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MEGALITHS AND STELAE IN THE INNER BASIN OF TAGUS RIVER: SANTIAGO DE ALCÁNTARA, ALCONÉTAR AND CAÑAMERO (CÁCERES, )

Primitiva BUENO RAMIREZ, Rodrigo de BALBÍN BEHRMANN, Rosa BARROSO BERMEJO Área de Prehistoria de la Universidad de Alcalá de Henares Enrique CERRILLO CUENCA CSIC, Instituto de Arqueología de Mérida Antonio GONZALEZ CORDERO, Alicia PRADA GALLARDO Archaeologist

Abstract: Several projects on the megalithic sites in the basin of the river Tagus contribute evidences on the close relation between stelae with engraved weapons and chronologically advanced megalithic graves. The importance of images in the development of Iberian supports an evolution of these contents toward pieces with engraved weapons which dating back to the 3rd millennium cal BC. From the analysis of the evidences reported by the whole geographical sector, this paper is also aimed at determining if the graphic resources used in these stelae express any kind of identity. Visible stelae in barrows and chambers from the 3rd millennium cal BC would be the images around which sepulchral areas were progressively added, thus constituting true ancestral references throughout the . Keywords: , megalithic sites, identities, , SW

INTRODUCTION individuals along a constant course (Bueno et al. 2007a, 2008a) from the ideology of the earliest farmers (Bueno The several works on megalithic stelae we have et al. 2007b) to, practically, the Iron Age (Bueno et al. developed so far shape a methodological and theoretical 2005a, 2010). The similarity observed between this long base of analysis aimed at proving a strong symbolic course and the line of megalithic art is the soundest implementation current throughout the 3rd millennium cal reference to include the symbolic universe of these BC in SW Iberian Peninsula (Bueno 1990, 1995: Bueno visible anthropomorphic references in the ideological et al. 2005a, 2005b). Scarce stelae with engraved framework of constructors (Bueno et al. weapons had been reported so far in this area relative to 2007a). the available reports referred to northern Iberian Peninsula stelae. The anthropomorphic representations Craftmanship and identities are reflection elements in presented in this paper allow us establishing a series of view of the increased data collection which has taken representations —with or without weapons and related to place within the last years. Precisely, the continuity given the funerary and sepulchral territories of their to the projects we develop in allows us constructors during advanced Megalithic times (Bueno et contributing pieces to a growing collection, thus al. 2004a)— similar to some stelae, such as Peña-Tú, enriching its analysis perspectives. containing a bell-beaker dagger and, occasionally, a halberd (Bueno et al. 2005b, 2010). We refer to three study cases with different information levels: the stelae at the necropolis of Lagunita, the stela in The definition of groups in the Iberian Peninsula has Alconétar, and the stela in Cañamero, the first stelae progressively consolidated (Bueno 1990, 1995; Bueno et documented through specific research processes and the al. 2005a). Hence, the existence of centres specialized in last stela reported casually. (Fig. 1) the production of this or that stela and style has been broadly proven (Bueno et al. 2005a: 627-631). The The varieties of all of them diverge from the most same occurs with smaller pieces known as ‘idols’ in extended variety in Spanish Extremadura: the so-called traditional research, since their formal specialization is central-western stelae (Bueno et al. 2005a: 630), since clear (Bueno 1992: 596; Bueno et al. 2003; Hurtado, they include stylistic resources similar to the commonest 2008). Furthermore, the existence of workshops with stelae and in the river Duero area (NW Iberian particular productions and recognizable extensions is Peninsula). Hence, we believe that referencing the work proven by recent archaeological reports (Calado & Rocha by Ph. Kalb (1987) on megalithic sites is suitable, since 2007). —as some megalithic architectural sites —the anthropomorphic statues in this sector begin to show Their continuous reference to past images is one of the signs of the mobility and interchange of ideas in the most outstanding parameters. These are assumed as the easily-travelled internal platforms between rivers Tagus justification of the outstanding position of certain and Duero.

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Fig. 1. Location of the stelae cited in the text

Fig. 2. Orthoimage showing the position of Lagunita I and II barrows, from Bueno et al. 2006

STELAE AT THE LAGUNITA NECROPOLIS published descriptions and presentations save us detailed (SANTIAGO DE ALCÁNTARA, CÁCERES) explanations on the specific data available on both constructions (Bueno et al. 2006, 2007c, 2008b, 2009a). The works we have developed so far within the Project (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3) “ and Graphical Markers in Santiago de Alcántara” include archaeological information and Lagunita III is a chamber including a corridor made out volume restitution of two monuments at the necropolis of of slate, with a large whose components —gray Era de la Laguna (locally known as Lagunita). The quartzite from the mountains, white quartz from

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Fig. 3. Left: Lagunita III after its archaeological documentation and restoration. Right figure: Lagunita I after the study and restoration of its central area

Fig. 4. Plan of Lagunita III dolmen (Santiago de Alcántara), showing the position and the graphical documentation of the -stela and the smaller stelae in the access of the monument, from Bueno et al. 2007c. Photo by R. de Balbín lowlands, and slate from the river —represent the whole 2004b), is one of the first evidences of this kind in SW local topography (Scarre 2008). This stela-menhir, which Iberian Peninsula, now confirmed by the positions of the must have been located on this tumulus (Bueno et al. Lagunita I, Alconétar and Cañamero stelae, studied in

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Fig. 5. Phases of the corridor of Lagunita III during the excavation works, they define the closure of the monuments by the means of a pile of stones, in front of which the stela was placed. Bueno et al. 2008b this work. Visible cups equal them to the predominant Throughout the excavation process, Lagunita III access motifs in local , particularly the one in Alcántara area was defined as a space of varied structures (Bueno 2004: 54), classified as a stela-menhir due to its among which a stony platform —on which food and rectangular and flat profile (Gonçalves et al. 1997). (Fig drink containers were placed —stood out, apart from 4) polished pieces, tips and fragments of engraved

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Fig. 6. The stela from Lagunita I laid down at the closure of the barrow restituted to its original position, tracing of the piece. Photos by R. de Balbín slate plaques (Bueno et al. 2008b). Two “pits of offering” greywacke. Its right side has been fragmented since —similar to those found at the lower side of large-to- ancient times, as breakage is not only completely huge megalithic monuments such as those found in weathered but also completely covered by decoration, —were added in front of this structure. thus producing an asymmetric appearance commonly found in all the pieces described next. Its location when This kind of platforms is common in SE sepulchres under used highlighted its slightly picketed engravings and soft the shape of plinths, described by Siret as accumulations bas-reliefs, since sunlight came from E-SE. These of “bethel stones” from . In our case, scarcely perceptible engraving techniques and the data anthropomorphic stones of varied shape and small-to- available from other monuments in this area (Bueno et al. medium size were found in the northern side of the 2000) support the hypothesis that this stela, apart from monument (its best preserved façade). We have already engraved, was also painted. (Fig. 6) dealt with its decoration and typology (Bueno et al. 2006, 2008b). Its whole outline was sculpted: the head is represented by a narrowing of the apex, crowned by a small semicircle of Now we shall focus on a larger (1 m) sculptural piece cups in the shape of a necklace. Among the adjacent found lying on the closure mechanism of the monument. objects, it is to highlight a belt with a wide-U buckle A small pit, whose dimensions exactly coincide with the similar to that described in an anthropomorphic plaque at base of the lying piece, was found on the floor next to the the El Corchero dolmen (Valencia de Alcántara) (Bueno chamber entry. This suggests it was a standing stela in 1988). This coinciding element, like some other monument use times. However, it was incorporated to the previously-analysed coincidences (Bueno et al. 2005a), corridor door upon monument closure, thus remaining supports the variety of contemporaneous anthropo- visible although the monument could then be entered no morphic expressions in this area. The presence of similar more. This stela remained as the only evidence of the belts in menhir-stelae in southern (D’Anna 1977) of ancestors, who were still made offers in its indicates the growing existence of wider relations with external area for unquantifiable time. (Fig. 5) the SW Iberian Peninsula (Bueno et al. 2009b).

It is a greenish slate piece, more compact than those in A trapezoidal-rectangular pectoral or adornment is . In this sense, it coincides with the definition of observed at the upper part of the body. Upward lines may

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Fig. 7. Photo of upper detail, and complete tracing of the stela from Lagunita I. Photo by R. de Balbín have been useful to hang it in the fore area, thus repeating Its face drawing is similar to the Longroiva stela: an oval the kind of objects found on the neck or upper trunk of outline with two protruding remarkable ears. Thus, it other statuary figures in rivers Tagus and Duero. reminds of the Conxo stela-panel () (Peña & Vázquez Varela, 1979), both from the 3rd millennium cal The soft bas-relief which characterizes this piece and the BC, according to its adjacent weapons. (Fig. 8) semicircular shapes found at the lower third of the trunk involve interesting references to larger pieces, among which the menhir-stela at Monte da Ribeira (Gonçalves et al. 1997) is the most outstanding one. Its “feet” (figured by two joined trapeziums) remind of outdoor motifs in Tagus engravings, thus insisting on a relation we have suggested since the documentation of megalithic art in International Tagus (Bueno et al. 2004b, 2009a).

The close relation of the stela with the time evolution of the monument allows us suggesting a chronology: between the second half of the 4th and the 3rd millennium cal BC, according to excavation-reported materials (Bueno et al. 2006, 2007c, 2008b).

In the same necropolis, Lagunita I sepulchre is slightly less elevated. Its complex architecture (still under study) comprises a series of reworks: the earliest monument include a chamber and corridor. Later on, it was destructed and concealed by means of a smaller monument composed by statuary pieces and a grown pile of stones dating back to the Bronze Age, when Fig. 8. Anthropomorphs from Galician -art stations, were placed on its stony ground. from Vázquez & De la Peña 1979, and tracing of the stela from Longroiva, after Almagro Basch 1966 The closure of the second monument is indicated by the presence of a triangular-profile stela, which must have been placed at the top of the barrow. It is over 1 m high THE ALCONÉTAR STELA and made out of compacted schist and greywacke, as the one already described in Lagunita III. Like the latter, it Found in a prospection project directed by E. Cerrillo (in shows a rather pointed head and a softly-picketed press), it is inserted into the ford of the Tagus by rectangular adornment in its central area, which can be Garrovillas. The presence of megalithic monuments in related to some clothing elements, including the afore- this place has been studied since the early 19th century mentioned pectoral. (Fig. 7) (Bueno 1994; Bueno et al. 2004a; Cerrillo & González

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Fig. 9. Location of documented barrows at Alconétar, after E. Cerrillo

2007). Recent works, apart from detecting the stela with weapons, have also extended the studied necropolis. (Fig. 9)

Its inclusion in the Leisner catalogue (1959) provided the whole site with a -deserved importance mainly based on the outstanding trousseaus preserved at the Museum of Caceres. The presence of a green-stone pectoral, as well as of copper , is given a new role in view of the stela documentation described next. Among these, a fragment of a copper dagger with trapezoidal short tongue and missing triangular end stands out. The association of these weapons to the Bell-beaker period in several funerary sites along river Tagus leads us to date them back to the 3rd millennium cal BC. We must highlight the piece located in a grave in La Salmedina () (Berzosa & 2005: 484) and those in 4 and 1 in Valle de las Higueras (Toledo); the last dates back to the second half of the 3rd millennium cal BC (Bueno et al. 2005d). Apart from typological variability, Fig. 10. Copper dagger from the Alconétar’s necropolis, La Vera sites (Bueno et al. 2000b) prove their presence in at Cáceres Museum (inv. 393). Photo by E. Cerrillo Extremadura within generalized metal-production contexts. (Fig. 10) river Tagus (Bueno et al. 2004a). Both in Valencia de This site is therefore added to our knowledge on Alcántara, and Alcántara and Santiago de Alcántara, advanced megalithic times in the interior basin of the excavations have proven the extension of megalithic

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Fig. 11. Location of the engraved stela in the surroundings of a dwelling area, after E. Cerrillo settlements in their most recent stages (Bueno et al. 2000, side of the stela has been smoothed down, thus enhancing 2006, 2007c, 2008b). The C14 dating of the Trincones I the two natural aspects of this raw material. This dolmen (Bueno et al. 2007c) is an appropriate reference contributes volume and different motif visibility. for a culminating moment of their development, which Assuming the E-SE orientation which can be inferred coincides with the materials found in Garrovillas dolmen from its final position, maximal visibility was reached and, particularly, with the presence of copper and out- with the on the west. This dissymmetry is believed to standing adornment objects (Bueno 1994, 2000; Cerrillo be intentionally related to the interpretation of these e.p.). statuary pieces (Bueno et al. 2008a), in agreement with the concentration of engravings, and their most The next stela was lying on its back at the top of a pile of remarkable techniques, on its right-hand side. At dawn, stones in the closest necropolis to the settlement. Given its weapons and adornments would gather strength, up to its vertical position in the ford, the stela can be supposed defining its remarkable anthropomorphic presence as the to have been clearly visible, since the traditional river pass day went by, thus configuring the time of a widely well- could be observed from its original location. (Fig. 11) known story (Bueno et al. 2008a).

A linear structure with lying pieces was found next to this This 1.03 m-high, 0.50 m-wide and 0.14 m-thick piece is group of barrows. This structure may correspond to a practically complete and currently held by the Museum of group of stelae similar to those described in central- Caceres. (Fig. 12) northern sites such as Cabeço da Mina (Sousa 1997). Its head contains a face delimited by to oblique lines converging toward the central area, characterized by a These interesting discoveries led us to submit an urgent- rectangular extraction and rounded corners subjected by intervention project related to the water level, the afore-mentioned and some other somewhat-softer which was finally turned down by the Archaeological parallel lines: a similar, but slightly smaller and tighter, Service of the Extremadura Regional Government. motif to that described in the Lagunita III stela. The latter Therefore, the damage of the structures which became is defined by an abrupt picketed and abraded engraving, exposed after a strong water drop can be supposed to be particularly on its right side, where the line is not only unstoppable under the varied situations of water level wider but also continues toward its back side. rising and dropping provoked by the reservoir system of the Tagus Hydrographical Confederation. The next third corresponds to the transition between the rectangular trunk and the head. A small pit, which On relatively coarse schist, where the fractures which coincides with the shoulder of the statue, was found at the characterize this kind of rock can be observed, the right right-hand side. Its volume is enhanced by remarkable

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Fig. 12. Obverse and lateral of the stela from Alconétar and tracing. Photo by R. de Balbín surface polishment in this area, which contains a mark- perspective of the statue, and finally reaches its back side. shaped rectangular incision. In its left-hand side, two It was deeply picketed, similarly to the head-trunk oblique picketed lines join a transversal line performed separation. The fact that the dagger blade edge shows a with the same technique. Their position suggests the different bias to that observed in the belt inner and outer presence of a belt-fastened sash. However, the belt is sides confirms that both figures are part of one only highly visible in the right-hand side, but finds no gesture. Therefore, it seems that the line of the blade edge continuity in the area described now, and the horizontal was interrupted to trace the belt. It was not until the latter line the sash is fit in remains uncovered. The only was finished that the right-hand dagger blade edge was reasonable explanation for this is that paint may have continued. This edge is slightly wider from the belt completed the belt, higher in the left-hand side according onward. to the perspective used in this figure. However, design reforms cannot be discarded either. With a 36 cm-long blade and 10 cm-wide handle, the piece in question was deeply picketed, and strongly The rectangular trunk of the figure is somewhat prismatic abraded in the right-hand part, thus giving rise to a false in its right-hand side and clearly lenticular in its left-hand bas-relief. This systematic work gives an impression of side, thus insisting on the search of a lateralized 3- clarity in contrast to the markedly dark background of the dimensional perspective. Due to this remarkable schist the stela is made out of. This impression is also treatment differences between left- and right-hand sides, enhanced by a final retouch with a metallic object, the dagger and right-hand belt are unusually stood out by attributable to a recent intervention. A more shallowly- a previous smoothing-down treatment and preparation picketed small cup is located at the right-hand side of the absent in its left-hand side. The afore-mentioned dagger. Its rounded tongue sticks out from a sheath- preparation can be said to open a ‘window’ on its right- shaped drawing suggested by the transversal line below hand side which clearly stands out its belt and dagger. the blade. The halberd on the left-side stands out in the coarser area. The last piece in this three-item set is fixed to the left- Its halberd, handled dagger and belt are rather clear. This hand side of the dagger, as the belt is fixed to its right- set of weapons is enhanced by deep picketing, abrasion hand side. However, it is more outstanding, since it was and bas-relief techniques, which provide remarkable performed on the coarse surface of the left-hand side of realism, thus making the described pieces the true main the stela: a 22 cm-long sharp triangular blade pointing characters in this representation. Each of these elements toward the left-hand side whose lines set off from the seems to hover in front of the figure, since the neck dagger blade’s left edge. Abrasion-widened picketing can adornment, and the sash and its horizontal line were be observed in the lower part of the blade. Picketing is performed with subtler engraving techniques, thus giving softer than in the dagger, but the same technique rise to the optical effect enhancing these three elements. was used. Below the blade and fixed to the new left- hand dagger blade edge, the coarse relief of the base The 3 cm-wide belt sets off from the right-hand side of was carved to draw the 32 cm-long handle of this the dagger blade edge, sharply marks the 3-dimensional halberd.

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The back contains a carved lateral side aimed at other previous cases. However, we cannot certainly enhancing this three-quarter portrait. The continued determine whether this necropolis was close to some abrasion of the trunk-head and trunk-belt separation lines, settlement. (Fig. 13 and Fig. 14) and a vertical polished area with some scattered incisions which may indicate that the clothes were represented by As in Santiago de Alcántara (Bueno et al. 2006, 2008b, the material’s natural texture on its obverse, support this Carrera et al. 2007), the material traces of settlement three-quarter perspective which characterizes the carving found in this territory, as well as graphic painting of the analysed pieces. evidences (the area of Alconétar also includes unverified evidences of this kind) are expected to be confirmed with THE CAÑAMERO STELA the ongoing explorations.

Lying on a pile of stones quite similar to that described Made out of schist, as the previous pieces, the Cañamero for the Alconétar stela, the Cañamero stela was also near stela remained located and under no institutional the homonymous reservoir and within the immediate intervention for years, until P. Diosdado (inhabitant of the surroundings of another dolmen whose study and village of Cañamero), who was concerned about its inclusion in the collection of paintings from this disappearance and breakage (in fact, some stone chips municipal district we applied for some years ago. Its had come off its upper part), kept it in a warehouse location coincides with a megalithic necropolis, as in waiting for its movement to a more appropriate location.

Fig. 13. Reconstruction of the original position of the stelae from Cañamero and Alconétar on their tumuli. Lower figure: the stela from Cañamero as it was discovered. Photos by R. de Balbín (upper) and A. González (lower)

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difference expressly enhances the volume of the right- hand side of the figure. Only thick cups can be found in the face, as in other megalithic stelae in this region such as Nossa Senhora da Esperança (Bueno et al. 2004b).

This short and corpulent shape —with high and wide shoulders —is given by the volume itself of its raw material, adapted with a not-too-exhaustive outline and shape working. Its deep cups are clearly visible in its face, as well as a natural fissure by its chest, which represents the upper edge of a handled blade . This 22 cm-long blade was given a striking perspective by means of remarkable carving and abrasion, as a false bas-relief identical to that in the Alconétar stela. The latter shows the same blade size, but different blade orientation. (Fig. 15)

In this remarkably foreshortened figure, the blade tool handle obliquely crosses almost three quarters of the

figure’s body, thus enhancing its disproportionate size Fig. 14. Location of the stela from Cañamero and its relative to the figure (Bueno et al. 2005a, 2010). The relation with the near waterline and the necropolis blade of this bas-relief blade tool is narrower than its handle, which almost seems a coarse wooden stick swollen to pass for a tool handle. Its inner part shows a It is 1.10 m tall, 0.46 m wide and 0.36 m thick. Therefore, transversal picketed line below the blade, probably to its total volume is rather similar to those described so far. denote the place where blade and handle meet each other. This figure shows a rectangular body, with a strangled upper part to separate head from trunk. This strangulation Its lower section —most of which must have been stuck is rather stronger on the right- than on the left-hand part in the earth — shows three, perhaps four, remarkable of the figure. The afore-mentioned breakage coincides horizontal lines. These lines were firstly picketed and with the latter part. Its surface is quite damaged and, in then smoothed down, so they tend to look like a bas- fact, progressively turned red along the last years spent in relief. The first is the best preserved one and strangulates the open air as a result of oxidation. the piece’s volume —this is a well-documented system, similar to the Sangusin stela (Salamanca), which shows Its left-hand lateral side was defined by cutting out the this protection in a higher part of its body. This protection symmetric area to the shoulder with a notch. This was then interpreted as a chain mail.

Fig. 15. Obverse, reverse and tracing of the stela from Cañamero. Photos by R. de Balbín

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Short perpendicular lines make up a compact network now proven by dates and join of artefacts (Bueno 1994; which may depict a chain mail or protection described Bueno et al. 2000a, 2004a, 2006, 2007c, 2008b) by the better in its back part, located at the low part of its body. engraved weapons on the Alconétar and Cañamero stelae. The handle of the afore-described tool is below this protection (Bueno et al. 2005a). The second reflection is the introduction of graphic references from nearby environments. Given that the This protection continues across the third close to the interpretation of reiterative figures in compact sets of back right-hand lateral side of the figure, thus high- stelae such as those in Hurdes-Gata (Bueno 1987; Bueno lighting a lateralized 3-dimensional perspective aimed at 1995; Bueno et al. 2005a) as an exhibition of identities enhancing one of the piece’s volumes. However, it can be turns out to be rather convincing, the varied documents observed that a subtler carving technique was applied on analysed support the existence of interactions between the back-side, where a completely rectangular, wider and the Tagus and Duero platforms, as shown up by compacter network was carved by means of fine megalith architectures and materials (Bueno et al. incisions. Small aligned cups can be observed below it. 2005c:192-193).

Since several other works contribute analysis arguments, GRAPHIC REFERENCES AND IDENTITIES we shall not insist on the first consideration: a stage of BETWEEN TAGUS AND DUERO megaliths not only used but constructed from the late 4th to the 3rd millennium cal BC (Barroso et al. 2007a; Bueno Since the 1980s, changes in the consideration of 1994; Bueno et al. 2004a, 2007a, 2006, 2008c). anthropomorphic representations from the Iberian recent prehistory (Bueno 1987, 1992, 1995) have progressively Therefore, we shall focus on assessing the graphic shaped their association to megalithic structures (Bueno references which differentiate these pieces from the 1995; Bueno & González 1995; Bueno et al. 2005a) and central-western group, since —as already stated —this is showed they are deeply rooted in the ancestral imaginary the commonest group among Extremadura findings. which rules the ideology in recent prehistory in southern . Carvings on these stelae belong to the NW group: elongated shapes with outstanding rounded heads The traditional gap between the so-called ‘idols’ and late separated from the body by narrowing or strangulation Bronze Age stelae as anthropomorphic representations (e.g., Tremedal, Sangusin or Villar de Ala. However, was overcome by the reality of an evolution of graphic those in Salamanca and most of those in Portugal tend to contents ruled by human images whose coercive content have larger sizes, while those in Alconétar, Cañamero is visualized through objects and weapons (from and and Lagunita follow the reduced-size formula that crooks in the 5th millennium cal BC to swords and characterizes the central-western group. (Fig. 16) halberds in the late Bronze Age) (Bueno et al. 2005a, 2007a). The former group generally involves more sculptural work, while the latter stelae usually involve flatter Many issues of this long process can be analysed in figures. This difference is interesting to understand the Extremadura. We shall begin with representations in subsequent pieces, since their plain interpretation (their plaques from Alentejo and then continue with the sculptural value should not be ignored) is the same as that anthropomorphic references associated to its recent found in decorated plaques and stelae from the late megalithic nature, as we have supported for almost three Bronze Age in the SW Iberian Peninsula. decades. If clothing and adornments faithfully reflect the status A detailed study of funerary architectures has rendered and identity of the group the figure belongs to, Lagunita I excellent results, in spite of being a field where this kind and III, Alconétar and Cañamero stelae show up clear of representations was completely ignored (Bueno et al. differences. 2000a, 2006, 2008c), thus opening an interesting discussion platform on the location of stelae and statues The presence of rectangular adornments or pectorals, and (Bueno et al. 2007a). rounded sides fastened by double belts fixing them to the back part in Lagunita III, Alconétar and Cañamero stelae Those described in this paper prove a close relation refers to Nave (Cruz et al. 2000) and, particularly, Villar between stelae and statues with (engraved) weapons and de Ala statues. Besides, the latter and Lagunita I and megalith constructors (Bueno 1992, 1995, Bueno et al. III stelae share the presence of a rectangular piece, 2005a, 2010), thus contributing important connotations which have been interpreted as short kilts and may that may lead to more integral assessments of pieces represent leather protections for the warrior’s most whose long ideological course supports continuities delicate parts. rather than discontinuities. The possible armours in Valdefuentes, Tremedal, These are the two obvious directions of the conclusions Ataudes and Ermida have been interpreted as protection drawn from the pieces presented here. The first is the elements. Cañamero stela can now also be added to this existence of chronologically advanced megalithic sites, list. These protections are represented as linear networks

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Fig. 16. Stelae from the NW group, after Bueno et al. 2005a. The stelae cited in the text are outlined adjusted to particular parts of the body. The relation of the Cañamero armour and its position with one of the San Martinho (Castelo Branco) stelae is obvious and confirms the hypothesis that the pieces in San Martinho have been reused.

Like in Valdefuentes, bas-relief weapons were performed before the chain mail, which was also devised as a weapon-fastening system. Interestingly, the only weapon detected among central-western stelae, the halberd of Hernán Pérez VI (Bueno 1987; Bueno et al. 2005a), is a bas-relief below the belt. (Fig. 17)

Some halberds were engraved with curves aimed at providing its handle with greater realism (e.g., Longroiva). However, the position which coincides most with Cañamero is Valdefuentes, since the halberd in this case is oblique to the figure and also due to the direction Fig. 17. Location of stelae from West-Centre Iberia of its blade, in spite of Cañamero’s perceptibly coarser and its relation with the studied pieces at the present engraving. work (outlined), after Bueno et al. 2005a The sculptural effort in NW stelae shows another coincidence in the termination of the Cañamero statue. As western menhirs, e.g, and wholly engraved stelae such as Valdefuentes, this termination enables to carve up the Navalcán (Bueno et al. 1999), Monte da Ribeira whole statue. This carving system is also observed in (Gonçalves et al. 1997) and Gargantans (Peña 1982).

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The prominent position of the weapons in Alconétar and With a rounded tongue and also sheathed, the dagger in Cañamero stelae is achieved through their size, technique the Longroiva stela is rather similar to that in the and placement in the forefront. All these characteristics Alconétar statue. In spite of being unassembled, the can also be found in NW statues and some earlier halberd was placed at the right-hand side of the figure representations (Bueno et al. 2005a, 2010). We have and shows a pointed blade. This dagger-halberd already pointed out that the objects and weapons combination and its position is the same as in the Tabuyo engraved on stela-panels and statues and stelae since the del Monte stela, on schist, also showing a sheathed earliest known representations tend to maximize their dagger. size, thus standing for the most remarkable value of the represented human figure. This is a simple technical The Cañamero stela only shows the halberd, held at the resource used since the Palaeolithic Art and known as right-hand side, as in the Hernán Pérez VI stela, within “thematic hierarchization”. Techniques are applied to and the central-western group. Right from the start, this focus on the most important object or figure, usually position refers to its knowledge, apart from indicating the placed in the most prominent place, thus enhancing the presence of the dagger, thus providing further evidence of clarity of its perception. This explains the bas-relief the presence of halberds in the Iberian Peninsula beyond applied to the weapons, which would provide their the number of weapons reported by metallic recounts profiles with remarkable chiaroscuro effects throughout (Bueno et al. 2005a). (Fig. 18) daily solar exposure, thus enhancing them as their most identifiable element, as in the relief-objects engraved on The Lagunita I and III stelae show no weapons, thus the earliest Iberian menhirs (Bueno et al. 2008a). posing a similar situation to that established for the northern group (Bueno, 1995) long time ago: the The softest bas-reliefs in the Lagunita III stela indicate a contemporaneity of pieces with and without engraved confluence of paints which cannot be ascertained in the weapons in identical or similar megalithic sites such as present-day situation of these pieces. We cannot leave the Sejos cromlech. This coexistence indicates possible aside either that working on a dark surface such as schist signs of social hierarchization materialized as stone produces a strong colour contrast which is nowadays figures (Bueno et al. 2005a: 634). Thus, chronologies highly blended by patina but which surely offered exclusively based on the presence or absence of weapons practically-pictorial visual characteristics back then. must be proposed with caution.

The use of this game of colours (black/white, dark green/white, dark red/white) has not been evaluated enough both in this kind of representations and in practically all SW stelae. This carving tradition, looking for colour contrast, is represented best by open-air engravings from the SW Iberian Peninsula (Bueno, 2008).

With weapons crossed in front of the body, the position of the Valdefuentes de Sangusin statue is rather similar to the Alconétar stela, although certain differences can be observed. These are attributable to their different chronology —the latter is estimated to date back to earlier times (Bueno et al. 2005a). The halberd toward the right- hand side and a sheathed sword instead of a dagger: both statues reveal a long warrior representation tradition. The assembled position of the dagger and the halberd is also observed in bas-relief sword- Fig. 18. Metallic halberds and engraved halberds in halberd combinations from . Very convincing the Iberian Peninsula, after Bueno et al. 2005a data on this mixture of influences which may prove the concentration of anthropomorphic representation (Bueno et al. 2005a) procedures were obtained from the Corgas and Beira statues through the repetition of the same STELAE AND THE FUNERARY WORLD Algarve weapon models, as previously indicated by the Tapada da Moita stela, within the Tagus area (Oliveira, One of the main problems behind the analysis of recent 1986). prehistory statues in the Iberian Peninsula is that historiography, since its earliest times (Almagro, 1966), This interesting tendency to grave weapons on menhirs set pieces from the late Bronze-Iron Age apart from the observed in the NW Iberian Peninsula is not in long course of anthropomorphic figures in the SW Iberian disagreement with the existing deep interactions between Peninsula (Bueno et al. 2005a). The main aim was Algarve, Alentejo and the internal plateaus, which were establishing their origin in the colonial world, within a given privileged location by the course of the river Tagus permanent foreignity discourse for all singular products (Bueno et al. 2005d). from Iberian prehistory.

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In these discourses (Bendala 1977; Berrocal 1987), the de Alcántara and Las Hurdes. Thus, it insists on an previous background is ignored or gets lost in the ideological course in which anthropomorphic figures marginality of a bunch of scarcely-analysed prehistoric played a referential role for generations. cultures even before minimal studies get started. The relation of stelae and fords or passes is the same as On the contrary, our analysis favours a long-distance that observed between megaliths and transited areas. ideological discourse mainly rooted in the cult of Their consideration should not leave aside that human ancestors originated by the earliest farmers (Bueno et al. settlements need close water sources. Therefore, 2005a, 2010). settlement location is obviously determined by the availability of easy access to this resource. This fact can The reality of stelae and statues related to megalithic sites be ascertained in the area under study since the Upper was accepted long time ago (Bueno 1992, 1995), Palaeolithic (Bueno 2009). although it still remains unknown for many protohistory- related authors. The stelae presented here and their Transferring this position to locations close to water location outside megalithic barrows contribute a further sources through gateway communities is a qualitative essential reference (Bueno & González 1995; Bueno et improvement justified by the absence of housing data al. 1985; Bueno et al. 2005a, 2010), in this case with supporting such a categorical conclusion. In fact, this pieces with engraved weapons whose carving style and assertion is widely overcome in the interpretation of shape are related to the Algarve stelae (i.e., the earliest Iberian megalithic sites due to the availability of dwelling protohistory-related stelae in SW Iberian Peninsula). evidences which tend to reduce constant transhumance as the only lifestyle in these settlements (Bueno et al. 2002, Only the break between the knowledge of recent 2005c). prehistory and protohistory explains some of the sticking points in the interpretation of these pieces. The most Dwelling and funerary constructions in Alconétar, significant of these issues is their relation to funerary Santiago de Alcántara and Cañamero support the monuments. Although this issue exceeds by far our existence of stronger relations with their environment, present aims, we shall next contribute some reflections. since necropolis were constructed near their habitat (Bueno et al. 2000b) to defend their most vulnerable limit The first refers to their obvious association to funerary by means of ideological arguments. The presence of monuments, which was perfectly argued by Gomes & stelae and statues with coercive symbols is also observed Monteiro (1977), and dealt with in multiple classic works in earlier menhirs and stelae. These human figures (Almagro 1963; Celestino 2000; Harrison 2004). The fact holding crooks, axes, daggers, swords and halberds and that some pieces were documented outside their original placed in visible locations related to deceased ancestors position, or that the latter could not be known, should not defined hereditary properties and assured the lineage and have influenced a whole-through-a-part interpretation, origin of community (Bueno et al. 2005a). which is the one which has finally had the highest historiographic repercussion (Galán 1993). The specialization of these figures includes elements contributing chronology and origin information. The The absent and territorial signs in pass- latter aspect is more interesting to understand the through locations are the elements which —after more outstanding role of Tagus, since the described pieces do than a century of researches focused on descriptions and not only justify one of the points of the long course of interpretations based on the framework of Ancient statuary representations in Iberian recent prehistory, but History— have prevailed over more integral also consolidate the interactions among varied graphic considerations contributing contextual references. styles. We suggest that these differences should be interpreted as the expression of identities (Bueno 1992, Our hypothesis on the success of these interpretations in 1995, Bueno et al. 2005a). ideological courses connected to the cult of ancestors and megalith constructors (Bueno 1987; 1992: 1995) has Regarding microanalysis, archaeological data indicate a progressively gained consistency with the data obtained series of completely new issues on location and visibility, through systematic prospecting and archaeological starting point of longer reflections in the position of the excavations in the Tagus and, more recently, the most recent stelae. Guadalquivir areas (García Sanjuan et al. 2006). Our work at the Santiago de Alcántara necropolis already Throughout all this time, we have proven the validity of reported (Bueno et al. 2004a, Bueno et al. 2006) the regional megalithic sites, which reach rather advanced location of menhir-stelae on barrow apices —Lagunita III Bronze Age times in some necropolis (Barroso et al. being the clearest case, since its location was ascertained 2007a; Bueno 1994; Bueno et al. 2004a, 2006, 2007b, through excavation. 2008b, 2008c) with the coexistence of chalcolithic and bronze-age structures. This coexistence —which should Other similar signs in the Iberian Peninsula such as the be known as aggregation, since these sepulchres look for on monument 2 at Orca de Oliveira do Conde proximity to the oldest graves —leads to the discovery of (Ventura 1998: 23), the menhir on barrow at Peña de la earlier and more recent stelae, such as those in Valencia Abuela (Rojo et al. 2005), or the stela with gravened

157 FROM THE ORIGINS: THE PREHISTORY OF INNER TAGUS DRAINAGE

weapons in the Palacio III dolmen (Bueno et al. 2007a) Bibliografia prove the use of external devices in megalithic constructions. Their study is essential for graphic ALMAGRO BASCH, M. 1963: Estela Sepulcral grabada discourse evaluation. de la Granja de Céspedes, en . Memorias de los Museos arqueológicos Provinciales (1958-1961) The detailed study of the pieces at Santiago de Alcántara XIX-XX: 11. and their position in monuments I and II support the ALMAGRO BASCH, M. 1966: Las estelas decoradas hypothesis that these stelae functioned as monument del Suroeste. Biblioteca Praehistórica Hispana, vol. closure devices and future visible reference: the image of III. Madrid. the ancestors turned to stone (Bueno et al. 2008b). BARROSO, R., BUENO, P. & BALBÍN, R. de 2003: The possibility that Alconétar and Cañamero stelae had Primeras producciones metálicas en la cuenca interior been placed by the time of monument closure —as del Tajo: Cáceres y Toledo. Estudos Pré-históricos supported by data from Lagunita I and III —contributes 10-11: 87-106. new arguments supporting the hypothesis that later stelae BARROSO BERMEJO, R BUENO, P., CAMINO J., with weapons (often associated to graves) were BALBIN, R. 2007a: Fuentenegroso (), un representative of the closure of the graves of outstanding enterramiento del Bronce Final – Hierro en el marco social figures, whose graphic representation joins de las comunidades atlánticas peninsulares, Pyrenae, ancestor representation and new references to power and 38 (2): 7-32. status (Bueno et al. 2000a). BARROSO, R., CAMINO, J., BUENO, P., BALBIN, R. 2007: Fuentenegroso. Un enterramiento del I milenio The stelae with engraved weapons analysed in this study a.C. en Asturias. Consejería de Cultura. Principado de show up the transition between the earliest and more Asturias, ediciones KRK. recent megalithic sites. Ancestral heritage is still important and becomes the ideological reference for the BENDALA, M. 1977: Notas sobre las estelas decoradas addition of new burials and dwelling areas. del Suroeste y los orígenes de Tartessos, Habis 8: 177-205. Territorial long-term use models such as that put forward BERROCAL, L. 1987: El antropomorfo de Bodonal for the northern group at the Iberian Peninsula (Barroso et (Badajoz): ensayo de interpretación de las estelas – al. 2007b; Bueno 1995, Bueno et al. 2005a, 2010) are guijarro y sus relaciones atlánticas, Arqueología 16: feasible for the area under study, where the group of 83-94. stelae from the late Bronze Age cannot be analysed BERZOSA, R., FLORES, M. 2005: El conjunto funerario ignoring their long cultural and ideological tradition. campaniforme del vertedero de La Salmedina (Distrito Villa de Vallecas, Madrid). In M. Rojo, R. Garrido & I. García-Martínez de Lagrán: El Acknowledgments Campaniforme en la Península Ibérica y su contexto europeo: 481-490. The study of the Alconétar stela was contributed by the BUENO RAMÍREZ P. 1987: El grupo Hurdes – Gata en Director of the Museum of Caceres, J. Valadés, and by P. la estelas antropomorfas extremeñas. XVIII Congreso Sanabria. Nacional de Arqueología. Islas Canarias, 1985: 449- 457. J. Gil contributed highly interesting data for the study of the Alconétar and Cañamero stelae. P. Diosdado gave us BUENO RAMÍREZ P. 1988: Los dólmenes de Valencia access to the workshop where the Cañamero stela is de Alcántara. Excavaciones Arqueológicas en currently studied. España, 155, Madrid, Ministerio de Cultura. BUENO RAMIREZ P. 1990: Statues – menhirs et stèles Tracing transcriptions were contributed by J.J. Alcolea. anthropomorphes de la Péninsule Ibérique. L’ Anthropologie, 94 (1): 85-110. These works are part of the research line on Megalithic BUENO RAMIREZ P. 1992: Les plaques décorées Art developed by the University of Alcalá (UAH) alentejaines: approche de leur étude et analyse, through consecutive CICYT (Inter Ministerial L`Anthropologie 96, 2-3: 573-604. Commission of Science and ) Projects, as well as of the Project “La formación de un paisaje de BUENO RAMÍREZ, P. 1994: La necrópolis de Santiago paso: el Vado de Alconétar” (“The Formation of a Pass- de Alcántara (Cáceres). Una hipótesis de through Landscape: Alconétar’s Ford”) (PRI09C058), interpretación para los sepulcros de pequeño tamaño conducted by E. Cerrillo within the Extremadura del megalitismo occidental, Boletín del Seminario de Regional Research Plan. Arte y Arqueología de Valladolid, LIX, p. 25- 100. The excavations of Santiago de Alcántara dolmens are BUENO RAMIREZ, P. 1995: Megalitismo, estatuas y part of the Project “Graphical Markers and Megalith estelas en España. Statue- e massiincisi nell Builders”, funded by the Extremadura Regional Govern- ‘Europ dell’ etá del Rame, Notizie Archeologiche ment and the Town Council of Santiago de Alcántara. Bergomensi, 3: 77-130.

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BUENO RAMIREZ, P. 2000: El espacio de la muerte en Alcántara (Cáceres). Un proyecto de consolidación e los grupos neolíticos y calcolíticos de la Extremadura información arqueológica en las comarcas extremeñas española, Extremadura Arqueológica, VIII: 35-80. del Tajo. Balance de las campañas de 1997 y 1998, BUENO RAMIREZ, P. 2009: “Espacios decorados al Extremadura Arqueológica, VIII: 129-168. aire libre del occidente peninsular. Territorios BUENO, P., BALBÍN, R. de, BARROSO, R., LOPEZ tradicionales de cazadores-recolectores y de QUINTANA, J.C., GUENAGA LISAZU, A. 2009b: productores”. En R. de Balbín (ed): Coloquio Frontières et art mégalithique. Une perspective depuis Internacional Arte Rupestre al aire libre. Arte al aire le monde pyrénéen, L’Anthropologie, 113.5: 882-929. libre en el Sur de Europa: 321-347. BUENO, P., BARROSO, R., BALBÍN de R., CAMPO, BUENO RAMIREZ, P., BALBIN BERHMANN, R. de, M., ETXEBERRÍA, F., GONZÁLEZ, A., BARROSO BERMEJO, R. 2004b: Application d’une HERRASTI, L., JUAN, J., LÓPEZ, P., LÓPEZ, J.A., méthode d’analyse du territoire à partir de la situation SÁNCHEZ, B. 2002: Áreas habitacionales y des marqueurs graphiques à l’intérieur de la Péninsule funerarias en el Neolítico de la cuenca interior del Ibérique: le Tage International, L’Anthropologie 108: Tajo: la provincia de Toledo. Trabajos de Prehistoria, 653-710. 59-2: 65-79. BUENO RAMIREZ, P., BALBIN BEHRMANN, R. de, BUENO RAMIREZ, P., BARROSO BERMEJO, R., BARROSO BERMEJO, R. 2005a: Hierarchisation et BALBÍN BEHRMANN, R. de 2004a: Construcciones métallurgie: statues armées dans la Péninsule megalíticas avanzadas de la cuenca interior del Tajo. Ibérique, L’ Anthropologie 109: 577-640. El núcleo cacereño, Spal 13: 83-112. BUENO RAMIREZ, P., BALBÍN BEHRMANN, R. de, BUENO RAMIREZ, P., BARROSO BERMEJO, R., BARROSO BERMEJO, R. 2005b: La estela armada BALBÍN BEHRMANN, R. de 2005d: Ritual de Soalar. Valle del Baztán (Navarra), Trabajos de campaniforme, ritual colectivo: la necrópolis de Arqueología Navarra, 18: 5-40. cuevas artificiales del Valle de las Higueras, Huecas, BUENO RAMIREZ, P., BALBÍN BEHRMANN, R. de, Toledo, Trabajos de Prehistoria, 62, 2: 67-90. BARROSO BERMEJO, R. 2005c: Áreas de BUENO RAMIREZ, P., BARROSO BERMEJO, R., habitación y áreas funerarias en la cuenca interior BALBÍN BEHRMANN, R. de 2007c: El dolmen de del Tajo, el dolmen de Azután (Toledo), Toledo, Lagunita III: rituales y símbolos de la tradición en el Servicio de Arqueología de la Diputación de Toledo y Megalitismo del Tajo Internacional. In E. Cerrillo & Universidad de Alcalá de Henares. J. Valadés (eds.): Los primeros campesinos BUENO RAMIREZ, P., BALBIN BEHRMANN, R. de, campesinos de La Raya. Aportaciones recientes al BARROSO BERMEJO, R. 2007a: Chronologie de conocimiento del Neolítico y Calcolítico en l’art Mégalithique ibérique: C14 et contextes Extremadura y Alentejo. Memorias 6. Cáceres: 65-93. archéologiques, L’Anthropologie 111: 590-654. BUENO RAMIREZ, P., BARROSO BERMEJO, R., BUENO RAMIREZ, P., BALBÍN BEHRMANN, R. de, BALBÍN BEHRMANN, R. de 2008b: The necropolis BARROSO BERMEJO, R. 2007b: Ideología de los of Era de la Laguna, Santiago de Alcántara, Cáceres, primeros agricultores en el Sur de Europa: las más in the context of the megalithism of the central region antiguas cronologías del Arte Megalítico Ibérico, of the International Tagus, In P. Bueno, R. Barroso, Cuadernos de Arte Rupestre. Vol. 4: 281-312. R. Balbín (eds.): Graphical Markers and Megalith BUENO RAMÍREZ, P., BALBÍN BEHRMANN, R. de, Builders in the International Tagus, Iberian BARROSO BERMEJO, R. 2008a: Dioses y Peninsula. B.A.R. International series nº 1765, antepasados que salen de las piedras”. 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