Chapter II THE CONCEPT OF IN GENERAL, IN

II.1. Origin and Significance of the word Dharma

II.1.1. Overview of Dharma

Dharma is generally understood as a concept that encompasses several meanings, including morality, law, religion and tradition as well as the nature of reality or the nature of individual members of society. However, the lexical meanings of dharma remain extremely diverse and the decision to translate the word into one term or another remains difficult.2

The term dharma is a central concept of morality, tradition and national identity, is a notoriously difficult one to define. Ordinary definitions relate the word variously to the individual‘s duty, to the observance of custom or law, to the individual‘s conformity to duty and nature or to divine law itself.3 The concept of dharma is found in Indian philosophical tradition as well as Western philosophical traditions. In the essentialist traditions, the change from religion to philosophy pertains merely to language, not to content. However, when primitive religion gave way to critical

2 Encyclopedia of Religion (ER.) edited (ed.) by Lindsay Jones (2005). New York: Thomson Corporation, second edition, vol. 4, p. 2327. 3 Kedar Nath Tiwari (1997). Comparative Religion, Delhi: Motilal Banrsidass Publishers, p. 11.

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philosophy, the concept of law replaced the concept of divine beings that were now looked upon as mere embodiments of that law. The transition from the polytheism of early Ṛgveda to the monotheism and monism of the later hymns is, therefore, marked only by a change in the language rather than content.4 Ṛta became the inexorable law that governs the universe, including gods. Originally, this ṛta was probably understood as a physical law, but soon, moral, religious and social dimensions came to be assumed. Varuṇa became the custodian of the moral law; the sacrificial ritual assumed the form of a religious law and the four castes or varṇas made up the social law. In the Upaniṣads, ṛta came to be replaced by the concept of a permanent and eternal ātman, and in the Bhagavadgītā, ātman gave way to the conception of dharma.

II.1.2. Origin and Meanings of the Word Dharma

The word dharma (Pāli: dhamma) is used in almost all philosophies and religions of India, the dharmic faiths, namely Hinduism (Sanatana dharma), Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.5 In its oldest form, dharma, it first appears in the Vedas. The etymological explanation of dharma is thus: it can be derived from the verbal root dhṛ meaning ‗to hold‘, ‗to bear‘, ‗to wear‘, ‗to have‘, ‗to support‘.6

4 Encyclopedia of Buddhism (EB) (eds.) by Damien Keown and Charles S. Prebish (2010). London & New York: Routledge, p. 271. 5 ― uses the term dharma in a variety of contexts requiring a variety of translations. Dharma derives from the root √dhṛ (to hold, to maintain) and is related to the Latin forma. From its root meaning as ‗that which is established‘ comes such translations as law, duty, justice, religion, nature, and essential quality. Its oldest form, dharman, is found in the pre-Buddhist Ṛgveda, which dates to at least three thousand years ago. Thus, the Buddha must have known and used the term even before his enlightenment. At present, dharma is used generically for ‗religions‘, indicating religious beliefs and practices‖. See more Fumimaro Watanabe (1983). Philosophy and its Development the Nikāya and Abhidhamma, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidsss Publishers, p. 10 and EB. (eds.) by Jr. Buswell and E. Robert (2004). New York: Thomson Gale Group, vol. 1, p. 217b. 6 Edward Conze (2002). Buddhist thought in India, Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, pp. 92-106.

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According to A Dictionary of the Pāli language, ―dhamma can be defined in both the masculine form (dhammo) and the neuter form (dhammaṁ) in ten groups, which are as follows: 1) nature, condition, quality, property, characteristic, 2) function, practice, duty, 3) object, thing, idea, phenomenon, 4) doctrine, 5) law, 6) virtue, piety, 7) justice, 8) the law or Truth of Buddha, 9) the Buddhist scriptures, 10) religion.‖7 The word dharma8 also means that which preserves or maintains, especially that which preserves or maintains human activity. The term has wide range of meanings: (1) Custom, habit, standard of behavior; (2) That which should be done; occupation, duty, obligation; (3) social order, social pattern; (4) goodness, good action, virtue; (5) truth, reality, true principle, law; (6) the basis of all worlds and realms; (7) religious duty; (8) the standard of the awareness of truth, the law; (9) Buddha‘s teachings, explanation; (10) original essence, original nature; (11) attribute, quality, characteristic quality, elemental construct. Dharma is a key of concept with multiple meanings in all religions in India such as: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. In order to understand the general concept of dharma as found in different religions, Let us discuss the same in brief. a) The Concept of Dharma in Hinduism

Hinduism is one of the religions which is perhaps the oldest of all the living religions. It has neither any definite date of its origin nor has it any definite founder associated with it. It is called sanātana dharma, a

7 A Dictionary of the Pāli Language (ed.) by Robert Caesar Chiders (2005). Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, p. 118b. 8 ―Dharma is also with meaning: law, custom, morality, utility, advantages, practical life, sensual gratification and are here identified with two things: 1) Dependent arising (Paṭiccasamuppāda), 2) Freedom (Nibbāna). All other use of the term dharma can be subsumed under one or the other of these two meanings.‖ EB. (ed.) by Jotiya Dhirasekera (1979 – 1980), published by the Government of Sri Lanka: vol. 4, pp. 438 – 453.

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religion coming down to people through eternity. It is thus a unique religion in a very important sense. Some of the important religious texts of Hinduism are the Vedas, the Upaniṣads, the Purāṇas, the Dharma Sūtras and Dharma Śāstras, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata and the Bhagavadgītā.9

Etymologically, the word dharma is derived from the Sanskrit root dhṛ, to ‗sustain, support, uphold.‘ Dharma has a wide range of meaning: it is the essential foundation of things, in general, and thus signifies ‗truth‘; it is that which is established, customary, proper and therefore means ‗tradition or ceremonial‘; it is one‘s duty, responsibility, imperative and thereby ‗moral obligation‘; it is that which is right, virtuous, meritorious, and accordingly ‗ethical‘; and it is that which is required, presented or permitted through religious authority and thus ‗legal‘. The aggregate connotation here suggests that in South Asian cultures dharma represents ‗correctness‘, both in a descriptive and prescriptive sense, which reflects the inextricable connection in the religious thought of India between ontology, ritual ideology, social philosophy, ethics, and canon law.10

Hinduism describes dharma as the natural universal laws, whose observance enables human beings to be contented and happy. Dharma is the moral law combined with spiritual discipline that guides one‘s life. Then, Hindus consider dharma as the very foundation of life. b) The Concept of Dharma in Buddhism

In Buddhism, dharma is the doctrine, the universal truth common to all individuals at all times. In Buddhism, Lord Buddha, Dharma (his teachings), and the Saṅgha (community of believers) are the Three Jewels

9 Kedar Nath Tiwari (1997), pp. 8-9. 10 ER. (ed.) by Mircea Eliade (1987). vol. 4, p. 329a.

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(Triratna) to which Buddhists go for . The term dharma in the plural is used to describe the interrelated elements which create the empirical world. Dharma, which is described in Buddhist terms is the teachings of the Buddha, duty, law, doctrine and things, events, phenomena, everything. c) The Concept of Dharma in Jainism

In Jainism, the word dharma encompasses several meanings such as: the true nature of things, rationality of perception, knowledge and conduct, ten virtues like forgiveness, etc. (forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, truthfulness, purity, self-restraint, penance, renunciation, non-possessiveness, and celibacy), ahiṃsā as protection to all living beings, two paths of the monks and the laity (ascetics and laypersons) and dharma as a substance or a reality, the principle of motion. According to Jain texts, ahiṁsā is the greatest dharma and there is no religion equal to the religion of non-violence.

According to Jain‘s teachings,11 dharma is nothing but the real nature of an object. Just as the nature of fire is to burn and the nature of water is to produce a cooling effect, in the same manner the essential nature of the soul is to seek self realization and spiritual elevation. d) The Concept of Dharma in Sikhism

In Sikhism,12 the word dharma means the ‗path of righteousness‘ simply means ‗seeker of truth‘. Sikh dharma is a distinct religion revealed through the teachings of ten Gurus. The followers believe that the divine light of first Guru transmitted in the next nine Gurus. Sikh dharma is a

11 Kedar Nath Tiwari (1997), p. 70. 12 ER. (ed.) by Lindsay Jones (2005), vol. 12, p. 8393.

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spiritual path for those who are looking to find themselves. Like all spiritual traditions, Sikh dharma has its and legacy, guidelines and philosophies. A true Sikh aims at training the mind and all the senses to recognize the Divine Light within oneself and within the creation and training to transform oneself and serve others.13

Generally speaking, dharma is the basic value in life as well as in social, religious, secular and vocational relations. It is also the foundation of human existence and everything. We have just discussed the term dharma which is described in all religions, however in the present thesis the term dharma will be discussed only from the point of view of Buddhism, with special emphasis on Abhisharmakośa-śāstra. In addition to this, the meaning of dharma and its characteristics are explored in the thesis. Firstly, let us discuss dharma according to the teaching of the Buddha.

II.2. Dharma as the Buddha’s Teachings (Buddhavacana)

In Buddhism, dharma is a term which has great significance. It has three main meanings; Firstly, it denotes the totality of Buddhist teachings, as it exactly describes and explains the fundamental universal law so that individuals may live in harmony with society. It is in this sense that it has been known as one of the ‗Three Jewels‘ (triratna) and the ‗Three Refuges‘ (triśaraṇa), along with the Buddha and the Saṅgha. Secondly, it refers to the natural order, characteristic of things or universal law that underpins the operation of the universe in both the physical and moral spheres. Thirdly, it is used in the system of organization to refer to the individual elements philosophy that collectively constitutes the empirical world. Some of these elements (dharmas) are external to the

13 Kedar Nath Tiwari (1997), p. 173.

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perceiver and others are internal psychological processes and qualities of character. It is in this context that the Mādhyamika school has denied the substantial reality of dharma by claiming that all phenomena are empty (śūnyatā) of any substantial reality.

II.2.1. Dharma as one of the Three Jewels (Triratna)

In Buddhism, dharma, which is classified as one of the Three Jewels (triratna) or Triple Gems, namely, Buddha, Dharma and Saṅgha, is regarded as the foundation of Buddhism. The three Jewels are also understood as the Three Refuges (triśaraṇa), particularly used as a profession of faith. The formal procedure by which a layman or a laywoman becomes a Buddhist is by taking refuge, which involves repeating three times the formula ―I take refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the Dharma, I take refuge in the .‖14

Establishment of Three Jewels in Buddhism is referred to enlightenment of the Buddha. It is said that, after attaining enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, in Bodh-gaya, the Buddha went to the deer park at Isipatana of , a small town near the sacred city of Varanasi in central India to meet his five former companions, the ascetics with whom he had shared six years of hardship, and preached his first sermon, which was later recorded as the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (The Discourse That Sets Turning the Wheel of Truth).15 This sermon introduces the fundamental concepts of Buddhist thought, such as

14 EB. (eds.) by Damien Keown and Charles S. Prebish (2010), p. 272a. 15 ―Dhammacakka is the name given to this first discourse of the Buddha. It is frequently represented as meaning ―The Kingdom of Truth.‖ or ―The Wheel of Truth.‖ According to the commentators dhamma here means wisdom or knowledge, and Cakka means founding or establishment. Dhammacakka therefore means the founding or establishment of wisdom. Dhammacakkappavattana means The Exposition of the Establishment of Wisdom. Dhamma may also be interpreted as Truth, and cakka as wheel. Dhammacakkappavattana would therefore mean The Turning or The Establishment of the Wheel of Truth.‖ Ven. Mahathera Nārada (1998). The Buddha and His Teachings, Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society, pp. 76-77.

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the ‗‘ and the ‗‘, etc. Since then, the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha) were established.16

According to the Buddhist records, after the Buddha‘s nirvāṇa about three months, the first Buddhist council was held at Rajagaha. In this council, the dharma compiled and arranged in its present form in the Tripiṭaka (Pāli: Tipiṭaka), which represents the entire of the Buddha‘s Teaching. The second council was held 100 years and the third council was held around 200 years after the Buddha‘s nirvāṇa (about fourth and third century B.C.). These two councils rehearsed the teachings of the Buddha, because of the purification of the teachings and of the Order (Saṅgha).

The word Tripiṭaka means three baskets, three baskets are the ‗basket of discipline‘ (-piṭaka), the ‗basket of discourses‘ (Sūtra- piṭaka, Pāli: Sutta-piṭaka) and the ‗basket of ultimate doctrine‘ (Abhidharma-piṭaka, Pāli: Abhidhamma-piṭaka).17

(1) Vinaya-piṭaka (basket of discipline) is the collection of texts concerning the rules of conduct governing the daily affairs within the Saṅgha, the community of bhikṣu (Pāli: ) (ordained monks) and bhikṣuṇī (bhikkhunis) (ordained nuns). Far more than merely a list of rules, the Vinaya-piṭaka also includes the stories behind the origin of each rule, providing a detailed account of the Buddha‘s solution to the question of how to maintain communal harmony within a large and diverse spiritual community. Vinaya-piṭaka is divided into three parts which are

16 ―Three Jewels or Triple Gem foundation (Buddha is the Enlightened or Awakened One (Sakyamuni); Dharma is the teachings of the Buddha (the four noble truths) and Saṅgha is the Community, is the group of five Bhikkhus: The five co-wanderers were Kondañña, Vappa, Bhaddiya, Mahānāma and .‖ Saṁyutta-Nikāya (Sn.) v. 420 PTS, (reprint 2005), Vol. 5, p. 356. 17 K.R. Norman, (1983). Pāli Literature: including The Canonical Literature in Prakrit and Sanskrit of all the Hīnayāna , Germany: Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, pp. 15-16, and Ven. Mahathera Nārada, (1998), p. 270.

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arranged as follows: Sutta vibhaṅga (division of rules), (sections) and Parivara (appendix or accessory).

Buddhist scholar Michael Carrithers said: ―No Buddhism without the Saṅgha and no Saṅgha without the Discipline‖.18 In other words, in order to effect the highest level of ethical conduct from the monastic communities, disciplinary for each unit were enacted. For the monastic community, this took the form of a portion of the canon known as the Vinaya-piṭaka. In short, this Vinaya-piṭaka, which is the important factor in the composition of the Buddhist sacred literature, contains the rules for dignifying the outward life of the members of the Buddhist Saṅgha. It is probably the oldest and probably the most influential text for all fraternity of monks.

(2) Sūtra-piṭaka (basket of discourses) is the collection of sūtras, or discourses, attributed to the Buddha and a few of his closest disciples, containing all the central teachings of Theravāda Buddhism. The sūtras are divided among five collections (Pañca-nikāyas) in Pāli: Dīgha- nikāya, Majjhima-nikāya, Saṃyutta-nikāya, Aṅguttara-nikāya and Khuddaka-nikāya. In the Sanskrit literature the Nikāyas are called Āgamas. Sūtra-piṭaka of Āgama is used correspondence with four Nikāyas. The four Āgamas are named Dīrgha-āgama, Madhyama- āgama, Saṃyukta-āgama and Ekottara-āgama.

(3) Abhidharma-piṭaka: (basket of ultimate doctrine or basket of higher dharma) is the third main division of the Pāli literature, these are collection of texts in which the fundamental doctrinal principles presented in the Sūtra-piṭaka are reworked and reorganized into a systematic structure

18 EB. (eds.) by Damien Keown and Charles S. Prebish (2010), p. 804.

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that can be applied to an analysis into the nature of mind and matter. On the other hand, the Abhidharma-piṭaka is known as ‗basket of higher exposition‘ or ‗basket of transcendental doctrine‘. The Abhidharma is a supplement to the Dharma or Sūtra and it deals with the ultimate truth and the philosophical principles, consisting of seven books in Pāli: Dhammasaṅgaṇi, Vibhaṅga, Kathāvatthu, Puggalapaññatti, Dhātukathā, and Paṭṭhāna. In the Sanskrit literature, there are also seven books such as: Jñānaprasthāna, Saṅgītiparyāya, Prakaraṇa, Vijñānakāya, Dhātukāya, Dharmaskandha and Prajñaptiśāstra.

II.2.2. Qualities of Dharma in the Buddha’s Teachings (Dharma-Guṇa)

In the Mahānāmasuttaṃ of Aṅguttara-nikāya, The Buddha has described six supreme qualities of dharma, namely, svākkhāto, sandiṭṭhiko, akāliko, ehipassiko, opanayiko, and paccattaṁ veditabbo viññūhi.19 These qualities are explained as follows:20

(1) Svakkhato (Sanskrit: Svākhyāta) means well-preached, in this case the dharma is not a speculative philosophy, but is the Universal Law found through enlightenment and is preached precisely. Therefore it is excellent in the beginning (sīla - moral principles), excellent in the middle (samādhi - concentration) and excellent in the end, the only end that could result through fate (prajñā - wisdom).

(2) Sandiṭṭhika (Sanskrit: Sāṃdṛṣṭika) means visible, in this sense the dharma can be experienced by practice and therefore he who follows it will see the result by himself through his own experience. According to

19 ―Svākkhāto bhagavatā dhammo sandiṭṭhiko akāliko ehipassiko opanayiko paccattaṁ veditabbo viññūhi.‖ Aṅguttara-nikāya (An.) iii. 285, and v. 329, Majjhima-nikāya (Mn.) i. 37, and David J. Kalupahana (reprint 2011). A History of , Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private limited pp. 114-116. 20 (Vism.) 213, (tr.) Ñānamoli (2006). The Path of Purification, Taiwan: The corporate body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, pp. 230-236.

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the Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), Sandiṭṭhika can be divided into three; visible here and now, a proper view, and worthy of being seen.

(3) Akāliko (Sanskrit: Akālika) means immediate or without delay, in this case the dharma is able to immediate results here and now, through any means of travel, for which there is no need to wait until the future or next existence. It is not delayed (akāla) in the matter of giving its own result (phala) and it is without delay (akālika) because its fruit comes immediately afterwards. The dharma is said to bring immediate results because its effects can be experienced at each and every moment.

(4) Ehipassiko (Sanskrit: Ehipaśyika) means inviting everybody to come and see, in this case the dharma is completely open to investigation and verification. Because the dharma is truth, it is worth and its values do not depend on belief or faith. The Buddha himself strongly advised his disciples not to blindly believe in him, but rather to question and re- question him until they were fully convinced of the teacher and the teachings. The teaching of the Buddha is qualified as ehipassiko, inviting you to come and see, but not to come and believe.

(5) Opanayiko (Sanskrit: Avapraṇayika) means conducive to lead to nirvāṇa; in this case the dharma is capable to lead to cessation of suffering. The dharma is said to lead to higher knowledge and the realization of nirvāṇa. This quality makes the practice of dharma highly rewarding, for the ultimate realization (of dharma) which means the highest bliss and complete freedom from all suffering.

(6) Paccattaṁ veditabbo viññūhi (Sanskrit: Pratyātmaṃ veditavyo vijñaiḥ) means experienced individually by the wisdom, in this case the dharma may be perfectly realized only by the noble disciples who have

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matured and who have become enlightened in supreme wisdom. The Sanskrit term pratyātmaṃ means that the dharma as an experience is directly known through intuitive insight, and is thus a matter of personal knowledge. It is true that it can be heard from others, but to really know the dharma, such second-hand knowledge is insufficient. A direct experience is the most crucial factor in the realization of the truth.

Knowing these six attributes, Buddhists hold that they will attain the greatest peace and happiness through the practice of dharma. Each person is therefore fully dependable to engage in their own practice.

II.2.3. Dependent Origination of Dharma (pratītya-samutpāda)

The teaching of ‗Dependent Origination‘ (pratītya-samutpāda, Pāli: paṭiccasamuppāda) is the most important of Buddhist principles. It describes the law of nature, which exists as the natural course of things. The Buddha was no emissary of heavenly commandments, but the discoverer of this principle of the natural order, and the proclaimer of its truth to the world.

The development of causes and conditions is the reality, which applies to all things, from the natural environment, which is an external, physical condition, to the events of human society, ethical principles, life events and the happiness and suffering which manifest in our own minds. These systems of causal relationship are part of the one natural truth. Our happiness within this natural system depends on having some knowledge of how it works and practicing correctly within it, through addressing problems on the personal, social, and environmental levels. Given that all things are interconnected, and all are affecting each other, success in dealing with the world lies in creating harmony within it.

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The following excerpts indicate the importance where the Buddha ascribed to the principle of Dependent Origination:

(a) The General Principle

The general principle of the doctrine of ‗Dependent Origination‘ was described in the Mahāhatthipadopamasutta of Majjhima-nikāya by the Lord Buddha as follows: ―Whoever sees dependent origination sees the dharma; whoever sees the dharma sees dependent origination.‖21

Furthermore, in the same way the Buddha also said that: ―When there is this, that is. With the arising of this, that arises. When this is not, neither is that. With the cessation of this, that ceases.‖22

From this statement of the Buddha, we can understand that the pratītya-samutpāda is the foundation of all his teachings. Therefore, based upon this doctrine, various theories of philosophy and morality in Buddhism are established.

As we know, pratītya-samutpāda is combined by two words, i.e., pratītya and samutpāda. Pratītya means ‗because of‘ or ‗dependent on‘; samutpāda means ‗arising or origination‘.

According to Paṭiccasamuppādasuttaṃ of Saṁyutta-nikāya, the Dependent Origination described as:

“Bhikkhus, is dependent origination? With ignorance as condition, volitional formations; with volitional formations as condition, consciousness; with consciousness as condition, name and form; with name and form as condition, the six sense bases; with the six

21 ―Yo paṭiccasamuppādaṃ passati so dhammaṃ passati; yo dhammaṃ passati so paṭiccasamuppādaṃ passatīti.‖ Mn. i. 191, PTS. (reprint 2004), Vol. 1, p. 237. 22 ―Imasmiṃ idaṃ hoti imassuppādā idaṃ uppajjati; imasmiṃ asati idaṃ na hoti imassa nirodhā idaṃ nirujjhati.‖ Sn. ii. 28 PTS. (reprint 2005), Vol. 2, p. 23 and Mn. iii. 63, PTS. (reprint 2004), Vol. 3, p. 107.

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sense bases as condition, contract; with contact as condition, feeling; with feeling as condition, craving; with craving as condition, clinging; with clinging as condition, existence; with existence as condition, birth; with birth as condition, aging and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair come to be. Such is the origin of this whole mass of suffering. This, Bhikkus, is called dependent origination.‖23

The pratītya-samutpāda is mentioned throughout the canon from which it is clear that it is regarded as a fundamental truth of the cosmos that exists independently of the arising of enlightened beings:

―Whether there is an arising of Tathāgatas or no arising of Tathāgatas, that element still persists, the stableness of the dhamma, the fixed course of the dhamma, specific conditionality. A Tathāgata awakens to this and breaks through to it. Having done so, he explains it, teaches it, proclaims it, establishes it, discloses it, analyses it, and elucidates it. And he says: ‗see! With ignorance as condition, bhikkhus, volitional formations‘. Thus, bhikkhus, the actuality in this, the inerrancy, specific conditionality: this is called dependent origination‖24

23 ―Avijjāpaccayā, bhikkhave, saṅkhārā; saṅkhārapaccayā viññāṇaṃ; viññāṇapaccayā nāmarūpaṃ; nāmarūpapaccayā saḷāyatanaṃ; saḷāyatanapaccayā phasso; phassapaccayā vedanā; vedanāpaccayā taṇhā; taṇhāpaccayā upādānaṃ; upādānapaccayā bhavo; bhavapaccayā jāti; jātipaccayā jarāmaraṇaṃ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā sambhavanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti. Ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, paṭiccasamuppādo.‖ Sn. ii. 1 & 25 (tr.) by (2000), p.533 and See more Paul Williams (2012). Buddhist Thought A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, London: Routledge, p. 49. 24 ―bhikkhave, saṅkhārā uppādā vā tathāgatānaṃ anuppādā vā tathāgatānaṃ, ṭhitāva sā dhātu dhammaṭṭhitatā dhammaniyāmatā idappaccayatā. Taṃ tathāgato abhisambujjhati abhisameti. Abhisambujjhitvā abhisametvā ācikkhati deseti paññāpeti paṭṭhapeti vivarati vibhajati uttānīkaroti. „Passathā‟ti cāha „avijjāpaccayā, bhikkhave, saṅkhārā‟. Iti kho, bhikkhave, yā tatra tathatā avitathatā anaññathatā idappaccayatā – ayaṃ vuccati, bhikkhave, paṭiccasamuppādo.‖ Sn. ii. 25 (tr.) by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000), p.551.

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(b) The Principle in Effect

The cycle of dependent origination accounts for the problem of duḥkha in two ways corresponding with two in the Four Noble Truths (suffering, origination of suffering, cessation of suffering and the way leading to this cessation of suffering): The first deals with the origination noble which is a description of the arising of duḥkha, corresponding with the second noble truth, the cause or origin of duḥkha. The second deals with the cessation noble, and consists of a description of the cessation of suffering, corresponding with the third noble truth.

―But with the remainder-less fading away and cessation of ignorance comes cessation of volitional formations; with the cessation of volitional formations, cessation of consciousness; with the cessation of consciousness, cessation of name and form; with the cessation of name and form, cessation of the six sense bases; with the cessation the six sense bases, cessation of contract; with the cessation of contact, cessation of feeling; with the cessation of feeling, cessation of craving; with the cessation craving, cessation of clinging; with the cessation of clinging, cessation of existence; with the cessation of existence, cessation of birth; with the cessation of birth, aging and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, displeasure, and despair cease. Such is the cessation of this whole mass of suffering.‖25

The process of is fully explained in the dependent origination or the ‗Wheel of Life‘. Each of these twelve factors is conditioned as well as

25 ―Avijjāya tveva asesavirāganirodhā saṅkhāranirodho; saṅkhāranirodhā viññāṇanirodho; viññāṇanirodhā nāmarūpanirodho; nāmarūpanirodhā saḷāyatananirodho; saḷāyatananirodhā phassanirodho; phassanirodhā vedanānirodho; vedanānirodhā taṇhānirodho; taṇhānirodhā upādānanirodho; upādānanirodhā bhavanirodho; bhavanirodhā jātinirodho; jātinirodhā jarāmaraṇaṃ sokaparidevadukkhadomanassupāyāsā nirujjhanti. Evametassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa nirodho hotī‟ti.‖ Sn. ii. 2 (tr.) by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000), p.534.

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conditioning. Therefore they are all relative, interdependent and interconnected and nothing arises without conditions. Everything is within the law of ‗cause and effect‘. So the whole existence is conditioned and relative and the idea of an eternal, absolute soul or self is only a false belief. Thus the ‗Dependent Origination‘ should be considered as a circle, not as a chain.

The doctrine of pratītya-samutpāda also deals with the process of repeated existence. It has taken into consideration three forms of existence, namely, past, present and future. It shows that depending on the past life there arises the new life; depending on the present life there arises the future life. This process of cause and effect continues endlessly. A beginning of this process cannot be determined. But when the ignorance is replaced by wisdom then the rebirth process will be terminated (or ended). It is reasonable to say that the knowledge of pratītya-samutpāda is the former knowledge of nirvāṇa; it paves a way for liberating from the endless cycle of rebirth.

II.2.3. Three Characteristics of Dharma (Trilakṣaṇa)

‗Three characteristics of dharma‘ or ‗Three dharma seals‘ (trilakṣaṇa, Pāli: tilakkhaṇa) is an important part of the Buddha‘s teachings. It helps people realize the nature of the world and removes desire, hatred and ignorance... We may say that these principles are the fundamental tenets which distinguish Buddhism from all other religious systems in the history of the world. These are:

- Anityatā (Pāli: Aniccā): or change.

- Duḥkha (Pāli: Dukkha): Suffering or unsatisfactoriness.

- Anātman (Pāli: Anattā): No-self.

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In the -sutta, the Buddha taught that:

―All conditioned things are impermanent. When one sees this with insight one becomes weary of suffering. This is the Way to Purity. All conditioned things are painful. When one sees this with insight one becomes weary of suffering. This is the Way to Purity. All states (dharma) are without self. When one sees this with insight (prajñā) one becomes weary of suffering. This is the Way to Purity.‖26

In the Uppādāsuttaṃ of Aṅguttara-nikāya, the Buddha says:

―Whether the Tathāgatas were to appear in this world or not, this principle would still prevail as an enduring aspect of the natural order, that all compounded things (saṃskāras) are impermanent. A Tathāgata, having achieved enlightenment, understands this principle. He declares it, teaches it, and sets it down as a model to reveal, explain, and facilitate an understanding that all compounded things (saṃskāras) are impermanent.

Whether the Tathāgatas were to appear in this world or not, this principle would still prevail as an enduring aspect of the natural order, that all compounded things (saṃskāra) are duḥkha. A Tathāgata, having achieved enlightenment, understands this principle. He declares it, teaches it, and sets it down as a model to reveal, explain, and facilitate an understanding that all compounded things (saṃskāra) are duḥkha.

26 ―Sabbe saṅkhāra aniccā” ti yadā paññāya passati - atha nibbindati dukkhe esa maggo visuddhiyā. Sabbe saṅkhāra dukkha” ti yada paññaya passati - atha nibbindati dukkhe esa maggo visuddhiyā Sabbe dhammā anattā” ti yada paññayā passati - atha nibbindati dukkhe esa maggo visuddhiya.‖ (Dhammapada (Dhp.) magga-vaggo, verses 277, 278, 279)

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Whether the Tathāgatas were to appear in this world or not, this principle would still prevail as an enduring aspect of the natural order, that all dharmas are not-self. A Tathāgata, having achieved enlightenment, understands this principle. He declares it, teaches it, and sets it down as a model to reveal, explain, and facilitate an understanding that all dharmas are not-self.‖27

In short, three characteristics of the dharma: impermanence (anitya), suffering (duḥkha) and no-self (anātman) are the Buddha‘s teaching that aims at destroying desire, hatred and ignorance. The theory of three characteristics helps men to destroy all false view of permanent changeless self which leads human beings to unhappy and sufferings.

II.3. The Concept of Dharma in the Buddhist Schools

In Buddhism there are two traditions, the Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna, each tradition is divided into two schools. The Hīnayāna tradition consists of Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda school. The Mahāyāna tradition consists of Mādhyamika or Śūnyavāda and Yogācāra or Vijñānavāda school. The concept of dharma in the Buddhist schools is explained and developed in different aspects of dharma in Buddha‘s teachings. Each school has different interpretations on various characteristics of dharma.

27 „„Uppādā vā, bhikkhave, tathāgatānaṃ anuppādā vā tathāgatānaṃ, ṭhitāva sā dhātu dhammaṭṭhitatā dhammaniyāmatā. Sabbe saṅkhārā aniccā. Taṃ tathāgato abhisambujjhati abhisameti. Abhisambujjhitvā abhisametvā ācikkhati deseti paññāpeti paṭṭhapeti vivarati vibhajati uttānīkaroti – „sabbe saṅkhārā aniccā‟ti. Uppādā vā, bhikkhave, tathāgatānaṃ anuppādā vā tathāgatānaṃ ṭhitāva sā dhātu dhammaṭṭhitatā dhammaniyāmatā. Sabbe saṅkhārā dukkhā. Taṃ tathāgato abhisambujjhati abhisameti. Abhisambujjhitvā abhisametvā ācikkhati deseti paññāpeti paṭṭhapeti vivarati vibhajati uttānīkaroti – „sabbe saṅkhārā dukkhā‟ti. Uppādā vā, bhikkhave, tathāgatānaṃ anuppādā vā tathāgatānaṃ ṭhitāva sā dhātu dhammaṭṭhitatā dhammaniyāmatā. Sabbe dhammā anattā. Taṃ tathāgato abhisambujjhati abhisameti. Abhisambujjhitvā abhisametvā ācikkhati deseti paññāpeti paṭṭhapeti vivarati vibhajati uttānīkaroti – „sabbe dhammā anattā‟.‟‟ An. i. 285f, PTS. (reprint 2006), vol. 1, pp. 264-265, and An. i. 285, (tr.) by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012), pp. 363-364.

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II.3.1. The Concept of Dharma in Theravāda School

The concept of dharma in Theravāda school is also called as the concept of dharma in . The term dharma in Theravāda means ‗the things of existence‘; it is used in the Pāli Abhidhamma-piṭaka as a general term which means a method of analysis. The dharma is used in the Suttas-piṭaka in Pāli with reference to ‗things‘ which arise and vanish depending on causes (pratītya-samutpāda). They are sometimes called saṃskāra and sometimes saṃskṛta which consist of both physical and psychological phenomena. The common characteristics of those phenomena are appearance and disappearance; sometimes one of the three characteristics (trilakṣaṇa) is added. Later, it came to be interpreted as duration. Therefore, these dharmas are impermanent (anitya), suffering (duḥkha) and no-self (anātman).

The universal truth dharma discovered by the Buddha is represented by the doctrine of the Four Noble Truths, namely: (1) unhappiness (duḥkha), (2) its origination (samutpāda), (3) its cessation (nirodha) and (4) the way leading to this cessation (mārga). Above all, the principles called ‗thirty-seven bodhipakṣa dharmas‘ were esteemed greatly as the dharma of practice which lead to calm, to insight, to enlightenment, to cessation (nirvāṇa). The thirty-seven dharmas are also called ‗thirty-seven practical dharmas‘.28

28 Sattatiṃsa bodhipakkhiyā dhammā (thirty-seven factors of enlightenment) consists of; 1) Catvāri-smṛtyupasthāna (Four frames of reference), 2) Catvāri-samyakprahṇa (), 3) Catvāri-ṛddhipāda (Four bases of power), 4) Pañca - (Five faculties), 5) Pañca-bala (Five powers), 6) Sapta-bodhyanga (seven factors of Enlightenment), and 7) Āryāṣṭāṅgamārga ().

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II.3.2. The Concept of Dharma in Sarvāstivāda School

Sarvāstivāda is a branch of Hinayāna separated from the Theravādin during the reign of King Aśoka. In this school all concepts of dharmas, i.e. present, past, and future are present simultaneously. This school developed in Kashmir and Gandhāra. Up to the fourth century A.D., the cocept of dharma is described clearly in the Abhidharmakośa of . So this work occupied an important role in this school.

The Sarvāstivāda school which maintained its literature in Sanskrit, represented the views put forward by a few leading philosophers such as Dharmatrāta, Ghoṣaka, Vasumitra, Buddhadeva, Vasubandhu and Saṅghabhadra. These philosophers attempted to provide an explanation of dharma, based more on the etymology of the term than in terms of its actual usage in the early discourses (Buddhavacana). This school perceived a self cause in the cause and emphasized the identity of cause and effect. This conception of the self-cause was extended to all phenomena including the human personality. The followers of this school believed that the self-cause of dharma remain in existence during all the three periods of times, present, past and future (three times exists).29

II.3.3. The Concept of Dharma in Mādhyamika School

According to the Buddhist philosophy, all the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism were primarily as a result of the essentialism30 so, it is openly denied by the Sarvāstivāda school. While emphasizing the transcendence of sense experience, these Mahāyāna schools made a concerted effort to

29 Sarvakālāstitā uktatvāt dvayāt sadviṣayāt phalāt| tadastivādāt sarvāstivādā iṣṭāḥ caturvidhāḥ||25|| 三世有由說 三有境果故 說三世有故 許說一切有. (Akk. v. 25), see more Stephen J. Laumakis (2008). An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 138-139. 30 Essentialism is the philosophical theory that particular instances of objects derive their identity as members of a class by ‗participating in‘, or by reference to, an ideal form which is their ‗essence‘.

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uphold the non-substantiality of phenomena by emphasizing emptiness (Śūnyatā).31

Nāgārjuna,32 the founder of the Mādhyamika school,33 sees dharma from an entirely different point of view. He reinterprets the causal law (partītya-samutpāda) to mean emptiness (Śūnyatā) and on basis of that interpretation, undertakes a thorough examination of the dharma theory of the Abhidharma schools and comes to the conclusion that nothing is real if taken separately. He takes every aspect of the dharma theory for examination, viz., the characteristics of the conditioned, the primary and secondary elements, with and without, permanent and impermanent; it is all dependent origination, emptiness and middle path.

―We state that whatever is dependent arising, that is emptiness.

That is dependent upon convention, that itself is the middle path‖34

Mādhyamika school rejected the Sarvāstivāda notion of substance (svabhāva); the Mahāyānists were here suggesting an epistemology for concept of dharma they had accepted. This is further elaborated by

31 Edward Conze (tr.) (1994). The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand lines, Delhi: Indian Books Centre, P.19. 32 Nāgārjuna was born in South India in a Brahmin family in the 2nd century AD. He was a Buddhist philosopher of towering personality, studied the four Vedas and learned all sciences. He created a period in the history of Buddhist philosophy and gave it a definite turn. He propounded the Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy, which is also known as Śūnyavāda. Nāgārjuna‟s great philosophical work, Mūlamadhyamika-kārikā, consists of 400 kārikās in 27 chapters and is the foundation of his philosophy. 33 ―The Mādhyamika school was one of the two major Mahāyāna schools in India, the other being the Vijñānavāda or Consciousness-Only school, also known as the Yogācāra school. It upholds the doctrines of non-substantiality and dependent origination, which maintain that all phenomena arise interdependently and are without distinctive natures of their own, i.e., that they are non- substantial. In addition, it teaches that, by recognizing the interdependence of all phenomena, one can rid oneself of illusions and perceive the ultimate truth of the Buddha the Middle Way that is beyond the two extremes of existence and nonexistence.‖ EB. (ed.) by Soka Gakkai (2002). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, p.376. 34 ―Yaḥ partītyasamutpādaḥ śūnyatāṃ tāṃ pracakṣmahe Sā prajñaptir upādāya pratipat saiva madhyamā.” (Mū. 24:18) Mūlamadhyamakakārikā of Nāgārjuna (Mū.) (tr.) by David J. Kalupahana (2006). The Philosophy of the Middle Way, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited p. 339.

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Nāgārjuna when he insisted that reality (tattva) is non-conceptual (nirvikalpa). In order to establish this view Nāgārjuna had to show not only that there is no substance (svabhāva) but also that all conceptual thinking is empty (śūnya).35 In the Mūlamādhyamakakārikā, an opponent is made to raise the following objection:

―When all things are empty, why (speculate on) the finite, the infinite, both the finite and the infinite and neither finite nor the infinite?

Why (speculate on) the identical, the different, the eternal, the non- eternal, both or neither?

The Buddha did not teach the appeasement of all objects, the appeasement of obsession, and the auspicious as something to someone at some place‖36

II.3.4. The Concept of Dharma in Yogācāra School

The Vijñānavāda is also known as Yogācāra school, which is one of the two main systems of Mahāyāna tradition in India (Vijñānavāda and Madhyamika). This school was originally founded by (3rd century A.D.), and developed to high level by the famous devotees who are as brothers, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu (4th century A.D.). The developed school was called as Yogācāra by Asaṅga and as Vijñānavāda by Vasubandhu.

35 See more detail reference to Stephen J. Laumakis, (2008), pp. 140-147. 36 Mū. Pp. 368-369. “śūnyeṣu sarvadharmeṣu kim anantaṃ kim antavat Kim anantam antavac ca nānantaṁ nāntavac ca kiṁ Kiṃ tad eva kim anyat kiṃ śāśvataṃ kim aśāśvataṁ Aśāśvataṃ śāśvataṃ ca kiṃ vā nobhayam apyataḥ Sarvopalambhopaśamaḥ prapañcopaśamaḥ śivaḥ Na kvacit kasyacit kaścid dharmo buddhena deśitaḥ” (Mū. 25: 22-24:)

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The Vijñānavāda flourished in India from the 4th to the 12th century A.D. the adherents of this school held that the world is nothing but mind or consciousness (mind-only - cittamātra). It was, therefore, left to the idealists as well as the logicians of the idealist school to explain the problem of knowledge relating to this conception of dharma. This school upholds the concept that all phenomena (dharmas) arise from the Vijñāna, or consciousness and the basis of all functions of consciousness is the storehouse-consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna). The concept of dharma stated in the first verse of Triṃśikā by Vasubandhu is thus:

―Due to the provisional expressional ātman (self) and dharmas (elements), there is the proliferation of their mutual operations. They (i.e., the interactions between self and its perceptual field) depend upon consciousness for their alterations, that which actively alters is only three. The three-fold transformations are Maturation (or fruition), thinking and representations of objects.‖37

While the absolute idealists like Vasubandhu adopted one approach to this problem of knowledge, logicians like Diṅnāga and Dharmakīrti seem to have taken a slightly different one. Vasubandhu recognizes the validity of a non-dual knowledge attained by the yogic in the highest stage of meditation. This knowledge is said to be free from the normal subject- object duality associated with sensory experience. In the Triṃśikā, Vasubandhu summarized as follows:

37 Ātma-dharma-upacāro hi vividho yaḥ pravartate, vijñāna-pariṇāmo‟sau pariṇāmaḥ sa ca tridhā. Vipāko mananākhyaś-ca vijñaptir- viṣayasya ca. 由假說我法 有種種相轉 彼依識所變 此能變唯三 謂異熟 思量 及了別境識。(Triṃśikā verse 1-2) Lusthaus Dan (2006). Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical Investigation of Yogācāra Buddhism and the Ch‟eng Wei-shih Lun, Lodon and New York: Routledge, pp. 275-276.

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―When consciousness is without an objective support, then consciousness is established in ‗mere ideation‘ (vijñaptimātra), since in the absence of anything to grasp, there is no grasping. When (he) is without thought, without objective support, his knowledge is super-abundance. There is turning away from the object, through the abandonment of the two kinds of weaknesses (i.e., the belief in a self and the belief in real elements, dharma). That is the realism without defiling tendencies (amāśrava), inconceivable, good and permanent happy with released body; this is what is called dharma of the great sage.‖38

II.4. Dharma and Abhidharma

II.4.1. Understanding of the Abhidharma

As mentioned above, the abhidharma or higher dharma is the analytic doctrine of Buddhist Canon. It is one of the Tripiṭaka texts which explain dharma in detail. The abhidharma is referring to Hīnayāna teachings; it consists of seven books of psychological analysis and synthesis of dharmas. Abhidharma is an earliest compilation of Buddhist philosophy and psychology, concerning psychological and spiritual phenomena contained in the discourses of the Buddha and his principal disciples in a systematic order.

38 ―Yad tu-ālambanaṃ vijñānaṃ na-eva-upalabhate tadā, sthito vijñāna-mātratve grāhyābhāve tad- agrahāt||28|| Acitto‟nupalambho‟ sau jñānaṃ lokottaraṃ ca tat, āśrayasya parāvṛttir dvidhā dauṣṭhulya hānitaḥ||29|| Sa eva-anāsravo dhātur-acintyaḥ kuśalo dhruvaḥ, sukho vimukti-kāyo‟sau dharmakāyo‟yaṃ mahā-muneḥ||30||‖ 若時於所緣, 智都無所得, 爾時住唯識, 離二取相故。 無得不思議, 是出世間智, 捨二麁重故, 便證得轉依。 此即無漏界, 不思議善常, 安樂解脫身, 大牟尼名法。(Triṃśikā 28-30). Lusthaus Dan (2006), pp. 302-304.

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According to the etymology, the term abhidharma is formed out of the prefix ‗abhi‟ and the noun ‗dharma‘. The prefix ‗abhi‘ means higher or special, dharma refers to the doctrines preached by the Buddha, thus making abhidharma. Therefore, abhidharma would mean ‗the higher or special dharma‘ or ‗the higher teachings‘.39

There are three phases in the development of abhidharma literature:

(1) Mainly involves Sūtra commentary and arrangement of Sūtra quotations according to a set of categories texts including Sarvāstivāda and Theravāda. The collection of teachings enumerated in the Sūtras were somewhat indiscriminate collections of teaching lists arranged numerically, i.e. a wide variety of teachings were combined and organized superficially based on the number of terms in each list. This was an important aid to memorization but not conducive to substantive explication of doctrine.

(2) A more abstract approach develops which incorporates new categories (texts here include the remaining Sarvāstivāda and Theravāda canonical texts). Lists of terms drawn from the Sūtras are formed and

39 ―The term abhidharma (Pāli: abhidhamma) means approximately ‗higher‘ or 'further' dharma. For Buddhist tradition it refers to two things: first, a set of books regarded by most ancient schools as ‗the word of the Buddha‘ and as such forming the contents of the third basket of scriptures, the Abhidharma Piṭaka; secondly, the particular system of thought and method of exposition set out in those books and their commentaries. The two canonical Abhidharma collections that survive are those of the Theravādins and the Sarvāstivadins, the latter only in Chinese translation. All the books of' the Theravādin Abhidharma, with the exception of the Yamaka, have been translated into English; the Sarvastivādin canonical Abhidharma works remain untranslated into a modern European language. Both these collections consist of seven books but their titles and contents vary considerably. None the less they share two tasks in common. In the first place they attempt to give a systematic and exhaustive account of the world by breaking it down into its constituent physical and mental events (dharma/dhamma). Secondly, they both contain works which address various points of dispute that arise out of the preceding exercise. Although the status of the Abhidharma as word of the Buddha may have been challenged, the stamp that the Abhidharma systems, methods, and debates have left on subsequent Buddhist thought is indisputable. They provide the terms of reference and determine the agenda which result in the Mahāyana schools of and Yogācāra.‖ Rupert Gethin (1998). The Foundations of Buddhism, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 203-204.

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combined with each other through various modes of analysis. There are two basic classifications kinds of lists: first a list of dharmas classifying phenomena as; , āyatanas, dhātus, this is called subjective classification, and second, a list of attributes usually formulated in opposing pairs as; saṃskṛta - asaṃskṛta, kuśala - akuśala, etc... This is called objective classification.

(3) Development of commentaries on canonical abhidharma texts and the development of summary doctrines or commentarial manuals. The approach becomes increasingly systematic aiming at a comprehensive and coherent formulation encapsulating the entire teaching. In the Theravāda, this includes commentary on the Dhamma- saṅgaṇi, Visuddhimagga and the Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha. In the Sarvāstivāda, this includes the Mahāvibhāṣa, Abhidharma-hṛdaya texts, Abhidharmakośa and commentaries (bhāṣya) on the Kośa. The establishment of dharma in the abhidharma Buddhist literature consists of two languages such as Pāli language in Theravāda school and Sanskrit language in Sarvāstivāda school.40

II.4.2. The Establishment of Dharma in the Abhidharma

II.4.2.1. The Abhidharma in Pāli Buddhist Literature

In the Pāli literature of Buddhism or Theravāda literature, the word abhidamma has two meanings namely, (1) supplementary doctrines, (2) special or superior doctrines. These doctrines are discussed in seven different books which are called the Abhidhamma-piṭaka in Pāli. They are as follows:41

40 Rupert Gethin (1998), pp. 202-207. 41 See detail K.R. Norman (1983), pp. 96-106, Sumanapala Galmangoda (1998). An Introduction to Theravāda Abhidhamma, Singapore: Published by Buddhist Research Society, pp. 13-17, and

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(1) The Dhammasaṅgaṇī (enumeration of dharma) contains enumerations and definitions of all factors of experience that are described ultimate real of dharmas. These include all the mental factors that can accompany acts of awareness (knowledge, consciousness), the different types of awareness, the primary physical elements and the classes of matter made up of those elements and nibbāna (nirvāṇa).

(2) The Vibhaṅga (the book of analysis) classifies the ultimate factors of experience into categories and describes how those factors are defined in the discourses of the Buddha and in the books of abhidhamma.

(3) The Dhātukathā (discourse on elements) deals with the same material as the first two books but presents it in the form of questions and answers.

(4) The Puggalapaññatti (description of human types) defines and characterizes the types of human beings and especially those who have made progress along the path to nibbāna.

(5) The Kathāvatthu (points of controversy) was composed around the time of the Emperor Aśoka and chronicles all the points of dispute among eighteen schools of Buddhism that had evolved during the first two centuries of Saṅgha‟s existence.

(6) The Yamaka (book of pair) comprises ten chapters dealing with the classification of all mental factors into the categories of wholesome, unwholesome and neutral; the five aggregates of

Erich Frauwallner (1995). Abhidharma Literature and the Origins of Buddhist Philosophical Systems, New York: State University of New York Press, pp. 39-95.

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dhamma that form the basis of our idea of a person or self; the four noble truths and the three types of karma (body, verbal and mental).

(7) Abhidhamma which is the largest book of the Theravādin is the Paṭṭhāna (conditional relations). Which gives an exhaustive account of the Buddhist theory of causality as contained in the doctrine of ‗Dependent Origination‘ (paṭiccasamuppāda).

Besides, these books, there are other two important philosophical treatises belonging to Theravādins; 1) Buddhaghosa‘s comprehensive work on Buddhist theory and practice entitled Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification) and 2) Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha (A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma) is text composed by Acariya ; it is a commentary on the Abhidharma of the tradition.42

II.4.2.2. The Abhidharma in Sanskrit Buddhist Literature

The Abhidharma in Sanskrit literature is known as Sarvāstivāda school, which is a philosophical Buddhist school in Hinayāna Buddhism. According to some Buddhist scholars, the earliest abhidharma material was composed in Sanskrit literature around 3rd century B.C. In the Sanskrit literature of Buddhism,43 the abhidharma in the Sarvāstivāda School is also similar to the abhidhamma in Theravāda literature. The abhidharma-piṭaka in Sanskrit literature also consists of seven books. They are as follows:44

42 Hirakawa Akira (2007). A History of Indian Buddhism from Śākyamuni, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, pp. 129-130. 43 Junjirō Takakusu (1905). On the Abhidharma Literature of the Sarvāstivādins, London: Journal of the Pāli Text Society (JPTS), pp. 73-118. 44 Erich Frauwallner (1995), pp. 13-37, Sumanapala Galmangoda (1998), pp. 17-19 and Nalinaksha Dutt (2007), pp. 142-148.

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(1) The main book is the Jñānaprasthāna-śāstra (source of Knowledge), this work systematized Sarvāstivādin doctrine in an authoritative way, which is why it was highly regarded by Sarvāstivādins. This book is regarded as the body (kāya) or main text, and the other six treatises are called ‗feet‘ (pāda) or auxiliary texts. The Jñānaprasthāna-Śāstra is composed by Ārya Kātyāyanīputra.45

(2) The Saṅgītiparyāya (recitation together) is one of the seven Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Buddhist scriptures (the first pāda out of the six pādas). It was composed by Mahākauṣṭhila about 200 years after the nirvāṇa of the Buddha46. This text, as the name implies, is essentially a commentary on the Saṅgīti-suttanta of Nikāya (Dīgha-nikāya no. 33).47

(3) The Prakaraṇa-pāda (exposition) composed by Vasumitra, the second pāda out of the six pādas. This work is closely resembles the Pāli Vibhaṅga-prakaraṇa.

(4) The Vijñānakāya is the third pāda, Vijñānakāya means ‗body group of consciousnesses‘. This text is composed by Devaśarmā.48

(5) The Dhātukāya is the fourth pāda of Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Buddhist scriptures. Dhātukāya means ‗body of elements‘. It is written by Pūrṇa and Vasumitra).

45 Anukul Chandra Banerjee, (1979), p 54. 46 Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (Akbp.) (tr.) Leo M. Pruden (1991) California: Asian Humanities Press, Vol. 1, p. xlvii. 47 Nalinaksha Dutt, (2005). Early History of the Spread of Buddhism and the Buddhist Schools, Delhi: Cosmo Publications, p. 289. 48 Junjirō Takakusu, (1905), pp. 107-108.

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(6) The Dharmaskandha is the fifth pāda of Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Buddhist scriptures. Dharmaskaṅdha means ‗collection or corporation of dharma‘. It is composed by Sāriputra and Maudgalyāyana.

(7) The Prajñaptiśāstra is the sixth pāda of Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Buddhist scriptures. The word Prajñaptiśāstra means ‗Treatise on Designations‘ (of dharma), it is composed by Mahāmaudgalyāyana.49

Besides, there are other important philosophical treatises belonging to Sarvāstivāda school, in addition to the seven well-known abhidharma texts mentioned above. They are:50

(1) Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣā-śāstra is a huge commentary on the Jñānaprasthānaśāstra of Ārya-Kātyāyanīputra. It was complied by 500 monks (leading with the venerable Vasumitra). The date of this text is composed around 400 years after the Mahāparinirvāṇa of the Buddha.

(2) Abhidharmahṛdaya by Dharmaśrī is a work which neatly systematized and outlined the doctrine mahāvibhāṣa-śāstra of the Sarvāstivāda school.

(3) Abhidharmakośa by Vasubandhu, who is one of the famous Buddhist philosophers in the fourth century A.D. This book consists of kārikā and bhāṣya and the author summarized the all doctrine in Sarvāstivāda.

(4) Sphuṭārthābhidharmakośa-vyākhyā by Yaśomitra is a commentary on the bhāṣya by Vasubandhu on his kośa.

49 Anukul Chandra Banerjee (1979), p. 69. 50 Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam (Akb.) edited by prof. P. Pradhan (1975) Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Rerearch Institute Patna, p. 11f, Anukul Chandra Banerjee (1979), p. 73f and Nalinaksha Dutt (2007), p. 148.

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In first century B.C, the Abhidharma in Sarvāstivāda is again subdivided into two schools Vaibhāṣika and Sautrāntika.

(1) Vaibhāṣika School As mentioned above, the Jñānaprasthāna-śāstra of Ārya-Kātyāyanīputra is the principal treatise of the Sarvāstivāda school. This work together with six other (pādas) supplementary treatises forms the abhidharma texts of the Sarvāstivāda school. The fourth Buddhist council was held in Kashmir around 1st century B.C. (400 years after the Mahāparinirvāna of the Buddha), the president of this council was Vasumitra who was a philosophical Sarvāstivādin.51 Under the guidance of Vasumitra and 500 learned Monks, the work entitled mahāvibhāṣā-śāstra is the work that itself is commentaries on Jñānaprasthāna of Ārya-Kātyāyanīputra by them.

Vaibhāṣika is the philosophical school that is derived from the word vibhāṣa of Mahāvibhāṣā-śāstra, an extensive commentary on canonical , used especially by Buddhists writers in the Buddhist Sanskrit language. Actually Vaibhāṣika is the later form of Sarvāstivāda. Namely, the philosophical system of this Sarvāstivādin Buddhist School is also known by the term Vaibhāṣika. Sarvāstivāda and Vaibhāṣika are two different names for the same school and the latter was due to their identification with the commentary (vibhāṣā).

(2) Sautrāntika School The term Sautrāntika means ―those who depend on the Sūtras,‖ it derived from Sūtra/Sutta, Sūtra is called Sūtrānta (Pāli: Suttānta), the Buddhist philosophy associated with Sūtra and Sūtrāntas is called Sautrāntika. So from this definition, it is clear that among the Tripiṭaka

51 Anukul Chandra Banerjee (1979), p.10.

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the Sautrāntika hold only Sūtrapiṭaka and Vinayapiṭaka as the valid teachings of the Buddha.

The Sautrāntika is also called illustration or exemplification (Dārṣṭāntika), there are two reasons for their being called Sautrāntika and Dārṣṭāntika.52 (1) They are called Sautrāntikas because they propound tenets chiefly in reliance on the Buddha‘s Sūtras (without following Abhidharma). (2) They are called Dārṣṭāntikas53 because they teach all doctrines by means of examples. Abhidharma philosophies remained a valid system of reflection upon the Buddha‘s teachings, but were not as authoritative as the Buddha‘s verbatim teachings in the general discourses (Sūtras). Thus the name Sautrāntika, those who rely upon the Sūtras‟s advocates a rejection of the authority that the Sarvāstivādins bestowed upon their separate canonical Abhidharma collection.54

The Sautrāntika philosophy explains karma in different Vaibhāṣika terms as the actualization of an existent but rather in term of the transformation of the stream of consciousness (citta-saṃtāna). Essential of the Sautrāntika is the notion of karmic seeds (bīja).55 Actions produce karmic seeds within specific stream of consciousness which bears fruit (phala) at a later time.

The Sautrāntika rejected the existence of dharma in three time periods of Sarvāstivādins as well Vaibhāṣika. Because, Sarvāstivādins and Vaibhāṣika described the all dharma in the past, present and future that exist simultaneously. While the Sautrāntika believes only the present

52 Collett Cox (1995). Disputed Dharmas Early Buddhist Theories on Existence, Tokyo: The International Institute for , pp.37-38. 53 EB. (2007). Published by the Government of Sri-Lanka: vol. 8, p. 20. 54 Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 35ff. 55 Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa (tr.) by Leo M. Pruden (1987). The Treatise on Action by Vasubandhu, California: Asian Humannities Press, pp. 26f.

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dharma exist. It argues that, the past dharma did exist, and the future dharma will exist. But only the present dharma actually exists. Thus the dharma must exist only in the moment in which it exerts its activity. Moreover the moment in which a dharma acts has no time duration beyond itself, it is absolutely instantaneous.56

II.4.3 The Abhidharma in the Abhidharmakośa

As we known, the abhidharma is the third main division of Tripiṭaka (Vinaya, Sūtra and Abhidharma). This is the collection of texts in which the doctrinal principles presented in the Sūtra-piṭaka are reworked and reorganized into a systematic structure. These doctrinal principles can be applied to an analysis into the nature of mind and matter. Abhidharma- piṭaka also means ‗basket of higher exposition‘, ‗basket of transcendental doctrine‘ or ‗special dharma‘, ‗higher teachings‘. Meanwhile, the term abhidharma in Abhidharmakośa not only means ‗higher teachings‘ or ‗special dharma‘ but also signifies wisdom (prajñā) and treasury (kośa) of dharma.57 From these meanings, the abhidharma constitutes the foundation of dharmas, and it is also the object of the supreme knowledge, or the supreme dharma to attain nirvāṇa.

Besides, the Abhidharmakośa itself is also regarded as the proper abhidharma as it is a great factor of accumulating pure and immaculate prajñā. Thus, the word ‗dharma‘ of ‗abhidharma‘ here signifies that which carries a proper character (svalakṣaṇa) and abhidharma is the object of the supreme knowledge, or the supreme dharma to realize

56 Paul Williams (2012), p. 88. 57 Prajñā'malā sānucarā'bhidharmaḥ tatprāptaye yāpi ca yacca śāstram| tasyārthato'smin samanupraveśāt sa cā śrayo'syetyabhidharmakośam||2|| 淨慧隨行名對法 及能得此諸慧論 攝彼勝義依彼故 此立對法俱舍名. (Akk. i. 2), and Ak. (tr.) by Dr. Subhadra Jha (1983), pp. 5-6.

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nirvāṇa. There are four different interpretations of the term abhidharma in the Abhidharmakośa. They are as follows.58

(1) It is called Abhidharma because it leads to nirvāṇa by imparting instructions on truths, bodhipakṣiyadharmas, vimokṣa (liberation) which are attained as the final goal.

(2) It is also known as Abhidharma, as it constantly points out elaborately the difference between the material (rūpa) and nonmaterial (arūpa) of each individual dharma (existent thing) with illustrations.

(3) It also goes by the name of Abhidharma, for it overcomes the opposition by questions of dispute and the like.

(4) It is also called Abhidharma, as it helps us in understanding properly the essence of the Sūtra.

In general, Vasubandhu‘s auto-commentary (Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya) on Abhidharmakośa is based on Vaibhāṣika and Sautrāntika schools. Therefore, the Abhidharma in the Abhidharmakośa is a combination of viewpoints of Sautrāntika and Vaibhāṣika. Hence, in the Abhidharmakośa, Vasubandhu has referred to the Sautrāntika doctrines on several occasions and pointed out the differences between the Sarvāstivāda and Sautrāntika views. Some disagreements between the Sarvāstivāda and the Sautrāntika are mentioned in Abhidharmakośa. They are as follows.59

58 Anukul Chandra Banerjee (1979), pp. 51-52. 59 Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 36-37, and Nalinaksha Dutt (2007), pp. 175-176.

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(1) The Sautrāntika do not accept the Abhidharma-piṭaka of the Sarvāstivādins as authoritative. On this point Vasubandhu supports the Sautrāntika.60

(2) The asaṁskṛtas have no real existence. There is a long drawn controversy in the Abhidharmakośa between the Sarvāstivādins and the Sautrāntika.61

(3) The Sautrāntika deny the citta-viprayuktas (i.e. saṁskāras not associated with mind, e.g. prāpti, sabhāgatā, jīvitendriya, etc.) as real as contended by the Sarvāstivādins.62

(4) Like all other schools, the Sautrāntika rejects the Sarvāstivāda‟s view that past and future exist.63

(5) By admitting the existence of the past and of prāpti, the Sarvāstivādins explain in the function of causality. The Sautrāntika deny both of these and assert instead the existence of the subtle citta or bīja or vāsanā and explain thereby the working of the formula of causation.64

60 Dharmāṇāṁpravicayamantareṇa nāsti kleśānāṁ yata upaśāntaye'bhyupāyaḥ| kleśaiśca bhramati bhavārṇave'tra loka-staddhetorata uditaḥkilaiṣa śāstrā||3|| 若離擇法定無餘 能滅諸惑勝方便 由惑世間漂有海 因此傳佛說對法. (Akk. i. 3) Akbp., vol.1, p. 58. 61 Sarvatragaḥ sabhāgaśca dvayadhvagau tryadhvagāstrayaḥ| saṁskṛtaṁsavisaṁyoga phalaṁ nāsaṁskṛtasya te||55|| 遍行與同類 二世三世三 果有為離繫 無為無因果. (Akk. ii. 55) Akbp., vol.1, pp. 277-286. 62 Viprayuktāstu saṁskārāḥ prāptyaprāptī sabhāgatā| āsaṁjñikaṁ samāpattī jīvitaṁ lakṣaṇāni ca||35|| Nāmakāyādayaśceti prāptirlābhaḥsamanvayaḥ| prāptyaprāptī svasaṁtāna patitānāṁnirodhayoḥ||36| 心不相應行 得非得同分 無想二定命 相名身等類 得謂獲成就 非得此相違 得非得唯於 自相續二滅 (Akk. ii. 35-36) Akbp., vol.1, pp. 206 - 212. 63 Sarvakālāstitā uktatvāt dvayāt sadviṣayāt phalāt| tadastivādāt sarvāstivādā iṣṭāḥ caturvidhāḥ||25|| 三世有由說 三有境果故 說三世有故 許說一切有. (Akk. v. 25) Akbp., vol.3, pp. 806-810. 64 Svato'nye kāraṇaṁhetuḥ sahabhūrye mithaḥphalāḥ| bhūtavaccittacittānuvartilakṣaṇalakṣyavat||50|| 除自餘能作 俱有互為果 如大相所相 心於心隨轉. (Akk. ii. 36, 50. [see kārika 36 above]) Akbp., vol.1, pp. 255-257.

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(6) The Sautrāntika deny the existence of avijñapti (non- communicating corporeal and vocal acts) as a real dravya. They hold in agreement with the Theravādins that an avijñapti act is mental (cetanā, kāyasamcetanā).65

(7) According to the commentary of the Vijñaptimātratā-śāstra, the Sautrāntikas are divided in their opinion relating to the conception of citta (mind) and caittas (mental states). According to the Dārṣṭāntika citta only exists but not the caittas, but according to other Sautrāntika, caittas also exist and their number according to some is three, viz., vedanā, saṁjñā and cetanā, while according to others, it is four, ten or fourteen. Some Sautrāntikas admit the existence of all the caitās of the Sarvāstivādins.66

(8) The Sautrāntikas hold that the body of an Arhat is pure, as it is produced by knowledge.

Among the many disagreements between the Sarvāstivāda and the Sautrāntika described in the Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya of Vasubandhu, a large number is devoted to discussions of the reality of a Vaibhāṣika category called citta-viprayukta-saṃskāras and declares them to be distinct from the traditional five categories of dharma, viz. rūpa (matter), citta (mind), caitasikas (mental factors), viprayukta-saṃskāras (disassociated formations) and asaṃskṛta (unconditioned). They explained the whole of universe with 75 dharmas in detail in Abhidharmakośa.

65 Na kasyacidahetoḥ syāt hetuḥ syācca vināśakaḥ| dvigrāhyaṁ syāt na cāṇau tat vāgvijñaptistu vāgdhvaniḥ||3|| 應無無因故 生因應能滅. 形亦非實有 應二根取故 無別極微故 語表許言聲. (Akk. iv. 3) ) Akbp., vol.2, pp. 368-370. 66 Cittaṁ caittāḥ sahāvaśyaṁsarva saṁskṛtalakṣaṇaiḥ| prāptyā vā pañcadhā caittā mahābhūmyādibhedataḥ||23|| 心心所必俱 諸行相或得 心所且有五 大地法等異. (Akk. ii. 23) Akbp., vol.1, pp. 188-189.

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