comprising of 13 species, are shown in Fig. 2.9.6. Heliodiaptomus viduus was most populous with highest individuals i.e. 190, during September '00. While, the most populous species during 2001 was Mesocyclops leuckarti and its density peak was seen in February '01 with 348 individuals/L. Copepoda population of the Vaddem lake is shown in Figs. 2.10.5 and 2.10.6. Calanoida species were in highest numbers during November of both the years of study. Phyllodiaptomus bland and Heliodiaptomus cinctus were most populous calanoids detected in the lake. Among the cyclopoids, Macrocyclops distinctus was the most abundant species during both the years. The total number of copepoda species encountered in Vaddem lake were 13. 113 Chapter II Kalamba lake thus had total of 79 zooplankton species, followed by Rankala lake with 69 species, Sadoba pond with 61 species, Rajaram lake with 48 species, Waghbil lake with 44 species and Someshwar temple tank with 17 species. In Goa, total species in Pilar lake, Santacruz lake, Vaddem lake and Mayem lake were 79, 63, 51 and 33, respectively. The micrographs of the different zooplankton species identified as well as some insect larvae encountered during the present study are depicted in Plates 4 - 16. 114 Chapter II Discussion The two year study of zooplankton fauna of freshwater bodies in Goa and Maharashtra was carried out. The limnological study of the ten water bodies of Goa and Maharashtra shows that the rotifer group was most abundant with the species of families Brachionidae and Lecanidae being more in numbers as compared to other families. Both these groups contain genera imparting tropical character to the zooplankton fauna. Similar observations were also made by Sharma (1987, 1991, 1996), Sharma and Naik (1996) and Segers (1996). Also predominance of Keratella tropica was seen among,the rotifera population. Similar findings have been also reported by other workers (Bahura et.al., 1993). This was the case in all the freshwater bodies of Goa, except in Mayem lake where K. tropica was totally absent, and Maharashtra, except in Someshwar temple tank, in which Monostyla bulla was the most abundant. A bimodal pattern was observed with appearance of maximas during March/July and August/ December. Perennial species of rotifers exhibit maximum densities in early summer, while other species can be cold stenotherms having maximas in winter and early spring; and those having two or more maximas in summer (Wetzel, 2001). The presence of least number of rotifer species in addition to the absence of K. tropica is indicative of the fact that Mayem lake is less nutrient rich or oligotrophic in nature as compared to the other water bodies of Goa, which had a higher species diversity and K tropica was the most abundant rotifer present. Similarly, as compared to the water bodies of Maharashtra, Someshwar temple tank was the least nutrient rich or oligotrophic with lower species diversity and the abundance of K tropica was less. K tropica is present mostly in polluted waters and is 115 Chapter II considered as a pollution indicator and pollution tolerant species (Rao and Chandramohan, 1977; Sampath et.al., 1978; Kulshrestha et.al., 1991; Bahura et.al., 1993; Bhatt and Singh, 1998; Mishra and Saksena, 1998). However, these species are also common inhabitants of tropical waters. Keratella cochlearis was found only in Sadoba pond. This may be due to the acidic nature of the pond (Mallin, 1984). The second predominant rotifer species was Brachionus sp. and B. caudatus was found in almost all the water bodies analysed except for Someshwar temple tank and Pilar lake. Highest densities of B. caudatus as well as other Brachionus sp. were encountered during winter. Thus, Brachionidae family dominated over other rotifer groups. Common occurrence of this family has been reported earlier by Sharma and Michael (1980) and this is attributed to the ability of the species of this family to survive in different habitats. The species of this family most commonly encountered i.e. Brachionus caudatus and Keratella tropica, are cosmotropical in nature. Pandey, et.al (1992, 1994) have reported B. angularis as the most dominant of the rotifers. Dominance of Brachionus and Keratella tropica in Sri Lanka was reported by Fernando (1980a). Three of the five lakes studied in Brazil showed dominance of Brachionus (Green, 1972). Rotifers such as B. forficula (Rao and Durve, 1989) and Filinia longiseta (Schindler and Noven, 1971; Mishra and Saksena, 1998) are considered as indicators of eutrophy. These species are present in Kalamba lake, Someshwar temple tank, Sadoba pond, Pilar lake, Santacruz lake and Vaddem lake, thus showing their eutrophic nature. In many genera, only one species dominates (Williams, 1966). However, in Mayem lake, co-dominance was seen between Brachionus plicatilis and B. angularis during the month of July '00. 116 Cfiapter II Overall, among all the ten freshwater bodies surveyed during the study period, Mayem lake had the lowest number of rotifer species, while Kalamba lake had the highest species diversity. Rotifers showed superiority over the other groups of zooplankton, with 70 species. The richness of rotifers may be associated to abundant food supply, as reported for Lake Langano and Lake Abiata (Wodajo and Belay, 1984). Dominance of rotifers, particularly species of Brachionus and Keratella, have been related to pH of water being above 8.0 (George, 1966; Vasisht and Sharma, 1976). Most of the water bodies analysed during the present study were alkaline in nature and hence the dominance of rotifers. Studies on flood-plain lakes of Assam have revealed 64 rotifer species (Sharma, 2000). The presently recorded rotifers, thus makeup about 1/5 th of the known species of Indian Rotifera (Sharma, 1996). A very rich and diverse taxocoenosis was thus seen in this study. These being the primary consumers feeding on phytoplankton as well as on bacteria (Wienner, 1975). Similar predominance of rotifers has been reported by Whitman et.al. (2002). Predation of larger zooplankton by fish results in dominance of rotifers, which are the smaller plankters. Higher number of zooplankton in summer may be due to availability of food in the form of bacteria and dead, decaying vegetation. High food concentration and availability enhences growth, shortens juvenile stages and accelerates reproduction in rotifers. Predation, on the other hand, does not allow rotifers to become abundant in the presence of large cladocers and copepods. This is because of competition for food or mortality from mechanical interference during feeding process of larger zooplankters (Wetzel, 2001). Dominance of rotifers over other groups is indicative of eutrophication (George, 1966; Bilgrami and Dutta Munshi, 1985; Pandey 117 Chapter II et.al., 1994). Rotifera species were highest in numbers in Kalamba, Rankala and Pilar lakes, while least number were found in Someshwar temple tank and Mayem lake. Studies of Mishra and Saksena (1998) showed the enhancement of rotifer population with increase in pollution load. As stated earlier, 47 cladoceran species belonging to eight families were identified from the water bodies of Goa and Maharashtra. This is close to the report by Venkataraman (1999), wherein 46 cladocera species were shown present in southern Tamil Nadu. Reports by Venkataraman and Das (1993, 1998) and Venkataraman (1992) reveal presence of 52 species in W. Bengal and 30 species in Port Blair, Andaman, respectively. Venkataraman (1995) has also reported 49 cladoceran species from Tripura. Study of the cladoceran communities revealed that Pilar lake in Goa and Kalamba lake in Maharashtra had the highest species diversity of cladocers, while Mayem lake and Someshwar temple tank had the least number of species among the water bodies of Goa and Maharashtra, respectively. Among all the ten water bodies analysed, Kalamba lake and Someshwar temple tank were found to have the most and least cladoceran species diversity, respectively. The cladocera species were frequently encountered in winter and, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, C. pulchella, Simocephalus vetulus, Chydorus ventricosus, C. borroisi, C. ovalis, Alona gutttata, Kurzia longirostris, Leydigia australis, Moina branchiata and Chydorus parvus were among the commonly found species. Simocephalus sp. were found in Kalamba, Rankala, Waghbil, Vaddem and Pilar. The Macrothricidae species were present in most of the water bodies. As seen in the present study, Adholia and Vyas (1991) also noted abundance of Ceriodaphnia. Occurrence of majority of cladocera species during winter and of few species during summer was noted by Chandrasekhar (1998). These species have been associated with 118 Cfiapter II vegetation (Bailey et.al., 1978). Ciadocers are found more in numbers in water bodies having littoral vegetation (rash, 1971; Idris and Fernando, 1981). Presence of macrophytes in the water bodies was found associated with cladoceran abundance as they provide protection from planktivorous zooplankton and fish. The number of species within littoral macrophyte zones is larger among all groups of organisms than in open water zone of lakes, ponds or rivers (Pennak, 1966). The abundance of these phytoplankton feeders may be more in winter because of availability of abundant food in the form of phytoplankton, epiphyton and detritus. Hence, young ones are also seen to appear during winter (Battish and Kumari, 1986). Seasonal succession and population dynamics of cladocerans vary among species and under different lake conditions. Some species show one, two or more irregular maximas (Wetzel, 2001). Planktivorous fish select large zooplankton and remove cladocerans from lakes and a tall in density is observed. In case of predation by fish being absent, larger cladpcerans dominate as they have greater rates of reproduction. Thus, planktivorous fish are important in regulating abundance and size structure of zooplankton population (Goulden et.al., 1978; Stemberger 1990; Mazumder et.al., 1992; Taylor and Carter 1997; Jack and Thorp, 2002). During the present study, copepoda species were found to be in higher densities during winter. Calanoida group was totally absent from the water samples of Someshwar temple tank and Mayem lake. Both these water bodies had the least species diversity of copepods. The low occurrence of calanoids may be due to predation effect. Calanoids have longer life cycles than the cyclopoids, which show two cycles; a period of growth and period of retarded growth. Retardation is caused due to decrease in water temperature, photoperiod, reduced food availability anoxia and increased predation (Wetzel, 2001; Jack and Thorp, 2002). Scarcity or 119 Crtapter II absence of calanoids is usually observed in tropical water bodies, which are in the process of eutrophication (Zago, 1976). Species diversity of copepods was highest in Sadoba pond and Pilar lake. Among all the ten water bodies analysed, Someshwar temple tank and Pilar lake had the least and most number of copepoda species, respectively. In Someshwar temple tank, fish was found in plenty and fishing activities was nil. Hence, the predation is more, lowering the calanoida counts. The species that are frequently encountered are Heliodiaptomus sp., Mesocyclops leuckarti and Cyclops sp.. Copepoda species are regarded as pollution sensitive zooplankton as they disappear from polluted water (Verma et.al., 1984). Contrary to this observation is the finding that Cyclops sp. are pollution tolerant, found abundantly in nutrient rich environments and thus can be considered as eutrophication indicators (Adholia and Vyas, 1992). However, in the present study, copepods were found in high numbers along with frequent presence of Cyclops sp.. Thus, it can be concluded that, the water bodies studied are all in the process of eutrophication. Bosminopsis deitersi was detected only in Rajaram lake from August to December 2001. Contrary to this observation, low occurrence of this species in winter and increase in numbers during summer have been noticed by Saha and Bhattacharya (1992). Mesocyclops leuckarti has been reported from waste water by Mishra and Saksena (1990). Though the number of copepoda species was lower than that of cladocers, the density of copepods was more. Presence of copepods and cladocers (H. viduus, C. cornuta, D. carinata, M. micrura) makes these water bodies ideal for fish culture. These species can be also cultured on large scale and used for hatchery seed production (Kumar et.al., 2001). 120 Chapter II In shallow waters, no thermal stratification is observed and distribution of zooplankton is highly variable. Well developed aquatic macrophytes, cladocerans such as Alona, Chydorus, Diaphasoma, Bosmina, Ceriodaphnia and cyclopoid copepods are more abundant in littoral than in pelagic areas. Chydorids are common in littoral zone. Their numbers rise in spring and autumn while decrease is seen in summer (Vuille, 1991). Larger species of cladocerans and copepods find shelter in temporary, weedy ponds and can be found among macrophytes (Arcifa, 1984). The present study corraborates with these reports (Vuille, 1991; Paterson, 1993; Lauridsen and Buenk, 1996). Thus, during the present study, 70 rotifers, 47 cladocers and 31 copepods were recorded from the littoral zones of the water bodies of Goa and Maharashtra. Sharma and Pant (1984) recorded 66 rotifers, 15 cladocers and 7 copepods from two Kumaun Himalayan lakes, while Vyas and Adholia (1994) have reported 26 rotifers, 8 cladocers and 3 copepods from Kosi swamp of Bihar. Similarly, 17 rotifers, six cladocers and four copepods were reported by Pandey et.al. (1994). Out of these species, 58 are new records to Goa and 45 are new records to Maharashtra. Such a diverse and rich zooplankton fauna present in the water bodies indicates that all the water bodies are rich in nutrients and can be used for pisciculture with proper manuring and maintenance. However, presence of species such as Brachionus plicatilis, B. calyciflorus, B. caudatus, B. falcatus, B. rubens, Keratella tropica, Lecane sp., 'Willa sp., Cyclops sp., Diaptomus sp., Daphnia sp., Chydorus sp., Mesocyclops leuckarti in the waters of the lakes and ponds studied, shows that they are nutrient rich and polluted.. All these species have been reported by various 121 Cfzapter rr workers as indicators of pollution caused mostly due to industries (Verma and Dalela, 1975; Vasisht and Sra, 1979; Saksena and Sharma, 1982; Verma et.al., 1984). The order of species diversity in the water bodies of Maharashtra is Kalamba lake Rankala lake > Sadoba pond > Rajaram lake > Waghbil lake > Someshwar temple tank.. The species diversity for freshwater bodies of Goa was in the order: Pilar lake > Santacruz lake > Vaddem lake > Mayem lake. Species diversity of zooplankton communities is lower in freshwater, than in marine habitats and the differences are related to great ubiquity, depth and evolutionary continuity -found in oceans (Wetzel, 2001). The major classes of tropical lakes include shallow, low land lakes; deep, high altitudinal lakes; rain forest lakes and man-made lakes. Basic ecological processes are similar in temperate and tropical lakes. Role of fish community is very important in these ecosystems, as many species both consume zooplankton and compete with them for algal and pelagic sestonic food. This important co-evolution between fish and algae, leaving fraction of algal community with predation refuge, may have decreased the ability of - zooplankton to exploit the algae. In addition, heavy predation from juvenile and adult fish as well as by larger zooplankters, may greatly simplify the zooplankton community, resulting in scarcity of some species (Zaret, 1980; Jack and Thorp, 2002). Larger copepods and cladocerans are planktivorous and effective in causing significant mortalities of smaller zooplankton species (Murtaugh, 1981; Lehman, 1991). Diurnal patterns of habitat selection of fish, eutrophication, acidic rains, etc., influence the tropical lakes and its plankton comminuty. 122 Cfiapter II There are some water bodies in Maharashtra and Goa, which seem to be similar in mode of origin and in some physical characteristics. However, they show marked difference in zooplankton density and species composition. This particular aspect will be discussed in the next chapter. Fewer species being recorded in Waghbil lake and Someshwar temple tank in Maharashtra, while in Goa, same kind of phenomenon was observed in Mayem lake and Vaddem lake. While, other water bodies showed quite a diversity and density of zooplankton. Nevertheless, their zooplankton as a whole has a typical tropical, I imnetic, species composition. 123 Table 2.1: Species composition and percentage distribution of Rotifers in the fresh water bodies of Maharashtra % Somes h war Total no. of Rotifers Rank ala Rajaram Kalamba \VaghbilW Sadoba templ e waterbodies distribution species lake lake lake lake pond tank showing species of species A Ill troeopsis fissa + + + - - - 3 50.0 13rachionits + + + + - + 5 83.3 angularis B. caiidanis + + + - + + 5 83.3 B. diversico•nis - + + - + - 3 50.0 B. forlicida + - + + - + 4 66.7 B. calyciflorus + + + + + + 6 100.0 B. bidentata + + + + + - 5 83.3 B. falcalus + + + + - + 5 83.3 B. pli•atilis + + - + + + 5 83.3 13. gziach .icleinatu• - + - + - - 2 33.3 13. ii•ceolaris - + + - - 2 33.3 B. mirabilis - - + - - - I 16.7 B. •ubens + + - , + - + 4 66.7 13. pain! us + + + + - + 5 83.3 B. buclapestensis + + + + - - 4 66.7 B. anrgae - + - + 2 33.3 B. quadricornis + + - - - 3 50.0 Keratella - + + - - + 3 50.0 cochleari• K. attar/rata ------0 0.0 K. fropica + + + + + + 6 100.0 Plalyias + - - - - I 16.7 quadricornis P. pruritus + - + + - - 4 66.7 _ Euch lanis dilata + - - - - - 1 16.7 E. oropha ------0 0.0 Diplealchlanis + - - - I 16.7 propatula Trichotria + - + + - + 4 66.7 lelractis Alocrochaenis - - - + - + 2 33.3 sericus Colurella + - + - - - 2 33.3 bicuyidala Lepadella ()rails + - + - - - 2 33.3 L. •homboides - - + + - - 2 33.3 L. ehrenbe•gi - - - - - + I 16.7 Lecane leontina - + - - - - I 16.7 L. aspasia - - - - - + 1 16.7 L. ludirigi + - + - - - 2 33.3 L. lima + + + + - + 5 83:3 L. nana ------0 00.0 L Illonostylla + - + - + + 4 66.7 bulb L. 111..furcata + + - - - 2 33.3 /., . AI. - - + + - + 3 50.0 quadrideliuna L. Al. ungulates + + + - - - 3 50.0 Proole• decipiens - + - - - - 1 16.7 Cephalodella + _ + 3 50.0 gibba - - Scaridium - - - - 0 0.0 longicauthim Trichocera - - - - 0 0.0 longiseta T. cylindric(' + - - + 2 33.3 T ratnis + - - - - 1 16.7 T anthadis - - + - + + 3 50.0 Asplanchana + + - - + 3 50.0 intermediala A. briglairelli + -1- - -1- - -1- 4 66.7 .4. priodonla + + - - + 3 50.0 Synchaeta pectiata - + - - 1 16.7 Polyarthra + - - - -1- 2 33.3 rulgaris Sinainherina -1- - - - - I 1 6.7 spinosa Conochiloides - + - - - 1 16.7 dossuarias ._ Conochilus +- - - - + 2 33.3 madnrai Hexarihra species -1- - - - - I 16.7 Filinia longisela ' - + + + + 1-- 5 83.3 F. opoloensis + + - + +- - 4 66.7 El terminalis + - - - +- 3 50.0 Tesnidinella + - + - -1- 3 50.0 palina Hornell(' brelm'i - -1- + - - 2 33.3 Rotatoria l'epitu'ia + + _ - - -1- 3 50.0 Eosphora anthadis + + - - + 3 50.0 Alytilina +- + - - - 2 33.3 acanthophora Al venlralis - + - - - 1 16.7 Paracoltirel✓a - - - 0 0.0 aemula Philociiiia +- - 1 16.7 Ilaviceps Table 2.2: Species composition and percentage distribution of Rotifers in the fresh water bodies of Goa Total no. of Rotifers Vaddein Santacruz Mayen) % distribution Pilaf- lake ivate rbodies species lake lake lake of species showing species Anuroeopsis issa - + 3 75.0 Brachi01111S + + + 4 100.0 angularis B. candatus - 3 75.0 B. di•ersicornis 3 75.0 B. forficula - + - 2 50.0 B. calyciflorits + + 4 100.0 B hidenfam + + - + 3 75.0 B. falcanis + + 4 100.0 B. plicatilis - + 3 75.0 13. quadridentatris + - - 2 50.0 /3. urceolaris - - - 0 0.0 13. mirabilis - - 2 50.0 B. rubens - + - 2 50.0 B. patirlits + + - 3 75.0 B. budapestensis + 3 75.0 B. durgae + - - - 1 25.0 13. quadricornis - 2 50.0 Keratella + + - - 2 50.0 cochlearis K. quadrates - - 2 50.0 K. fropica 4 100.0 Platyias - - - - 0 0.0 quadricornis P. patulus - + + - 2 50.0 Eiichlanis dilata - - - 1 25.0 E. oropha - - - - 0 0.0 Dipleuchlanis - - - - 0 0.0 propatirla Trichotria - + + - 2 50.0 tetractis Alacrochaefus - - - - 0 0.0 sericus Colurella - + + - 2 50.0 bicuspidata Lepadella oxalis - - - 1 25.0 L. rhomboides - - 2 50.0 L. ehrenbergi - - I 25.0 Lecane leontina - - - - 0 0.0 L. aspas la + - - 2 50.0 L. habrigi - - - - 0 0.0 L. lima 4 100.0 L. nana - - - I 25.0 L.Illonostylla + + _ + 3 75.0 bulk, L.111. iii•cam - - - - 0 0.0 L.Al. - + + + 3 75.0 quadridentata L. A1. ungulates - - - 0 0.0 Proales decipieris - - - 1 25.0 Cephalodella - - 2 50.0 gibba Scaridium + + - 2 50.0 longicandunt Trichocera + + - 2 50.0 longisela T. cylituirica - + - 1 25.0 Ti mans + - - - 1 25.0 T. atithadi.s + + - 2 50.0 Asplanchana + + + - 3 75.0 itnermediata A. briglihrelli + + - 2 50.0 A. priodonta + - - 1 25.0 Synchaeta - + - I 25.0 pectinata Polyarthra + _ + + 3 75.0 vitigaris Sinatitharina + - - spinosa - I 25.0 Cotiochiloides - doss.tiarias - - 0 0.0 Conochihis . - inadurai - - 0 0.0 Hexarth•a species - - - 0 0.0 Filinia longisela + + + + 4 100.0 F. opoloensis + + - - 2 50.0 F. terminalis - - - 0 0.0 Testilditiella + - patina + - 2 50.0 HomeIla brehmi + + - 2 50.0 Rotatoria + - neptunia - - I 25.0 Eosphora + - anthadis - 1 25.0 Illytilina - acanthophora - 0 0.0 111. ventralis + - - - I 25.0 Porticohirella + - - 1 25.0 aetnula Philoditia - - + I 25.0 flaviceps Table 2.3: Species composition and percentage distribution of Cladocera in the fresh water bodies of Maharashtra Total no. of 0/0 kalamba Waghbil Smiles!mar Sadoba Cladocera Rankala Rajaram waterbodies distribution lake lake temple tank pond Species lake lake showing species of species Pseudosida + + - - + 3 50.0 bidenhua Sida cotstallitta - - -I- + - - 2 33.3 Lalonopsis - - + - - - 1 16.7 australls Diaphunosoma - - + - - + 2 33.3 sarsi D. excision - - - - 0 0.0 D. senegal + + - + + 4 66.7 Ceriodaphnia + _ + _ + _ 3 50.0 cormna C. relicithua + - + - - + 3 50.0 C. quadrangula - + + - - - 2 33.3 C. pulchella + + + + + 5 83.3 Daphnia carinata - - + - ... + 2 33.3 D. fundwhzi - - + - - 2 33.3 D. pulex + + + + - + 5 83.3 Scapholeberis - - - - - + 1 16.7 kingi . Sanocephalus _ + + + + + 5 83.3 vehthts S. exspinosits - - + - + 2 33.3 S. actairostrants + - + - - - 2 33.3 Afoina Ill icnira - - + - - - 1 16.7 Al. macrocopa - - + + - 2 33.3 111. branchiala - + + - + + 4 66.7 Bosminopsis + + + - - - 3 50.0 dehersi illacroirix spinosa + - - - - I 16.7 ,11. laticornis - - + - - + 2 33.3 Echinisca - + + . + 3 50.0 friserialis Ilyocrypats spillifer - Pleuroxus + - + - - - 2 33.3 aduncus P. situdis - - + - - + 2 33.3 P. denliculaws ------0 0.0 Alonella excisa + - + + - - 3 50.0 Chydonts ------0 0.0 sphae•icus C. parrus + - + - + - 3 50.0 C. kallipygits - - + - - - 1 16.7 C. rernricosus - - + - - - I 16.7 C. barroisi - - + - - I 16.7 C. avails + - - - - - I 16.7 Pseudochvdorus + - + - - - 2 33.3 globosus Alona rectangula - - + - - - I 16.7 A. cosicna + - - - - - I 16.7 A. 'Mellen(' - -I- + + - + 4 66.7 A. gnaw(' + - - - - I 16.7 Leydigia + - + - - - 2 33.3 acanlhocercoides L. aust•alis - - - + - - 1 16.7 Biapernma karma - - - - - + 1 16.7 Kurzia - - - - - + 1 16.7 longirostris Indialolui + - + + - - 3 50.0 ganapaa . Polyphemus + - - - - - I 16.7 pediculus Leplodorida - - + - - - I 16.7 kindti Table 2.4: Species composition and percentage distribution of Cladocera in the fresh water bodies of Goa Total no. of % Cladocera Vaddem 8antacruz Mayem waterbodies Pilar lake distribution of lake showing species lake lake species species Pseudosida - + + - 2 50.0 bidelitala Sida crplallina - + + + 3 75.0 Lalonopsis - _ + _ 1 25.0 australis Diaphailosoina - - + + 2 50.0 .varsi D. excisuin - - + - I 25.0 D. senegal - + - - I 25.0 Ceriodiphnia + + + + 4 100.0 cormila C. reliculata + - - - I 25.0 C. gliadrattgula - - - - 0 0.0 C. pidchella - + + - 2 50.0 Daphnia carinala - + - - I 25.0 D. !limboII:i - + - - I 25.0 D. pule• + + + - 3 75.0 Scapholeberis - - - - 0 0.0 kingi SiMocephalus - + + + 3 75.0 vetuhis S. exspii70S1IS + + - - 2 50.0 S. actitirostranis - - - - 0 0.0 A4oina aricnira - + - + 2 50.0 A4. Macrocopa - + - - I 25.0 A4. branchiata + + + - 3 75.0 Bosntinopsis - + - - 1 25.0 deilersi Alacrotrix spinosa - + + - 2 50.0 Al. latic0177iS - + + - 2 50.0 Echinisca - + - I 25.0 triserialis Ilyocgmus - _ + - 1 25.0 spinifer Pleiiroxus - - - . 0 0.0 CIChinClis P. SiMiliS - + + - 2 . 50.0 P. denticulanis - - + - 1 25.0 Alonella excisa - - + - I 25.0 Chydonis + + - - 2 50.0 sphaericus C. parrus - - + + 2 50.0 C. kallipygtis - - - + I 25.0 C. renlricosns - - + - I 25.0 - -f- I 25.0 C. barroisi - - .._ C. oxalis - + - - I 25.0 Pseudochydorus + - - - I 25.0 globosus ,4Iona rectangtila + - - - I 25.0 A. costa/a - + + - 2 50.0 A. pulchella - - - - 0 0.0 A. glatata + - - - 1 25.0 Leydigia + - - - 1 25.0 acanthocercoides L. australis - + - - I 25.0 Biaperui•a karua - + - - I 25.0 Kur=ia - - + - I 25.0 longirostris indialona + - - - I 25.0 ganapali Polvheinus - - - - 0 0.0 pedicuhis Lepiodorida - + + - 2 50.0 lanchi Table 2.5: Species composition and percentage distribution of Copepoda in the fresh water bodies of Maharashtra Total no. of 14 Itankala Rajara in Kola mba NV aglibil Someshwar Sadoba w a terbodies Copepoda distributio n lake lake lake temple tank pond showing species lake of species species Rhinediaptoniza - + -I- - + 3 50.0 hither's Heliodiaptonnis + - - - - 2 33.3 cinc Ins II prilchella + - - - - - 1 16.7 FL vichtus -i- - - - - I 16.7 Phyllodoapiontus - + - I 16.7 hlanci Phyllodiaptonrus + - - - + 2 33.3 (ulnae Paradiaptornus - + - - - I 16.7 grenni - Neodiaptohru.s . _ I 16.7 - - - diaphOl•IS - N. lidenhergi - - + - + 2 33.3 N. satunus - - - - - + I 16.7 Diaplonnis friday' - - - - + I 16.7 D. orientalis - - - - + I 16.7 Eucyclops agalis -i- + + - + 4 66.7 E. speratus - - + - - - I 16.7 E. prionophorus - + - + - - 2 33.3 Alacrocyclops + - - - - - I 16.7 distincins Ai.,fitscus + + + - - - 3 50.0 Paraeyclops _ + _ _ I 16.7 fin/brit/his - P. poppei - + , - - - I 16.7 Tropocyclops - - + - - + 2 33.3 prasinus Cyclops bicolor + + - -i- - 3 50.0 C. bicuspidatus + - + + - 3 50.0 C. dentatimanus + + - + - 3 50.0 C. exilis -i- + - + + 4 66.7 C. strenuus - - - - + 1 16.7 C. vernalis - + - -i- + - 3 50.0 Acanthocyclops - + - - - - 1 16.7 viridis Alesocyclops. + + - + - - 3 50.0 lezickarti Al. dyboivskii + + - - + + 4 66.7 Al. hyainus - - + - - 1 16.7 Halicyclop - - - - - 0 0.0 species Table 2.6: Species composition and percentage distribution of Copepoda in the fresh water bodies of Goa Total no. of Copepoda Va dd cm Santacruz Nlayein % distribution l'ilar lake waterbodies species lake lake lake of species showing species Rhinediaptoinus I 25.0 + - - indices Heliodiapionius . + - - - I 25.0 cinch's H. pulchella - - - 0 0.0 H. victims - + + - 2 50.0 Phyllodoaptonius + - + - 2 50.0 blanci Phyllodiaptonius - - - - 0 0.0 annae Paradiaptomus + + - - 2 50.0 grenni Neocliaptonius + + - - 2 50.0 diaphorus N. liclenbergi - - 0 0.0 N. satunns - - - - 0 0.0 Diaptonius fudayi + + + - 3 75.0 D. orientalis - + - - 1 25.0 Eucyclops agalis + + + - 3 75.0 E. speratus + - - + 2 50.0 E. prionophorus - - + - 1 25.0 Alacrocyclops + - + + 3 75.0 distinct/is ill. fuscus + + - - 2 50.0 Paracyclops + + - 2 50.0 Ihnbrialus P. poppei + - - I 25.0 Tropocyclops + + + + 4 100.0 prasinus Cyclops bicolor + - - 1 25.0 C. bicuspidatus - + + - 2 50.0 C. clentatinianus - + - - I 25.0 C. exili• - + + + 3 75.0 C. strenuus - - + + 2 50.0 C. vernalis - - - - 0 0.0 Acanthocyclops + - - I 25.0 viridis Alesocyclops + + + + 4 100.0 leuckarti Al. dybolvskii - + + - 2 50.0 Al. hyalinus - + - - 1 25.0 Halicyclop species - + - - 1 25.0 Fig. 2.1.1. Variation in rotifers population of Kalamba lake -Anuroeopsis fine Trichocera anthaels Asplanchane priodonta - Brachionus angulans •Lecane tuna - B. caudatus Fig. 2.1.2. Variation in rotifera population of Kalamba lake B. falcatus FArnia longisete --Kerstetter tropic'? -Monostyla buts Fig. 2.1.3. Variation In dadocera population of Kalamba lake ---Moina brinctiata A. pi:lobate -Chydorus pervus Daphne connate Fig. 2.1.4. Variation in cladocera population of Kalamba lake — &Wroth& ladownis —Dfsphenosoms sots' kidskin? wapiti —Sintocepholus vetulus —Psoudosida bidentata Flg. 2.1.5. Variation in calanolda population of Kalamba lake H. viduus —...--qthinediaptomus indicus Heliodiaptomus cindus Fig. 2.1.6. Variation in cydopoida population of Kalamba lake ----- Cyclops cogs Mesocydope leukard ----Tropocydops precious qc Fig. 2.2.1. Variation in rotifera population of Rajaram lake 2000 0 -Anuroeopsis fissa -Asplanchana brightwelli Keratella tropics Leone tuna L. Fig. 2.2.2. Variation in rotifera population of Rajaram lake 400 0 -Brschionusanguleris -B. cauclatus B. bidentata -9. diversicomis B, falcatus ----- E. rubons L Fig. 22.3. Variation in rotifera population of Rajaram lake 400 300 1 200 100 0 Monostyla ungulate ----Filinie tenninalls Horaella &Mini -Eosphora anthadis Fig. 22.4. Variation in cladocera population of Rajaram lake 300 250 - 200 - 150 - 100- 50 - 0 co o z o u.At I< 2 -5 -5 <0 0 z 0 < 2 IA< IA Months •••••-•-Bosrninopsis ditersi C. pulchelle Moine branchiate Diephenosome senegel Fig. 22.5. Variation in calanoida population of Rajaram lake 1500 1200 - 900 - 600 300 - 0I4 0 8 2 < 2 < m 0 z 0 < 3 .0 (0 0Z 0 LL Months Hellodleptornus viduus H. dnctus Neodieptomus diephorus —Peredieptornus greeni Fig. 2.2.6. Variation in cyclopoida population of Rajaram lake Months -----Coiops bicolor —Mesocyclops leircicarti M. dybowski Paracydops timbriefus —...-Tropocydops presinus Fig. 2.3.1. Variation in rotifera population of Rankala lake & ls a idu div in Fig. 2.3.2. Variation in rotifera population of Rankala lake Months -B. calycittorus B. caudetus B. felcatus -B. petunia B. *aft Fig. 2.3.3. Variation in cladocera population of Rankala lake Months cornuta C. reticulate Chydorus panrus putex -Molna brachlata Stmocephalus vetulus 10- Fig. 2.3.4. Variation in cyclopoida population of Rankala lake Months - Cyclops bicolor C. bicuspidatus Eucyclops agalis Fig. 2.15. Variation in copepoda population of Rankala lake 800 600 - J 400 C 2 < z > < h 0 Z ca 1,1. < 2 < cooz o Months - Mesocyclops Mucked -Paricyclops ffmbriatus - Heffodaptomus cinctus H. vidus Fig. 2.4.1. Variation in rotifera population of Sadoba pond I. - Asplanchana intermediate - A. brightwelll - Brachlonus angularis - 8. calyclflorus - B. caudatus - B. (turps -Ffllnla tern lnaffs Fig. 2.4.2. Variation in rotifera population of Sadoba pond Cephelodelle gibbe longisete Karsten cocheeris -Ktropice Lecene lune -,--Monostyle bulls Fig. 2.4.3. Variation in cladocera population of Sadoba pond fn 0 O Months &aperture kens& -Cedodephnle putchelle C. reticulate Dephnle lumitortzt Diephenosorne semi Fig. 2.4.4. Variation in cladocera population of Sadoba pond 300 — 100 A AO\ 0 < < u) o z 2< < co o z Months Alecrothtfx laticomts -Moine branchiata ----Freemen similis -Pseudoslde bklentate Fig. 2.4.5. Variation in calanoida population of Sadoba pond 800 600 ns 400 0 --,-....NeocReptomus klanbergl Paradiaptomus green; ---RhInedaptomus Inclicus H. viduus Fig. 2.4.6. Variation in cyclopoida population of Sadoba pond 600 400 -S. 200 0 z 0 s < 0 Z 0 LL Months Cyclops exifis !sucked, T. prasinus Fig. 2.5.1. Variation in rotifera population of Someshwer temple tank 1000 800 / 600 - I 400 - 200 - 0 AAA Months —Brachionus Margate — Nonce* bulls B. ',stubs — B. *stills B. quathicomis Fig. 2.5.2. Variation in rotifera population of Someshwar temple tank 300 -10 200 100 X 4 2 A" 4 m 0 Z 0tit t u- 2< X" < O 0 z Months B. caudatus -Rafe lortgiseta -Tdchoceta outback; Fig. 2.5.3. Variation in cladocera population of Someshwar temple L tank 200 150 100 -12 50 0 2<2 -1.".200z0 u. 2 -Ceriodaphnia comuta -Chydorus parvus -Moine brachiata Fig. 2.5.4. Variation in cyclopoida population of Someshwar temple tank 200 0 Otitti‘i 2 < H 0 z C •-•, 2 ta lit< m o z o Months -Cyclops dentatimanus -Mesocyclops dybowsM fimbrialus Fig. 2.6.1. Variation in rotifera population of Waghbil lake 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 A.brightweffl -Brachionus Monists B. calycittorus B.falcatus FBnlatongiiseta Ktropica Lamm luna Fig. 2.6.2. Variation in dadocera population of Waghbil lake 500 400 - 300 - t, 200 - 100 - 0 Alone pulchana t ganapati Daphnia paw -Slmocephalus vetulus Fig. 2.e.3. Variation in calanoida population of Waghbil lake as 100 0 2 ' < w 0 z 0 u- 2< 2 < 0 O z 0 Months N. klantengi -Nhinedaptomus indium H. Atli's Fig. 2.6.4. Variation in cyclopoida population of Waghbll lake 800 600 400 0 di LL 44:1 4ikitte1 § 2< 2 -, < m O z o g< 2 enoz Months - Cyclops War C. oxiiis M. Mucksifi T. prodnus Fig. 2.7.1. Variation in rotifera population of Mayem lake 300 1 200 ,00 0 0 z Q LL < 2 0 z 0 LL Months Brochlortus angutetts -8. bklentots 8. calydfforus -B. cauflatus 8. ft!catus B. ONO s Fig. 2.7.2. Variation in rotifera population of Mayem lake Monoslyfo hula -Polyonthre vtilgarts Fig. 2.7.3. Variation in cladocera population of Mayem lake 800 600 400 200 ■ ./,..,411 ,1161/4 < •cc ca O z o t u- 2 a < 0 Z 0 Months ---Ceriodaphrea comets Chydorus nerves Diephenosome saris! - mane MICIVra Fig. 2.7.4. Variation in cyclopokia population of Mayem lake 200 150 100 50 0 Fig. 2.8.1. Variation in rotifera population of Filar lake 750 600 450 3 00 150 ■ 0 1 .0 CO 0 2 0 X < < cfi 0 2 0 414.0442 < t 2 "1 Months Anurpeopsisilsse A. brightweN ---.-Brachiones ermuleris celycelores Keret* tropics Fig. 2.82. Variation in rotifera population of Filar lake 753 600 450 3°3 150 B. cfiversicomis B. talcatus B. forficula -a *offs Fig. 2.8.3. Variation in rotifera population of Filar lake Months -Fifnia longiseta -Eosphora anthads -Lecane lune -Trichocete anthedis -Monostyle bulls Fig. 2.8.4. Variation in cladocera population of Filar lake 300 200 — 100 Alone =tate Coliodephnie connate Daphnia piitex -Leptodorida knciti Fig. 2.8.5. Variation In cladocera population of Pilar lake 250 200 150 :12 100 50 0 2 <2")", < t0 0 tiathitik u. 2<2 -) 4 u) O 2 0 tiL 9 Months Moine branchiets Side crystalline Simocephalus vetulus —Pssuclosida Mentes Fig. 2.8.8. Variation in calanoida population of Pilar lake 300 200 100 0 2 < M AM(1) o Z 0 Q u. 2<2 it Fig. 2.8/. Variation in cyclopoida population of Pilar lake Mesocydops bucket/ Tropocyclops presinus Fig. 2.9.1. Variation in rotifera population of Santacruz lake 2 a 2 < co 0 z 0 U. 2 < 2 Q CO Z 0 Months Brachionus angularis -B. calyciffolus E caudatus B. falcon's B. patulus - 13. nibens Fig. 2.92. Variation in rotifers population of Santacruz lake 300 2 100 2 Fig. 2.9.3. Variation in rotifera population of Santacruz lake -K.tropica -Lorene tuna L. rhomboid's -Ttichottia cylindtica Fig. 2.9.4. Variation in cladocera population of Santacruz lake 400 Alma excise — C. consuls ---0•Dephnie pulex —Diaphanosonta sets! Fig. 2.9.5. Variation In cladocera population of Santacruz lake 300 200 . 100 0 Months Chydonrs pervue Mocrottnix Mown* --0•Moine bronchiole —Side oyster:no Fig. 2.9.6. Variation in copepoda population of Santacruz lake Months .0—Cyclops bicuspids** M. touched —Paracyclops limbrildu$ --keeodaptomus yids,* —PhyllosSaptomus blend Fig. 2.10.1. Variation in rotifera population of Vaddem lake 1000 800 ._a 600 " 400 200 0 Anumeopsis ffssa -Asplanchana Intemfadata Brachlonus angulatfs -Keratata twice Fig. 2.10.2. Variation in rotifera population of Vaddem lake 100 0 Maths B. caudafus -B. bklentafa B. diversicomfs B, curiae B. rabenS Fig. 2.10.3. Variation In rotifera population of Vaddem lake Months Limns ovate -Monody/a buts FEnla longlsefa Tesfuckala patina --- Retatoda 'reptant() Fig. 2.10.4. Variation in ciadocera population of Vaddem lake 300 200 100 0 < Z 0 Months ---Simocephalus exspinosus — Maine branchiate Alona roctangula --Ceriodephnie comuta Chydotus sphaericus Fig. 2.10.5. Variation in calanoida population of Vaddem lake 600 500 - —4 400- ro 200 - 100- 0 Ay* it A aLA m 0 x 0Allk t LL 2 < 2 MC al) 0 Z Months —•-- Heliodaptomus clnctus *---Paradiaptomus green ---Phyllocliaptomus blond Fig. 2.10.6. Variation in cyclopolda population of Vaddem lake --Mesocyclops Ituckettl -.---Eucyclops *Os Alecrocyclops cistinctus Tropocydops pros +s PLATE 4 Brachionus diversicornis Plationus patulus Lecane luna Brachionus quadricornis Brachionus calyciflorus Brachionus calyciflorus PLATE 5 Asplanchna brightwelli Colurella bicuspidata Monostyla bulla Lecane leontina Asplanchna intermedia Macrotrachela quadricornifera Eosphora anthadis PLATE 6 Syuchaeta pectinata Rotaria neptunea Lecane eswari Proaler decipiens Testudinella murconata Sinatherina spinosa PLATE 7 Daphnia sps. Ceriodaphnia qudrangula Alona davidi Ceriodaphnia cornuta Moina brachiata Chydorus spharicus Ilyocryptus spinifer Chydorus parvus PLATE 8 Leydigia acnthocercoides Chydorus kallipygus Kurzia longirostrius Latonopsis australis Pseudosida bidentata Ceriodaphnia reticulata Echinisca triserialls Simocephalas vetulus PLATE 9 Chydorus barroisi Alona costata Pleroxus aduncus Leydigia australis ceylonica PLATE 10 4 1 Cyclops viridis Trocyclops prasinus Mesocyclops luckarti Eucyclops Prinophorus Mesocyclops luckarti PLATE 11 Eucyclops agilis Naupliar Larva Paracyclops Poppei • Cyclops vernalis Mesocyclops hyalinus Acanthocyclops sps. Mesocyclops dybowskii Macrocyclops distinctus Paraiyclops fimbriatus PLATE 12 r- Heliodiaptomus vidus Paradiaptomus greeni 1 Diatomus breweri Diaptamus Judayi Heliodiaptmous pulchella Diaptomus orientalis PLATE 13 Neodiatomus satunus Heliodiaptomus cinctus Rhinediaptmus indicus Neodiaptomus lindbergi Phyllodiaptmous blanci Phyllodiptomus annae PLATE 14 Cypris subglobosa Bryocamptus sps. Moraria sps. Ostracoda sps. Canthocamptus sps. Hydracarina sps. Prinocypris canadensis PL TE 15 Larva of dytiscidae Chironomous larva Larva of Dytiscidae Ghosy midges larva Larva of Tanypodinae Dero sps. Chironomous larva Stylaria fossularis Diversity and distribution patterns or zooptanktonic communities in water • bodies of Goa and Maharashtra Cfiaptcr III Temporal and special variations of plankton samples are always considerable. The range of variations between the samples taken at the same station within few hour intervals is often large because of various factors such as tidal advection and patchy distribution of plankton. Furthermore, there is the possibility that organisms of different communities that inhabit the different waters are mixed during sampling, and thus sample consists of an artificial community. Sophisticated mathematical procedures are very useful in dealing with ecological situations where a pattern is not clear. The data obtained on physico-chemical parameters and zooplankton abundance for the ten water bodies of Goa.and. Maharashtra was calculated for vrioi..is indices as given in materials and methods section. Further, similarity matrices were calculated and the data subjected to cluster analyses. Results of the same are presented below. The indices calculated for zooplankton abundance in Kalarnba lake for the years 2000 and 2001 are given in Table 3.1. Margalef's diversity index (D) ranged from 7A (May '01) to 14.04 (November '00), while Margalef's richness index (R 1) was between 2.84 (May '01) and 6.47 (November '01). The range of Menhinick's richness index (R 2) was from 0.42 (May '01) to 0.83 (September '01). Lowest value (0.03) for Simpson's index.. (X) was seen in May, June, September '00 and August - December '01, while highest value of 0.08 was in June '00. Shannon's index (H') ranged between 2.38 (March '01) and 3.21 (September '00). The total number of species in this lake during the study period were in the range of 24 (May '01) to 58 (November '00) while Hill's first (N 1 ) and second (N2) diversity numbers ranged between 10.8 (March '01) to 24.7 (September '00) and 12.5 (July '00) to 33.3 (September '00, June, August - December '01), respectively. The range for Evenness indices E l , E2, E3, E4 and E5 was between 124 Chapter III 0.63 (August '00) and 0.83 (July '00, May '01), 0.25 (August '00) and 0.58 (May '01), 0.23 (August '00) and 0.57 (May '01), 0.71 (July '00) and 2.82 (May '00), and 0.7 (July '00) and 2.99 (May '00), respectively. The similarity matrix for zooplankton abundance of Kalamba lake (Fig. 3.1.1) was used for constructing dendrogram using the SPSS-10 software. As seen from the dendrogram (Fig. 3.2.1), highest level of similarity was seen between 9 (October '00) and 21 (October '01) at level 0.99. This formed a cluster at 0.95 level with group formed by linkage of 2 (March '00) and 22 (November '01) at level 0.97. Another close cluster was formed at level 0.99 between 5 (June '00) and 23 (December '01) and their link with 17 (June '01) at 0.96. The next cluster was formed by linkage of 14 (March '01) at 0.986 level with cluster between 8 (September '00) and 20 (September '01). This was !inked with 3 (April '00) at 0.946 level. Another cluster was observed between 1 (February '00) and 12 (January '01) at 0.985 level, which was linked to 7 (August '00) at 0.96 level. A link of this cluster was seen through 7, which is connected at 0.973 similarity level with the cluster of 11 (December '00) and 19 (August '01) at 0.979 level. A small cluster at similarity level of 0.984 was formed between 10 (November '00) and 13 (February '01). The indices calculated for zooplankton abundance in Rajaram lake for the years 2000 and 2001, are given in Table 3.2 Margalef's diversity index (D) ranged from 5.17 (July '00) to 13.29 (December '00), while Margalef's richness index (R 1 ) was between 2.09 (June '00) and 6.07 (October '00). The range of Menhinick's richness index (R2) was from 0.52 (February '00) to 1.06 (October '01). Lowest value (0.02) for Simpson's index (X) was seer in June, November '00 and June, April, September - November '01, while highest value of 0.05 was in February and March 125 Chapter III '00. Shannon's index (H') ranged between 2.20 (May '01) and 3.40 (May '00). The total number of species in this lake during the study period were in the range of 15 (June '00) to 54 (December '00) while Hill's first (N 1 ) and second (N2) diversity numbers ranged between 9.02 (May '01) to 29.9 (May '00) and 20 (August '01) to 50 (November '00, January, April, September - November '01), respectively. The range for Evenness indices E l , E2, E3, E4 and E5 was between 0.58 (October '00) and 1.06 (May '00), 0.19 (October '00) and 1.19 (May '00), 0.18 (August '00) and 1.20 (May '00), 0.83 (May '00) and 5.13 (April '01), and 0.83 (May '00) and 5.65 (April '01), respectively. The dendrogram constructed based on similarity matrix (Fig. 3.1.2) for zooplankton abundance in Rajaram lake showed four main and some smaller clusters (Fig. 3.2.2). Highest level of linkage was at 0.994 level between 13 (February '01) and 14 (March '01). Second cluster was formed by linkage of 1 (February '00) with 11 (December '00), 12 (January '01) and 23 (December '01) at 0.993, 0.99 and 0.979 levels, respectively. Similarly, 4 (May '00) was linked to between 15 (April '01) at 0.994 and this was linked to 22 (November '01) at 0.958 level to form a cluster. Link between 7 (August '00) and 19 (August '01) at 0.985 level which are connected with 6 (July '00) at 0.956 level comprises the third cluster along with 18 (July '01) which is connected to 6 at level 0.857. The smaller clusters were observed between 2 (March '00) and 3 (April '00) at 0.978 level, 8 (September '00) with 10 (November '00) at level 0.957, 9 (October '00) with 16 (May '01) at level 0.952 and 20 (September '01) with 21 (October '01) at 0.88 level. The various indices for zooplankton abundance of Rankala lake during the years 2000 and 2001 are depicted in Table 3.3 Margalef's diversity index (D) ranged from 6.79 (February '01) to 126 C'fiapter III 10.97 (November '01). The range for Margalef's richness index (R ) was between 2.65 (February '01) and 5.09 (February '00). Menhinick's richness index (R 2) was ranging from 0.40 (December '00) to 0.83 (June '00). Simpson's index (A) was lowest (0.02) in June, December '00 and April '01, while highest value of 0.07 was in January - February, September '01. The range for Shannon's index (H') was between 2.26 (September '01) and 3.45 (February '00). During the study period, the number of species were found to be in the range of 22 (February '01) to 42 (November '01), while Hill's first (N 1 ) and second (N2) diversity numbers ranged between 9.5 (September '01) to 36.5 (November '00) and 14.2 (January, February and September '01) to 50.0 (January and December '00), respectively. The range for Evenness indices E l , E7 , E3, F4 and E5 was between 0.73 (March '00) and 0.98 (November '00), 0.24 (September '01) and 0.91 (November '01), 0.22 (September '01) and 0.91 (November '01), 0.45 (November '00) and 4.00 (December '00), and 0.43 (November '00) and 4.26 (December '00), respectively. Five main clusters were identified from the dendrogram (Hg. 3.2.3) obtained from the similarity matrix (Fig. 3.1.3) for zooplankton abundance Of Rankala lake. The cluster with highest similarity was formed by 12 (January '01), 13 (February '01) and 17 (June '01) at 0.99 level, linked with 10 (November '00) at 0.95 level. The second highest similarity cluster at 0.98 level was formed by linkage between 1 (February '00) and 2 (March '00), connected with the 22 (November '01) at 0.96 level and 15 (April '01) at 0.93 level. Another cluster was formed by linkage at 0.96 level between 3 (April '00) and 11 (December '00), being linked to 14 (March '01) at 0.92 level. Similarly, 14 (March '01) is linked at level 0.94 with 20 (September '01) and 23 (December '01) which in turn are 127 Cfiapter III connected at 0.97 level. A fourth cluster was formed between 5 (June '00) and 21 (October '01) at 0.94 level which was linked with 8 (September '00) at 0.90 level of similarity. Table 3.4 depicts the various indices calculated for the zooplankton abundance in Sadoba pond for the years 2000 - 2001. Margalef's diversity index (D) was highest at 12.52 (September '00) and lowest at 6.79 (May '01), while Margalef's richness index (R 1) was lowest with value of 2.66 (May '01) and highest at 5.81 (September '00). Menhinick's richness index (B2) was in the range of 0.42 (May '01) and 0.84 (April '01), whereas Simpson's index (2,) was between 0.03 (May, December '00, March, July, November, December '01) and 0.08 (July '00). The range for Shannon's index (H') was between 2.16 (October '00) and 2.81 (March '00). During the study period, the number of species were found to be in the range of 29 (May '01) to 50 (September '00), Hill's first diversity number (N 1 ) was found to be between 8.6 (October '00) and 16.6 (March '01). Hill's second diversity number (N 2) ranged from 12.5 (July '00) to 33.3 (May, December '00, March, July, November, December '01). The range for Evenness indices E 1 , E2, E3, E4 and E5 was between 0.58 (October '00) and 0.81 (May '01), (121 (February '01) and 0.56 (May '01), 0.20 (August, October '00, February '01) and 0.54 (May '01), 1.05 (April '01) and 2.97 (July '01), and 1.06 (April '01) and 3.16 (July '00), respectively. Cluster analysis of the similarity matrix for zooplankton abundance in Sadoba pond (Fig. 3.1.4) resulted in the dendrogram shown in Fig. 3.2.4. Linkage at highest level of similarity of 0.992 was between 13 (February '01) and 14 (March '01), while second highest level of similarity was between 4 (May '00) and 23 (December '01) at 0.984. These two linkages formed a cluster through 2 (March '00) by its linkage with 13 (February '01) at 0.983 and 4 (May '00) at 0.976. The next highest level of similarity was at 0.953 between 3 (April '00) and 8 (September 128 Chapter III '00) forming a cluster along with 11 (December '00) at 0.948 level. A third cluster was seen between 16 (May '01) and 21 (October '01) at 0.953. This cluster was linked with 12 (January '01) at 0.932 level. Smaller clOsters were formed by 5 (June '00) with 17 (June '01), 6 (July '00) with 10 (November '00) and 15 (April '01) with 18 (July '01) at 0.939, 0.925 and 0.87 levels of similarity. The indices calculated for zooplankton abundance in Someshwar tempie tank for the years 2000 and 2001 are given in Table 3,5. Margalef's diversity index (D) ranged from 1.82 (May '01) to 5.41 (August '01), while Margalef's richness index (R 1 ) was between 0.33 (May '01) and 2.21 (August '01). The range of Menhinick's richness index (R2) was from 0.15 (May '01) to 0.55 (September '01). Lowest value (0.05) for Simpson's index (2 ,..) was seen in February '00 and August '01, while highest value of 0.13 was in May '01. Shannon's index (H') ranged between 1.86 (May '01) and 2.55 (March '00). The total number of species in this tank during the study period were in the range of 3 (May '01) to 16 (August '01). Hill's first (N I ) and second (N 2) diversity numbers ranged between 6.4 (May '01) to 12.8 (March '00) and 7.6 (May '01) to 20.0 (February '00 and August '01), respectively. The range for evenness indices E l , E2, Es, Eg and E5 was between 0.81 (August '01) and 1.69 (May '01), 0.59 (August '01) and 2.4 (April '01), 0.56 (August '01) and 2.71 (May '01), 0.86 (March '00, April '01) and 2.19 (February '00), and 0.85 (March '00, April '01) and 2.34 (February '00), respectively. Similarity matrix of Someshwar temple tank plankton fauna (Fig. 3.1.5) was subjected to cluster analysis. The resulting dendrogram (Hg. 3.2.5) showed five clusters. Cluster of highest similarity level was formed between 6 (July '00) and '13 (February '01) at 0.984 along with 10 (November '00) at 0.943 level, Similarly, a second cluster was formed by linkages of two groups 129 C'hapter III including 7 (August '00) linked with 18 (July '01) at 0.965 level and 11 (December '00) with 23 (December '01) at 0.952 level, which in turn are connected at 0.923 level through the linkage of 7 (August '00) with 11 (December '00). The third cluster was seen between 5 (June '00) and 20 (September '01) at 0.947 level along with 9 (October '00) at 0.906 level. Linkage of 1 (February '00) and 22 (November '01) at 0.959 similarity level along with linkage of 1 (February '00) with 19 (August '01) at level 0.941 form the next cluster. Similarly, a cluster is seen between 4 (May '00) and 12 (January '01) at 0.901, which in turn are linked with 8 (September '00) at 0.882. A small cluster was observed at 0.92 level between 12 (January '01) and 14 (March '01). Indices calculated for zooplankton abundance in Waghbil lake for the years 2000 2001 are shown in Table 3.6 Margalef's diversity index (D) was highest at 12.72 (December '00) and lowest at 5.41 (April '01), while Margalef's richness index (R 1 ) was lowest with value of 2.09 (April '01) and highest at 5.71 (December '00). Menhinick's richness index (R2) was in the range of 0.41 (September '00) and 0.8 (June '01), whereas Simpson's index (2) was between 0.02 (October '00) and 0.09 (May '01). The range for Shannon's index (H') was between 2.04 (May '00) and 3.12 (December '01). During the study period, the number of species were found io be in the range of 16 (April '01) to 51 (December '00). Hill's first diversity number (N 1 ) was found to be between 7.6 (May '00) and 22 (December '01). Hill's second diversity number (N 2) ranged from 11.1 (May '01) to 50.0 (October '00). The range for evenness indices E l , E2, E3, E4 and E5 was between 0.64 (June, December '00) and 0.84 (April '01), 0.30 (June '00) and 0.64 (April '01), 0.23 (December '00) and 0.62 (April '01), 0.78 (May '01) and 3.23 (September '00), and 0.77 (May '01) and 3.47 (September '00), respectively. 130 Chapter III The similarity matrix for zooplankton abundance of Waghbil lake (Fig. 3.1.6) was used for constructing dendrogram seen in Fig. 3.2.6. Highest similarity was seen between 9 (October '00) and 22 (November '01) at 0.992 level, 11 (December '00) was linked to the cluster through 9 (October '00) at 0.987, followed by 15 (April '01) at level 0.962 completing the first cluster. A second cluster was formed between 1 (February '00) and 21 (October '01) at 0.987 level, which were linked with 16 (May '01) at 0.98 and 6 (July '00) at 0.949 level through 1 (February '00). A third cluster was observed between 3 (April '00) and 23 (December '01) at 0.974 level, followed by its linkage with 12 (January '01) at 0.966. Another cluster was formed at level 0.84 between 18 (July '01) and 19 (August '01) along with its linkage at 0.769.yvith 7 (August '00). Two small clusters were formed by 2 (March '00) with 10 (November '00) and 4 (May '00) with 5 (June '00) at levels 0.957 and 0.854, respectively. The various indices for zooplankton abundance of Mayem lake during the years 2000 and 2001 are depicted in Table 3.7 Margalef's diversity index (D) ranged from 2.16 (March '01) to 5.88 (September '01). The range for Margalef's richness index (R 1 ) was between 0.74 (July '01) and 2.49 (September '01). Menhinick's richness index (R 2) was ranging from 0.20 (March '01) to 0.59 (September '01). Simpson's index (X.) was lowest (0.08) in September '01, while highest value of 0.16 was in January '00 and July '01. The range for Shannon's index (H') was between 1.74 (April '00) and 2.54 (July '00). During the study period, the number of species were found to be in the range of 4 (March '01) to 18 (September '01), while Hill's first (N 1 ) and second (N2) diversity numbers ranged between 6.2 (February '01) to 12.6 (July '00) and 6.2 (July '01) to 12.5 (September '01), respectively. The range for Evenness indices E l , E2, [3, [4 and E5 was between 0.80 (September '01) and 1.45 (March '01), 0.56 (September '01) and 1.88 (March 131 Chapter III '01), 0.53 (September '01) and 2.17 (March '01), 0.53 (August '00) and 1.29 (February '00, April '01), and 0.49 (August '00) and 1.33 (February '00), respectively. The dendrogram obtained for Mayem lake (Fig. 3.2.7) using the similarity matrix of zooplankton abundance (Fig. 3.1.7) showed the presence four main clusters. Highest level of similarity was shown by cluster at 0.991 level formed between 7 (August '00) and 22 (November '01). This cluster was linked through 7 (August '00) with 16 (May '01) and 19 (August '01) at 0.961 and 0.973 levels, respectively. Second cluster was formed by 1 (February '00) with 17 (June '01) at 0.985 level, 9 (October '00) at 0.971 level and 18 (July '01) at 0.95 level. Two more clusters were formed by the linkage of 2 (March '00) with 13 (February '01) at 0.993 and 20 (September '01) at 0.988, while, 6 (July '00) was linked with 23 (December '01) and 11 (December '00) at 0.985 and 0.965 levels, respectively. Similarly, three more clusters were seen between 5 (June '00) and 8 (September '00), 15 (April '01) and 21 (October '01), 4 (May '00) and 12 (January '01) at 0.988, 0.973 and 0.97 levels, respectively. Table 3.8 depicts the various indices calculated for the zoopiankton abundance in Pilar lake for the years 2000 - 2001. Margalef's diversity index (D) was highest at 12.14 (August '00) and lowest at 6.56 (April, October '01), while Margalef's richness index (R 1) was lowest with value of 2.74 (October '01) and highest at 5.50 (August '00). Menhinick's richness index (R2) was in the range of 0.41 (April '01) and 0.84 (September '00), whereas Simpson's index (X) was between 0.03 (December '00) and 009 (March '01). The range for Shannon's index (H') was between 2.42 (February '01) and 3.24 (December '01). During the study period, the number of species were found to be in the range of 21 (April, October '01) to 48 (August '00). Hill's first diversity number (N 1 ) was found to be between 10.8 (October '00) and 25.5 (December '00). 132 Cfiapter III Hill's second diversity number (N 2) ranged from 11.1 (March '01) to 35.3 (December 00). The range for Evenness indices E,, E2, E3, E4 and E5 was between 0.65 (September '00) and 0.92 (May, June '00), 0.27 (September '00) and 0.75 (May, June '00), 0.25 (September '00) and 0.77 (May, June '00), 0.70 (June '00) and 1.73 (October '01), and 0.69 (July '00) and 1.80 (October '01), respectively. Similarity matrix for zooplankton abundance in Pilar lake (Fig. 3.1.8) was subjected to cluster analysis which resulted in the dendrogram given in Fig. 3.2.8. Three main and four smaller clusters were observed. Cluster with highest similarity was formed by 12 (January '01) and 23 (December '01) at 0.993 level, which was linked with 11 (December '00) at 0.988 level. Another link was seen of 15 (April '01), with this cluster, at level 0.982 through 11 (Decernbe': '00). Second highest similarity clustering was at 0.987 level between 3 (April '00) and 16 (May '01). At 0.983 level, 3 (April '00) and 4 (May '00) form a linkage. The third cluster is formed by linkages of 1 (February '00) with 17 (June :01) at 0.984 and 19 (August '01) at 0.96 level. The smaller clusters were formed by 7 (August '00) with 10 (November '00), 13 (February '01) with 21 (October '01), 2 (March '00) with 8 (September '00) and 6 (July '00) with 22 (November '01) at similarity levels 0.983, 0.976, 0.902 and 0.841, respectively. The various indices for zooplankton abundance of Santacruz lake during the years 2000 and 2001 are depicted in Table 3.9 Margalef's diversity index (D) ranged from 4.67 (October '00) to 10.96 (December '00). The range for Margalef's richness index (R 1 ) was between 1.60 (October '00) and 5.11 (November '00). Menhinick's richness index (R2) was ranging from 0.31 (October '00) to 0.82 (November '00). Simpson's index (X) was lowest (0.04) in September '01, while highest value of 0.11 was in October '00. The range for Shannon's index (H') was between 133 Cfiapter III 2.15 (April '01) and 2.89 (September '00). During the study period, the number of species were found to be in the range of 13 (October '00) to 42 (December '00) while Hill's first (N 1 ) and second (N2) diversity numbers ranged between 8.5 (October '01) to 17.9 (March '00) and 9.1 (October '01) to 25.0 (September '01), respectively. The range for Evenness indices E l , E2, E3, E4 and E5 was between 0.60 (August '01) and 1.05 (October '01), 0.24 (August '01) and 1.13 (October '00), 0.21 (August '01) and 1.15 (October '00), 0.61 (October '00) and 2.77 (September '01), and 0.58 (October '00) and 2.99 (September '01), respectively. Dendrogram (Fig. 3.2.9) was constructed based on the similarity matrix (Fig. 3.1.9) for zooplankton abundance of Santacruz lake. Cluster at highest similarity was formed by 1 (February '00) with 23 (December '01) at 0.986 level, along with its linkages with 13 (February '01 . ) and 17 (June '01) at 0.981 level. A second cluster was seen by linkage of 10 (November '00) with 22 (November '01) at 0.983 level and with 12 (January '01) at 0.964 level, Similarly, the next cluster was formed by linkage of 9 (October '00) with 18 (July '01) and 5 (June '00) at 0.967 and 0.937 levels, respectively. Other clusters were formed by 7 (August '00) with 19 (August '01), 11 (December '00) with 20 (September '01), 14 (March '01) with 15 (April '01), 2 (March '00) with 6 (July '00) and 16 (May '01) with 21 (October '01) at similarity levels of 0.989, 0.984, 0.965, 0.924 and 0.897, respectively. The various indices for zooplankton abundance of Vaddem lake during the years 2000 and 2001 are depicted in Table 3.10 Margalef's diversity index (D) ranged from 3.90 (May '01) to 9.56 (November '01). The range for Margalef's richness index (R 1 ) was between 1.36 (May '01) and 4.17 (November '01). Menhinick's richness index (R 2) was ranging from 0.29 (February '01) to 0.66 (July '00). Simpson's index (X) was lowest (0.05) in October '00, while highest value of 134 Chapter III 0.14 was in July, December '00. The range for Shannon's index (H') was between 2.06 (April '00) and 2.76 (February '01). During the study period, the number of species were found to be in the range of 10 (May '01) to 35 (November '01). Hill's first (N 1 ) and second (N2) diversity numbers ranged between 7.8 (October '00) to 15.7 (February '01) and 7.14 (July and December '00) to 20.0 (October '00), respectively. The range for Evenness indices E l , E2, E3, E4 and E5 was between 0.65 (October '00) and 0.99 (February '01), 0.32 (November '01) and 0.95 (July '01), 0.31 (September '00) and 0.98 (February '01), 0.51 (July '00) and 2.55 (October '00) and 0.47 (July '00) and 2.77 (October '00), respectively. The similarity matrix for zooplankton abundance of Vaddem lake (Hg. 3.1.10) was subjected to cluster analysis resulting in the dendrogram shown in Hg. 3.2.10. Clusters were seen to be formed at various levels of similarity. Highest cluster being at 0.981 level between 11 (December '00) and 23 (December '01). Second cluster was formed by 8 (September '00) with 12 (January '01) at 0.942 level and 20 (September '01) at 0.968 level. A third cluster was formed by 9 (October '00) with 21 (October '01) at 0.963 level and 5 (June '00) at 0.941 level. At 0.87 level, cluster was formed by 7 (August '00) with 18 (July '01). Other clusters were seen at lower levels of similarity by 2 (March '00) with 4 (May '00), 15 (April '01) with 16 (May '01), 14 (March '01) with 19 (August '01) and 6 (July '00) with 17 (June '01) at 0.354 , 0.787 , 0.78 and 0.758, respectively. 135 Cliapter III (Discussion Statistics helps in the analysis and interpretation of collected data and various methods are available for the same. Diversity indices can be used to characterise species abundance relationships in communities. Two aspects are dealt with when studying the species diversity of zooplankton, species richness and evenness. Since both the components are incorporated into a single numerical value, interpretation and correct usage are much debated and confusing. Interpretation of the data obtained is the biggest obstacle. Inspite of these problems, ecologists continue use of diversity indices (Lugwig and Reynolds, 1988). However, Hill's diversity numbers are easiest to interpret and best for ecological data (Peet, 1974). The Hill's first (N 1) and second (N2) diversity numbers give abundant and very abundant species, respectively. These contain Shannon's and Simpson's indices. Simpson's index is low when the species are same (Lugwig and Reynolds, 1988). Five evenness indices were calculated. The evenness indices should be constant and not vary with species numbers. First three, E l , E2 and E3, however, vary with slight changes in species numbers. While E4 and E5 remain constant (Peet, 1975) and hence were taken into consideration. High values indicate even distribution of the species, while low values are obtained, when distribution is uneven. In the present study, various diversity, evenness and richness indices have been calculated and zooplankton diversities are compared with the help of resulting data. Very few reports of statistical analyses are available for zooplankton diversity from freshwater ecosystem (Archibald, 1972; Verma etal., 1984; Kulshrestha etal., 1989; Kaushik and Saksena, 1994; Mishra and Saksena, 1998). 136 Cfiapter III Even distribution of species, as seen from the high evenness values, was seen during summer and winter months in Kalamba lake, Someshwar temple tank and Sadoba pond. In Rankala lake, the values i.e. distribution becomes even towards April - May and then starts getting uneven. As for Waghbil and Rajaram lakes, the distribution was even throughout the year, with highest evenness in September. In the water bodies of 'Goa, even distribution of species was found in Vaddem lake, Phi" lake and Santacruz lake during winter, while in Mayem lake, high evenness values were observed from January to April. From the various indices calculated, diversity values for zooplankton ' abundance for the Maharashtra and Goa water bodies were found to be in different months. Highest diversity was found in the month of December in Rajaram lake, Waghbil lake and Santacruz lake; during November in Kalamba, Rankala and Vaddem lakes; and during August - September, diversity was highest in Someshwar temple tank, Sadoba pond and Pilar lake. Mayem lake had highest diversity during September. Since the water bodies are found at different latitudes and geographical locations as well as the effects of various factors such as rains, surface runoff, agricultural/ industrial waste inputs, etc., may be the reasons for this difference in richness periods. Presence of nutrients in high concentrations leads to high macrophyte growth and high species diversity. Macrophytes require small water depth, inflow of nutrients and absence of high waves and such hydrologic factors are responsible for the most biologically productive communities (UNEP- IETC, 2000). The present survey showed that the water bodies are nutrient rich and moving towards eutrophication. 137 Chapter III Similarly, least diversity was found during March to June in most of the lakes, except for Rankala lake, which had lowest richness in February, while in October, the same was seen in Pilar lake and Santacruz lake. During March to June, the increasing temperature along with evaporation of water and reduced water content, almost zero inflow, etc., may be the reasons for reduction in the number of species. The fall in number of species in February and October may be due to less availability of food or predation effect in these water bodies (Jack and Thorp, 2002), Overall, Kalamba lake and Pilar lake were the richest in species diversity among the freshwater bodies studied in Maharashtra and Goa, respectively. While Someshwar temple tank and Mayem lake had the least species diversity, among the water bodies analysed in Maharashtra and Goa, respectively. Kalamba lake is an open water body and has agricultural land surrounding it. Thus, the runoff entering the lake contains nutrients in the form of fertilizers and other waste. There is lot of siltation too. Other activities enriching the lake include washing of clothes, cattle, vehicles., etc. During August - Septeniber, large quantities of flowers and clay, from the immersed idols. get added. Apart from this, the lake harbours lot of macrophytes. All these factors enhence zooplankton abundance. Though fish is present, fishing activities keep their numbers low. Thus, predation effect is not seen much. All these factors are collectively responsible fo! . making Kalamba lake, the most species rich water body. While, Rankala lake is closed on three sides, but is next to Kalamba lake in terms of species diversity. It is polluted since it receives municipal as well as domestic waste from the city. During Ganesh festival, the clay idols are immersed into the lake. It is a big lake where fishing activity by locals, boating at certain spots, bathing ghats, picnic spots are observed. Apart 3 8 Cfiapter III from these factors, a lot of macrophytes are also seen covering almost 50 % of the water body. The water being alkaline and chlorides, sulphates and phosphates are in high concentrations, which help water hyacinths to proliferate. As a result, this water body is infested with Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum, Ipomea, Eicchornia crassipes, etc. Similar observations were made by Rasool and coworkers (2003). All these reasons may be responsible for making this water body moderately polluted. Thus lower species richness is noticed in Ra.nkala lake as compared to other water bodies of Maharashtra. Species diversity values were found to be more at unpolluted sampling stations and decreased towards polluted stations showing that more the pollution less is the species diversity (Kulshrestha etal., 1989, 1991). Rajaram lake is also nutrient rich water body with high species diversity. It is an open water body with lot of macrophytes. Though, there are no agricultural surroundings, human settlements are the source of pollution (Mishra and Trivedy, 1993). Nutrient enrichment is in the form of surface runoff as well as domestic waste, washing of clothes and sewage. As in Kalamba lake, fishing activities are also seen in Rajaram lake. Thus, the impact of predation is reduced leading to the florishing of zooplankton species (Jack and Thorp, 2002). Saksena et.al. (1986) and Wetzel (2001) reported that loading of nutrients is higher and nutrient recycling is faster in shallow lakes. In the present studies too, particularly Waghbil lake, which is surrounded by agricultural lands,. which contribute to inputs of nutrients. Though, there is no human interference in the form of fishing activity, this lake had a high species diversity. This may be because of its shallow waters that are flooded periodically from rains and runoffs, supporting Saksena etal. and Wetzel's findings. 139 Chapter III Sadoba pond showed a good species diversity. It is a small pond where boating activities are carried out during rainy season. The richness may be due to the temporary nature of this open pond, as also seen in Waghbil lake. Someshwar temple tank, is an enclosed water body and has no much human interference. Being closed from all sides, there is almost no inflow from surface runoff water. Thus, nutrient enrichment is not much. The tank harbours a lot of fish, but fishing activity is almost nil. Thus, predation of zooplankton is more. Hence, the tank has poor species diversity. Studies on temple tanks and ponds was reported by some workers (Sreenivasan, 1974; Krishnan etal., 1997; Chandrasekhar and Jaffer, 1998). Among the water bodies of Goa, Filar lake is most rich in terms species diversity. This lake has human settlements in its surroundings. So, domestic waste and sewage find its way into the lake. Being an open water body, surface runoff is a source of nutrients. Surface runoff rich in phosphates enters the water body from the neighbouring crematorium. Apart from this, the lake has many macrophytes, which help the zooplankton to flourish by providing protection as well as food in the form of decaying organic matter. Santacruz lake is nutrient rich, since it receives runoff from the surrounding fields. There is a lot of human interference, due to the settlements in the surrounding. Domestic waste as well as sewage is dumped into the lake. All these factors provide food source to the zooplankton. Thus, high species diversity is encountered. Macrophytes are present in the water body, which further help in increasing the zooplanktonic population. The next species rich water body of Goa is Vaddem lake, which is present in the center of the city. As a result, it receives ail the city waste including domestic waste, municipal sewage as 140 Chapter III well as drains are emptied into it. This enriches the lake and it appears to be in the process of eutrophication. Water body having with least species richness and least pollution, is the Mayem lake. It is an open lake and being a big water body, any input of waste gets diluted. Human interference is limited to boating activity. The only source of nutrient addition is some runoff from the surroundings during rainy season. Predation from fish also may be responsible for low zooplankton population, as there is no fishing activity. Similarity matrices and dendrograms show intra- and inter-seasonal relationships with regard to zoopla.nkton abundance in the different water bodies of Goa and Maharashtra. In Kalamba lake, two kinds of similarities were observed. March - April months of summer and October - November showed high similarity. Most of the zoopiankton species were found during summer and winter, hence the similarity is within these months. Summer and winter similarity was also seen in Rankala, Waghbil, Mayem and Pilar lakes, along with Santacruz lake. Monthly similarities such as October '00 with October '01 and within months during same season such as August '01, December '00 and '01, were also observed. Such clustering shows similar conditions prevailing year after year in the water body. This was observed in all the water bodies. Highest similarity was seen between the months of February and March, April and May, August months and July of both years in Rajaram lake, This shows that the conditions, which include physico-chemical and zooplankton abundance, were same during both years. Similarity was found between January - February and December. Most of the freshwater bodies showed the highest similarity between the winter months as seen for Waghbil, Mayem and Pilar lakes, apart from close relation between rainy and winter seasons. 141 Table 3.1. Indices for zooplankton abundance in Kalamba lake in 2000 - 2001 Months D RI R2 X H' No NI N2 El E2 E3 E4 E5 N Feb-00 12.72 5.95 0.76 0.07 2.56 51.0 12.9 14.2 0.65 0.25 0.24 1.10 1.10 4462 Mar 11.17 5.18 0.74 0.05 2.78 43.0 16.1 20.0 0.74 0.37 0.36 1.24 1.25 3336 Apr 8.10 3.42 0.54 0.04 2.64 28.0 14.0 25.0 0.79 0.50 0.48 1.78 1.86 2695 May 10.57 4.67 0.62 0.03 2.47 40.0 11.8 33.3 0.67 0.30 0.28 2.82 2.99 4205 Jun 10.57 4.66 0.61 0.05 2.60 40.0 13.4 20.0 0.70 0.34 0.32 1.49 1.53 4332 Jul 8.74 3.80 0.60 0.08 2.86 31.0 17.4 12.5 0.83 0.56 0.55 0.71 0.70 2702 Aug 11.36 5.18 0.69 0.05 2.40 44.0 11.0 20.0 0.63 0.25 0.23 1.81 1.90 4012 Sep 12.91 6.00 0.74 0.03 3.21 52.0 24.7 33.3 0.81 0.48 0.46 1.34 1.36 4907 Oct 12.53 5.90 0.78 0.04 3.05 50.0 21.1 25.0 0.78 0.42 0.41 1.18 1.19 4067 Nov 14.04 6.47 0.71 0.04' 2.80 58.0 16.4 25.0 0.69 0.28 0.27 1.52 1.55 6655 Dec 13.09 6.03 0.71 0.04 2.84.. 53.0 17.1 25.0 0.72 0.32 0.31 1.46 1.49 5586 Jan-01 10.57 4.58 0.57 0.06 2.58 40.0 13.1 16.6 0.70 0.33 0.31 1.26 1.28 4956 Feb 11.56 5.30 0.71 0.04 2.70 45.0 14.8 25.0 0.71 0.33 0.31 1.68 1.73 4057 Mar 8.10 3.53 0.61 0.04 2.38 28.0 10.8 25.0 0.71 0.39 0.36 2.31 2.44 2095 Apr 7.67 3.17 0.51 0.07 2.40 26.0 11.0 14.2 0.74 0.42 0.40 1.29 1.32 2630 May 7.24 2.84 0.42 0.05 2.64 24.0 14.0 20.0 0.83 0.58 0.57 1.42 1.46 3257 Jun 10.57 4.86 0.73 0.03 2.50 40.0 12.1 33.3 0.68 0.30 0.28 2.75 2.90 3042 Jul 11.95 5.46 0.69 0.06 2.76 47.0 15.7 16.6 0.74 0.33 0.32 1.05 1.06 4582 Aug 11.56 5.16 0.63 0.03 2.70 45.0 14.8 33.3 0.71 0.33 0.31 2.25 2.34 5055 Sep 12.53 5.98 0.83 0.03 2.56 50.0 12.9 33.3 0.65 0.26 0.24 2.58 2.71 3625 Oct 9.77 4.37 0.66 0.05 2.74 36.0 15.4 20.0 0.76 0.43 0.41 1.29 1.31 2991 Nov 11.95 5.40 0.66 0.05 2.85 47.0 17.2 20.0 0.74 0.37 0.35 1.16 1.17 5017 Dec 10.97 4.72 0.55 0.03 2.70 42.0 14.8 33.3 0.72 0.35 0.34 2.25 2.34 5912 Key: D = Margalef's diversity index No = Total number of species R, = Margalef's richness index R, = Menhinick's richness index = Simpson's index N I = Hill's first diversity number N,= Hill's second diversity number H = Shannon's index E 1 to E5 = Evenness indices Table 3.2. Indices for zooplankton abundance in Rajaram lake in 2000 - 2001 Months D R1 R2 X H' No NI N2 E 1 E2 E3 E4 E5 N Feb-00 7.46 3.09 0.52 0.05 2.46 25.0 11.7 20.0 0.76 0.47 0.45 1.71 1.77 2355 Mar 9.15 3.87 0.53 0.05 2.80 33.0 16.4 20.0 0.80 0.49 0.48 1.21 1.23 3929 Apr 7.46 3.22 0.60 0.03 3.22 25.0 25.0 33.3 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.33 1.34 1730 May 7.46 3.39 0.72 0.04 3.40 25.0 29.9 25.0 1.06 1.19 1.20 0.83 0.83 1192 Jun 7.89 3.69 0.80 0.03 2.56 27.0 12.9 33.3 0.78 0.48 0.46 2.58 2.71 1151 Jul 5.17 2.09 0.53 0.02 2.74 15.0 15.4 25.0 1.01 1.03 1.03 1.62 1.66 810 Aug 11.36 5.56 0.92 0.03 2.70 44.0 14.8 33.3 0.71 0.34 0.32 2.25 2.34 2271 Sep 12.14 5.59 0.72 0.04 2.56 48.0 12.9 25.0 0.66 0.27 0.25 1.93 2.01 4495 Oct 11.95 6.07 1.06 0.03 2.24 47.0 9.39 33.3 0.58 0.19 0.18 3.54 3.84 1960 Nov 12.72 5.75 0.66 0.02 2.53 51.0 12.5 50.0 0.64 0.25 0.23 4.00 4.26 6014 Dec 13.29 6.03 0.67 0.03 2.48 - 54.0 11.9 33.3 0.62 0.22 0.21 2.79 2.96 6542 Jan-01 8.53 3.67 0.57 0.02 3.25 30.0 25.7 50.0 0.96 0.86 0.85 1.94 1.98 2736 Feb 9.36 4.29 0.73 0.04 3.10 34.0 22.2 25.0 0.88 0.65 0.64 1.12 1.13 2183 Mar 10.57 4.64 0.60 0.03 2.48 40.0 11.9 33.3 0.67 0.30 0.28 2.79 2.96 4450 Apr 8.94 4.10 0.73 0.02 2.27 32.0 9.67 50.0 0.65 0.30 0.28 5.17 5.65 1913 May 8.53 3.68 0.58 0.03 2.20 30.0 9.02 33.3 0.65 0.30 0.28 3.69 4.02 2662 Jun 5.90 2.60 0.69 0.04 2.34 18.0 10.3 25.0 0.81 0.57 0.55 2.42 2.58 683 Jul 8.53 3.76 0.63 0.03 2.80 30.0 16.4 33.3 0.82 0.55 0.53 2.03 2.09 2245 Aug 8.73 3.80 0.60 0.04 2.65 31.0 14.1 20.0 0.77 0.45 0.44 1.41 1.45 2703 Sep 10.17 4.57 0.66 0.02 2.60 38.0 13.4 50.0 0.71 0.35 0.34 3.73 3.95 3308 Oct 7.24 3.27 0.72 0.02 2.48 24.0 11.9 50.0 0.78 0.50 0.47 4.20 4.49 1125 Nov 8.53 3.62 0.55 0.02 2.34 30.0 10.3 50.0 0.69 0.34 0.32 4.85 5.26 3005 Dec 11.36 4.95 0.57 0.04 2.45 44.0 11.5 25.0 0.65 0.26 0.24 2.17 2.28 5969 Key: D = Margalef s diversity index No = Total number of species R I = Margalef s richness index R2 = Menhinick's richness index = Simpson's index N i = Hill's first diversity number N2 = Hill's second diversity number = Shannon's index E l to E5 = Evenness indices Table 3.3. Indices for zooplankton abundance in Rankala lake in 2000 - 2001 Months D R1 R2 X 1-1" No NI N2 E, EZ E3 E4 E5 Feb-00 10.96 5.09 0.75 0.05 3.45 42.0 31.5 20.0 0.92 0.75 0.74 0.63 0.62 3142 Mar 9.56 4.41 0.74 0.06 2.60 35.0 13.4 16.6 0.73 0.38 0.36 1.23 1.25 2210 Apr 8.52 3.76 0.64 0.05 2.78 30.0 16.1 20.0 0.82 0.54 0.52 1.24 1.25 2223 May 7.01 2.90 0.52 0.04 2.40 23.0 11.0 25.0 0.76 0.48 0.45 2.27 2.40 1960 Jun 9.76 4.64 0.83 0.02 2.90 36.0 18.1 50.0 0.81 0.50 0.49 2.76 2.86 1884 Jul 6.79 2.88 0.57 0.05 2.45 22.0 11.5 20.0 0.79 0.52 0.50 1.73 1.80 1477 Aug 9.56 4.14 0.58 0.03 3.14 35.0 23.1 33.3 0.88 0.66 0.65 1.44 1.46 3699 Sep 9.76 4.22 0.57 0.03 3.12 36.0 22.6 33.3 0.87 0.63 0.62 1.47 1.49 3937 Oct 10.17 4.80 0.81 0.05 2.86 38.0 17.4 20.0 0.79 0.46 0.44 1.14 1.15 2225 Nov 10.57 4.64 0.60 0.06 3.60 40.0 36.5 16.6 0.98 0.91 0.91 0.45 0„43 4487 Dec 8.53 3.36 0.40 0.02 2.53 30.0 12.5 50.0 0.74 0.42 0.40 4.00 4.26 5606 Jan-01 10.37 4.67 0.67 0.07 2.87 39.0 17.6 14.2 0.78 0.45 0.44 0.80 0.79 3398 Feb 6.79 2.65 0.42 0.07 2.63 22.0 13.8 14.2 0.85 0.63 0.61 1.02 1.03 2754 Mar 7.89 3.24 0.49 0.05 2.77 27.0 15.9 20.0 0.84 0.59 0.57 1.25 1.27 3035 Apr 7.67 3.32 0.61 0.02 2.66 26.0 14.2 50.0 0.81 0.55 0.53 3.52 3.71 1844 May 7.24 3.01 0.54 0.04 2.80 24.0 16.4 25.0 0.88 0.68 0.67 1.52 1.55 1998 Jun 8.74 3.66 0.51 0.06 3.05 31.0 21.1 16.6 0.89 0.68 0.67 0.78 0.77 3663 Jul 7.46 3.20 0.58 0.04 3.10 25.0 22.1 25.0 0.96 0.88 0.88 1.13 1.13 1833 Aug 10.17 4.51 0.63 0.05 2.48 38.0 11.9 20.0 0.68 0.31 0.29 1.68 1.74 3684 Sep 10.57 4.63 0.59 0.07 2.26 40.0 9.5 14.2 0.61 0.24 0.22 1.48 1.53 4572 Oct 7.24 3.07 0.56 0.04 2.40 24.0 11.0 25.0 0.75 0.46 0.43 2.27 2.40 1807 Nov 10.97 4.92 0.65 0.05 2.94 42.0 18.9 20.0 0.79 0.45 0.44 1.05 1.06 4164 Dec 8.94 3.65 0.46 0.06 3.02 32.0 20.4 16.6 0.87 0.64 0.63 0.81 0.80 4830 Key: D = Margate's diversity index No = Total number of species R I = Margaler s richness index R2 = Menhinick's richness index = Simpson's index N I = Hill's first diversity number N2 = Hill's second diversity number = Shannon's index E l to E5 =. Evenness indices 7 Table 3.4. Indices for zooplankton abundance in Sadoba pond in 2000 - 2001 Months D R1 R2 A. H' No N1 N2 E i E2 E3 E, Es N Feb-00 8.31 3.49 0.52 0.06 2.56 29.0 12.9 16.6 0.75 0.44 0.42 1.28 1.31 3035 Mar 10.57 4.65 0.60 0.05 2.40 40.0 11.0 20.0 0.65 0.27 0.25 1.81 1.90 4347 Apr 9.56 4.28 0.66 0.05 2.72 35.0 15.1 20.0 0.76 0.43 0.41 1.32 1.34 2770 May 10.77 4.80 0.63 0.03 2.80 41.0 16.4 33.3 0.75 0.40 0.38 2.03 2.09 4148 Jul 9.35 4.14 0.63 0.08 2.45 34.0 11.5 12.5 0.69 0.33 0.31 1.08 1.09 2842 Aug 11.16 4.89 0.58 0.06 2.28 43.0 9.7 16.6 0.60 - 0.22 0.20 1.69 1.77 5366 Sep 12.52 5.81 0.73 0.04 2.74 50.0 15.4 25.0 0.69 0.30 0.29 1.62 1.66 4599 Oct 10.37 4.72 0.69 0.06 2.16 39.0 8.6 16.6 0.58 0.22 0.20 1.91 2.03 3127 Nov 11.55 5.23 0.67 0.05 2.46 45.0 11.7 20.0 0.64 0.26 0.24 1.70 1.77 4501 Dec 10.57 4.54 0.55 0.03 2.68 40.0 14.5 33.3 0.72 0.36 0.34 2.29 2.38 5282 Jan-01 8.94 3.81 0.55 0.05 2.40 32.0 11.0 20.0 0.69 0.34 0.32 1.81 1.90 3372 Feb 12.14 5.77 0.81 0.06 2.35 48.0 10.4 16.6 0.60 0.21 0.20 1.59 1.65 3431 Mar 12.33 5.57 0.66 0.03 2.81 49.0 16.6 33.3 0.72 0.33 0.32 2.00 2.07 5471 Apr 10.96 5.24 0.84 0.06 2.76 42.0 15.7 16.6 0.73 0.37 0.35 1.05 1.06 2495 May 6.79 2.66 0.42 0.04 2.53 22.0 12.5 25.0 0.81 0.56 0.54 2.00 2.08 2647 Jul 9.56 4.24 0.64 0.03 2.42 35.0 11.2 33.3 0.67 0.32 0.30 2.97 3.16 2989 Aug 12.33 5.65 0.70 0.05 2.60 49.0 13.4 20.0 0.66 0.27 0.25 1.49 1.53 4851 Sep 8.94 4.02 0.67 0.06 2.42 32.0 11.2 16.6 0.69 0.35 0.32 1.48 1.52 2230 Oct 9.35 4.23 0.68 0.04 2.73 34.0 15.3 25.0 0.77 0.45 0.43 1.63 1.67 2441 Nov 10.77 4.83 0.65 0.03 2.70 41.0 14.8 33.3 0.72 0.36 0.34 2.25 2.34 3910 Dec . 10.96 4.84 0.61 0.03 2.46 42.0 11.7 33.3 0.65 0.27 0.26 2.86 3.01 4740 Key: D = Margalef's diversity index No = Total number of species R I = Margalef's richness index R2 = Menhinick's richness index, = Simpson's index N I = Hill's first diversity number N2= Hill's second diversity number = Shannon's index E 1 to Es = Evenness indices Table 3.5. Indices for zooplankton abundance in Someshwar temple tank in 2000 - 2001 Months D R1 RZ H' No N1 N7 E 1 E2 E3 E4 E5 N Feb-00 4.43 1.65 0.43 0.05 2.21 12.0 9.1 20.0 0.89 0.76 0.74 2.19 2.34 796 Mar 4.17 1.46 0.36 0.09 2.55 11.0 12.8 11.1 1.06 1.16 1.18 0.86 0.85 958 Apr 4.43 1.56 0.36 0.06 2.08 12.0 8.0 16.6 0.84 0.67 0.64 2.07 2.22 1129 May 3.37 1.08 0.32 0.07 2.02 8.0 7.5 14.2 0.97 0.94 0.94 1.88 2.02 645 Jun 3.37 1.10 0.33 0.07 2.01 8.0 7.4 14.2 0.97 0.93 0.92 1.90 2.04 581 Jul 4.17 1.53 -0.42 0.07 2.36 11.0 10.5 14.2 0.98 0.95 0.95 1.35 1.38 698 Aug 4.43 1.64 0.42 0.12 2.23 12.0 9.2 8.3 0.89 0.77 0.75 0.89 0.88 802 Sep 3.91 1.37 0.37 0.09 2.40 10.0 11.0 11.1 1.04 1.10 1.11 1.00 1.01 715 Oct 3.37 1.12 0.35 0.07 2.34 8.0 10.3 14.2 1.12 1.29 1.33 1.37 1.41 508 Nov 2.49 0.64 0.22 0.06 2.16 5.0 8.6 16.6 1.34 1.73 1.92 1.91 2.03 507 Dec 5.17 2.06 0.50 0.07 2.42 15.0 11.2 14.2 0.89 0.75 0.73 1.26 1.29 890 Jan-01 3.64 1.26 0.38 0.07 2.16 9.0 8.6 14.2 0.98 0.96 0.96 1.63 1.72 565 Feb 4.17 1.51 0.40 0.06 2.38 11.0 10.8 16.6 0.99 0.98 0.98 1.53 1.59 742 Mar 3.91 1.4 0.40 0.07 2.24 10.0 9.3 14.2 0.97 0.94 0.93 1.51 1.57 625 Apr 2.79 0.79 0.25 0.08 2.67 6.0 14.4 12.5 1.48 2.40 2.68 0.86 0.85 579 May 1.82 0.33 0.15 0.13 1.86 3.0 6.4 7.69 1.69 2.14 2.71 1.19 1.23 394 Jun 2.79 0.80 0.26 0.07 2.06 6.0 7.8 14.2 1.14 1.31 1.36 1.81 1.92 513 Jul 2.79 0.78 0.24 0.06 2.30 6.0 9.9 16.6 1.28 1.66 1.79 1.66 1.73 621 Aug 5.41 2.21 0.54 0.05 2.25 16.0 9.4 20.0 0.81 0.59 0.56 2.10 2.24 894 Sep 5.17 2.12 0.55 0.06 2.54 15.0 12.6 16.6 0.93 0.84 0.82 1.31 1.34 734 Oct 3.08 1.01 0.36 0.08 2.06 7.0 7.8 12.5 1.05 1.12 1.14 1.59 1.68 387 Nov 4.93 1.95 0.50 0.07 2.41 14.0 11.1 14.2 0.91 0.79 0.77 1.27 1.30 795 Dec 4.68 1.67 0.36 0.06 2.30 13.0 9.9 16.6 0.89 0.76 0.74 1.66 1.73 1306 Key: D = Margalef s diversity index No = Total number of species R 1 = Mar richness index Menhinick's richness index X = Simpson's index N 1 = Hill's first diversity number R2 = N, = Hill's second diversity number H = Shannon's index E1 to E5 = Evenness indices Table 3.6. Indices for zooplankton abundance in Waghbil lake in 2000 - 2001 Months D R1 R2 X H' No Ni N2 E t Ez E3 Es N Feb-00 7.46 3.25 0.62 0.05 2.24 25.0 9.4 20.0 0.70 0.38 0.35 2.12 2.26 1614 Mar 6.79 2.88 0.57 0.07 2.20 22.0 9.0 14.2 0.71 0.41 0.38 1.57 1.64 1472 Apr 6.79 2.70 0.45 0.05 2.36 22.0 10.5 20.0 0.76 0.48 0.45 1.90 2.00 2364 May 5.88 2.34 0.48 0.05 2.04 18.0 7.6 20.0 0.71 0.43 0.39 2.60 2.84 1430 Jun 8.10 3.31 0.47 0.04 2.12 28.0 8.3 25.0 0.64 0.30 0.27 3.00 3.27 3523 Jul 6.34 2.62 0.53 0.05 2.46 20.0 11.7 20.0 0.82 0.59 0.56 1.70 1.77 1429 Aug 9.56 4.10 0.55 0.05 2.50 35.0 12.1 20.0 0.70 0.35 0.33 1.65 1.71 3982 Sep 8.10 3.19 0.41 0.03 2.34 28.0 10.3 33.3 0.70 0.37 0.34 3.23 3.47 4732 Oct 9.97 4.22 0.52 0.02 2.94 37.0 18.9 50.0 0.81 0.51 0.50 2.64 2.73 5040 Nov 9.77 4.18 0.55 0.03 2.70 36.0 14.8 33.3 0.75 0.41 0.39 2.25 2.34 4314 Dec 12.72 5.71 0.64 0.03 2.53 51.0 12.5 33.3 0.64 0.25 0.23 2.66 2.80 6373 Jan-01 7.46 3.23 0.61 0.05 2.40 25.0 11.0 20.0 0.74 0.44 0.42 1.81 1.90 1682 Feb 6.34 2.62 0.53 0.05 2.16 20.0 8.6 20.0 0.72 0.43 0.40 2.30 2.47 1417 Mar 6.11 2.48 0.51 0.04 2.22 19.0 9.2 25.0 0.75 0.48 0.46 2.71 2.92 1399 Apr 5.41 2.09 0.44 0.07 2.34 16.0 10.3 14.2 0.84 0.64 0.62 1.37 1.41 1313 May 7.46 3.12 0.54 0.09 2.65 25.0 14.1 11.1 0.82 0.56 0.55 0.78 0.77 2173 Jun 8.10 3.80 0.80 0.05 2.51 28.0 12.3 20.0 - 0.75 0.44 0.42 1.62 1.68 1223 Jul 6.79 2.78 0.50 0.03 2.36 22.0 10.5 33.3 0.76 0.48 0.45 3.17 3.40 1929 Aug 12.14 5.63 0.74 0.06 2.78 48.0 16.1 16.6 0.72 0.34 0.32 1.03 1.03 4202 Sep 10.57 4.67 0.61 0.03 2.54 40.0 12.6 33.3 0.69 0.32 0.30 2.64 2.78 4232 Oct 8.32 3.47 0.51 0.08 2.45 29.0 11.5 12.5 0.73 0.40 0.38 1.08 1.09 3174 Nov 9.36 3.89 0.49 0.03 2.84 34.0 17.1 33.3 0.81 0.50 0.49 1.94 2.00 4812 Dec 10.97 4.87 0.62 0.03 3.12 42.0 22.6 33.3 0.83 0.54 0.53 1.47 1.49 4538 Key: D = Margalef's diversity index No = Total number of species R I = Margalef s richness index R, = Menhinick's richness index = Simpson's index N I = Hill's first diversity number N, = Hill's second diversity number H = Shannon's index E 1 to Es = Evenness indices T Table 3.7. Indices for zooplankton abundance in Mayem lake in 2000 - 2001 Months D R1 R2 X 1-1" No Ni NZ E l E2 E3 E4 Es N Feb-00 3.64 1.26 0.37 0.09 2.15 9.0 8.5 11.1 0.97 0.94 0.94 1.29 1.33 566 Mar 4.17 1.49 0.39 0.14 2.06 11.0 7.8 7.1 0.85 0.71 0.68 0.91 0.89 794 Apr 3.36 1.14 0.37 0.15 1.74 8.0 7.6 6.6 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.86 0.84 451 May 4.17 1.52 0.41 0.14 2.04 11.0 7.6 7.1 0.85 0.69 0.66 0.92 0.91 692 Jun 3.90 1.38 0.38 0.16 2.02 10.0 7.5 6.2 0.87 0.75 0.72 0.83 0.80 668 Jul 4.42 1.58 0.37 0.09 2.54 12.0 12.6 11.1 1.01 1.05 1.05 0.88 0.87 1016 Aug 4.92 1.86 0.42 0.15 2.52 14.0 12.4 6.6 0.95 0.88 0.87 0.53 0.49 1067 Sep 3.08 0.88 0.24 0.12 2.14 7.0 8.4 8.3 1.09 1.21 1.24 0.98 0.97 848 Oct 2.79 0.77 0.24 0.13 2.03 6.0 7.6 7.6 1.13 1.26 1.32 1.01 1.01 619 Nov 3.08 0.87 0.23 0.15 2.42 7.0 11.2 6.6 1.24 1.60 1.70 0.59 0.55 915 Dec 3.64 1.16 0.28 0.13 2.45 9.0 11.5 7.6 1.11 1.27 1.31 0.66 0.63 975 Jan-01 2.79 0.75 0.22 0.15 2.15 6.0 8.5 6.6 1.19 1.42 1.50 0.77 0.75 722 Feb 3.36 1.09 0.32 0.14 1.84 8.0 6.2 7.1 0.88 0.78 0.75 1.13 1.16 598 Mar 2.16 0.57 0.20 0.15 2.02 4.0 7.5 6.6 1.45 1.88 2.17 0.88 0.86 371 Apr 3.90 1.37 0.38 0.09 2.15 10.0 8.5 11.1 0.93 0.85 0.84 1.29 1.33 685 May 3.90 1.39 0.39 0.14 2.06 10.0 7.8 7.1 0.89 0.78 0.76 0.91 0.89 645 Jun 3.64 1.23 0.35 0.13 2.32 9.0 10.1 7.6 1.05 1.12 1.13 0.76 0.73 637 Jul 2.79 0.74 0.21 0.16 2.09 6.0 8.0 6.2 1.16 1.34 1.41 0.77 0.74 798 Aug 5.41 2.11 0.46 0.09 2.40 16.0 11.0 11.1 0.86 0.68 0.66 1.00 1.01 1192 Sep 5.88 2.49 0.59 0.08 2.32 18.0 10.1 12.5 0.80 0.56 0.53 1.23 1.26 903 Oct 3.08 0.96 0.31 0.14 2.05 7.0 7.7 7.1 1.05 1.10 1.12 0.92 0.90 493 Nov 3.36 1.06 0.29 0.11 2.23 8.0 9.2 9.0 1.07 1.16 1.18 0.97 0.97 731 Dec 4.42 1.61 0.39 0.12 2.34 12.0 10.3 8.3 0.93 0.85 0.84 0.80 0.78 921 Key: D = Margalef s diversity index No = Total number of species R I = Margalef s richness index R2 = Menhinick's richness index = Simpson's index N 1 = Hill's first diversity number N2 = Hill's second diversity number = Shannon's index E i to E5 = Evenness indices 7 Table 3.8. Indices for zooplankton abundance in Pilar lake in 2000 - 2001 Months D R1 R2 X W NO N1 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 N Feb-00 11.16 5.22 0.77 0.06 2.67 43.0 14.4 16.6 0.70 0.33 0.31 1.15 1.16 3105 Mar 9.35 4.27 0.71 0.05 2.62 34.0 13.7 20.0 0.74 0.40 0.38 1.45 1.49 2241 Apr 8.52 3.90 0.72 0.05 2.78 30.0 16.1 20.0 0.81 0.53 0.52 1.24 1.25 1692 May 7.23 3.12 0.60 0.05 2.94 24.0 18.9 20.0 0.92 0.78 0.77 1.05 1.06 1577 Jun 8.52 3.82 0.67 0.06 3.16 30.0 23.5 16.6 0.92 0.78 0.77 0.70 0.69 1981 Jul 9.15 4.08 0.65 0.08 2.45 33.0 11.5 12.5 0.69 0.34 0.32 1.08 1.09 2542 Aug 12.14 5.55 0.70 0.06 2.63 48.0 13.8 16.6 0.67 0.28 0.27 1.20 1.21 4696 Sep 11.36 5.44 0.84 0.08 2.50 44.0 12.1 12.5 0.65 0.27 0.25 1.03 1.03 2704 Oct 7.23 3.22 0.68 0.08 2.38 24.0 10.8 12.5 0.74 0.45 0.42 1.15 1.17 1244 Nov 9.56 4.05 0.52 0.04 3.12 35.0 22.6 25.0 0.87 0.64 0.63 1.10 1.11 4380 Dec 10.57 4.70 0.63 0.03 3.06 40.0 21.3 33.3 0.82 0.53 0.52 1.56 1.59 4011 Jan-01 8.73 3.78 0.58 0.06 2.46 31.0 11.7 16.6 0.71 0.37 0.35 1.41 1.45 2765 Feb 10.57 4.83 0.70 0.07 2.42 40.0 11.2 14.2 0.65 0.28 0.26 1.26 1.29 3181 Mar 7.23 2.91 0.46 0.09 2.66 24.0 14.2 11.1 0.83 0.59 0.57 0.78 0.76 2654 Apr 6.56 2.55 0.41 0.06 2.73 21.0 15.3 16.6 0.89 0.72 0.71 1.08 1.09 2514 May 7.01 2.96 0.56 0.08 2.46 23.0 11.7 12.5 0.78 0.50 0.48 1.06 1.07 1670 Jun 7.23 3.03 0.54 0.05 2.70 24.0 14.8 20.0 0.84 0.61 0.60 1.35 1.37 1970 Jul 9.76 • 4.32 0.62 0.06 2.61 36.0 13.5 16.6 0.72 0.37 0.35 1.22 1.24 3274 Aug 10.17 4.38 0.55 0.04 2.95 38.0 19.1 25.0 0.81 0.50 0.48 1.30 1.32 4625 Sep 10.77 4.90 0.69 0.05 2.94 41.0 18.9 20.0 0.79 0.46 0.44 1.05 1.06 3482 Oct 6.56 2.74 0.55 0.05 2.45 21.0 11.5 20.0 0.80 0.54 0.52 1.73 1.80 1455 Nov 8.52 3.71 0.60 0.06 2.86 30.0 17.4 16.6 0.83 0.58 0.56 0.95 0.95 2452 Dec 10.96 4.89 0.63 0.05 3.24 42.0 25.5 20.0 0.86 0.60 0.59 0.78 0.77 4326 Key: D = Margate's diversity index No = Total number of species R I = Margate's richness index Menhinick's richness index = Simpson's index N I = Hill's first diversity number R2 = N2= Hill's second diversity number H = Shannon's index E l to E5 = Evenness indices 7 Table 3.9. Indices for zooplankton abundance in Santacruz lake in 2000 - 2001 Months D R1 R2 X 1-1" No N1 N2 E 1 E2 E3 E4 Es N Feb-00 7.67 3.15 0.49 0.06 2.45 26.0 14.4 16.6 0.81 0.55 0.53 1.15 1.16 2755 Mar 7.01 2.86 0.49 0.07 2.60 23.0 13.7 14.2 0.83 0.59 0.57 1.03 1.03 2166 Apr 5.88 2.35 0.48 0.06 2.70 18.0 16.1 16.6 0.96 0.89 0.88 1.03 1.03 1370 May 7.01 2.96 0.56 0.07 2.68 23.0 14.4 14.2 0.85 0.62 0.60 0.98 0.98 1651 Jun 6.34 2.64 0.55 0.06 2.61 20.0 13.7 16.6 0.87 0.68 0.66 1.21 1.22 1320 Jul 8.73 3.89 0.66 0.06 2.56 31.0 16.1 16.6 0.80 0.51 0.50 1.03 1.03 2202 Aug 8.10 3.43 0.54 0.09 2.84 28.0 11.5 11.1 0.73 0.41 0.38 0.96 0.96 2620 Sep 7.88 3.29 0.52 0.09 2.89 27.0 13.4 11.1 0.78 0.49 0.47 0.82 0.81 2661 Oct 4.67 1.60 0.31 0.11 2.49 - 13.0 14.8 9.1 1.05 1.13 1.15 0.61 0.58 1731 Nov 10.77 5.11 0.82 0.06 2.64 41.0 14.5 16.6 0.72 0.35 0.33 1.14 1.15 2500 Dec 10.96 5.10 0.75 0.05 2.73 42.0 13.5 20.0 0.69 0.32 0.30 1.48 1.52. 3068 Jan-01 8.94 3.91 0.61 0.08 2.42 32.0 12.9 12.5 0.73 0.40 0.38 0.96 0.96 2728 Feb 8.10 3.51 0.59 0.07 2.16 28.0 17.1 14.2 0.85 0.61 0.59 0.83 0.81 2183 Mar 7.23 3.15 0.62 0.06 2.20 24.0 17.9 16.6 0.90 0.74 0.73 0.92 0.92 1461 Apr 6.34 2.70 0.59 0.08 2.15 20.0 12.0 12.5 0.82 0.60 0.57 1.04 1.04 1129 May 7.45 3.33 0.68 0.08 2.34 25.0 14.0 12.5 0.81 0.56 0.54 0.89 0.88 1332 Jun 8.73 3.84 0.62 0.05 2.56 31.0 15.3 20.0 0.79 0.49 0.47 1.30 1.32 2429 Jul 8.52 3.69 0.59 0.06 2.54 30.0 11.2 16.6 0.71 0.37 0.35 1.48 1.52 2549 Aug 9.76 4.41 0.68 0.06 2.63 36.0 8.6 16.6 0.60 0.24 0.21 1.91 2.03 2773 Sep 8.94 3.84 0.56 0.04 2.70 32.0 9.0 25.0 0.63 0.28 0.25 2.77 2.99 3186 Oct 6.56 2.75 0.55 0.09 2.65 21.0 8.5 11.1 0.70 0.40 0.37 1.29 1.33 1416 Nov 8.10 3.50 0.59 0.08 2.82 28.0 10.3 12.5 0.69 0.36 0.34 1.21 1.23 2240 Dec 8.73 3.71 0.54 0.05 2.88 31.0 12.9 20.0 0.74 0.41 0.39 1.55 1.59 3234 Key: D = Margalef s diversity index No = Total number of species R I = Margalef s richness index R, = Menhinick's richness index X = Simpson's index N I = Hill's first diversity number N,= Hill's second diversity number = Shannon's index E 1 to E5 = Evenness indices Table 3.10. Indices for zooplankton abundance in Vaddem lake in 2000 - 2001 Months D R1 R2 X H' No N, N2 El EZ E3 E4 ES N Feb-00 7.45 3.27 0.63 0.06 2.35 25.0 10.4 16.60 0.72 0.41 0.39 1.59 1.65 1530 Mar 4.92 1.73 0.33 0.09 2.13 14.0 8.4 11.10 0.80 0.60 0.57 1.31 1.36 1790 Apr 6.79 2.98 0.65 0.11 2.06 22.0 7.8 9.09 0.66 0.35 0.32 1.15 1.18 1125 May 7.45 3.19 0.58 0.10 2.43 25.0 11.3 10.00 0.75 0.45 0.42 0.88 0.87 1825 Jun 5.41 2.19 0.52 0.09 2.10 16.0 8.1 11.10 0.75 0.51 0.47 1.36 1.41 929 Jul 7.45 3.30 0.66 0.14 2.64 25.0 14.0 7.14 0.81 0.56 0.54 0.51 0.47 1415 Aug 6.34 2.39 0.37 0.08 2.45 20.0 11.5 12.50 0.81 0.57 0.55 1.08 1.09 2818 Sep 7.01 2.60 0.33 0.09 2.30 23.0 9.9 11.10 0.73 0.43 0.40 1.11 1.12 4724 Oct 7.01 2.86 0.49 0.05 2.06 23.0 7.8 20.00 0.65 0.34 0.31 2.55 2.77 2163 Nov 7.23 2.96 0.49 0.09 2.54 24.0 12.6 11.10 0.79 0.52 0.50 0.88 0.87 2310 Dec 8.52 3.51 0.48 0.14 2.4.0 30.0 11.0 7.14 0.70 0.36 0.34 0.64 0.61- 3808 Jan-01 8.10 3.37 0.51 0.06 2.31 28.0 10.0 16.60 0.69 0.35 0.33 1.66 1.73 2947 Feb 5.41 1.88 0.29 0.08 2.76 16.0 15.7 12.50 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.79 0.78 2918 Mar 6.34 2.57 0.50 0.08 2.40 20.0 11.0 12.50 0.80 0.55 0.52 1.13 1.15 1597 Apr 5.41 2.05 0.41 0.09 2.17 16.0 8.7 11.10 0.78 0.54 0.51 1.26 1.30 1470 May 3.90 1.36 0.37 0.12 2.25 10.0 9.4 8.33 0.97 0.94 0.94 0.87 0.86 718 Jun 5.41 2.07 0.43 0.08 2.68 16.0 14.5 12.50 0.96 0.90 0.90 0.86 0.85 1356 Jul 4.42 1.52 0.32 0.08 2.44 12.0 11.4 12.50 0.97 0.95 0.94 1.09 1.10 1345 Aug 6.79 2.72 0.46 0.13 2.35 22.0 10.4 7.69 0.75 0.47 0.44 0.73 0.71 2237 Sep 8.10 3.25 0.44 0.07 2.30 28.0 9.9 14.20 0.69 0.35 0.33 1.42 1.47 3999 Oct 6.34 2.43 0.40 0.08 2.18 20.0 8.8 12.50 0.72 0.44 0.41 1.41 1.46 2426 Nov 9.56 4.17 0.59 0.09 2.42 35.0 11.2 11.10 0.67 0.32 0.30 0.99 0.99 3436 Dec 8.10 3.24 0.43 0.06 2.41 28.0 11.1 16.60 0.72 0.39 0.37 1.49 1.54 4058 Key: D = Margalef s diversity index No = Total number of species R 1 = Margalef s richness index R2 = Menhinick's richness index X = Simpson's index NI = Hill's first diversity number N2 = Hill's second diversity number = Shannon's index E i to E3 = Evenness indices V Fig. 3.1.1. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Kalamba lake during 2000 - 2001 2 0.84 3 0.95 0.80 4 0.75 0.45 0.82 5 0.92 0.79 0.80 0.71 6 0.81 0.80 0.62 0.41 0.94 7 0.96 0.68 0.88 0.78 0.93 0.78 8 0.96 0.90 0.96 0.65 0.81 0.70 0.86 9 0.75 0.97 0.71 0.34 0.72 0.78 0.55 0.81 10 0.87 0.94 0.75 0.48 0.91 0.94 0.76 0:84 0.92 ,11 0.95 0.74 0.83 0.63 0.93 0.85 0.97 0.87 0.62 0.83 12 0.99 0.86 0.96 0.73 0.89 0.77 0.94 0.98 0.75 0.85 0.94 13 0.88 0.93 0.75 0.43 0.90 0.95 0.78 0.85 0.91 0.98 0.86 0.86 14 0.93 0.87 0.95 0.63 0.76 0.64 0.82 0.99 0.80 0.80 0.82 0.95 0.81 15 0.70 0.75 0.86 0.63 0.49 0.31 0.51 0.81 0.73 0.58 0.44 0.74 0.55 0.85 16 0.73 0.64 0.85 0.90 0.66 0.42 0.64 0.71 0.60 0.59 0.52 0.72 0.53 0.72 0.86 17 0.81 0.67 0.61 0.54 0.96 0.96 0.85 0.65 0.61 0.86 0.89 0.76 0.86 0.58 0.22 0.45 18 0.76 0.43 0.56 0.47 0.85 0.78 0.88 0.58 0.29 0.64 0.91 0.72 0.68 0.51 0.00 0.22 0.89 19 0.97 0.82 0.92 0.72 0.91 0.80 0.96 0.93 0.69 0.83 0.97 0.98 0.85 0.89 0.62 0.66 0.81 0.80 20 0.92 0.84 0.92 0.54 0.72 0.62 0.81 0.98 0.75 0.76 0.82 0.94 0.79 0.99 0.79 0.61 0.55 0.52 0.89 21 0.74 0.96 0.69 0.29 0.70 0.76 0.53 0.80 0.00 0.91 0.61 0.74 0.90 0.80 0.72 0.56 0.58 0.27 0.68 0.76 22 0.90 0.97 0.85 0.47 0.82 0.81 0.76 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.81 0.91 0.94 0.93 0.76 0.63 0.70 0.52 0.85 0.92 0.94 23 0.93 0.84 0.81 0.69 0.99 0.94 0.90 0.83 0.79 0.95 0.91 0.89 0.93 0.78 0.54 0.69 0.95 0.80 0.90 0.74 0.76 0.86 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.2.1 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Kalamba lake during 2000 - 2001 Pearson's coefficient 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 9 21 2 22 10 13 1 12 11 19 7 8 20 14 3 5 23 17 6 18 4 16 15 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.1.2. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Rajaram lake during 2000 - 2001 2 0.94 3 0.97 0.99 4 0.97 0.95 0.98 5 0.74 0.51 0.57 0.59 6 0.15 0.29 0.21 0.18 0.25 7 0.30 0.42 0.35 0.15 0.21 0.97 8 0.84 0.83 0.80 0.76 0.63 0.24 0.43 9 0.47 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.69 0.13 0.25 0.78 10 0.93 0.88 0.87 0.85 0.72 0.22 0.39 0.97 0.72 11 0.99 0.95 0.98 0.99 0.68 0.12 0.23 0.80 0.38 0.89 12 0.99 0.96 0.97 0.96 0.72 0.20 0.35 0.88 0.50 0.95 0.98 13 0.94 0.78 0.84 0.86 0.92 0.23 0.23 0.76 0.57 0.86 0.91 0.92 14 0.92 0.76 0.81 0.83 0.93 0.16 0.23 0.74 0.58 0.84 0.89 0.90 0.99 15 0.97 0.95 0.98 0.00 0.57 0.35 0.15 0.76 0.28 0.85 0.98 0.96 0.85 0.82 16 0.60 0.49 0.47 0.45 0.66 0.24 0.25 0.89 0.97 0.84 0.52 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.45 17 0.92 0.95 0.95 0.96 0.45 0.28 0.15 0.84 0.35 0.88 0.94 0.93 0.75 0.72 0.96 0.54 18 0.65 0.67 0.66 0.52 0.58 0.83 0.88 0.58 0.34 0.63 0.60 0.67 0.63 0.63 0.51 0.37 0.44 19 0.41 0.53 0.47 0.28 0.27 0.95 0.98 0.47 0.22 0.45 0.35 0.45 0.33 0.33 0.28 0.25 0.26 0.93 20 0.80 0.87 0.83 0.72 0.53 0.64 0.77 0.87 0.53 0.86 0.76 0.84 0.68 0.67 0.72 0.63 0.75 0.86 0.82 21 0.73 0.85 0.80 0.67 0.37 0.75 0.82 0.70 0.25 0.72 0.70 0.76 0.57 0.55 0.67 0.37 0.67 0.90 0.88 0.94 22 0.95 0.95 0.97 0.98 0.58 0.00 0.21 0.79 0.33 0.85 0.97 0.95 0.84 0.82 0.98 0.48 0.95 0.53 0.33 0.76 0.68 23 0.98 0.91 0.96 0.98 0.72 0.00 0.18 0.75 0.36 0.86 0.99 0.97 0.93 0.92 0.97 0.48 0.90 0.58 0.31 0.72 0.65 0.96 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.2.2 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Rajaram lake during 2000 - 2001 Pearson's coefficient 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 13 14 5 8 10 2 3 1 11 12 23 4 15 22 17 9 16 20 21 7 19 6 18 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.1.3. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Rankala lake during 2000 - 2001 2 0.98 3 0.83 0.83 4 0.25 0.26 0.73 5 0.88 0.81 0.87 0.49 6 0.33 0.18 0.42 0.24 0.60 7 0.73 0.62 0.64 0.12 0.89 0.84 8 0.77 0.71 0.86 0.68 0.95 0.47 0.77 9 0.67 0.57 0.77 0.33 0.84 0.87 0.89 0.73 . 10 0.88 0.84 0.73 0.36 0.90 0.27 0.74 0.89 0.54 11 0.83 0.82 0.99 0.72 0.89 0.49 0.70 0.89 0.80 0.76 12 0.93 0.88 0.72 0.23 0.92 0.31 0.78 0.85 0.60 0.97 0.74 13 0.97 0.92 0.74 0.17 0.91 0.35 0.80 0.81 0.64 0.94 0.75 0.98 14 0.74 0.74 0.92 0.83 0.83 0.19 0.52 0.91 0.57 0.81 0.91 0.73 0.70 15 0.97 0.86 0.76 0.16 0.84 0.31 0.73 0.72 0.63 0.87 0.78 0.91 0.95 0.69 16 0.41 0.39 0.82 0.90 0.67 0.38 0.44 0.78 0.65 0.46 0.84 0.38 0.34 0.85 0.37 17 0.95 0.91 0.73 0.21 0.91 0.32 0.78 0.73 0.62 0.95 0.75 0.00 0.99 0.72 0.93 0.36 18 0.57 0.44 0.56 0.15 0.74 0.96 0.92 0.58 0.94 0.45 0.62 0.53 0.58 0.32 0.55 0.39 0.54 19 0.84 0.74 0.70 0.12 0.92 0.76 0.98 0.78 0.89 0.79 0.75 0.85 0.88 0.57 0.83 0.44 0.86 0.90 20 0.80 0.77 0.97 0.77 0.92 0.45 0.70 0.95 0.77 0.81 0.98 0.78 0.76 0.95 0.74 0.87 0.77 0.57 0.74 21 0.77 0.67 0.72 0.33 0.96 0.68 0.94 0.91 0.83 0.86 0.76 0.88 0.86 0.69 0.74 0.56 0.87 0.79 0.94 0.82 22 0.96 0.96 0.93 0.44 0.86 0.37 0.69 0.78 0.72 0.81 0.93 0.83 0.87 0.81 0.93 0.59 0.85 0.58 0.78 0.87 0.71 23 0.88 0.87 0.95 0.70 0.93 0.33 0.68 0.94 0.69 0.89 0.96 0.86 0.85 0.96 0.82 0.76 0.86 0.49 0.74 0.97 0.81 0.92 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.2.3 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Rankala lake during 2000 - 2001 Pearson's coefficient 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 12 17 13 10 1 2 J 22 15 7 19 5 21 8 4 16 3 11 20 23 14 6 18 9 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.1.4. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Sadoba pond during 2000 - 2001 2 0.41 3 0.56 0.85 4 0.62 0.94 0.95 5 0.68 0.65 0.90 0.87 6 0.69 0.91 0.93 0.95 0.80 7 0.67 0.84 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.94 8 0.64 0.41 0.76 0.69 0.94 0.66 0.85 9 0.52 0.63 0.78 0.84 0.93 0.64 0.85 0.78 10 0.52 0.85 0.97 0.91 0.83 0.96 0.96 0.75 0.66 11 0.71 0.78 0.92 0.91 0.87 0.86 0.89 0.65 0.80 0.80 12 0.43 0.95 0.86 0.96 0.69 0.88 0.94 0.41 0.71 0.80 0.86 13 0.48 0.98 0.93 0.96 0.77 0.93 0.91 0.53 0.75 0.89 0.88 0.00 14 0.82 0.47 0.82 0.74 0.93 0.75 0.88 0.93 0.76 0.77 0.82 0.50 0.61 15 0.74 0.81 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.90 0.96 0.80 0.90 0.87 0.97 0.86 0.90 0.89 16 0.81 0.36 0.70 0.67 0.92 0.59 0.70 0.86 0.84 0.58 0.81 0.45 0.52 0.95 0.86 17 0.85 0.70 0.86 0.83 0.87 0.93 0.92 0.83 0.65 0.88 0.82 0.66 0.75 0.90 0.84 0.78 18 0.54 0.00 0.50 0.33 0.62 0.51 0.58 0.81 0.25 0.59 0.34 0.00 0.17 0.77 0.46 0.58 0.77 19 0.79 0.84 0.86 0.96 0.88 0.88 0.92 0.69 0.87 0.78 0.94 0.88 0.90 0.80 0.97 0.80 0.85 0.31 20 0.70 0.90 0.87 0.95 0.87 0.92 0.95 0.72 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.90 0.93 0.76 0.94 0.71 0.86 0.35 0.97 21 0.54 0.95 0.97 0.98 0.86 0.94 0.97 0.67 0.82 0.94 0.91 0.96 0.96 0.72 0.95 0.63 0.81 0.32 0.92 0.95 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.2.4 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Sadoba pond during 2000 - 2001 Pearson's coefficient 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 13 14 2 4 23 22 7 3 8 11 16 21 12 19 6 10 15 18 9 1 20 5 17 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 7- Fig. 3.1.5. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Someshwar temple tank during 2000 - 2001 2 0.66 3 0.69 0.86 4 0.60 0.44 0.69 5 0.65 0.66 0.86 0.52 6 0.84 0.75 0.63 0.24 0.71 7 0.95 0.55 0.52 0.62 0.42 0.73 8 0.88 0.63 0.80 0.89 0.72 0.61 0.83 9 0.40 0.56 0.75 0.43 0.91 0.51 0.16 0.56 10 0.83 0.58 0.57 0.25 0.76 0.94 0.69 0.63 0.61 11 0.88 0.65 0.48 0.51 0.30 0.73 0.95 0.72 0.08 0.63 12 0.79 0.90 0.79 0.49 0.74 0.90 0.70 0.73 0.65 0.81 0.74 13 0.85 0.75 0.63 0.24 0.67 0.98 0.74 0.60 0.49 0.94 0.76 0.89 14 0.87 0.83 0.86 0.77 0.75 0.76 0.81 0.92 0.63 0.72 0.79 0.92 0.77 15 0.56 0.56 0.84 0.68 0.75 0.43 0.42 0.68 0.66 0.47 0.31 0.56 0.48 0.72 16 0.12 0.29 0.52 0.83 0.41 0.07 0.15 0.56 0.49 0.07 0.07 0.30 0.09 0.51 0.53 17 0.51 0.75 0.50 0.26 0.47 0.76 0.51 0.43 0.44 0.63 0.62 0.89 0.76 0.72 0.31 0.24 18 0.92 0.57 0.62 0.79 0.49 0.64 0.97 0.92 0.25 0.60 0.89 0.69 0.63 0.85 0.50 0.38 0.47 19 0.96 0.82 0.82 0.60 0.74 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.50 0.82 0.85 0.89 0.88 0.92 0.62 0.21 0.64 0.87 20 0.64 0.63 0.89 0.63 0.95 0.56 0.41 0.79 0.90 0.64 0.29 0.66 0.54 0.75 0.78 0.48 0.30 0.52 0.70 21 0.65 0.37 0.55 0.90 0.53 0.36 0.68 0.88 0.50 0.44 0.57 0.58 0.36 0.79 0.53 0.73 0.41 0.80 0.60 0.61 22 0.96 0.66 0.57 0.40 0.54 0.90 0.92 0.73 0.30 0.87 0.92 0.81 0.92 0.80 0.43 0.07 0.62 0.83 0.92 0.48 0.51 23 0.90 0.68 0.60 0.61 0.36 0.66 0.94 0.80 0.13 0.57 0.96 0.69 0.68 0.80 0.41 0.14 0.46 0.92 0.87 0.42 0.59 0.87 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.2.5 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Someshwar temple tank during 2000 - 2001 Pearson's coefficient 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 6 13 10 12 14 2 17 1 22 19 7 18 J 11 23 5 20 9 3 15 4 21 8 16 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.1.6. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Waghbil lake during 2000 - 2001 2 0.69 3 0.94 0.79 4 0.83 0.36 0.75 5 0.76 0.25 0.50 0.83 6 0.96 0.74 0.87 0.79 0.75 7 0.31 0.62 0.53 0.43 0.12 0.42 8 0.79 0.37 0.79 0.61 0.30 0.76 0.16 9 0.85 0.48 0.89 0.56 0.30 0.69 0.20 0.85 10 0.65 0.98 0.82 0.28 0.17 0.68 0.58 0.45 0.57 11 0.87 0.45 0.91 0.69 0.41 0.71 0.18 0.84 0.99 0.51 12 0.90 0.91 0.97 0.70 0.51 0.89 0.66 0.67 0.76 0.89 0.78 13 0.92 0.77 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.94 0.45 0.56 0.59 0.69 0.64 0.89 14 0.61 0.22 0.55 0.65 0.37 0.74 0.31 0.83 0.43 0.23 0.48 0.50 0.52 15 0.88 0.59 0.96 0.70 0.38 0.75 0.39 0.84 0.97 0.65 0.99 0.87 0.69 0.51 16 0.99 0.63 0.89 0.85 0.79 0.98 0.29 0.82 0.80 0.59 0.83 0.86 0.91 0.71 0.83 17 0.68 0.24 0.79 0.60 0.14 0.49 0.21 0.80 0.90 0.34 0.95 0.63 0.40 0.44 0.94 0.63 18 0.55 0.57 0.67 0.52 0.11 0.68 0.76 0.71 0.42 0.59 0.46 0.70 0.52 0.83 0.60 0.59 0.48 19 0.68 0.81 0.87 0.59 0.19 0.73 0.86 0.65 0.60 0.84 0.63 0.90 0.69 0.60 0.77 0.66 0.60 0.90 20 0.78 0.55 0.88 0.75 0.32 0.75 0.65 0.86 0.78 0.60 0.84 0.83 0.64 0.76 0.90 0.77 0.86 0.87 0.90 21 0.00 0.61 0.94 0.84 0.71 0.93 0.30 0.85 0.90 0.60 0.93 0.88 0.87 0.66 0.92 0.98 0.77 0.58 0.69 0.83 22 0.86 0.57 0.94 0.60 0.31 0.71 0.25 0.83 0.99 0.65 0.99 0.83 0.64 0.43 0.99 0.80 0.92 0.50 0.70 0.84 0.90 23 0.96 0.81 0.99 0.82 0.63 0.92 0.59 0.73 0.82 0.79 0.86 0.99 0.91 0.57 0.91 0.93 0.72 0.68 0.86 0.87 0.95 0.87 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.2.6 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Waghbil lake during 2000 - 2001 Pearson's coefficient 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 9 22 11 15 pl•■•■•• 17 20 8 3 23 12 1 21 16 6 13 4 5 2 10 18 19 7 14 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 -r Fig. 3.1.7. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Mayem lake during 2000 - 2001 2 0.90 3 0.52 0.73 4 0.87 0.93 0.81 5 0.75 0.89 0.29 0.78 6 0.81 0.77 0.00 0.60 0.88 7 0.91 0.94 0.48 0.88 0.95 0.90 8 0.73 0.92 0.34 0.81 0.99 0.81 0.93 9 0.98 0.86 0.64 0.88 0.63 0.67 0.83 0.63 10 0.72 0.74 0.77 0.89 0.76 0.61 0.85 0.74 0.71 11 0.89 0.80 0.33 0.74 0.86 0.95 0.95 0.79 0.80 0.79 12 0.78 0.86 0.84 0.98 0.79 0.56 0.87 0.81 0.78 0.95 0.72 13 0.93 0.00 0.57 0.94 0.87 0.75 0.93 0.89 0.89 0.75 0.80 0.87 14 0.73 0.43 0.58 0.57 0.32 0.22 0.41 0.00 0.84 0.42 0.45 0.46 0.50 15 0.55 0.63 0.40 0.68 0.84 0.71 0.83 0.80 0.45 0.89 0.80 0-.78 0.61 0.00 16 0.87 0.92 0.73 0.97 0.88 0.73 0.95 0.88 0.85 0.94 0.85 0.97 0.93 0.49 0.82 17 0.12 0.91 0.48 0.85 0.79 0.85 0.92 0.76 0.96 0.72 0.91 0.77 0.93 0.68 0.58 0.87 18 0.96 0.80 0.46 0.78 0.72 0.85 0.69 0.66 0.93 0.75 0.95 0.73 0.82 0.73 0.63 0.84 0.97 19 0.93 0.91 0.69 0.95 0.85 0.79 0.96 0.83 0.91 0.97 0.91 0.93 0.92 0.60 0.80 0.98 0.93 0.92 20 0.93 0.99 0.56 0.94 0.91 0.81 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.81 0.86 0.89 0.99 0.47 0.71 0.96 0.93 0.85 0.95 21 0.63 0.80 0.49 0.81 0.93 0.71 0.89 0.93 0.54 0.89 0.77 0.88 0.78 0.00 0.94 0.90 0.65 0.62 0.84 0.94 22 0.94 0.93 0.49 0.88 0.91 0.91 0.99 0.88 0.88 0.84 0.96 0.85 0.93 0.51 0.79 0.94 0.96 0.94 0.97 0.96 0.84 23 0.89 0.88 0.17 0.72 0.90 0.97 0.94 0.87 0.78 0.64 0.92 0.66 0.87 0.33 0.67 0.81 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.90 0.73 0.95 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.2.7 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Mayem lake during 2000 - 2001 Pearson's coefficient 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 2 13 20 22 T 19 16 4 12 5 a 1 6 23 11 1 17 T_ 9 18 15 21 10 3 14 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.1.8. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Pilar lake during 2000 - 2001 2 0.75 3 0.92 0.73 4 0.93 0.70 0.06 5 0.91 0.81 0.82 0.82 6 0.74 0.43 0.50 0.57 0.63 7 0.94 0.82 0.87 0.88 0.90 0.77 8 0.75 0.83 0.77 0.74 0.59 0.34 0.73 9 0.83 0.33 0.78 0.79 0.58 0.38 0.59 0.59 10 0.92 0.78 0.81 0.84 0.89 0.86 0.98 0.65 0.54 11 0.81 0.75 0.95 0.92 0.74 0.28 0.81 0.82 0.64 0.70 12 0.89 0.90 0.93 0.91 0.82 0.49 0.90 0.92 0.64 0.83 0.95 13 0.85 0.66 0.94 0.94 0.66 0.54 0.86 0.79 0.68 0.81 0.91 0.91 14 0.82 0.83 0.90 0.86 0.86 0.26 0.80 0.77 0.63 0.70 0.93 0.92 0.75 15 0.84 0.75 0.96 0.94 0.72 0.32 0.78 0.87 0.75 0.69 0.97 0.95 0.91 0.91 16 0.95 0.70 0.98 0.97 0.84 0.50 0.85 0.77 0.88 0.79 0.91 0.91 0.88 0.90 0.95 17 0.98 0.68 0.89 0.51 0.88 0.81 0.95 0.67 0.77 0.94 0.78 0.84 0.86 0.76 0.78 0.91 18 0.94 0.73 0.91 0.94 0.82 0.77 0.92 0.71 0.68 0.94 0.78 0.86 0.91 0.72 0.82 0.88 0.93 19 0.96 0.83 0.83 0.84 0.87 0.78 0.94 0.84 0.71 0.92 0.76 0.90 0.81 0.78 0.79 0.86 0.94 0.88 20 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.86 0.65 0.97 0.83 0.54 0.91 0.87 0.95 0.86 0.85 0.82 0.83 0.89 0.85 0.94 21 0.80 0.63 0.97 0.95 0.65 0.29 0.76 0.75 0.69 0.67 0.96 0.89 0.94 0.86 0.97 0.92 0.76 0.83 0.69 0.77 22 0.58 0.32 0.46 0.54 0.61 0.80 0.67 0.00 0.00 0.79 0.22 0.35 0.45 0.20 0.20 0.38 0.67 0.74 0.50 0.49 0.29 23 0.89 0.87 0.94 0.93 0.83 0.53 0.93 0.88 0.63 0.85 0.96 0.99 0.93 0.91 0.94 0.91 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.95 0.91 0.42 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.2.8 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Filar lake during 2000 - 2001 Pearson's coefficient 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 12 23 11 15 14 20 3 16 4 13 21 7 10 1 17 19 18 5 2 8 9 6 22 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 -gc Fig. 3.1.9. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Santacruz lake during 2000 - 2001 2 0.77 3 0.87 0.84 4 0.45 0.78 0.76 5 0.45 0.55 0.61 0.73 6 0.82 0.91 0.90 0.77 0.40 7 0.96 0.71 0.81 0.27 0.33 0.71 8 0.88 0.94 0.88 0.56 0.43 0.88 0.90 9 0.70 0.74 0.74 0.66 0.93 0.55 0.66 0.71 10 0.80 0.39 0.81 0.28 0.13 0.66 0.73 0.57 0.31 11 0.90 0.91 0.97 0.67 0.47 0.93 0.88 0.97 0.69 0.75 12 0.94 0.61 0.91 0.41 0.42 0.73 0.92 0.78 0.64 0.94 0.89 13 0.98 0.79 0.92 0.57 0.62 0.83 0.94 0.89 0.81 0.78 0.91 0.94 14 0.84 0.61 0.85 0.44 0.00 0.86 0.74 0.72 0.29 0.93 0.86 0.87 0.79 15 0.94 0.75 0.91 0.52 0.27 0.91 0.86 0.85 0.50 0.89 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.98 16 0.88 0.40 0.70 0.08 0.17 0.48 0.91 0.67 0.49 0.83 0.72 0.93 0.85 0.71 0.79 17 0.98 0.86 0.95 0.66 0.52 0.93 0.89 0.91 0.72 0.82 0.96 0.93 0.97 0.90 0.98 0.78 18 0.78 0.83 0.82 0.75 0.90 0.71 0.72 0.78 0.98 0.42 0.78 0.70 0.87 0.45 0.63 0.51 0.82 19 0.94 0.60 0.73 0.13 0.31 0.61 0.98 0.83 0.63 0.69 0.79 0.88 0.92 0.67 0.81 0.95 0.84 0.67 20 0.95 0.81 0.94 0.52 0.36 0.90 0.94 0.94 0.62 0.85 0.98 0.94 0.94 0.91 0.97 0.83 0.97 0.72 0.87 21 0.86 0.52 0.53 0.00 0.34 0.42 0.89 0.70 0.67 0.43 0.61 0.71 0.83 0.40 0.61 0.82 0.71 0.68 0.93 0.68 22 0.80 0.59 0.94 0.57 0.35 0.79 0.72 0.69 0.48 0.96 0.87 0.93 0.82 0.94 0.91 0.73 0.89 0.58 0.64 0.89 0.37 23 0.00 0.77 0.91 0.47 0.46 0.82 0.97 0.91 0.71 0.83 0.94 0.97 0.98 0.86 0.95 0.91 0.97 0.77 0.95 0.97 0.82 0.85 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15. 16 17 18 19. 20 21 22 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.2.9 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Santacruz lake during 2000 - 2001 Pearson's coefficient 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 7 19 11 20 1 23 13 17 8 14 15 10 22 12 3 2 6 16 21 9 18 5 4 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.1.10. Similarity matrix for zooplankton communities in Vaddem lake during 2000 - 2001 2 0.78 3 0.57 0.66 4 0.38 0.89 0.55 5 0.91 0.67 0.58 0.37 6 0.57 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.31 7 0.38 0.81 0.27 0.82 0.27 0.65 8 0.92 0.91 0.64 0.69 0.91 0.62 0.67 9 0.90 0.71 0.74 0.43 0.97 0.40 0.37 0.91 10 0.57 0.53 0.80 0.33 0.58 0.37 0.36 0.61 0.80 11 0.74 0.90 0.91 0.79 0.69 0.78 0.64 0.84 0.82 0.83 12 0.86 0.89 0.64 0.62 0.94 0.60 0.58 0.20 0.93 0.62 0.84 13 0.80 0.86 0.80 0.71 0.81 0.62 0.71 0.94 0.91 0.84 0.93 0.90 14 0.39 0.34 0.50 0.00 0.22 0.31 0.35 0.38 0.51 0.87 0.60 0.36 0.64 15 0.75 0.80 0.42 0.65 0.77 0.36 0.80 0.91 0.81 0.61 0.73 0.88 0.90 0.45 16 0.90 0.72 0.71 0.46 0.99 0.42 0.27 0.91 0.97 0.61 0.77 0.94 0.84 0.23 0.73 17 0.43 0.59 0.80 0.46 0.30 0.79 0.00 0.40 0.37 0.32 0.70 0.44 0.42 0.08 0.11 0.47 18 0.46 0.85 0.44 0.82 0.29 0.81 0.90 0.70 0.37 0.30 0.69 0.60 0.71 0.29 0.64 0.34 0.32 19 0.57 0.69 0.66 0.48 0.36 0.68 0.65 0.62 0.59 0.84 0.83 0.59 0.80 0.92 0.61 0.40 0.36 0.65 20 0.83 0.97 0.74 0.83 0.79 0.74 0.80 0.97 0.85 0.70 0.84 0.94 0.97 0.50 0.90 0.82 0.51 0.81 0.76 21 0.90 0.60 0.46 0.28 0.99 0.21 0.27 0.90 0.94 0.53 0.60 0.92 0.79 0.23 0.80 0.95 0.12 0.27 0.34 0.75 22 0.82 0.75 0.70 0.51 0.82 0.45 0.60 0.88 0.94 0.90 0.86 0.87 0.96 0.75 0.90 0.80 0.26 0.52 0.81 0.89 0.81 23 0.69 0.83 0.97 0.71 0.67 0.75 0.50 0.78 0.81 0.84 0.96 0.78 0.89 0.57 0.63 0.76 0.77 0.59 0.78 0.88 0.56 0.82 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Fig. 3.2.10 Dendrogram based on similarity index for Vaddem lake during 2000 - 2001 Pearson's coefficient 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 11 23 10 13 22 a 20 12 9 21 5 1 2 4 15 16 3 14 19 7 18 6 17 Key: 1 - 23, February 2000 - December 2001 Summary Summary • Probably for the first time a comprehensive and comparative study on the freshwater bodies of the states of Goa and Maharashtra was undertaken. • The project was almost complete and comprehensive as the studies included analysis of physical, chemical and biological entities. • Comparison of water bodies existing at almost sea level in one state with that of high altitude in another state is also a unique type of study undertaken in this project. • In the present project, temporary water bodies were compared with permanent water bodies to understand their structural dynamics. • As the water bodies in Goa are near to sea, they are warm during summer, while the water bodies in Maharashtra, which are quite away from the sea, were colder during winter, in line with wind movements. • The study also concluded that Goan water bodies are relatively more acidic, may be due to inflow of water from mining areas. • The freshwater bodies of Maharashtra had higher level of of alkalinity and hardness as compared to the water bodies of Goa, except for Vaddem lake, which showed higher alkalinity and hardness values, may be due to its secluded nature with location in urban area. 142 S U 11111Ia ly • During rains, a rise in iron content was observed in some water bodies as against the fall in concentration of other ions, which can be accounted for run-off from iron ore mining area and particularly higher iron contents in Goan soils, in general. • All water bodies studied, showed higher biomass values during winter followed by summer, which may be due to congenial environment for its luxuriant growth of the biological materials immediately after the rains. • Rotifers were found to be dominant in all freshwater bodies studied with co-dominance of copepods and cldocerans in some water bodies for a short period. It may be due to their small size, sturdiness and their capacity to withstand environmental vagaries. • Rotifer community exhibited a strong correlation with temperature. • Copepoda were the second most abundant zooplankton group in all the water bodies, which may be due to their capacity for adaptation to varied agroclimatic conditions. • Calanoids demonstrated an alternating rise and fall in density throughout the year, indicating their sensitivity to changing environmental conditions. • Cladocera, the third abundant group, was found at its peak abundance during July-August expressing their ability to grow very well when environmental conditions are optimal. • Harpacticoids and ostracods were present in very low numbers may be due to theft poor adaptability. • Mayem lake had the least zooplankton abundance among the freshwater bodies of Goa, while in Maharashtra, Sorneshwar temple tank had the least abundance as the first one has least eutrophication, while the latter one has fish predation. 143 Sumniaiy • Significant correlation was observed between physico-chemical parameters and zooplankton abundance, as they are inter-dependant. • The presently recorded rotifers thus, makeup about 1/5` h of the known species of Indian Rotifera, indicating rich and diverse taxocoenosis in the study area. Among rotifers, species of Brachionidae and Lecanidae were found in maximum numbers. Among these, Keratella tropica was the most predominant species, though it was absent in Mayem lake and Someshwar temple tank. • In the present faunistic survey of zooplankton, 23 species of rotifers are new records from Goa, while 16 species are new records for Maharashtra. • Pilar lake in Goa and Kalamba lake in Maharashtra had the highest species diversity. of cladocers, while Mayem lake and Scmeshwar temple tank had the least number of species among the water bodies of Goa and Maharashtra, respectively. • This study revealed a total of 20 new records to the cladoceran fauna from freshwater bodies of Goa and 16 new records from freshwater bodies of Maharashtra. • Frequently found species of zooplankton in the study area were Heliodiaptomus viduus, Diaptomus sp., among calanoid groups, while Mesocyclops leuckarti .and Cyclops sp. from cyclopoid groups. Larval stages of copepods showed regular appearance throughout the year. • From Goa, 15 species of copepods are new records contributed by the present study, whereas from freshwater bodies of Maharashtra, 13 species of copepods are new records. 144 Sununu°, • Most of the water bodies in the states of Goa and Maharashtra showed an incline towards enrichment of nutrients and hence are in the process of eutrophication. Vaddem lake is already eutrophicated. • Among the water bodies of Maharashtra, the species diversity was in the following order: Kalamba lake > Rankala lake > Sadoba pond > Rajaram lake > Waghbil lake > Someshwar temple tank. While, in Goa the order was as follows: Pilar lake > Santacruz lake > Vaddem lake > Mayem lake. 45 Bi6fio ra fly (Bibriography Adholia, U. N. and Vyas, A. 1991. Bioassay of Cladocera in relation to limnochemistry of Mansarovar Reservoir, Bhopal. Environ. Ecol. 9: 473-478. Adholia, U. N. and Vyas, A. 1992. 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