P.O. Box 37 Ormond Beach, FL 32175 Telephone ~ 1(888) 857-6920 Fax ~ 1(386) 615-1812

Dear Licensee:

As you know, all licensees whose licenses expire in January of 2009 are required to complete 8 hours of continuing education prior to renewal. You are allowed to complete these hours by correspondence. I have been in the salon business for 16 years and I know how valuable your time and money is to you, that is why I set out to create a home study course that would be comprehensive, but at a low cost to you. You can complete all 8 hours for just $11.95. I also know you have choices when it comes to completing your 8 hours, so I hope you will consider the following when choosing your continuing education provider:

• We Are on Your Side- We set the standard in quality continuing education at reasonable prices and we were the only provider at Board meetings fighting for you to be allowed to continue to do your hours by correspondence or internet. We succeeded and the result is you save time and money and don't have to travel to complete your continuing education hours. • We Guarantee the Lowest Price. If somebody beats our price simply enclose their price special or coupon with your test and pay that amount. No questions asked. • Quality - We double check your license number before we transmit your hours to the state. The result is your hours are transmitted accurately. Some providers do not take the time to do this. • Speed - We process your test the very same day it is received and if you complete the course on the internet, you instantly receive your certificate of completion. We report your hours electronically to the state within 24 hours. I hope you will choose Elite Continuing Education to complete your hours. Should you have any questions or need a course book do not hesitate to contact us toll free at 1-888-857-6920 or visit us online at www.elitecme.com.

Sincerely,

Annette Mowl President

Courses approved by the Ohio State Board of Cosmetology. Web Page Address to view state approval: www.cos.ohio.gov

I

Completing Your Continuing Education is Easy. Carefully Read the Instructions Below.. Why am I receiving this course? Ohio Board of Cosmetology allows you to complete your continuing education through home study. Records indi- cate that your license will need to be renewed in January 2009. Completing your continuing education is required before license renewal. How do I get my test graded and get my certificate of completion? After reviewing the material, you must complete the final exam on pages 63 - 65 marking your answers on the answer sheet on page 66. Fill out all information on the answer sheet (be sure to fill in your license number) and include payment of $11.95 made payable to Elite CME. As long as you receive a 75% or better on your exam you will be issued a certificate of completion. How can I complete this course? MAIL You can complete the final exam and mail it to us in the envelope provided. If you have misplaced your envelope you can mail it to us at: Elite CME, Inc. * P.O..O. BoxBox 3737 ** OrmondOrmond Beach,Beach, FLFL 32175. FAX For faster service you can fill in your credit card number and expiration date and fax your test to us at (386) 615-1812. ONLINE For an even more convenient way of completing your CEU’s you can take the test online at www.elitecme.com, upon passing you will then be requested to fill in your information and will be able to print out a certificate of completion for your records. I cannot get your webpage up on my computer. Be sure you are entering our web address in your address bar, not your search engine bar (see below).

Place our web address here to go directly to our homepage. Do not use your search engine Will Elite CME notify the Ohio State Board of Cosmetology that I have completed my con- tinuing education?

Yes, we will submit to the Board an Attendance Record Report. To avoid any delay in the reporting process it is important that you complete all the information on the test page. What if I hold both a Manager License and an Instructor License, how many hours do I need to complete? Rules & Regulations state that Licensees holding both a manager and instructor license shall need eight hours for each license, beginning with the renewals after January 2005.

I still have questions.

No problem, we are here to help you. Call us toll free at 1(888)857-6920.

II Elite CME 8 Hour Continuing Education for Ohio Salon Professionals

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Ohio Rules & Regulations (2 Hours)...... Page 1

Chapter 2 History of Cosmetology (3 Hours)...... Page 17

Chapter 3 Introduction to Marketing for Salon/Cosmetology Professionals (3 Hours)...... Page 40

Final Examination Questions...... Page 63

Final Examination Answer Sheet...... Page 66

Course Evaluation...... Page 67

All Rights Reserved. Materials may not be reproduced without the expressed permission or consent of Elite CME Inc. The materials presented in this course are meant to provide the consumer with general information on the topics covered. The information provided was prepared by professionals with practical knowledge in the areas covered. It is not meant to provide medical, legal or professional service advice. If necessary, it is recommended that you consult a medical, legal or professional service expert in the State of Ohio.

III CHAPTER 1 "Something so stupid like a took her life," Jackson said. Ohio Rules and Regulations The death certificate signed by the JPS Health Center doctor (2 CE Hours) who treated her showed Jackson died from a heart attack due to Learning Objectives a staph infection on her foot that infected her blood. 4 Understand the importance of implementing proper san- "She couldn't get it healed no matter what she was doing, and itation and sterilization procedures as prescribed by the antibiotics just wouldn't stop it," Jackson said. Ohio law. Jackson's family said she went to a Fort Worth salon last July for 4 Know your duties and responsibilities as a salon profes- a pedicure in a whirlpool foot spa. Jackson, a paraplegic, could sional under Ohio law. pull her wheelchair up to the tub according to close friend and As you begin your review of the rules and regulations governing neighbor Patricia Mathis. "She had said she had gone to get a the practice of cosmetology in the State of Ohio, you should pay pedicure and that they were all sitting there talking and she particular attention to the guidelines regarding sanitation and looked down and the girl had the pumice stone turned on the sterilization. The following anecdotes will illustrate the impor- corner edge and she pulled back and Kim saw blood," she said. tance of implementing proper sanitation and sterilization proce- Medical records obtained by News 8 showed that over the next dures in your salon. seven months the JPS doctor at a clinic treated Jackson for the The Significance of Sterilization in Spas and Salons MRSA staph infection on her foot from the cut. MRSA is an Late in the year 2000, a mysterious outbreak of bacterial infec- aggressive bacteria resistant to common antibiotics and is some- tions in Watsonville, California baffled health professionals for times found in the water of salon foot spas that are not disinfec- many weeks. Painful sores appeared on the skin of more than ted properly. 140 women who were found to have visited the same beauty The doctor put Jackson on a cocktail of strong oral and intra- salon. The infections were difficult to treat, even with the use of venous antibiotics. "It got pretty big and she got pretty scared antibiotics. After some weeks, investigators in the health depart- she was going to lose her foot," Mathis said. But on Feb. 12 the ment determined that these women had been infected with bacte- 46-year-old lost her life. At her funeral, friends and fam- ria in the course of receiving a spa pedicure. The salon was shut ily remembered Jackson as the mother of a 17 -year-old boy, down after testing indicated high levels of tuberculosis-related twin 13-year-old boys and the wife of a man who took care of bacteria in all of the salon's footbaths. Dangerous bacteria had her after she lost the use of her legs 6-years-ago. built up on the suction screens of the footbaths, which had not been properly cleaned. While the boils and skin ulcers eventual- "It's hard," Jackson said. "Nobody has a clue. I mean everybody ly healed, the infections left deep purple scars on the legs of can say, I can only imagine. It's hard...It's real hard." The family more than 100 women.1 Soon after the Watsonville discovery, a said it knows the salon where Jackson picked up the cut, but 20/20 investigation revealed salons in Phoenix, Boston, and wants to confirm it through bank records. Houston were also guilty of unsanitary conditions, with many The Texas Department of Licensing and Regulation that over- testing positive for potentially harmful bacteria. Other examples sees nail salons said it will be investigating Jackson's death. followed: Investigations in California noted potentially harmful conditions in 16 out of 18 examined salons; an undercover Until licensees and salon owners follow the necessary disinfec- inspection in Philadelphia found technicians reusing unclean tion procedures without fail, media attention will undoubtedly instruments; and in Westminster, Colorado, a jury awarded $3 continue to highlight such disturbing cases; putting the health of million dollars to a woman who contracted herpes from a nail clients, the reputation of the , and your business at risk. technician using unsterilized .2 Unfortunately, the message This is not just a problem for nail technicians; your job is at risk is still not out. As recently as August 2005, nine salons in even if you are a cosmetologist. If one case of this is linked to California were named in a lawsuit over pedicure-related infec- your salon a lawsuit is likely to follow and most salons end up tions.3 The most recent and disturbing news, however, is the closing due to financial difficulties. Therefore, this must be a death of a woman in Fort Worth, Texas. team effort and everyone must make sure that co-workers are following all sanitation regulations. It is important that all The following article was published in February 2006: licensees closely adhere to the following rules to avoid the prob- Family believes pedicure led to woman's death4 lems that occurred in California and Texas. Something as simple as a pedicure is said to have been the cause of Kimberly Jackson's death. A MRSA staph bacteria that's Rules Governing the Cosmetology Profession sometimes found in nail salons is very aggressive. Usually it 4713-1-01 Definition of Board of Cosmetology causes open sores that take strong antibiotics over weeks or even (A) "The board of cosmetology," hereinafter referred to as the months to knock down. "Board" means those members appointed by the governor of However, in some cases MRSA can lead to death and the family the state in accordance with Chapter 4713 of the Revised Code of the Fort Worth woman said that's what happened in this case. who are vested with both statutory and discretionary authority. Her husband, David Jackson of Fort Worth, said he still can't (B) "One year," for purposes of computing work experience is believe his wife is gone, and the cause of her death only adds to equal to two-thousand hours of employment. the agony. (C) "Inspector" means all authorized agents of the "Board" who have the authority to enter and make reasonable inspections of

1 any facility during their regular hours of business for the pur- matter to which the proposed rule, amendment, or pose of determining compliance with the "Board's" rules gov- rescission relates; erning the facility. The inspector shall prepare a written report (3) A statement of the reason or purpose for adopting, of the inspection on forms provided by the "Board". The report amending, or rescinding the rule; shall be signed by the inspector and by the facility owner or (4) The date, times and place of the hearing on the pro- their designated representative. A copy of the inspection report posed action. shall be left with the owner or manager. (C) The "Board" shall furnish the public notice required under section 119.03 of the Revised Code and as described in para- 4713-1-02 Appointing authority graph (A) of this rule to any person who requests a copy of The administrative agency concerned with the practice of cosme- such notice in writing and who pays a reasonable fee, not to tology shall be headed by the executive director of the"Board". exceed the cost of copying and mailing. The executive director shall operate as the chief administrator of (D) Prior to the effective date of the rule, amendment, or rescis- the "Board's" daily transactions of an administrative nature in sion, the "Board" shall make a reasonable effort to inform those accordance with all rules established by the "Board" for the gov- affected by the rule, amendment, or rescission and to have erning of the "Board" and the implementation or enforcement of available for distribution to those requesting it the full text of rules and orders of the "Board". the rule as adopted, amended, or rescinded. 4713-1-03 Application of rules All rules promulgated under agency level 4713 of the 4713-1-05 Sunshine rule Administrative Code shall apply to all types of licensed cosme- (A) A notice of each regular or special meeting of the "Board" tology facilities and licensees unless otherwise specified. Out-of- shall be filed forthwith by the chairman of the "Board" with the state licenses are not valid in this state. All cosmetologists must executive director to the "Board", stating the time, place, and be licensed by the state of Ohio. purpose of each regular or special meeting of the "Board". Any person may determine or obtain such information at the "Office (A) All cosmetologists licensed in the state of Ohio must inform of the "Board", 101 Southland Mall Columbus, Ohio 43207- the "Board" of cosmetology of any change in personal or pro- 4041," as provided in paragraph (B) of this rule or by telephon- fessional status that would affect their ability to receive official ing (614) 466-3834. correspondence related to their license. (B) Any person may obtain a reasonable advance written notifi- (1) Notice of a change in status would include mar- cation of all meetings of the "Board" at which any specific type riage, divorce, or official change in name that would of public business is to be discussed, or may request notifica- affect their license. tion by annually providing the executive director with self- (2) Students in a licensed school of cosmetology who addressed stamped envelopes suitable for this purpose. incur a name change during the period of training need not provide such notice until at the time of 4713-1-06 Sale or transfer of license application for the state exam and/or license. Any sale or any other type of transfer of any salon or school Official documentation of the type of change license is subject to the prior approval of the "Board". The and effective date of the change must be provided "Board" may deny any such sale or transfer if the "Board" finds with the exam or license application. that any outstanding alleged violation exists, any fine if unpaid, (B) Notice of a change in status of legal business ownership or suspension time has not been served. (formation or dissolution of partnership, incorporation of busi- 4713-1-07 Prohibited acts ness, or name change of business) should be made to the (A) The "Board" may refuse to issue or refuse to renew, or may "Board" as soon as possible. fine, suspend and/or revoke any license for any one or more of (C) Notice of a change in personal or business address must be the following causes: provided to the "Board" within thirty days of the actual address (1) Violation of any of the requirements for application change. Advance notice of address change is encouraged. of a license; 4713-1-04 Public hearings (2) Conviction of a felony or misdemeanor which was (A) The procedure of the "Board" for giving public notice for performed in the licensed facility, or was otherwise the adoption, amendment, or rescission of its rules shall be pur- related to their license; suant to section 119.03 of the Revised Code. The "Board" shall (3) Immoral or unprofessional conduct; provide a copy of a notice to any person who requests a copy (4) Gross incompetence; in writing and who pays a reasonable fee, not to exceed the (5) Advertising by means of false or deceptive state- cost of copying and mailing. ments; (B) The "Board" shall give public notice at least thirty days prior (6) Obtaining a license or aiding or abetting one who is to the date set for the public hearing by publication in the regis- seeking a license through fraud or deception; ter of Ohio. Such notice shall include: (7) Obtaining money, or anything of value, by fraudu- (1) A statement of the "Board's" intention to consider lent misrepresentation in the course of practice; the adoption, amendment, or rescission of a rule; (8) Violation of any rule of the "Board"; (2) A synopsis of the proposed rule, amendment, or rule (9) Failure to meet the industry's minimum standards of to be rescinded or a general statement of the subject care;

2 (10) Failure to meet any of the requirements of licen- cut or damaged. During services performed by indi- sure. viduals licensed in this chapter at no time should the (11) Failure of a person to assist a "Board" inspector or basal layers be compromised. interfere with a "Board" inspector in identification (3) "Client" means the recipient of cosmetology servic- of any individual believed by the inspector to be es, which may include an individual, a group, or a working in a salon. community. (B) A license shall not be issued to a salon or school which is (4) "Cosmetology Service" means any service provided attempting to sell, transfer, or otherwise change ownership, if to a client within the scope of practice of the indi- such is being attempted in order to circumvent compliance with vidual license types of the "Board". these rules or to avoid any penalty imposed by the "Board". (5) "Advanced Practice" means any cosmetology serv- ice not taught in basic cosmetology school courses 4713-1-08 Chemicals and service approval that require postgraduate training such as chemical All chemicals, and any equipment used in providing any cosme- or mechanical exfoliation, body treatments, clipper tology service, used in any type of licensed salon or school, are cuts, or other advanced manual, chemical or subject to the approval of the "Board" to ensure the health and mechanical techniques. safety of licensees and patrons. (6) "Therapy" means a non-invasive, non-medical and 4713-1-09 Rule rescinded non-healing service such as aroma therapy or other relaxation services. 4713-1-10 Public forum The "Board" will regularly communicate to the licensees and 4713-8-02 Board consideration of a violation of a standard of public that all monthly "Board" meetings are public meetings cosmetology practice and they may request the opportunity to speak on any issue of (A) A Board licensee who does not practice cosmetology servic- concern to them. The "Board" will communicate this information es according to acceptable and prevailing standards of safe primarily through the "Board" web page and the monthly Ohio cosmetology care, as set forth in this chapter, may be subject to Stylist and Salon Publication. discipline by the Board as established in Section 4713.64 of the Revised Code per Chapter 119. of the Revised Code and with 4713-8-01 General information Paragraph (B) of this rule. (A) The purpose of this chapter is to establish: (B) The Board may consider mitigating circumstances when (1) Minimal acceptable standards of safe and effective making a decision regarding charges, disciplinary action, or cosmetology practice for a cosmetologist, hair referral to a non-disciplinary program. designer, esthetician, natural hair stylist and mani- (1) Whether the act is willful, intentional, irresponsible, curist in a salon; or unintentional; (2) Criteria for the "Board" to evaluate: (2) The frequency of the occurrence of the act at issue; (a) Safe and effective cosmetology practice; and (3) Whether the act represents a pattern of commissions (b) Adherence to acceptable and prevailing stan- or omissions; dards of cosmetology practice. (4) The outcome of a licensee's actions; or (B) The "Board" may determine adherence to acceptable and (5) The level of harm or potential harm to a client. prevailing standards of safe cosmetology practice by using: (1) "Board" member expertise; 4713-8-03 Standards relating to competent practice as a cos- (2) An expert witness; metologist (3) Current cosmetology or related literature which (A) A cosmetologist shall provide cosmetology services within emanates from a recognized body of knowledge; the scope of practice of cosmetology for a cosmetologist as set (4) Position statements, standards for practice, or guide forth in Section 4731.01 of the Revised Code and the rules of lines for practice from nationally recognized cosme- the "Board". tology entities; or (B) A cosmetologist shall maintain knowledge of the duties, (5) Other recognized sources which may provide the responsibilities, and accountabilities of practice and shall prac- appropriate expertise or information. tice in accordance with the following: (6) When determining adherence the "Board" shall (1) The laws regulating the practice of cosmetology; ensure that all practices are within the definition of (2) The rules of the "Board"; that branch of cosmetology as defined in Section (3) Any other applicable federal and state laws and 4713.01 of the Revised Code. rules; and (C) For purposes of this chapter, the following definitions shall (4) Position statements, standards for practice, or guide- apply: lines for practice from nationally recognized (1) "Exfoliation" means the sloughing off of non-living professional cosmetology entities; provided these (dead) skin cells by very superficial and non-inva- statements, standards, or guidelines are consistent sive means. with existing laws or rules. (2) "Non-invasive" means confined to the nonliving (C) A cosmetologist shall demonstrate competence and account cells of the epidermis specifically the stratum ability in all areas of practice in which the cosmetologist is corneum layer. Living cells must never be altered, engaged which includes, but is not limited to, the following:

3 (1) Consistent performance of all aspects of cosmetol- 4713-8-04 Standards relating to competent practice as an ogy services according to acceptable and prevailing esthetician standards; and (A) An esthetician shall provide cosmetology services within the (2) Appropriate recognition, referral or consultation, scope of practice of esthetics for an esthetician as set forth in and intervention, when a complication arises during Section 4713.01 of the Revised Code and the rules of the or after the performance of a specific service or pro- "Board". cedure. (B) An esthetician shall maintain knowledge of the duties, (D) A cosmetologist may provide advanced cosmetology servic- responsibilities, and accountabilities of practice and shall prac- es provided: tice in accordance with the following: (1) The cosmetologist obtains appropriate education, (1) The laws regulating the practice of esthetics; which emanates from a recognized body of knowl- (2) The rules of the "Board"; edge relative to the cosmetology service to be pro- (3) Any other applicable federal and state laws and vided; rules; and (2) The cosmetologist demonstrates appropriate knowl- (4) Position statements, standards for practice, or edge, skills, and abilities to provide the cosmetology guidelines for practice from nationally recognized service; professional esthetic entities; provided these state- (3) The cosmetologist maintains documentation satis- ments, standards, or guidelines are consistent with factory to the "Board" of meeting the requirements existing laws or rules. set forth in Paragraphs (D)(1) and (D)(2) of this (C) An esthetician shall demonstrate competence and accounta- rule; bility in all areas of practice in which the esthetician is engaged (4) The cosmetology service does not involve a func- which includes, but is not limited to, the following: tion or procedure, which is prohibited by any other (1) Consistent performance of all aspects of esthetic law or rule and does not exceed the definition of the services according to acceptable and prevailing practice of cosmetology in section 4713.01 of standards; and Revised Code. (2) Appropriate recognition, referral or consultation, (E) Cosmetologists shall not provide any service that claims to and intervention, when a complication arises during have a medical or healing benefit. The scope of practice is lim- or after the performance of a specific service or ited to beautification and relaxation services only. The scope of procedure. practice is limited to non-invasive services only. Services (D) An esthetician may provide advanced esthetic services pro- offered using the term therapy shall be within the meaning vided: defined in rule 4713-8-01(C)(6) of the Administrative Code. (1) The esthetician obtains appropriate education, which (F) Cosmetologists may exfoliate stratum corneum cells only. emanates from a recognized body of knowledge With proper postgraduate training cosmetologists may use any relative to the esthetic service to be provided; chemical, mechanical or electrical service that only exfoliates (2) The esthetician demonstrates appropriate knowl- cells of the stratum corneum. Proper graduate training from the edge, skills, and abilities to provide the cosmetology manufacturer or the manufacturer's certified representative service; shall be required prior to service to the public. The manufactur- (3) The esthetician maintains documentation satisfacto- er's certificate of training shall be displayed in a publicly con- ry to the Board of meeting the requirements set spicuous place. forth in Paragraphs (D)(1) and (D)(2) of this rule; (G) Cosmetologists may use a lancet to enhance the opening in a (4) The esthetician service does not involve a function comedo or to create a small opening in the dead surface or procedure, which is prohibited by any other law corneum to facilitate extraction of a milia in order to better or rule and does not exceed the definition of the extract the contents. Cosmetologists shall not pierce the stratum practice of esthetics in section 4713.01 of Revised corneum or use a lancet for any other purpose. Cosmetologists Code. shall not perform a comedo enhancement or milia extraction (E) Estheticians shall not provide any service that claims to have with a lancet unless they have had specific documented training a medical or healing benefit. The scope of practice is limited to for this procedure. Only sterile, one-use, disposable lancets beautification and relaxation services only. The scope of prac- shall be used and they shall be disposed of in a "sharps box" tice is limited to non-invasive services only. Services offered medical waste container. using the term therapy shall be within the meaning defined in (H) Cosmetologists may perform services that are unregulated rule 4713-8-01(C)(6) of the Administrative Code. by the state in salons upon completing postgraduate training for (F) Estheticians may exfoliate stratum corneum cells only. They those services as established by policy of the Board and may use any chemical, mechanical or electrical service that required by rule 4713-13-12 of the Administrative Code. These only exfoliates cells of the stratum corneum. Proper graduate services include but are not limited to body wraps, ear piercing, training from the manufacturer or the manufacturer's certified hypnosis for relaxation, etc. representative shall be required prior to service to the public. The manufacturer's certificate of training shall be displayed in a publicly conspicuous place.

4 (G) Estheticians may use a lancet to enhance the opening in a function or procedure, which is prohibited by any comedo or to create a small opening in the dead surface other law or rule and does not exceed the definition corneum to facilitate extraction of a milia in order to better of the practice of hair design in section 4713.01 of extract the contents. Estheticians shall not pierce the stratum Revised Code. corneum or use a lancet for any other purpose. Estheticians (E) Hair designers shall not provide any service that claims to shall not perform a comedo enhancement or milia extraction have a medical or healing benefit. The scope of practice is lim- with a lancet unless they have had specific documented training ited to beautification and relaxation services only. The scope of for this procedure. Only sterile, one-use, disposable lancets practice is limited to non-invasive services only. Services shall be used and they shall be disposed of in a "sharps box" offered using the term therapy shall be within the meaning medical waste container. defined in rule 4713-8-01(C)(6) of the Administrative Code. (H) Estheticians may perform services that are unregulated by (F) Hair designers may perform services that are unregulated by the state in salons upon completing postgraduate training for the state in salons upon completing postgraduate training for those services as established by policy of the Board and those services as established by policy of the Board and required by rule 4713-13-12 of the Administrative Code. These required by rule 4713-13-12 of the Administrative Code. These services include but are not limited to body wraps, ear piercing, services include but are not limited to body wraps, ear piercing, hypnosis for relaxation, etc. hypnosis for relaxation, etc. 4713-8-05 Standards relating to competent practice as a hair 4713-8-06 Standards relating to competent practice as a nat- designer ural hair stylist (A) A hair designer shall provide cosmetology services within (A) A natural hair stylist shall provide cosmetology services the scope of practice of hair design for a hair designer as set within the scope of practice of natural hair styling for a natural forth in Section 4731.01 of the Revised Code and the rules of hair stylist as set forth in Section 4731.01 of the Revised Code the "Board". and the rules of the "Board". (B) A hair designer shall maintain knowledge of the duties, (B) A natural hair stylist shall maintain knowledge of the duties, responsibilities, and accountabilities of practice and shall prac- responsibilities, and accountabilities of practice and shall prac- tice in accordance with the following: tice in accordance with the following: (1) The laws regulating the practice of hair design; (1) The laws regulating the practice of natural hair (2) The rules of the "Board"; styling; (3) Any other applicable federal and state laws and (2) The rules of the "Board"; rules; and (3) Any other applicable federal and state laws and (4) Position statements, standards for practice, or guide rules; and lines for practice from nationally recognized profes- (4) Position statements, standards for practice, or guide- sional cosmetology or hair design entities; provided lines for practice from nationally recognized these statements, standards, or guidelines are professional cosmetology or natural hair stylist consistent with existing laws or rules. entities; provided these statements, standards, or (C) A hair designer shall demonstrate competence and accounta- guidelines are consistent with existing laws or rules. bility in all areas of practice in which the hair designer is (C) A natural hair stylist shall demonstrate competence and engaged which includes, but is not limited to, the following: accountability in all areas of practice in which the natural hair (1) Consistent performance of all aspects of hair design stylist is engaged which includes, but is not limited to, the fol- services according to acceptable and prevailing lowing: standards; and (1) Consistent performance of all aspects of natural hair (2) Appropriate recognition, referral or consultation, styling services according to acceptable and and intervention, when a complication arises during prevailing standards; and or after the performance of a specific service or (2) Appropriate recognition, referral or consultation, procedure. and intervention, when a complication arises during (D) A hair designer may provide advanced hair design services or after the performance of a specific service or provided: procedure. (1) The hair designer obtains appropriate education, (D) A natural hair stylist may provide advanced cosmetology which emanates from a recognized body of knowl- services provided: edge relative to the hair design service to be (1) The natural hair stylist obtains appropriate provided; education, which emanates from a recognized body (2) The hair designer demonstrates appropriate knowl- of knowledge relative to the natural hair styling edge, skills, and abilities to provide the hair design service to be provided; service; (2) The natural hair stylist demonstrates appropriate (3) The hair designer maintains documentation knowledge, skills, and abilities to provide the satisfactory to the "Board" of meeting the cosmetology service; requirements set forth in Paragraphs (D)(1) and (3) The natural hair stylist maintains documentation (D)(2) of this rule; satisfactory to the "Board" of meeting the (4) The hair designer service does not involve a

5 requirements set forth in Paragraphs (D)(1) and (D)(2) of this rule; (D)(2) of this rule; (4) The manicurist service does not involve a function (4) The natural hair stylist service does not involve a or procedure, which is prohibited by any other law function or procedure, which is prohibited by any or rule and does not exceed the definition of the other law or rule and does not exceed the definition practice of manicuring in section 4713.01 of of the practice of natural hair styling in section Revised Code. 4713.01 of Revised Code. (E) Manicurists shall not provide any service that claims to have (E) Natural hair stylists shall not provide any service that claims a medical or healing benefit. The scope of practice is limited to to have a medical or healing benefit. The scope of practice is beautification and relaxation services only. The scope of prac- limited to beautification and relaxation services only. The scope tice is limited to non-invasive services only. Services offered of practice is limited to non-invasive services only. Services using the term therapy shall be within the meaning defined in offered using the term therapy shall be within the meaning rule 4713-8-01(C)(6) of the Administrative Code. defined in rule 4713-8-01(C)(6) of the Administrative Code. (F) Manicurists may perform services that are unregulated by the (F) Natural hair stylists may perform services that are unregulat- state in salons upon completing postgraduate training for those ed by the state in salons upon completing postgraduate training services as established by policy of the "Board" and required for those services as established by policy of the "Board" and by rule 4713-13-12 of the Administrative Code. These services required by rule 4713-13-12 of the Administrative Code. These include but are not limited to body wraps, ear piercing, hypno- services include but are not limited to body wraps, ear piercing, sis for relaxation, etc. hypnosis for relaxation, etc. 4713-11-01 Application for operation of 4713-8-07 Standards relating to competent practice as a All applicants for a license for the operation of a salon under manicurist provisions of Chapter 4713 of the Revised Code, shall apply on (A) A manicurist shall provide cosmetology services within the forms supplied by the "Board" for the operation of a salon and scope of practice of manicuring for a manicurist as set forth in for the procedures to follow in making application for licensure. Section 4731.01 of the Revised Code and the rules of the No salon shall begin operating or providing services to the pub- "Board". lic until the proper license is obtained and displayed. (B) A manicurist shall maintain knowledge of the duties, respon- Applications for licensure of a salon are valid for ninety days sibilities, and accountabilities of practice and shall practice in after approval by the “Board”, failure to obtain an approved accordance with the following: inspection or temporary certificate for operation within the nine- (1) The laws regulating the practice of manicuring; ty days shall invalidate the application and require a new appli- (2) The rules of the "Board"; cation and fee. (3) Any other applicable federal and state laws and 4713-11-02 Floor plan and zoning approval rules; and Applicants for the first five types of beauty salons designated in (4) Position statements, standards for practice, or 4713-11-01 must meet the following requirements: guidelines for practice from nationally recognized (A) The floor plan shall be drawn to scale, showing in detail the professional cosmetology or manicuring entities; size of the premises, and each room contained therein, and provided these statements, standards, or guidelines describe any areas accessible to the salon through doors or any are consistent with existing laws or rules. other openings, all equipment, and all plumbing fixtures. This (C) A manicurist shall demonstrate competence and accountabil- floor plan shall be legible and clearly labeled. ity in all areas of practice in which the manicurist is engaged, (B) Whenever a licensed salon desires to alter the original floor which includes, but is not limited to, the following: plan filed with the "Board", or desires to add other services, an (1) Consistent performance of all aspects of manicuring approval of the proposed revised floor plan shall be obtained services according to acceptable and prevailing from the "Board" prior to commencing any such construction standards; and or the offering of other services. (2) Appropriate recognition, referral or consultation, (C) All salons attached to a residence shall additionally indicate and intervention, when a complication arises during in their floor plan the exact location of salon and living quar- or after the performance of a specific service or ters and obtain proper approval from the local zoning "Board" procedure. indicating that cosmetology may be practiced in that location. (D) A manicurist may provide advanced manicuring services provided: 4713-11-03 Water supply; waste disposal (1) The manicurist obtains appropriate education, which Every salon facility shall be equipped with an adequate supply emanates from a recognized body of knowledge of hot and cold running water and proper plumbing. Every salon relative to the cosmetology service to be provided; facility shall adhere to the following standards promulgated by (2) The manicurist demonstrates appropriate knowl- the Ohio department of health: edge, skills, and abilities to provide the cosmetology (A) Safe water supply shall be provided; service; (B) Sewage and other liquid wastes shall be disposed of in a san- (3) The manicurist maintains documentation itary manner; satisfactory to the "Board" of meeting the (C) The storage and collection of solid waste shall be conducted requirements set forth in Paragraphs (D)(1) and so as to avoid creation of health hazards, rodent harborages,

6 insect breeding areas and accidents; salon located within a department store or shopping center the (D) Solid waste shall be stored in waste containers; sign may be displayed at the entrance to the beauty salon. (E) Solid wastes shall be collected at least once each week. 4713-11-08 Resident salons and mobile home salons 4713-11-04 Plumbing permit Except for beauty salons licensed prior to September 5, 1977, All salon facilities shall comply with all requirements and salons shall maintain a separate entrance which shall not open inspections set forth by the plumbing unit of the "Ohio off the living quarters, and which shall not have any doors, Department of Commerce, 6606 Tussing Road, Columbus, Ohio openings, or any other access leading to the living quarters or 43068" or the appropriate local government agency intended for residential areas. Entrance through garages or any other rooms this purpose. into the salon shall not be permitted. Mobile homes, motor homes, trailers or any type of recreational vehicle must be per- 4713-11-05 Restrooms manently set on a or they shall not be approved for All salon facilities shall be equipped with at least one restroom, cosmetological services. including a toilet and hand-washing sink with hot and cold run- ning water. The restroom shall be kept clean, sanitary and func- 4713-11-09 Exhaust fumes from service areas tional at all times. The restrooms shall have a pump soap con- In any facility licensed as a salon by the "Board," the service tainer, covered waste containers with solid sides or liner, and area must be equipped with properly maintained exhaust fans or paper towel dispenser or equipment for hand-drying. Salons air filtration equipment that meets local and state building codes. located in a mall, office building or nursing homes with avail- The Ohio building code that applies is rule 4101:2-39-03 of the able public restrooms do not need a separate restroom internal to Administrative Code (TABLE 403.3). the salon. 4713-11-10 Service listing 4713-11-06 Salon dispensary (A)If a salon provides any non-cosmetology services, the salon (A) Every salon facility shall have a separate, fully functional shall post a listing of all services provided, and the regulatory dispensary room equipped with a door, and totally contained agency that provides oversight of said services, if any. The cer- within the licensed salon. Each salon dispensary shall measure tificates of specialized training of the providers, if any, shall be no less than twenty-four square feet, with minimum six-foot posted in the area where services are being provided within the high walls, which shall be used for storing and dispensing of salon. Only "Board" licensees as required by rules 4713-8- supplies and sanitizing of implements. The dispensary shall be 03/04/05/06/07 of the Administrative Code or licensees of equipped with a sink with hot and cold running water, wet sani- other Ohio regulatory boards shall provide all non-regulated tizers, and covered waste containers with solid sides or liner. services. The services listing shall be posted in a conspicuous Floor covering of the dispensary shall be totally nonabsorbent. public place in the salon. The salon may on forms provided by Every salon shall be equipped with wet sanitizer container(s) the "Board" or an equivalent document make the listing. The located in the dispensary, of sufficient size to entirely immerse listing shall have three columns: all implements being sanitized. Covered wet sanitizers may (1) The services provided; also be located elsewhere within the salon. Sanitized instru- (2) The regulatory agency for that service; ments, combs and appropriate items must be stored in such a (3) The license type of providers. manner as to avoid recontamination. The public shall not be (B) If the service is unregulated, the third column should list the allowed access to the dispensary room. Dispensary room and "Board" licensee or other Ohio board licensee providing the restroom shall be totally separate with each having its own service with a statement that the provider meets the minimum entrance. Entry or access to the restroom shall not be accessible training requirements of the "Board" for that service. All serv- by going through the dispensary nor access to the dispensary ices in the salon shall be provided by "Board" licensees or by going through the restroom. other Ohio board licensees only. (B) If an individual, firm or corporation is licensed to own or 4713-11-11 Glamour photography services operate a salon, prior to September 7, 1977, that licensed salon All cosmetology services performed in conjunction with glam- need not contain a restroom or dispensary until that time when our photography services shall be provided only in a licensed the license has been revoked, there is a change of ownership of salon. the salon or change of location of the salon. (C) If an individual, firm or corporation is licensed to own and 4713-11-12 Non-Cosmetology Ohio Professional Regulatory operate a nail salon prior to July 25, 1990, the license need not Board Licensees comply with rules 4713-11-05 and 4713-11-06 of the All licensees from any Ohio professional regulatory board are Administrative Code until that time when the license has been eligible to work in salons in keeping with the laws and rules of revoked, or until there is a change of name, ownership, or loca- their governing boards. Any issue that arises concerning a licens- tion of the nail salon. ee shall be referred to the appropriate governing board. 4713-11-07 Display of sign 4713-13-01 Change of ownership Every establishment licensed by the "Board" shall display a sign Salon facility licenses are not transferable from one address to at its main entrance which will be clearly visible from the street another, or from one owner to another. A new salon license using at least three inch tall letters, stating the name of business application must be filed within thirty days of any change of as submitted on application, except that in the case of a beauty ownership. Salons are permitted to open or offer services while

7 the application is processed and are subject to the "Board's" sons employed for cosmetological services hold a current appli- approval under the rules contained in chapter 4713-1 of the cable and valid Ohio license. administrative code. Any salon with an administrative action(s) (C) Salon owners' who employ persons holding a temporary pending cannot transfer a license until the administrative work permit, are responsible for ensuring that the work permit action(s) is resolved. holder has a current, valid, and conspicuously displayed work permit. 4713-13-02 Independent contractor (A) Independent contractors, formerly known as "booth renters", 4713-13-05 Inspection of salons will receive beauty salon licenses that meet the following crite- All authorized agents of the "Board" shall have the authority to ria: enter and make reasonable inspections of any salon during its (1) Addressed to the licensee's home address. regular business hours for the purpose of determining whether or (2) The license must be posted at all times with the not the "Board's" rules are being observed. If no hours of opera- individual's cosmetology or branch of cosmetology tion are posted and the salon's doors are unlocked, an inspector license in the salon where they are working. may conduct an inspection and the salon will be deemed as (3) These licensees will be a different color from other "open for business". Persons duly authorized to make an inspec- salon licenses. tion of salons shall prepare a report of the inspection on forms (4) Applicants must have an active manager's license provided by the "Board". The report shall be signed by the for the appropriate branch of cosmetology. inspector and by the owner of the salon or by a person author- (5) This license authorizes the individual to work in any ized to sign for the owner. A copy of the inspection report shall "Board" licensed salon, which includes their branch be left with the owner or manager of the salon. of cosmetology. 4713-13-06 Licensee list (B) Where a license for an independent contractor has been The owner, manager, or person in charge of each licensed cos- issued, the "Board" shall hold the individual independent con- metology facility shall do the following: tractor and the salon owner responsible for the compliance with Make available upon request of a board inspector a current list, all cosmetology statutes and rules as follows: on a form prescribed by the board, containing the name of each (1) Salon owner is responsible for all common areas person employed by or leasing space in the salon, the type of and any employee areas. license(s) that each person holds, the identification number of (2) Independent contractors are responsible for own each such license(s), and current address. station areas permanently assigned and any being used when inspection occurs. 4713-13-07 & 08 Rule number not used (3) Independent contractors are equally responsible for 4713-13-09 Retailing of items in salons common areas when present. Salons may retail any legal merchandise in their salon as long as 4713-13-03 Necessity of managers the merchandise does not create a health, safety or sanitation (A) A licensee with an active manager license shall must be problem. present in a salon at all times in which a salon is open except 4713-13-10 Demonstrations at trade shows and other events that a manager may be absent from a salon for a period of sixty Services on the public shall not be performed at trade shows or minutes two times a day so long as the manager is readily other public events. Demonstrations on models are allowed. accessible by phone, or the equivalent, and can return to the Models shall have a written contract with a performance pay- salon within thirty minutes. A manager must return to the salon ment. when requested by a "Board" inspector, when requested by an employee, and whenever any situation arises which may affect 4713-13-11 Other business co-located in a licensed facility any person's safety. Non-cosmetology related businesses may be located in the same (B) A business establishment that is engaged primarily in retail building or facility, but they shall have their own entrance and sales but is also licensed as a salon shall have a person holding separate rooms and walls. a current, valid managing license for that type of salon in 4713-13-12 Special services certification charge of and in immediate supervision of the cosmetology (A) As used in this rule, "A special service" means any proce- services during active, posted or advertised service hours. dure, and the devices used to perform the procedure, which (C) A primarily retail salon is defined as one that has at least cause entry into skin, or the application of chemicals, electrici- fifty percent of square footage devoted to retail sales and which ty, or non-medical cosmetological service to skin or hair, for is open for salon services at least seventy-five percent of the example, microdermabrasion, ear piercing, etc. hours the retail facility is open. (B) Salons and schools shall not provide any special service 4713-13-04 Licenses must be conspicuously displayed until the "Board" has reviewed and approved the service for (A) All persons practicing any branch of cosmetology must con- use in licensed salons and schools. A request to review a spe- spicuously display a current "Board" license with a recent, not cial service shall be made to the "Board" on forms provided by more than five years old, approved photograph for inspection the "Board". by authorized agents of the "Board". (C) The "Board" at the time of approval will provide require- (B) Each salon owner shall be responsible for hiring only indi- ments for use of each specific device and procedure covered by viduals licensed by the "Board" and shall require that all per- this rule which must be followed by the licensed salons and

8 schools; in addition the salons and schools must comply with turer's recommendation or other guidance in this rule. the following general requirements: (B) All used implements shall first be cleaned of visible dirt, (1) Salon and school owners must ensure only licensees debris and/or bodily fluids with warm soapy/detergent water who have received approved manufacturers training and then disinfected by thoroughly wetting surfaces with an are permitted to operate devices. "appropriate disinfectant". (2) Each individual trained must have a certificate of (1) All non-porous implements, which come in contact training for the device from the manufacturer or the with intact skin, shall be thoroughly cleaned before manufacturers' authorized representative posted in application of an "appropriate disinfectant". An the room in which services are provided. "appropriate disinfectant" for objects, which come in (3) Operators must comply with manufacturers' contact with intact skin is an environmental directions in the use of all equipment and products. protection agency registered, hospital grade (4) Operators must advise clients of the necessity of any bactericidal (esp. pseudomonacidal), virucidal, and manufacturers' recommended follow-up care, such fungicidal that is mixed and used according to the as protection, etc. manufacturer's directions or household bleach in a (5) Only licensed salons or schools may provide the ten percent solution for ten minutes, or seventy-to- "Board" approved special service. ninety percent isopropyl alcohol or seventy-to-nine- (6) Products and devices used in salons and schools ty percent ethyl alcohol for ten minutes. must meet all federal drug administration, cosmetic (2) All non-porous implements, which have come in ingredient review and/or guidelines of the esthetics contact with blood or body fluids, shall be thorough- manufacturers and distributors alliance of the ly cleaned before application of an "appropriate dis- American beauty association. infectant". An "appropriate disinfectant" includes an (D) "Board" licensees and other Ohio professional board environmental protection agency registered tubercu- licensees may provide services in a salon if locides or products registered against "HIV/"HBV" they comply with all of the following requirements. or household bleach in a ten percent solution for ten (1) The salon shall obtain an approval to operate a minutes. For personal protection against blood- business that offers tattooing services from the borne pathogens, cleanup should always be done board of health of the city or general health district wearing protective gloves and also gowns, and eye in which the business is located and comply with all protection for large spills. All implements, which requirements of Chapter 3730. of the Revised Code have come in contact with blood or body fluids, and Chapter 3701-9 of the Administrative Code. shall be disinfected by complete immersion in an (2) All licensees providing permanent makeup services "appropriate disinfectant". shall have available in the salon documented (C) Any non-porous surface that comes in contact with blood or completion of a minimum of a sixty hour training body fluids shall first be cleaned with warm soapy/detergent program approved by the "Society of Permanent water, and then an "appropriate disinfectant" shall be used. An Cosmetic Professionals", the "American Academy "appropriate disinfectant" for surfaces, which have come in of Micropigmentation" or an equivalent program. contact with blood or body fluids, include environmental pro- tection agency registered tuberculocides or products registered 4713-15-01 General sanitation against "HIV"/"HBV" or household bleach in a ten percent The entire licensed facility, including all equipment, employees, solution for ten minutes. For personal protection against blood- and implements contained therein must be continually main- borne pathogens, cleanup should always be done wearing pro- tained in a sanitary manner satisfactory to the "Board". tective gloves and also gowns, and eye protection for large 4713-15-02 Methods of sanitizing spills. Any implements to be used on any patrons shall be properly san- (D) Alcohol is a low level disinfectant as defined by the associa- itized. All methods of sanitation shall be bacteriologically effec- tion for professionals in infection control and epidemiology. tive and all commercially prepared sanitizing agents shall be Alcohol shall not be used for blood spills. All alcohol shall used in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. be kept in a covered container. Alcohol is flammable and shall be kept in a cool, ventilated area, away from heat or 4713-15-03 Disinfection of implements & spills; blood and flame. Alcohol evaporates rapidly, which makes extended con- body fluids tact times difficult to achieve unless the items are immersed. (A) Disinfectants are inactivated and ineffective when visibly Alcohol deteriorates some plastics, metals and rubber items. contaminated with debris, hair, dirt, particulates and/or when When using alcohol on surfaces other than non-porous materi- heavily soiled. Thus, implements and surfaces shall first be als, the time of complete immersion shall be a minimum of fif- thoroughly cleaned prior to disinfection. Disinfectants shall be teen minutes after pre-cleaning thoroughly with a plastic or prepared fresh daily or more often if solution becomes diluted metal brush and warm soap/water to remove debris. or soiled. Contact Time: Leave surface wet or completely (E) Household bleach is an effective disinfectant for all purposes immersed, if possible, for a ten-minute contact time or longer in a salon. Bleach solutions shall be mixed daily and used in a as required by manufacturer for disinfecting against "HIV", ten to one solution (nine parts tap water and one part bleach). "HBV", and all other viruses, bacteria, and fungi. In all cases Bleach shall be kept in a closed covered container and not the disinfectant used shall be in accordance with the manufac-

9 exposed to sunlight. Bleach may produce eye irritation or 4713-15-10 Walls and floors mouth, esophageal, and gastric burns. Bleach is corrosive to Walls, floors and fixtures shall be sanitary and kept clean at all metals. Bleach vapors might react with vapors from other times. Floor covering shall be totally nonabsorbent and extend at chemicals, and therefore should not be placed or stored near least in a three foot radius from the center of any styling or other chemicals used in salons (i.e. acrylic monomers, alcohol, service chair. other disinfecting products, or near flame). Used or soiled bleach solution shall be discarded every day by pouring down 4713-15-11 Proper laundering methods sink basin or toilet bowl. All cloth towels, robes, and similar items shall be laundered in a (F) All bottles and/or containers other than the original manufac- washing machine with laundry detergent and chlorine bleach turers' container used for application of "appropriate disinfec- used according to manufacturer's directions for sanitation pur- tant" shall be properly labeled as to contents, percentage solu- poses. A closed dustproof cabinet must be provided for clean tion and date mixed. towels and linen, and a closed dustproof hamper or receptacle (G) Cleanup items from minor cuts shall be double bagged or must be provided for all soiled towels and linens. placed in biohazard containers, regardless of quantity. Double 4713-15-12 Personal hygiene bagging could mean to use a zip lock baggie for the waste, and Every person engaged in the practice of cosmetology or any of then put the baggie in a normal trash bag. If the spill or clean- its branches shall thoroughly cleanse his or her hands with soap ing materials are of a relatively larger volume, those materials and water or an alcohol-based handrub immediately before serv- used to clean spills, which do contain blood spills or bodily flu- ing each patron. All licensees shall wear a clean washable outer ids, shall be weighed, logged on a disposal log sheet and dou- garment while serving a patron in a salon. No licensees shall ble bagged for disposal in the normal trash. If in doubt of what carry or store instruments in their pockets, in a belt, in a leather to do, call the local health board for directions. case or in an apron. (H) All food and drug administration designated "medical 4713-15-13 Contagious/communicable diseases devices" shall only be disinfected by appropriate environmental (A) No patron with definite open sores, exhibiting symptoms of protection agency approved disinfectants, for example micro- infectious or contagious disease or disorder of the skin, or para- dermabrasion service wand, tip or head. sitic infestations will be served unless written permission from (I) Environmental protection agency approved disinfectants are a physician has been secured. indicated by their registration number on the product label and (B) No licensee who knowingly has an infectious or contagious the manufacturer's directions for use shall always be followed. disease, or parasitic infestation, in a communicable stage shall 4713-15-04 Shampoo bowls give service in a salon. All shampoo bowls, shampoo boards, cups, or similar items shall (C) The "Board" shall have the right to require a physical exami- be sanitized after each use. nation of any person employed in any salon who is suspected of having a contagious or infectious disease, or parasitic 4713-15-05 Proper protection of neck infestation, in a communicable stage. No shampoo apron, hair cloth, or similar article shall be placed directly against the neck of the patron, and they shall be kept 4713-15-14 Policy on prohibiting animals from direct contact with the patron by means of a paper neck Dogs (except dogs providing assistance to individuals with phys- band or clean towel. No neck band of paper or cloth shall be ical handicaps) cats, birds, or other animals shall not be permit- used more than once. No towels shall be used more than once ted in a cosmetology salon. This definition does not include fish, without proper laundering. in an aquarium, provided they are maintained in a sanitary con- dition. 4713-15-06 Use of creams All creams and other semi-solid substances shall be removed 4713-15-15 Equipment sanitation from containers with a clean sanitized spatula. Spatulas made of All equipment used in a salon shall be maintained in a sanitary a washable nonabsorbent material shall be sanitized before being manner. Salons shall maintain a copy of the manufacturer's/ used again. Spatulas made of wood shall be discarded after one owner's manual for all equipment in service. use. (A) Electrical equipment, (whether professional or consumer design) which provides circulating, whirlpool or vacuum 4713-15-07 Use of styptics effects, (for example, all microdermabrasion machines, Styptics to arrest bleeding shall be used only in liquid or powder machines, pedicure stations, nail drills and body treatment form and shall be applied by clean gauze, cotton, or any other equipment) shall be cleaned and disinfected after each use. sanitary item. Such equipment shall also be flushed, cleaned and disinfected 4713-15-08 Special solution containers on a bi-weekly schedule. A record of such cleaning shall be All cosmetologists shall use product containers to prevent the kept on forms provided by the "Board" and available upon any contamination of unused solution. salon inspection. The bi-weekly cleaning shall include the use of a hospital grade disinfectant, ten percent bleach solution or 4713-15-09 Use of powder an equivalent solution approved by the "Board" and circulated All powder shall be dispensed from a shaker or similar recepta- through the machine for the minimum time recommended by cle and shall be applied with disposable puffs or cotton pledgets, the manufacturer. or other disposable applicators.

10 (B) Heated electrical equipment such as; all types of thermal (F) "Ultraviolet radiation" for purposes of this chapter shall be irons, pressing combs and stoves are sanitized by the heat referred to as follows: source. Unheated parts of such equipment shall be cleaned and (1) "UVA (ultraviolet A) radiation" means radiation in disinfected as well, according to manufacturers' recommenda- the wavelength between three hundred twenty to tions. four hundred nanometers (one-billionth). (C) Any other electrical equipment, including clippers and (2) "UVB (ultraviolet B) radiation" means radiation in attachments shall be cleaned and disinfected after each use. the wavelength between two hundred eighty to three Electrical clipper blades and attachments shall be disinfected hundred twenty nanometers (one-billionth). using the following method: (3) "UVC (ultraviolet C) radiation" means radiation in (1) Remove hair and/or all foreign matter; the wavelength between two hundred and two (2) Completely saturate clipper and attachment hundred eighty nanometers (one-billionth). with an EPA-registered high-level disinfectant (G) "Formal training" - means a course of instruction approved solution, spray, or foam used according to the by the Board conducted or presented under either classroom manufacturer's instructions. conditions, via Internet or correspondence course by a compa- ny employing persons possessing adequate knowledge and 4713-15-16 Food in a salon experience to offer a curriculum, associated training, and certi- Salons offering food shall comply with local health board fication testing pertaining to and associated with the correct use requirements. of tanning equipment. Training shall cover ultraviolet radiation 4713-15-17 Rooms used for massage and effects on the skin, photosensitivity, skin typing, FDA and Rooms used for massage services may be used for other compat- State regulations, eye protection, and equipment and mainte- ible services such as esthetics as long as no sanitary problems nance. result. If cosmetic therapy, massage therapy, or other profession- (H) "Tanning Operator's Certificate" - means a certificate issued al service is provided at the salon under section 4713.42 of the by an authorized provider to each person who successfully Revised Code, sanitize all instruments and supplies used in the completes and passes the tanning test following a formal train- cosmetic therapy, massage therapy, or other professional service. ing course and is valid for four years from the date of issuance. Certificates issued by subsequently approved authorized 4713-19-01 Necessity of permit providers prior to the commencement of this requirement shall All tanning services provided by ultraviolet means for public also be valid. consumption as defined in section 4713.25 of the Revised Code shall be performed in facilities duly approved and issued a 4713-19-03 Permit fees permit by the "Board". Tanning permits are non-transferable. All tanning permit applications must contain a check payable to Tanning beds in residences used solely by the immediate family the "Treasurer of State of Ohio" in the following amounts: do not require a license. (A) Original permit fees are sixty-five dollars. (B) Renewal permit fees are fifty dollars. 4713-19-02 Definitions As used in Chapter 4713-19 of the Administrative Code: 4713-19-04 Installation of equipment (A) "Consumer" or "Patron" means any member of the public No tanning equipment shall be installed in any tanning facility, who is provided access to a tanning facility for free or in unless the equipment and facilities have been found to be in exchange for a fee or other compensation or any individual compliance with the following standards: who, is afforded use of a tanning facility as a condition or ben- (A) Each tanning bed shall be located in a separate room with a efit of membership or access; lockable door to provide privacy; (B) "Other compensation" means the payment or exchange of (B) Each sunlamp product shall incorporate a timing device with goods, services, or anything of value for use of the tanning multiple timer settings adequate for the manufacturer's recom- facility or facilities; mended exposure intervals to produce the expected results; (C) "Tanning facility" or "tanning facilities" means a business (C) Each assembly of tanning equipment shall be equipped with that contains a room or a booth open to the public which hous- a timer which complies with the requirements of 21 CFR part es ultraviolet lamps or products containing such lamps intended 1040, Section 1040.20(C)(2). The maximum timer interval for the irradiation of any part of the living body for cos- shall not exceed the manufacturer's maximum recommended metic or nonmedical-related purposes; exposure time. No timer interval shall have an error exceeding (D) "Tanning equipment" means sunlamp products, and ultravio- plus or minus ten per cent of the maximum timer interval for let lamps or any other mechanisms used intended to induce the product. After April 1, 2001 each new tanning facility shall skin tanning through the irradiation of any part of the living install remote timer controls such that clients who are tanning human body; can not reset the timer from inside the tanning room/booth. All (E) "Operator" and "Employee" means any person designated by existing permit holders shall have remote timers installed with the permit holder for the facility to assist and instruct the public in one hundred eighty days of the effective date of this rule; in the correct operation of the tanning facility; an "operator" or (D) Each sunlamp product shall incorporate a control on the "employee" who is under the age of eighteen shall be under the product to enable the user to manually terminate radiation with immediate supervision of a licensed cosmetologist, "operator" out pulling the electrical plug or coming in contact with the or "employee" who is at least eighteen years of age; ultraviolet lamp;

11 (E) The permit holder shall provide protective eyewear to each (1) The operator shall provide to each person desiring consumer for use during any use of tanning equipment. This to use a tanning facility presanitized units and protective eyewear shall meet the requirements of 21 CFR part protective eyewear; 1040, Section 1040.20(C)(5). The permit holder shall ensure (2) The operator shall establish the time period for the that the protective eyewear required by this rule is properly initial exposure and each subsequent exposure until sanitized before each use, is not altered in any way, and shall the time as the individual has reached their not rely upon exposure to the ultraviolet radiation produced by maximum radiation level; the tanning equipment itself to provide such sanitizing and be (3) The operator shall instruct the user on the position adequate for the protection of the consumer's eyes; of the safety railing in booths; and the manual (F) Each ultraviolet lamp contained within the sunlamp product switching device to terminate the radiation in case shall be shielded so as to not come into any contact with the of an emergency; user. Two one-piece transparent covers, top and bottom, shall (4) The operator shall inspect the facility to ensure that be used for this purpose and the covers shall not contain cracks the floors are dry. Floors are to be made dry prior to or breaks in their surfaces; each individual's use. Non-absorbent and non- (G) Each booth-type sunlamp product shall provide a handrail carpeted flooring or rubber or plastic mats shall be for use during operation of the tanning facility. Each tanning in place where the patron enters or exits the bed. facility shall have, clearly marked, the appropriate position the These mats shall be sanitized after each patron's use; user is to assume prior to operation and comply with all other (5) The operator shall post signs, immediately adjacent applicable statutes and rules governing tanning equipment. to each unit of tanning equipment, warning con- Each booth must be housed in a separate room unless the booth sumers of the potential effects of radiation on also incorporates a dressing area in its design; persons taking medication and the possible relation- (H) Each sunlamp product shall prominently display the follow- ship of radiation to skin cancer. ing label: "Danger - ultraviolet radiation. Follow instructions (6) Permit holder shall perform timer checks on beds carefully. Do not enter without protective eyewear." with mechanical timers every time bulbs are (I) Each tanning facility shall be so equipped to dissipate heat so changed, but at least annually and maintain that the interior temperature does not exceed one hundred documentation of the timer checks. Timer checks degrees Fahrenheit or thirty-four degrees centigrade. Every tan- are not required for beds with digital timers. ning room within the facility shall have a thermometer mount- (C) Each assembly of tanning equipment shall be restricted for ed at five feet above the floor. Adjacent to the thermometer use by only one consumer at a time. No person shall be permit- shall be a sign that states: patrons shall not tan if temperature is ted in any room where tanning equipment is operating while at one hundred degrees or higher! Please report excessive heat someone else is tanning. to the operator immediately; (D) Each tanning facility shall have an owner's manual for each (J) The permit holder shall replace ultraviolet lamps, bulbs, and tanning device, which is providing services to patrons. filters at such frequency or after such duration of use as may be (E) A written report of any alleged tanning injury shall be for- recommended by the manufacturer of such lamps, or bulbs, or warded to the "Board" within five working days of its occur- filters; and these items shall be replaced as soon as they rence or knowledge thereof. The report shall include: become defective or damaged. Only those lamps, bulbs or fil- (1) The date of alleged injury and name of the affected ters, meeting the requirements of the United States Food and individual; Drug Administration for any particular bed may be used in its (2) The name, location and permit/identification operation, and the facility must maintain the manufacturer's number of the tanning facility involved and the recommendation on file in the facility. name of the operator who assisted the customer; (K) Each tanning bed shall have the UV bulbs installed such that (3) The nature of the alleged injury and duration of the the bulb information is readily available for the “Board” tanning exposure; inspector to verify that information on the bulb matches the (4) Name and address of the health care provider, and manufacturer's recommended bulb list. For any tanning device treatment, if any; and that does not meet this requirement the owner shall remove the (5) Information on the device involved, such as the shielding in order that the inspector can easily verify UV bulb manufacturer, model number, lamp used, and any compatibility. other information considered relevant to the situa- tion by the "Board". 4713-19-05 Operation of equipment (6) A copy of the affected individual's tanning card or (A) Where applicable, each tanning facility shall have on duty at computerized card information. all times an operator trained per rule 4713-19-14 of the (F) The most recent "Board" inspection form shall be posted in a Administrative Code in the correct operation of the facility so publicly conspicuous place adjacent to the facilities license. as to be able to inform and assist the public in its proper use. (G) The skin type of each patron shall be documented on the Such operator shall be stationed in the immediate vicinity of tanning record for each individual patron. Only certificated any such equipment and closely monitor the services being pro- operators shall determine skin type on a new patron's first visit vided to each patron. and determine proper tanning periods and frequency. (B) Each operator shall perform the following functions as a pre- condition to access of the tanning facility to the public:

12 4713-19-06 Sanitation (6) All customers shall have their skin type computed (A) No article or equipment shall be used or offered for use by a and annotated on their customer card prior to their patron unless that article has first been sanitized with a virici- first tanning session. dally effective product including all eyewear used by the (B) If the patron is under eighteen years of age, the operator patron. shall obtain the written consent from the parent or legal (B) Walls, floors, and fixtures shall be sanitized and kept clean guardian of the patron prior to any tanning session. This writ- at all times in the entire tanning facility. ten consent shall be signed at the licensed location, and shall (C) A clean sanitary towel shall be provided to all patrons using specify the number of sessions consented to, and shall become tanning facilities. A closed dustproof cabinet must be provided part of the record of the patron. The minor patron may then for clean towels, and linen and a covered hamper or receptacle alone sign the patron card for the remainder of the consented must be provided for all soiled towels and linen. sessions. (D) All tanning facilities shall be equipped with toilet facilities (C) Tanning facilities which maintain records on computer or and dressing rooms. Toilet facilities shall include a water closet data processing equipment may use a single data sheet for all and hand washing sinks, including hot and cold running water, patrons tanning in a single day provided that the data is then pump soap, and a paper towel dispenser or equivalent hand transferred daily to each individual's permanent file. drying equipment. All toilet facilities and dressing rooms shall 4713-19-10 Floor plans be kept clean, sanitary, and functional at all times. (A) All tanning facility applications shall indicate in a drawing 4713-19-07 Display of sign submitted to the "Board" the following: Every establishment licensed to provide tanning services shall (1)The exact location of the tanning facility in relation display at its main entrance a sign of appropriate size which will to any living quarters; be clearly visible from the street which states "tanning facility" (2)The location of rooms/booths with tanning or words having the same meaning, except that in the case of a equipment; tanning facility located within a department store, health club or (3)The location of entrance, all doors, and windows; athletic facility or shopping center, the sign may be displayed (4)Walls and partitions shall be non-transparent and of inside at the entrance to the tanning facility. sufficient height and rigidity as to provide proper privacy; 4713-19-08 Resident tanning facilities (5)Location of the tanning facility rest room(s). (A) Tanning facility rooms in a residential building and being used by consumers shall maintain a separate entrance, which 4713-19-11 Policy on prohibiting animals shall not open directly into any part of the dwelling including Dogs (except dogs providing assistance to individuals with phys- the garage. ical handicaps) cats, birds, or other animals shall not be permit- (B) Mobile homes, motor homes, trailers or any type of recre- ted in a tanning facility. This definition does not include fish, in ational vehicle, shall be permanently set on a foundation and an aquarium, provided they are maintained in a sanitary condi- comply with the requirements of Chapter 4713-19 of the tion. Administrative Code, in order for their rooms to be approved 4713-19-12 Change of ownership for tanning services. Tanning facility licenses are not transferable from one address to 4713-19-09 Records keeping another or from one owner to another. A new tanning license (A) The operator of a tanning facility shall maintain a record for application shall be filed within thirty days of any change of each individual patron which includes dates exposed, length of ownership. Tanning facilities are permitted to open or offer serv- exposure, and other required data. This record shall be com- ices while the application is processed and are subject to the pleted and initialed by the patron prior to each tanning session, "Board's" approval per rule 4713-1-06 of the Administrative and must be kept on file for one year from the date of the Code. Any tanning facility with an administrative action pending patron's last exposure. The record shall include the following: cannot transfer a license until the administrative action is (1) Date of most recent exposure to UVA/UVB; resolved. (2) Acknowledgment that the patron has reviewed the 4713-19-13 Tanning beds in salons photosensitive drug list; Salons that have tanning facilities that are subsequently closed (3) Acknowledgment of receipt of protective eyewear; shall remove tanning beds from the view and access of the pub- (4) Acknowledgment that the patron has been advised lic. of maximum exposure time for the session in the unit to which the patron has been assigned; 4713-19-14 Training of operators and employees (5) This record shall also include the following (A) Each tanning facility shall have an operator on duty at all warning: "some harmful changes which may be times that possesses a valid and current certificate of formal caused by repeated overexposure to UVA/UVB training, as defined in rule 4713-19-02 of the Administrative radiation include cataracts, skin cancer, premature Code. Formal training courses for operators must meet the aging and possible photosensitive reactions when requirements of paragraph 4713-19-02(G) of the using perfumes, and certain drugs, Administrative Code. Proof of training must be maintained including some antibiotics and birth control pills." within the facility and be available for inspection.

13 (B) In addition to the requirements of paragraph 4713-19-01(G) review their training courses for compliance with the require- of the Administrative Code, each formal training course shall ments of this rule shall submit copies of their training materials meet the following requirements: to the Board prior to providing that training in the state. The (1) Each course shall be at least 4 hours in length. This materials submitted shall include credentials of trainers and 4 hours shall not include items such as registration, persons compiling the training materials, a copy of the class lunch, marketing, profit-making strategies, room or correspondence course curriculum, copies of written advertising and accounting, taking a test, or similar materials to be received by trainees, and a statement indicating functions. the length of time a classroom course will be conducted. The (2) Each course shall include written material which Board shall review the materials and inform the applicant of its covers the required subjects, such as core training findings within 30 days from receipt of all training materials. manual; audio-visual presentations which cover the When changes are made to a training course that has been required subjects, such as slides or videos; copies of reviewed and accepted by the Board, those changes should also the department's rules and copies of Title 21, Code be submitted to the Board for review. of Federal Regulations, Part 1040, Section 1040.20; (F) Inspectors shall have a preset list of questions, which they and a question and answer period for trainees. shall use to ask operators/employees at tanning facilities basic (3) Courses may be offered via web based or questions covered in the course above. correspondence course. However, the person taking 4713-21-01 Purposes the course shall take a monitored written The purpose of Chapter 4713-21 of the Administrative Code is examination in order to receive their certificate of to establish: completion. The monitoring process for the (A) Standards for a continuing education program designed to examination shall be approved by the Board as part further professionally educate "Board" licensees as it relates to of the education course approval. the consumers of Ohio and the services being provided to them (4) Each course will be processed through the "Board's" by the licensees; Continuing education (CE) process. "Board" individ- (B) License renewal procedures applicable to providing proof of ual licensees shall receive CE credit whether or not completion of any continuing education requirements; they pass the test per rule 4713-21-09 of the (C) Procedure for granting a waiver and extension period for Administrative Code, however, if they fail they shall completing any continuing education requirements; not be granted a certified operator certificate. (D) Procedure for placing a license in escrow and later restored; (C) Each employee who assists customers or operates tanning (E) A continuing education requirement notification process; devices shall be trained on proper operation and maintenance (F) Application criteria and procedures for eligible offering enti- of tanning devices. The operator of the tanning facility is ties desiring to offer continuing education courses; responsible for training those employees or ensuring that those (G) Criteria for continuing education courses, course employees take an approved training course. When the operator instructor(s), and eligible offering entities to be approved, provides employee training, that training shall include: denied approval, and have approval withdrawn, suspended or (1) Review of the requirements of Chapter 4713-19 of revoked. the Administrative Code; (2) Procedures for correct cleaning, sanitizing and 4713-21-02 Definitions operation of the device; As used in Chapter 4713.21 of the Administrative Code: (3) Recognition of overexposure or similar injury; (A) "Biennial licensing period" means the two-year period (4) Review of manufacturer's procedures for operation beginning on the thirty-first day of January of an odd-num- and maintenance of tanning devices; bered year and ending on the thirtieth day of January of the (5) Medical aspects of ultraviolet radiation, maximum next odd-numbered year; allowable time of exposure, and determination of (B) "Eligible offering entity" means a nonprofit professional human skin types as it relates to compliance use of association, college or university, vocational school, postsec- the FDA exposure schedule; and ondary proprietary school of cosmetology licensed by the (6) Emergency procedures in case of overexposure or "Board", manufacturer of supplies or equipment used in the injury. practice of cosmetology, the state "Board" or an agent of the (D) Operators and other facility personnel who must comply "Board", any individual or entity which owns and operates five with the training requirements of this chapter, must complete or more licensed salons, or that employs at least fifty licensees. the required training according to the following: Any individual or entity not meeting this definition may peti- (1) Operators hired on or after the effective date of this tion the "Board" for review and approval from the "Board" in chapter must complete the required training prior to order to be considered an "Eligible Offering Entity." taking charge of a facility. 4713-21-03 Continuing education requirements (2) All Operators hired before the effective date of this (A) Licensees shall be exempt from all continuing education chapter shall have a period of 180 days after the requirements until the biennial licensing period commencing effective date of this chapter to successfully com- after their initial licensure. plete the required formal training. (B) The continuing education requirement for all licensees is (E) Any individual or organization requesting the Board to eight hours per biennium. No licensee shall receive credit for

14 identical course instruction completed during the biennial (B) Licensees with escrowed licenses must pay a thirty dollar licensing period. Licensees holding both a manager and licensing fee per divisions (D) & (H) of section 4713.10 of the instructor license shall need eight hours for each license begin- Revised Code to remove their license from escrow and provide ning with the renewals after January 2005. Instructor hours proof of the appropriate continuing education hours. shall be from an approved instructor CE list promulgated by (C) All licensees not currently engaged in the practice of cosme- the Board. tology and who do not hold an escrowed license, shall pay all (C) Courses completed prior to an individual being licensed by lapsed renewal fees and submit proof satisfactory to the the "Board" do not qualify for continuing education credit. A "Board" of the completion of eight hours of continuing educa- licensee shall not receive continuing education credit for any tion prior to having their license restored to active status. course given in the state of Ohio that does not have the prior (D) Any licensee who has held an inactive license for more than approval of the "Board". two years and holds an escrowed license may have their license (D) Any licensee holding multiple branch of cosmetology licens- restored without passing an examination and by paying any es must complete the continuing education requirements for applicable fees and providing proof of satisfactory completion each branch license. of sixteen hours of continuing education. (E) The "Board" shall encourage all continuing education eligi- 4713-21-07 Continuing education requirement notification ble offering entities to offer the courses in as many different procedures locations as possible. All continuing education eligible offering The "Board" shall inform each affected licensee of the continu- entities shall allow any and all official representatives and ing education requirement that applies to the next biennial employees of the "Board" entrance into any "Board" approved licensing period by including a notification in the issuance of continuing education requirement course at no cost to the each renewed license. "Board". (F) The "Board" shall keep a current roster of approved continu- 4713-21-08 Application criteria and procedures for continu- ing education courses, which shall include an explanation of ing education course approval any and all course prerequisites required for admission into the (A) All continuing education courses and instruction shall be course offering. Copies of the roster shall be available to designed to further professionally educate "Board" licensees as licensees and the public at the "Board". it relates to the consumers of Ohio and the services being pro- (G) Current licensees shall be able to receive continuing educa- vided to them by the licensees. tion credit for classes completed in a school of cosmetology. (B) Application for course approval shall be completed on forms (H) Licensees age sixty-five or older prior to the beginning of a provided by the "Board" and demonstrate that the applicant is: renewal period are exempt from the requirement to obtain con- (1) An eligible offering entity as defined pursuant to tinuing education requirements for renewal of their active paragraph (C) of rule 4713-21-02 of the license. Administrative Code; (I) Out-of-state continuing education hours shall be submitted (2) Submitting a forty dollar per course non-refundable for approval to the "Board" within thirty days of completing processing fee; the course in order to be acceptable in meeting biennial (3) Submitting the form to the "Board's" office at least requirements. thirty days prior to the proposed initial date of the course offering; 4713-21-04 Licensure renewal procedures (4) Proposing a course offering which is in compliance (A) After the completion of the continuing education require- with the requirements of division (B) of section ments for any biennial licensing period, the licensee shall com- 4713.62 of the Revised Code. plete a continuing education approval form to be furnished by (C) The following offerings shall not be approved by the the "Board" and forward it to the "Board" with the licensee's "Board" for continuing education credit: license renewal application and include the renewal fee estab- (1) That portion of any offering devoted to any breaks lished under section 4713.10 of the Revised Code. including: breakfast, lunch, and dinner or other (B) The licensee must provide satisfactory proof of completion refreshments; of any applicable continuing education requirement or prove (2) Any application, which fails to meet the standards that a waiver or extension was received pursuant to divisions of this rule. (B) and (C) of section 4713.11 of the Revised Code prior to the "Board's" renewal of the license. 4713-21-09 Criteria for continuing education: courses, course instructors and eligible offering entities to be: approved, 4713-21-05 Continuing education extension program denied approval, have approval, withdrawn, revoked or The licensee, upon receiving an extension, shall complete and suspended satisfactorily prove completion of any required continuing edu- (A) Programs shall not be approved by the "Board" in segments cation requirements by submitting such proof of completion to of less than one hour. the "Board" by a date specified by the "Board". (B) No approved eligible offering entity shall certify to atten- 4713-21-06 Licensure escrow or inactive procedure dance of a person who was not physically present during at (A) A licensee may apply to the "Board" to have their license least ninety percent of the offering time. All offerings must be placed in escrow. The licensee shall be required to pay the successfully completed. renewal fee to obtain an escrowed license.

15 (C) An eligible offering entity shall maintain for four years a ENDNOTES record of attendance of each person attending an offering 1 Sims, Amy C. "Dangers Lurk in Dirty Salons," Friday, May 4, 2002, in Fox Life, a of foxnews.com Copyright 2004 ComStock, Inc Fox News including the following information: Network LLC See: http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,53589,00.html (1) "Board" approved certificate number; 2 Getting Nailed, Investigation Uncovers Unsanitary Conditions at Nail Salons, (2) Name and "Board" identification number of June 8, 2001, Homepage 20/20 feature ABC News. See: attendee; http://more.abcnews.go.com/sections/2020/2020/2020_010517_nails.html 3 California Nail Salons Being Sued, Wednesday August 24, 2005: see (3) Offering, title and description; www.nailsmag.com/feature.aspx?fid=88&ft+2 (4) Hours of attendance; 4 http://www.kvue.com/news/top/stories/022306kvuedeath-eh.55d92be5.html (5) Date of offering; (6) Name, address, and signature of verifier in employ of eligible offering entity; (7) The eligible offering entity shall certify the items enumerated above and furnish a copy to the attendee within thirty days after completion of the offering. (D) Course offerings by individuals or entities whose principal residence or place of business is not located in the state of Ohio or course offerings by foreign corporations as defined by sec- tion 1703.01 of the Revised Code shall be approved if they comply with the requirements contained herein. (E) Each continuing education course shall be open to all "Board" licensees on an equal basis. Course attendance may be restricted to licensees due to valid course prerequisites for admission or by the maximum number of participants allow- able as determined by the eligible offering entity and fully dis- closed during the application criteria and procedures for contin- uing education course approval. (F) Passage of an examination by a licensee shall not be a requirement for successful completion of a continuing educa- tion course attended in person. Correspondence and Internet continuing education courses shall have an examination or methodology built in to the course to verify the course material has been completed. (G) Each eligible offering entity shall notify the "Board", at least one day in advance, of the addition of an offering date for an approved course. The eligible offering entity shall also notify the "Board", at least one day in advance, of all course changes including locations, times, changes in course content or changes of course instructors. (H) Each eligible offering entity shall submit to the "Board", within fifteen days after completion of each course offering, a list of licensees who successfully completed the course. Once the "Board" has established electronic files, this data must be submitted in electronic form via email, diskette, CDROM or other readable computer form in a text file with data separated by commas. The list shall include for each licensee: (1) Course title; (2) Date conducted; (3) Address location where the course was conducted; (4) Licensee name; (5) Licensee "Board" identification number; (6) Course certification number; (7) CE hours earned. (I) The "Board" may suspend, revoke, or deny the approval of an instructor or eligible offering entity, which fails to comply with any provisions of these rules. Written notice of the suspension, denial, or revocation shall be given, stating the reason there- fore.

16 CHAPTER 2 tradition. Remains from the Upper period, in particu- History of Cosmetology lar, broadly dating between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago,2 are (3 CE Hours) characterized by widespread use of ornamental forms, such as Objectives beads and pendants, made of stone, shell, tooth, and ivory. 4 Name some of the first materials used to color the skin. There is also evidence, from this time, of the use of colored pig- 4 Name the early civilizations that developed the first ments on the or body. writing systems and describe where they are located. Anthropologists hypothesize that the appearance and prolifera- 4 Explain the relationship between skin color and status tion of "ornament " during this epoch is dependent in ancient Sumeria. on certain key demographic or social conditions, suggesting that 4 Explain the significance of cosmetics and perfumed oils this period marks an important point in the evolution of human in Egyptian culture, including why cosmetics were behavior.3 The manufacture of these decorative artifacts, which included in all tombs. were likely used for as well as aesthetic purposes, occurred 4 Discuss the role of in each of the three main many thousands of years ago, at essentially the same time, on civilizations. three separate continents, in Western Asia, Eastern Europe, and 4 Discuss the role of wigs in each of the three main civi- Africa.4 lizations. 4 Name three ways we know about cosmetics in early Rock paintings from this period suggest appearance was an Greece and Rome. important consideration for prehistoric man, who is depicted 4 List three materials that provided early Greece with red both with long and cut hair, as well as in face and body paint. As or pink used as cosmetics. far back as 100,000 BCE, there is evidence that 4 Trace the relationship between facial hair and social man painted and plucked hair from his body using two seashells status throughout Greco-Roman history. as tweezers (one of the first grooming tools).5 4 List five characteristics of the beauty ideal in early The removal of hair by cutting and shaving also dates back Rome. many thousands of years. Archaeologists have found sharpened 4 Explain how religion dominated styles of hair through- rocks and shells used to scrape hair from the face 30,000 years out the and provide three examples. ago.6 In key respects, the history of human is close- 4 List three components of ideal beauty among elite ly associated with the discovery of how to give stone a cutting women in the Middle Ages. edge. The type of stone found most suitable for the purpose was 4 List some of the ingredients and procedures used for flint, with the earliest flint shaving razors appearing about bleaching hair in the Middle Ages. 20,000 years BCE. Introduction Not only did early man cut and/or shave off body hair, he also The desire to adorn oneself is distinctly human, with a history used his skin as a surface for carving. With the addition of natu- that goes back to the earliest men and women. Most societies ral pigments, the carving became a tattoo. Tattooing, like other establish customs for containing or holding hair and coloring the permanent forms of body ornamentation, was likely associated face, either for aesthetic or practical reasons, and even ritual pur- with rites of passage, the attainment of a certain status or age, as poses. This is the history of cosmetology. much as aesthetic purposes. The use of body color may have and makeup have served multiple functions in society, also served a practical purpose, to protect against the sun, high indicating details of age, religion, or marital status, as well as winds, and/or cold weather, especially when mixed with fat. suggesting something about a person's personality, culture, or The first materials used to introduce color to both paintings class. Elaborate hairstyles or haircuts typically required another and the human skin, if depictions are accurate, were red set of hands, which eventually developed into a professional and lamp black, a tarry black with blue undertones class of citizens, with special expertise, to meet the population's made from burned oils, or carbon black, a kind of soot com- hair and skin needs. posed mostly of carbon. "Ochre" refers to a range of iron ores colored red, yellow, or brown, that's use, may date back 250,000 , or the Prehistoric Age, refers to a time before evi- years. It was used by both Neanderthal and early modern man dence of written language systems. Prehistory is also known as for drawing or painting and was likely applied to the body for the , which is further segmented into the Old Stone decorative or ceremonial purposes. (Paleolithic) Age and the New Stone () Age. The Old Stone Age largely coincides with the era of glacial periods last- drawings in France, dated 15,000 BCE, show a range of ing from as early as 500,000 BCE to as late as 7,000 BCE,1 a materials and colors: Black pigments were made using lamp time at which lived in camps and caves, and subsisted black, carbon, or manganese dioxide, a chemical compound on foraging and hunting. found in minerals. Rocks and minerals containing limonite, Old Stone Age ochre, and hematite were used to make yellow, red, and sienna. You may think the practice of decorating oneself with pigment Clearly, early man valued materials that would produce a variety or objects is a fairly recent impulse, but personal ornamentation, of colors, specially selecting and holding on to bits of man- considered a universal among human cultures, is a very ancient ganese dioxide, for example, as well as the tools to process the materials into useable forms.

17 Hairstyles, it appears, were also a preoccupation of prehistoric from one individual to another, over generations. While other humans. Archaeologists have found small statues of women, parts of the , including China, Africa, and Central and referred to as "Venuses," all over Europe, dating to about 20 to South America, were home to large settlements, this chapter will 30,000 years BCE. Likely associated with fertility , these focus on three main population centers, in Asia and the Middle figurines have what appears to be elaborately braided hair, or, in East, that provide some of the best evidence of ancient human's some cases, the appearance of a netting or cap. The "Venuses" quest for beauty. model a range of hairstyles, including an early example of The first writing systems were developed by early civilizations, bangs. in sites which grew from small encampments along riverbeds, It has been suggested that these more elaborate hairstyles likely where settlers were drawn to a sure source of water in times of correspond to greater wealth or a higher status or rank for a drought as well as the means to irrigate their crops These areas number of reasons. In many traditional societies, hairdos make became dense urban centers with sophisticated social structures social distinctions visible, and/or hair cutting or styling, like the and trading routes that stretched across large regions. They are application of body paint, may have a ritual dimension. the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, from the Tigris-Euphrates River Additionally, hair may show social stratification because very Valley, in what is now Iraq; the people of the Indus River Valley, intricately arranged hair suggests a certain degree of social com- in present-day Pakistan and India; and the people of the Nile plexity, in part because there is a need for an individual or indi- River Valley, in Egypt. Archaeological excavations in these areas viduals to attend to the details of another person's appearance. provide evidence of sophisticated cosmetic production and use over 5,000 years ago. The transition between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic Age (sometimes called the , or ) Tigris-Euphrates River Valley occurred around 7,000 to 4,500 BCE, marking a critical period Ancient Mesopotamia, established before 4,000 BCE, was home of cultural transition, from a largely nomadic hunting and gath- to several successive cultures with empires including the ering subsistence to a farming tradition, and the of Sumerian, the Akkadian, the Assyrian, and the Babylonian; animals. Akkad, which conquered Sumeria, combined with Sumer to become Babylonia. The term, "Babylonia" is sometimes used to New Stone Age refer, in general, to the Mesopotamian states that were estab- The New Stone (Neolithic) Age refers to a cultural, rather than a lished by the 3rd millennium BCE (3,000 BCE or about 5,000 temporal (time-related) period. Instead of coinciding with a geo- years ago). Towns and cities in this area include Lagash, Akkad, logical era, it starts and ends at different times in different loca- Uruk, Ur, and Kish. tions. Neolithic sites are characterized by the creation of stone tools, domesticated plant and animal species, the introduction of ceramics, and the development of larger settlements, although these attributes vary, by location. In general, this is the period when sedentary farming superseded nomadic life, from around 4,500 BCE to 2,200 BCE. While the Neolithic Age was characterized by the development of urban population centers, it is further defined by the techno- logical tools used. The , beginning about 2,200 to 800 BCE, and the Iron Age, beginning about 500 BCE, for example, characterize eras during the New Stone Age defined by the use of these particular tools and materials. Excavations from the Bronze Age tell us that prehistoric humans used elaborately carved razors, as well as tweezers to remove hair. If the degree of decoration is indicative of their value to The Sumerians of Mesopotamia (meaning "land between two the individual, which is likely, it suggests these items were high- rivers"), in the Tigris-Euphrates River Valley, developed the first ly prized and may have also been of some ritual significance. It known writing system as early as 3,100 BCE. Clay tablets also suggests the development of a certain degree of social com- carved with wedge-shaped symbols, called cuneiform, and cul- plexity and level of technological know-how. Over 3000 years tural artifacts, remnants of things they made and used, tell us ago, for example, humans learned that a sharp edge suitable for that the Mesopotamians, and those who lived later in the same shaving required a blade made from at least 25% tin. Because area, were concerned with their appearance. tin is relatively rare, early trade routes were a necessary precur- sor to the wider availability of adequate shaving implements.7 According to artwork found in excavations at Ur, which reached its cultural height between 2,700 and 2,350 BCE, Sumerian men Ancient History typically wore their hair long, with a part in the middle. Many It is during the Neolithic Age that recorded history begins, with had long beards, but some were clean-shaven. Sumerian women evidence of the first writing systems around 3,000 BCE, over also wore their hair long, often braiding the hair into one long 5,000 years ago. Before that, important information was record- braid, which was then wrapped around the top of the head.8 ed through oral history, with information passed down verbally,

18 Both men and women were buried with large wigs;9 golden The Sumerians, as well as the Babylonians and Assyrians, used jewelry, including pins, earrings, hair ornamentation, and neck- pumice stones to smooth the skin and olive oil to moisturize the laces; as well as makeup cases. Among the treasures discovered skin and hair, as well as help set certain elaborate hairstyles. in one tomb, a gold cosmetics case with a tiny applicator, a Applying oils to the hair and body functioned not only as skin small container of blue-green malachite used as eye makeup, an softener and , but was also a way to reduce the risk of ivory cosmetic spoon, a pair of tweezers used to trim the eye- infestation with pests such as body lice. brows,10 and a metal implement used to shape the nail cuticle. Hairstyles were a great focus of attention for Babylonians and While tweezers were available, it is interesting to note that Assyrians, whose status could be determined by hair length depictions of Queen Schub of Ur (2000 BCE) show a woman and/or the presence of beards. High rank Babylonians and with meeting over the nose, at the time considered a Assyrians wore long carefully curled and coiffed beards (both sign of beauty.11 real and fake), while men of lower status wore shorter, simpler Eye-makeup, found at Ur, showed colored pigments in a variety hairstyles. Slaves could not wear beards, while soldiers might of shades, including greens, dark blue, brown, red, yellow, pur- shave or wear short beards. Beards were commonly perfumed, ple, and black, all stored in shells (in this case, cockleshells), the curled, dyed black or henna-red, and on special occasions, dust- preferred cosmetic container of the late Neolithic.12 13 Variations ed with gold powder. in shades were achieved by adding a white pigment made from Hair-care was very important to both men and women, who, burnt animal bone (apatite), as well as white lead or lead carbon- depending on status, wore their real or artificial hair long, coated ate (ceruse). The most common colors are green and black. with perfumes, oils, and, in some cases, black dye, and curled Green was typically made by grinding stones containing copper (with curling tongs) into ringlets, with hairpieces added for vol- compounds, like malachite or atacamite. Similarly, red was ume and effect.14 An Assyrian mural from the 8th Century BCE made from iron oxide, and black from manganese oxide. shows a man of royal status with outlined eyes, darkened brows, Artifacts from this period include objects like mortar and pestles, and what is likely a false beard. Both men and women darkened used to grind the rocks and minerals into powdery particles that their brows and lashes, lined their eyes with antimony, and light- were mixed with water or fat. ened their complexions with white lead and vermilion.15 Women The Sumerians used antimony, also known as stibium, a chemi- often stained the and cheeks red, and painted their nails and cal compound associated with the presence of sulfur and heavy palms with henna. metals such as lead, copper, and silver that was widely used as Indus River Valley eye makeup across Mesopotamia. Pastes of stibium powder The Indus River Valley is the location of two major excavation mixed with fat, called , were used as early as 3,000 BCE to sites, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, home to the Harappan civi- darken the brows and lashes, and draw a line around the perime- lization (named for its chief city). Both cities were built between ter of the eye. four and five thousand years ago, but were occupied by large It is likely that pallor was associated with higher status, a reflec- populations much earlier. Neolithic and Bronze Age Indian his- tion of a society in which lowly agricultural workers were more tory is periodized into the Pre-Harappan (ca. 7,000 to 3,300 likely to have darkened skin from laboring all day under the sun. BCE), and Harappan (3,300 to 1,300 BCE), but exact timelines Both men and women used whitening or lightening makeup, in are still a matter of dispute. powder or liquid form, to lighten the skin of the face. In ancient Among the earliest findings from this area (5,000 years BCE, Mesopotamia times, this was sometimes accomplished through which is about 7,000 years ago), people in the Indus valley were the use of a powder made of lead oxide, a toxic mixture that carving large numbers of small, heavily ornamented female fig- could cause lead poisoning. ures that are distinct in the detail given to hairstyles and jewelry. The Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, written down around 2,000 The head region of the figurines display a variety of hair styles, BCE, refers to the profession of barbering, as well as the use of with complex arrangements of hair and flowers, and, in many oils for conditioning the skin and hair. Sumerians were highly cases, head ornaments. Archaeologists suggest that each style perfumed, bathing in pungent oils that had religious or ritual sig- may have been associated with a particular family or ethnic nificance. Scented oils were perfumed with fragrant barks, such group within the broader population.16 as cassia, and herbs, like sage, juniper, coriander, and anise. The Harappan civilization reached its height as an urban center Their popularity may have been due to the lack of in between 2,800 and 1,900 BCE, experiencing a "golden age" the ancient world. called the Kot Diji period between 2,800 and 2,600 BCE. Sumerian culture and traditions (3,100-2,000 BCE) were carried During this time, Harappa and Mohenjo Daro became thriving on by the civilizations that followed them, including the economic centers surrounded by a densely populated area. Since Akkadians (2,350-2,200 BCE), Babylonians (2,000-1,600 BCE), the initial discoveries of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in 1922, and Assyrians (1,350-612 BCE), among other groups. Clothing over 2,500 other settlements have been found, covering almost a styles worn in Mesopotamia by the Babylonians and the million and a half square kilometers. More than three-quarters of Assyrians, for example, were elaborations of Sumerian and these sites are concentrated on the banks of the dried up river Akkadian styles. Sarasvati.

19 Many city dwellers, during the civilization's heyday, were The Vedas tell us that barbers and hair dressers were in business traders or highly skilled artisans, able to make tiny, exquisite as long as 4,000 years ago and held a prominent social status. objects out of bronze, gold, silver, terracotta, glazed ceramic, Barbers played an important role in rituals outlined in the Vedas. and semiprecious stones. These items were highly valued and Two important rites of passage that include haircutting are the commercially traded, some found as far away as Mesopotamia. Chudakarma, the first hair-cutting, and Upanayana, Vedic initia- Excavations of Mohenjo-Daro have yielded numerous tiny cos- tion. For both rituals, a professional barber's services are used. metics pots, 4,500 to 5,000 years old, made of clay, stone, and Versions of these ceremonies are still practiced today by contem- ivory. Kohl jars appear in a multitude of shapes, many with porary Hindus. small monkeys or other carved figures holding the pot. Pots Chudakarana22 is the ceremony in which a child's head is about two or three inches high with very small openings were shaved for the first time, leaving a tuft on the crown. 'Chuda' used for black , a combination of kohl or galena, the refers to this tuft. According to the sacred text where it is primary ore mineral of lead, and an olive green eye makeup described, the chudakarana should be performed when the child made of mica. is between one and three years old. A razor or other sharp instru- Most men and women of the time used makeup. Red ochre, in ment was required to cut off the "unclean" hair (which was on the form of sticks or stored in small shells, was used to redden the child's head when he or she was born) to make way for the cheeks, while carbonate of lead was used to whiten the com- "clean hair." During the Chudakarana, the child's father pours plexion. Eye liner might be made of kohl, or lamp black. Kohl warm water into a container of cold water, and, while reciting would also be poured onto sticks with rounded ends, measuring the necessary mantras, takes a razor and cuts a little hair from about five inches long, usually made of wood, but also found in both sides of the child's head. The razor is given to the barber copper and bronze. These often rested on small four-legged who cleanly shaves the entire head clean, except for a few tufts ceramic tables. The Indus Valley people used small bronze mir- of hair left on the crown (the actual number of tufts was deter- rors with wooden handles to apply their cosmetics. mined by family tradition). The drying up of the Sarasvati River was likely a great catastro- The Upanayana, outlined in the Vedas, marked a boy's initiation phe, leading to the massive exodus of people from this area into education and learning. It was usually performed in the around 2,000-1,900 BCE. While Harappan civilization was child's eighth year. After the Upanayana ceremony, the under- unable to survive, important elements of Harappan society were study lived with his guru and dedicated himself to learning a transmitted to later civilizations in the Indian subcontinent. variety of arts and crafts as well as Vedic lore. One of the rites Terracotta female figurines from 2,800-2,600 BCE, for example, connected with Upanayana is known as "Choula," a ceremonial had red color applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the bath that includes shaving the head, sometimes referred to as hair), a tradition which is still seen in India today. Other makeup "tonsure." In many cultures, the ritual shaving of the head sym- and toiletry items (such as a comb called "kakai") found in bolizes a philosophical turning inward, and is commonly a pre- Harappan contexts, have similar counterparts in modern India.17 requisite for joining an ascetic or monastic order.23 This Hindu initiation ritual marks a male's entrance into life as a student and The time period known as the Vedic age is the period when the his acceptance as a full member of the religious community. primary sacred texts of Hinduism were written.18 Vedic texts may date anywhere from 4,500 BCE to 1,800 BCE, depending Nile River Valley on the source, while the likeliest estimates place the Vedic peri- Egyptian history is divided into Dynasties and Kingdoms. The od in the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE (although some scholars Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3,100 BCE) is the period have placed it as early as the 4th millennium BCE), up to the 6th between the Early Neolithic period and the start of the Pharoah Century BCE, when it evolved into classical Hinduism. monarchy. The Early Dynastic Period is a span of about 500 years that includes the First and Second Dynasties. This marks Sages in the Vedic period were known to grow long beards and the beginning of the Old Kingdom, the culmination of the form- locks of hair called "jata," long hair that would not be cut. ative stage of Egyptian culture that began centuries before. It Even today this practice is carried out by ascetics as a sign of was during this period that Egypt's form of government (divine devotion. According to one source: kingship) was firmly established; and along with it, cultural tra- "Vedic scriptures provide the earliest known written evi- ditions that would remain virtually unchanged for the next 3,000 dence of dreadlocks. Their exact date of origin is still years. in dispute, ranging from to 2,500 BCE to 1,500 BCE. The dreadlocked Vedic deity Shiva and his followers Much of what we know about Ancient Egyptian culture and ide- were described in the Vedic scriptures as "jaTaa", ology was documented by Egyptians themselves using a written meaning "wearing twisted locks of hair", probably system called Hieroglyphics. This system of writing, used as derived from the Dravidian word "caTai", which means early as 3,200 BCE evolved from a few simple signs used to to twist or to wrap.20" denote quantities and qualities of substances, to a complex sys- tem using hundreds of signs with both phonetic and ideographic While some religious individuals grew jata, others allowed the values. Over this very long written history, much of Egyptian hair to be cut; artwork from the Vedic Age also depicts priests medical traditions and ideology were detailed in a vast system of with precision haircuts and carefully trimmed beards.21 historical and medical records written on papyrus, a durable plant fiber that was well preserved by the dry Egyptian climate.

20 One in particular, the Eber's Papyrus, a compilation of medical Perfumes have been found in all Egyptian tombs, with the most information written about 1,550 BCE, when translated in the common having a formula of 10% perfumed (often myrrh), 1800's, provided a window into ancient Egyptian life, with its to 90% animal fat. King Tut's tomb housed 34 large containers hundreds of prescriptions and formulas. of oil and perfume. Aromatic plant gums and flower scents were made into incense balls, and tucked around the tomb. In both Many other details about Ancient Egyptian culture come from death and life, men and women used pine kernels and resin excavations of their elaborate tombs. Egyptians were buried mixed with porridge and place in the armpits and creases of the with things that they used in life with the assumption that these limbs, to act as a . These pungent smells were a items would be necessary in the afterlife. Much about these striking feature of Egyptian excavations. funerary traditions and beliefs reflect the Egyptians' attitudes. For example, cleanliness and a good appearance were next to Catering to the aroma-infused oil needs of wealthy or royal Godliness, in a very literal way. One's hygiene, including an Egyptians was a huge business as these materials were integral attractive appearance and good smell, were closely linked to to personal grooming as well as ritual use. Scented oils were spirituality; the better you looked, the better your chances of used as and perfumes, and even insect repellent. rebirth. Perfume workshops were closely associated with religious ritu- als, so were built in close proximity to Egyptian temples. Washing with water and applying perfume were sizable portions of ritual ceremonies performed on a regular basis. Egyptians The Ancient Egyptians were likely the first to extract herbal and bathed in the river or a basin in their homes, and used a variety flower essences using the mechanism of distillation, which is of cleansing products made from vegetable or animal oil mixed today the preferred method of extracting essential oils. with powdered limestone, chalk, and perfume. Egyptians used Egyptians were familiar with so-called "wet chemistry" the kinds sand as an abrasive scrub before rinsing, and also made a cleans- of analytical tests that are done in science laboratories using ing paste of ash and clay. They also used natron, a natural exfo- properties of water and dehydration. Natural chemists, they liant made of hydrated carbonate of sodium that is able to absorb developed formulations for medicinal and cosmetic concoctions oils and dirt and is found naturally near inland lakes of the using the same scientific methods used to perfect perfumes and region. The Ebers Papyrus documents a prescription for improv- preserve mummified bodies. Modern analysis shows that these ing the skin that includes red natron, northern salt, and . formulas could not have occurred naturally. Even today, these Other ingredients commonly found skin scrubs and for- scientific methods are used in the production of cosmetics and mulas of the time included calcite powder, considered to beauti- medicine. fy the body, alabaster dust, salt, honey, and egg whites. Skin care products made use of fuller's earth, a highly absorbent Given the significance of a good appearance and smell-impor- claylike soil, and ground lupin seed. This spiky plant with pur- tant in life and necessary to rebirth-it is understandable that per- plish-blue flowers was mixed with other products for both fumes and cosmetics were very common funerary objects for medicinal and aesthetic purposes. Lupin seeds can be used to Egyptians from every walk of life. The importance of cosmetics make an emollient skin , and their ingestion was supposed and perfumed oils is emphasized by the care and attention given to brighten the complexion. According to the Egyptians, when to containers for these precious items. Cosmetic containers mixed with vinegar, they remove pimples; with barley, they might be made from wood or reeds, or carefully carved stone or soothe inflammation; and when boiled, form a gentle detergent. glass, often in the image of a human or animal figure. Glass, in Egyptians in the 15th to 10th Century BCE commonly used cos- particular, an expensive luxury item, was used to make perfume metic mixtures to minimize the appearance of stretch marks, bottles as early as 1,450 BCE. The importance of an individual wrinkles, and scars. Aging skin was a great concern. Anti-wrin- was often reflected by the amount of glass found in a tomb. kle creams frequently used (an essential oil used by The use of oils, and aromas, often used together, were not only aromatherapists today for the same purpose), which has anti- important to ritual, but a necessary part of the toilette. In the hot, aging as well as anti-inflammatory properties. According to one arid climate of Egypt, it was important to keep skin supple with source, a combination of frankincense resin mixed with oil, wax, emollients made of oils and fats. Body oil was so important that and grass created a thick cream that helped the skin retain mois- it was distributed as part of an individual's wages. So-called ture. Cleopatra was said to have soaked in donkey's milk to "sweet" or "fresh" oils were more precious, not commonly used improve her complexion. Today we use a similar technology, by laypeople, and considered more cosmetic. One of the most knowing that protein in a fatty emulsion can benefit the skin. valuable oils, for use by inhabitants of the temples or palace Professional beauticians were a necessity among the elite, and only, was nutrient-rich Moringa oil (from the Moringa tree), wealthy people usually had dedicated hairdressers and cosmeti- which had to be imported from Cyprus. cians to attend to them. Over the years, a professional class Unlike the perfumed preparations formulated for Royalty or high emerged, responsible for the preparation and application of cos- status individuals, the poorest individuals and workingman's metics, like eye makeup, and distinct from the priests, who han- concoction was typically made with castor oil. More desirable dled all the perfumes in ritual ceremonies. These professional that castor oil was sesame oil, imported from Syria. To meet cosmetic makers, and in earlier times, priests, kept their formu- consumer demand, the army was assigned the responsibility for las secret and sold the makeup at the highest prices they could bringing sesame seeds back to Egypt, where they were boiled to get. produce oil, and stored in large containers until distribution.

21 Many tombs show scenes of hairdressing, which may also be a content was 7-10%, the same amount in modern day eye make- reference to the importance of appearance in rebirth. A barber- up.24 shop is depicted in artwork from the tomb of Userhet at Sheikh Mesdemit, a term suggesting high quality that came to refer to Abd el-Qurna. It shows a working barber and a row of young eye paint in general, was typically made of copper and lead ore, men sitting in a line of folding chairs waiting to get their hair and was used to apply black or dark gray on the eyelashes and cut. Tombs also show hair salons, and there are references to upper lids. Dark colors were considered aesthetically pleasing hair, , and massage services. Patrons likely would have as were also thought to have magical and medical properties. had their hair washed with soapwort, a dry root that foams when While it may or may not have prevented bad luck, it did serve a immersed in warm water. Recent findings from a wig workshop practical purpose, functioning as both an insect repellent and a excavation show the residue of soda soap, a mixture of fat and disinfectant. Eye paints containing copper, like malachite, or natron, a mineral with detergent properties, which was probably chryscolcolla, a blue green mineral, also functioned as sunblock, used to wash patrons' hair and/or prepare wigs. protecting the delicate skin around the eyes from sunburn. A great deal of emphasis was placed on the acquisition of the Children in artwork were depicted with heavy eye make-up, best eye paints. The Pharaoh, of course, got the highest quality which might have been worn to provide protection from the sun. of eyeliner available. This was in part due to the fact that the Other cosmetic mixing surfaces have been stained by copper car- application of eye makeup was of ritual significance. Even cows bonate (green) or black galena (lead sulphide).25 These were offered as sacrifice wore eye makeup. Egyptians knew they mixed with water or oil to make a paste and applied with an would have to make up their eyes before entering the rebirth applicator, usually made of wood or bone, or alternatively process. applied with the fingers. The makeup case of a wealthy Eyes were highly accentuated with cosmetics. While details of Egyptian lady called Thuthu, estimated to have lived about 1,300 design, such as a tapered versus blunt line, or the specific shap- BCE, contained pumice stones, eye cosmetics with applicators ing of the eye frame changed over many years, certain character- of wood and ivory, a variety of mineral colors, and a palette to istics of eye makeup were characteristically Egyptian. Most eye- blend them. makeup was predominantly green or black. Green eye paint, Both men and women used red ochre as a and color, used from the 4th millennium BCE until the New Kingdom, either alone or mixed with resin or gum to make it adhere to the came from malachite, a type of copper found in the Egyptian skin or lips. This was an easy to prepare cosmetic basic of the desert but also imported from Asia and Arabia. Mixed with cas- ancient world. In a scene from a Middle Kingdom relief, a per- tor oil, it was used to make a green "shadow," applied both on son is applying something to the cheek with a cloth, most likely the eyelids as well as underneath the eyes. a combination of vegetable grease and red ochre, a combination Eye makeup is abundant in excavations, with green eye makeup found in cosmetic containers of the day. The mixture of fats and included in most burials. Malachite, in raw or processed form, red ochre would also have made a reasonably good lip coloring might be contained in shells or wrapped in leaves. To apply, agent. In one papyrus, referred to as the Erotic Papyrus (housed malachite was ground on a stone and the powder was mixed in the Egyptian Museum in Turin), a woman in the middle of with water or a binding agent. To help it adhere to the skin, it sexual activity is applying a substance to her lips with one hand was mixed with a fatty ingredient. Grinding stones and tiny using a spatula, and with the other hand holds a and a palettes used to hold the substance for application show green small container. It is hard to tell if lip tints were commonly used. stains even today. Women's lips are shaded darker in Egyptian artwork, but it may be the natural creating the color. The term "kohl" is used broadly to refer to black Egyptian eye- liner, but more specifically describes a powdery substance made As a foundation, men and women might lighten the complexion of soot or carbon residue. Ingredients for kohl might also with yellow ochre, or darken it with an orange pigment. There is include almonds, different kinds of copper, lead, ash, and ochre. some evidence that the Egyptians also reddened their cheeks, as This dark powder was usually applied with a stick around the a wall painting in the tomb of a 19th Dynasty queen shows a eyes, in an almond shape. Most kohl included the ingredient reddish circle on the cheeks. The look could also be achieved galena, a dark gray lead that was widely available in Egypt. with red clay and water. The Egyptians painted their hands and Unfortunately, the Egyptians were unaware of the toxic affects feet with orange, yellow, and red henna, a custom still practiced of applying lead to the skin. today in the Middle East and Asia. A chemical analysis of kohl containers from 2,000 to 1,200 BCE A clean-shaven face was a status symbol in Ancient Egypt, but show a sophisticated chemical distillation process was required shaving also had religious and ritual significance. Shaving was to produce the material. Two ingredients, laurionite and phos- closely associated with cleanliness, and played an important role genite, which do not occur naturally, were found in the remains in ritual purification. All temple personnel were required to be of 40 kohl containers. Producing this makeup required a time- ritually clean before conducting religious rituals, necessitating a consuming and labor-intensive process, using rock salt, natron, shave before entry beyond the temple gate. Priests shaved not and water to filter the substance over and over. Once created, only their heads and chins, but all their body hair, every two this was added to kohl containing galena or a white mineral days. Priests are typically depicted in artwork baldheaded and called cerussite. The research also found that the makeup's fat

22 without lashes or eyebrows. This focus on shaving was likely a entire head, and, for girls, wearing the hair in a long braid or way to ensure citizen's bodies were free of lice or other vermin. ponytail in the back. The end of the braid or tail was either curled or weighed down with metal ornaments. Children also While Egypt was, in many respects, divided into two separate used clasps or rings to hold the hair back. worlds; one of temple royalty and one of common people, razors were usually included among the funerary items of laypeople as Women's hairstyles were more diverse than men's. In the Old well as those with high status. Razor blades were originally Kingdom, women were more likely to have short hair (chin made out of stone, and later, in the Middle Kingdom, copper and length or so), while in the New Kingdom, women either wore bronze. They were used by both men and women to remove their real hair long or donned a wig. The common woman was body hair, including pubic hair, considered a necessary part of more likely to use plant materials to hold the hair back, and the preparation for sexual activity, as well as ritual. Having might decorate the hair with colored berries, or flower petals. "smooth skin" was actually a euphemism for preparing for inter- Wealthier Egyptians also used ivory and metal hairpins to hold course. Other techniques used by Egyptians for removing body hair. For a more elaborate look, beads were worked into hair- hair include sycamore juice mixed with cucumber, fat, and pieces and used to attach wigs or extensions to existing hair, and bone;26 sugar and , to remove leg hair; and depilatories gold ornaments and beads would be worked with and around made from starch, , and quicklime, an ingredient in hair to form a head cover. cement. According to some sources, the first known examples of dread- Ancient Egyptian men and women were also known to shave locks date back to ancient dynastic Egypt. Archaeologists have their heads, replacing their real hair with a wig. Head shaving discovered mummified remains wearing dreadlocks as well as served a number of critical purposes: it was cooler in the hot cli- dreadlocked wigs in excavations. and other artifacts mate, made it easier to identify and avoid infestation with lice or depict both Egyptian royalty and commoners with real and fake other body pests, and it covered up gray hair and baldness, con- hair in dreadlocked styles.27 sidered unsightly by Egyptian culture. Unless required for ritual Wigs were very popular and commonly worn. Wealthy purposes, bald heads were kept hidden by wigs and hairpieces Egyptians often had a number of wigs in a variety of styles. made of real and fake hair. Many women and some men also Many likely preferred wearing wigs to their own hair, especially shaved off the eyebrows, and painted on a new set. if they had any bald patches or graying hair. Many people Hair was very important in ancient Egypt, in part because a per- attached extensions to wigs as well as their real hair. Wigs were son's denoted his or her social role and political signifi- not always available to commoners, who would use more afford- cance. Particular hairstyles were associated with specific ages, able extensions instead. gender, or status. Slaves and servants, for example, had distinc- Wigs were associated with sexual appeal; "putting on one's wig" tive hairstyles that made their position immediately recogniza- was a euphemism for a romantic liaison. Wigs were important ble. Often the hair would be tied at the back of the head in a in the process of rebirth, so it is not surprising that they were kind of loop of hair. Sometimes it was sectioned into eight or often included among the items buried with the individual. The nine braids at the back of the head, pulled together to dangle at highest quality wigs were those made of human hair that looked the side of the face and neck. like real hair. Less expensive models were also made using As hair held great significance to Egyptians, they went to special sheep's wool and vegetable fibers, either mixed with human hair efforts to emphasize it. While styles might be simple or com- or alone. Some wigs look very natural while others are dyed plex, "Big Hair" was almost always fashionable. Egyptian men black, blue, red, or green, sometimes sprinkled with gold dust. usually wore their hair short, showing their ears, and sometimes Styles of wigs, like hairdos, changed dramatically over the years. curled their hair. Both men and women used headbands, called Two main styles of wigs existed in the Old and Middle diadem (a precursor to the crown), to keep the hair in place. Kingdom: one was short with small horizontal overlapping curls Coronets and diadem were commonly buried with the body. (looking like triangular or square tiles on a roof), covering the Sometimes these were encrusted with precious jewels. One such ears and back of the neck, with straight or rounded bangs that diadem, dated 3,200 BCE, was made from turquoise, garnet, and exposed part of the forehead. The other style displayed long malachite. Hair care items like combs, tweezers, shavers, and hair that hung from the top of the head, framing the face. The curlers, as well as , mostly made of shiny metals, were hair was commonly waved or curled, sometimes into spirals. also buried in the tombs. Combs were both single and double During the Old and Middle Kingdom, only noblewomen and sided, often carved from bone or wood into beautiful shapes or queens were allowed to wear the "goddress," a wig with long animal figures. hair divided into three sections. Later, goddresses could be worn Common people often cut or shaved their hair themselves, but by common people, as well. In the New Kingdom, fashion called also made frequent use of barbers. Barbers were highly respect- for wigs with long tasseled tails. In the Amarna period, short ed and well paid and carried their tools in distinctive , simple wigs were the style. including special razors with curved handles. Until they reached Wigs required a great deal of care. They had to be carefully puberty, both boys and girls had their hair shaved off except for coiffed with special oils made from vegetable grease or animal a long piece on the side of the head. The sidelock had a charac- fat that maintained them for longer periods of time. Wigs were teristic "s" shape that came to signify the word for child or scented with perfume, flower petals, and chips of cinnamon. young person. Other styles, for boys, included shaving the

23 When not in use, they were carefully maintained in special (an adaptation of the Phoenician alphabet) first began to appear chests. Wig making was one of only a select number of jobs in written records. In Greek literature, this is the age of the great available to women. Wigs were made and maintained by special Epic poets, when Homer, a legendary writer credited with the wig makers as well as barbers. composition of perhaps the most important texts in Greek histo- ry, lived. Just as important in the creating of a Greek identity Given the importance of a good head of hair, it is not surprising was the event of the first Olympic games, held in 776 BCE. that the Egyptians document a number of "cures" for baldness and gray hair that are a combination of magic and science. Hair Homer codified a Greek ethnic identity with the Iliad and the growth formulas for men, and in some cases, women, included Odyssey, two Epic poems about the Trojan War. Technically, the plants like castor fruit mixed with oil, or fat and tree resin. A war wasn't fought by Greeks; it was fought by the Mycenaean, prescription from 1,150 BCE recommends using pieces of but the borrowed history became a defining cultural moment, lettuce to smear bald spots on the head with fats from animals nonetheless. Contemporary Greeks saw the Trojan War as the like lions and crocodiles, cats and serpents. Another recom- first moment in their history when a particular mixture of cul- mends the use of hedgehog bristles rubbed on the area to encour- tures came together as one people with a common purpose. This age the growth of hair. Still another called for ground tooth of unification, whether it was myth or not, gave the later Greeks a donkey in honey. sense of national or cultural identity, despite the fact that their governments were small, scattered city-states. Whether Homer An ancient prescription for preventing gray hair uses a variety of himself actually composed the works or just documented an black materials, including the horn of a black ox, the fat of a existing oral tradition is a matter of debate. In any case, Homer's black snake, a tadpole, or raven's back. The ingredients were works begin the Western Historical Tradition. boiled with oil, then applied to the hair. Egyptians used henna to conceal gray hair as early as 3,400 BCE, and it is still used today During the time of the Trojan War, the Greeks wore their hair in many parts of the world. Another type of hair dye consisted long and showed little gender differentiation in hairstyles. At of quartz and bicarbonate of manganese. This substance was some point, however, men started cutting their hair short while applied to the hair to increase shine and body, and when mixed women let their hair grow long. Between 1500 and 650 BCE, with fat, would dye hair brown. Greek women are typically depicted with long curly hair. Greeks during Homer's time, in the 8th Century BCE, are Greco-Roman Era thought to have used minimal makeup, with "the natural look" a The roots of the Western Tradition reach back to the Greco- preference among men and women. Also, among men, the beard Roman world; Classical Greece and Rome, considered its foun- was considered a sign of virility; a clean-shaven man might even dational cultures. Greece grew from small cluster of nation- be considered effeminate. states to become a powerful civilization, eventually absorbed by Rome. This Classical influence, felt throughout the region for While a natural, unadorned beauty was ideal, Greek women the next 500 years, shaped Western History. became ever more likely to color the face with pigments. While the common women, or lower classes, likely did not wear make- Information in this chapter comes from a number of different up, we know, from Homer's day forward, among wealthy sources. In some cases, physical remains of cosmetics have been women, "precious oils, perfumes, cosmetic powders, eye shad- analyzed with modern techniques. There is also artwork from the ows, skin glosses and paints, beauty unguents, and even hair period that depicts many of the fashions of the day. While artis- dyes seem to have been in near universal use."28 tic representations suggest idealized features, they are likely to provide reliable data on trends of the day. In some cases, they The manufacture and sale of these items was a significant part of actually depict the application of makeup or provision of person- import and export around the Mediterranean. During the 8th and al care services. There is also documentation by Greeks and 7th centuries BCE, cosmetics, perfumes, and small specialized Romans, themselves. Historians, philosophers, and poets, like cosmetic containers, like aryballoi, small hanging clay jars, pyx- Homer, , Martial, and Pliny the Elder, recorded their ver- ides, small boxes used by ancient Greeks to hold medicines and sions of current and historical events and influences. cosmetics, and alabastra, vessels with a narrow neck, used to hold perfumed oils, and made out of alabaster or , as well Mycenaean Greece (1550 BCE) as materials carved out of shells and stone. At this time, the Greek history began as early as 1550 BCE, when the Mycenaean Greeks imported aesthetic ideas as well as makeup from regions civilization first inhabited mainland Greece. "Mycenaean" refers as close as Carthage and as far away as Egypt. to certain characteristics of Greek art and culture between 1600 to 1100 BCE. During this period, the Greek mainland enjoyed an Sparta and Athens (800 BCE) era of prosperity. Local workshops produced objects of pottery Greece's population was naturally divided into many small self- and bronze, as well as luxury items, including jewelry, vases governing communities, a pattern dictated by Greek geography, made of precious metals, and glass ornaments. Wide-ranging where every community is cut off from its neighbors by the sea trade routes circulated Mycenaean goods throughout the or mountain ranges. From about 800-600 BCE, called the Greek Mediterranean world, including oil, wine, and other , the first and best-known Greek city-states, Athens commodities. and Sparta, appear, and a new sense of optimism, epitomized by the Olympic Games and the Epic poets, is felt. The seeds of Greece's Classical period were rooted in the 8th Century BCE, when the newly invented Greek writing system It was the strengths of these two societies, as well as their com-

24 petition, that brought the ancient world to new heights in art and achieving the appearance of white skin, accentuating rosy lips culture, and, with the defeat of the Persians, warfare, as well. and cheeks with rouge, as well as emphasizing the eyes with These states formed the Greece that established colonies around dark makeup. the Mediterranean, resisted invasions from neighboring popula- A painted marble head from 530 BCE shows lips heavily painted tions, and established the dominant culture. However, their a muddy red that is also used on the cheeks. The eyebrows are thirst for power and territory, culminating in the Peloponnesian augmented and drawn close together. The upper lid is painted in wars, also took its toll on the population. a clay color, with green lining the upper and lower lid and Very early, both Spartan and Athenian men and women wore extending beyond the eye on each side. their hair rolled into a knot over the crown of the head. At some Cosmetics point, both cultures abandoned this ancient custom, with Spartan In their endeavor to look pale, the women of the day unfortu- students and athletes cutting the hair very short. Upon reaching nately used a great deal of white lead, or ceruse, which, over puberty however, Spartan boys would let their hair grow long. long-term use, as one man warned, at best destroys the skin, and The custom of the Athenians was very different. Athenians boys at worst causes death. Not only was it used as a base--chalk, wore their hair long in childhood, and received their first haircut white lead and orris root was a common -but it when the beard began to grow. The cutting of the hair was a could be colored with a variety of substances. solemn rite of passage attended with religious ceremonies. After Galen, a Greek physician of the day, warned about the dangers the hair was cut, it was typically dedicated to a specific deity. of poisonous makeup. Some cosmetics, it was said, might Greek education was supposed to make the average young man remove imperfections, but also removed the skin. Mercury, also into a useful and worthy citizen, to teach him to be manly, but known as quicksilver, obtained from cinnabar, could also dam- also to appreciate beauty. There was some degree of tension, age the face, causing premature wrinkling, dry skin, and illness. however, between a life of military hardship (the Greeks were A blushing tone was sometimes achieved through the use of ver- frequently at war) and the appeal of cosmetics and the love of milion, also used as artist's paint, which produced a range of finer things. For example, Spartans prided themselves upon their rosy colors used on the mouth and cheeks. It also is a derivative hair, combing and dressing it before battle, and Alcibiades, an of red mercuric sulphide (cinnabar), which is created by the Athenian general, was known to oil, scent, and dye his hair, as combination of sulphur and mercury. This combination proved well as paint his eyebrows and beard (even bringing his cosmet- very toxic, with the wearer subject to the loss of teeth, horrific ics with him to the Peloponnesian war). In fact, the use of per- breath, and excessive salivation or drooling. fumed oils among young Athenian men was so excessive that King Solon, their commander, attempted to stop their sale Due to such drawbacks, rouge was more likely to come from entirely, and Lycurgus, called the "Lawgiver of Sparta" banned plant materials, including mulberry and a type of seaweed that makeup in the militaristic nation-state, declaring that painting of produces a pinkish-red color. A root called Paederos, as well as the body "corrupted men's manners,"29 and forbidding the a purple dye called purpurissum, made of vinegar-soaked root of import of luxury items. the flowering plant alkanet, have been found. There is also some evidence of murex purple, a royal purple dye extracted Hellenic (Classical) Greece (600 BCE) from shellfish. A different tone, more ochre-colored than rose, Classical or Hellenic Greek civilization was an outgrowth of the was painted on the cheeks in a round shape and also applied to Greek Renaissance, centuries of cultural consolidation among a the lips. collection of nation-states that shared the same language and tra- ditions, including ideas about aesthetics relating to hair, makeup, The Greeks used antimony, also known as stibium, a chemical and other forms of adornment. Hellenic culture specifically compound associated with the presence of sulfur and heavy met- characterizes the classical Greek culture, referring to the people als such as lead, copper, and silver that was widely used as eye of Greece and their democratic political system during this span makeup across the region. Pastes of stibium powder mixed with of about three centuries, an era in which Greeks were more cul- fat, called kohl, were used to stain eyelids and eyebrows black, turally isolated and internally directed, and less influenced by and draw a line around the perimeter of the eye, a style bor- outside forces than would later be the case. rowed from the Egyptians. These centuries, called the Classical Period, or Golden age of The term "kohl" is used broadly to refer to black eye makeup, Greece, brought political turbulence and chaos to the Greek pop- but more specifically describes a powdery substance made of ulation, but also saw the establishment of great architecture, art, soot or carbon residue. Ingredients for kohl might also include philosophy, and literature, the institutions that became building different kinds of copper, lead, ash, and ochre. Most kohl includ- blocks of our own civilization, and set the stage for a triumphant ed the ingredient galena, a dark gray lead that causes lead poi- period, the Hellenistic Age. soning and was widely available in the area. Beauty Ideals in Classical Greece It appears that some men also wore makeup, although less com- The upper-class women of ancient Greece typically remained monly than women, but a trend that would increase over time. indoors during the day, maintaining a relatively light complex- Cosmetics were kept in a variety of little boxes, called pyxides. ion, unlike common people who might labor in the sun. Other specialized containers were made of glass, silver, and Common women approximated the same pallor using cosmetics, alabaster, by the wealthy, and ceramic and bone for the less

25 affluent. Perfumes were applied from small containers, but the forehead. (It is interesting to note, some centuries later, the stored in cool, dark conditions in massive vessels until needed, style had shifted noticeably, with women or shaving the to maintain perfume quality. Applicators were made in every hairline to make the forehead appear longer.) Both women and size, and style, from materials ranging from wood, to ivory, to men applied fragrant oils to the hair. bronze. Hair was most often black, but blond hair was also very popular. Greek skin care included a vigorous scraping of the body using As early as Homer's Epics, heroes, like Achilles, and Ulysses, strigils, small, curved, metal tools that scraped oil, along with are described with blond hair. Later, both men and women com- dirt, from the skin. Wealthier people had slaves to perform this monly dyed hair either black or blond, especially when the hair duty. The first step was the application of a variety of cleansing grew gray. Some authors criticize the obvious artificiality of scrubs and powders to the skin, along with the ubiquitous per- blond hair on the naturally dark-haired Greeks, calling it dishon- fumed oils. Violet was one popular scent, but fashionable est, and say they are insulting the God's who gave them their Greeks might use a different scent on each part of the body; the natural hair color. Still, many dyed the hair yellow, using saf- legs in Egyptian perfumed oils, the arms with mint, the eye- fron and other coloring agents. brows and hair anointed with marjoram, and the face with thyme This is the time when barbers came into prominence in Greece. oil.30 Beard trimming became an art and barbers became leading citi- Greeks used large quantities of perfume, often importing from zens. Statesmen, poets, and philosophers would come to the the Egyptians, and almost always in the form of oil. A popular shops to have their hair cut, or their beards trimmed or curled, perfume from the mid 4th Century BCE was a mixture of mega- and scented with perfumed oils, They also came to discuss the lion, made from myrrh, burnt resin from pine, and cinnamon or news of the day, as barber shops became a popular place for cassia. finding out social, political, or sporting news. Barbers shops were equipped with special chairs, and barbers were known for A commonly used scrub was made from a combination of honey, the crescent-shaped razors they used to cut hair. orris root, and seeds from the Lupin, a spiky plant with purplish- blue flowers that can be ground to make an emollient skin lotion Philosophers and scholars were typically bearded. Slaves were with medicinal properties. Scrubs were commonly used to bearded but had shaved heads. When slaves were made citizens smooth the skin, with many mixing dry cosmetic materials with (freed) they would shave their beards and let their hair grow to fats or oil, which probably helped remove old makeup from the show the new status. Late in the 5th Century, there was a style skin, especially as soap was not in common use. Many women of letting the mustache grow, and shaving everything else. used face packs or plasters, applied before bed and removed in By the 4th Century BCE, use of makeup among the general pub- the morning, in many cases, using milk. lic becomes quite common. Patterns of use for personal services Oil, used in the making of cosmetics, was also used for massage, are harder to discern, especially among ordinary citizens. While as well as medicinal purposes. It was generally produced by upper-class women and men more frequently used professional crushing unripe olives using a stone mill. The olives were personal care services, it appears that some practices were avail- placed in a wicker sieve so oil dripped into a container under- able to more than just the elite. Depictions of such activities on neath. The same system was used to obtain oil from sesame artwork suggest that common women shared responsibilities for seeds, almonds, and palm plants. Additional ingredients like some elements of the beauty regime. salt, gum, resin, honey, vinegar, and fennel, and other spices, By this time, women are removing leg hair by singeing it with a which acted as preservatives, were combined with the oil. lamp, or are pulling hair out using a depilatory made from orpi- Lanolin was also produced by heating recently cut wool with ment, a derivative of arsenic. Pubic hair on both men and water. Once cooled, the lanolin floated to the surface, where it women is considered undesirable, and is removed by many. A could be stripped off and dried in the sun. smooth, hairless body is the ideal, although excessive hair on the part of men is considered unmanly. Some Up to the 5th Century BCE, women's hair typically was worn women wore fake eyebrows, or darkened their brows. Eyebrows loose, falling over the shoulders and back. While hair was often that meet over the nose are considered a sign of beauty. curled, the curls were soft, rather than stiff, and lay naturally on Hellenistic Styles the skull. After some time, hair was often tied with a ribbon or While Hellenic means "Greek," Hellenistic means "Greek-like." even a string of pearls, or might be fastened by a headband, The Hellenistic Age (323-146 BCE), or Alexandrian period called a diadem, a broad band across the forehead, sometimes (named after Alexander the Great) was the period in which made of metal or leather, and often adorned with gold. Typically Greek culture and power extended itself across the known world. hair was pulled back from a center part, showing the ears, with a While the classical (Hellenic) Age of Greece produced great lit- few curls pulled out to hang down the front, with the rest loose erature, poetry, philosophy, drama, and art, the Hellenistic age in the back. brought Greek culture to the world. At its core were the con- After the 5th Century, hair was retained in buns, diadems, quests of Philip of Macedon and his son, Alexander the Great. scarves, and hair covers, or tied in a knot, called the "Greek During Hellenistic times the hair was often artificially waved knot." Low foreheads were considered a sign of beauty, so hair and curled. Between 300 and 150 BCE, artistic knots and buns, was often set over the top of the brow to minimize the height of or chignon, were achieved using special pins. Women also start-

26 ed to loop hair over the diadem on the sides and in the back. Early in the Republic, most Roman men and women followed There was still use of ribbons and scarves, and a great range of very plain Greek styles, typically wearing their hair either short styles, with women both straightening the hair and creating spi- and curly or long and plaited. While Roman men tended to keep ral curls, sometimes tying them into a partial bun. their hair cut short, women increasingly wore far more elaborate hairstyles than their men. Early in the Republic, some unmar- A number of very elaborate "big hair" styles appear, like the ried women might gather the hair into a bun at the back of the "lampadion," in which hair is piled to look like a beacon, and the neck, or coil it into a knot at the top of the head. Married "melon," with hair sectioned and gathered behind in a bun. women's hairstyles were more complicated, sometimes following These are popular for centuries. Married women typically wear an Etruscan fashion, with the hair tied up tightly with ribbons on the hair fastened or "up," with unmarried girls and women wear- the crown of the head. ing the hair loose. Greek statues usually wear the latest styles of hair, with detachable "do's" that can be changed to reflect new Shaving and Roman Identity hair trends. Shaving seems to have not been known to the Romans during their early history, under the Kings of Rome and the early There is heavier use of oils and dyes. Hair is frequently anointed Republic. At that time, a bearded man is considered a sign of with perfumed oils, used to maintain a curl, also achieved with virtue and simplicity. Roman servants or slaves were not allowed the use of mud or to set styles. Gold, red, and white to pluck their hair, or shave their beards. However, the tradition powders and dyes, as well as artificial hairpieces, are common. of a carefully groomed beard is quite common among the Greeks Scented oils and hair pomades, with the aroma of rose or marjo- and Etruscans (the principle cultural influences on the Romans), ram, are a big export item. since the time of Alexander. While the fashion was introduced to Hairstyles are important for Greek men as well. In earlier times, Romans, they remained largely ungroomed and bearded until men might wear beards and long hair, but Alexander the Great about 299 BCE, when a group of Sicilian barbers arrived in begins a shaving trend around 326 BCE. Upon hearing that the Rome. bearded Macedonians are beaten by the Persians, who grab the Macedonians' beards in battle (like a handle), pull them to the General Scipio Africanus is the first Roman to be shaved. It ground and them; he makes a general order that all soldiers catches on quickly, and soon almost all Roman men are clean- must be clean-shaven, and many civilians follow the soldiers' shaven with many shaving daily. In fact, being clean-shaven example, shaving their on a regular basis. became a sign of being Roman as opposed to being Greek, as the Greeks often wore beards at this time. Beards remained rare The Greeks hang onto a vast territory for almost three centuries. among the Romans throughout the Late Republic. By 324 BCE, the entire world east of Rome is under the control of Alexander the Great, and there are numerous Greek cities on Young Roman men would not cut the hair until reaching puberty. the Italian peninsula. From the first early period when the Like the Athenians, it was a custom among the Romans to con- Macedonian Greeks initially conquered the Greek mainland, secrate the first growth of beard--meaning the cuttings after his they did more than control territory. They also actively exported first shave-- to some gods in a festive rite of passage. As soon as Greek culture, in the forms of literature, philosophy, religion, a young man reached maturity, his facial hairs received their first and art. Rome, in particular, is heavily influenced by Greek cul- cut with scissors, and he was then introduced to the razor. A ture and thought. male's first shave was considered to be the beginning of man- hood and was cause for celebration. Slowly, however, Rome rises as a new power, building its own empire. Soon, the Greek Hellenistic world would be unified into Barbershops a single empire under the control of the Romans. Many wealthy persons had slaves trained specifically in the ton- ROME sorial (barbering) arts, but the common people had to go to a The Roman civilization was established before the 5th Century "tonstrina" or barber shop. During the Third Century BCE, BCE, in the Mediterranean region, centered in what is now Italy many barbers from the Greek parts of Sicily moved to Rome and and extending into Europe. Early Rome was governed by kings, opened shops. Shaving was in fashion, and the barbershop but after only seven of them had ruled, the Romans took power became the gathering place for Roman men, sometimes only a over their own city and ruled themselves through a council number of stools on the sidewalk; other times, a walk-in facility. known as the 'Senate'. From this point on Rome was a In either case, Romans might devote hours each day to barbering "Republic." The senate appointed a consul, who ruled Rome operations, which included shaving, hair cutting, hairdressing, like a king, but only for one year. The Roman Republic lasted massaging, manicuring, and the application of perfumed oils and from 509 BCE until 23 ACE. cosmetics. Some young men also had their hair curled with curling irons. The Early Republic (509 BCE) Rome imported Greek models of hair and makeup throughout At first, it was fashionable for young men to keep a small, well- the Republic. Some Roman customs, however, differed from the groomed beard (barbula). Later, when the first gray hairs started Greeks; during grief and mourning, for example, Greeks would showing, the beard would be shaven off completely. Once it cut off the hair and shave their beards, while Romans would let became commonplace to be clean-shaven or have the beard well- the hair and beard grow. groomed, an untrimmed beard was considered unclean and slop- py. Shaving became a near requirement for Roman men, with most men visiting the barber daily.

27 Barbershop services might be pampering and unpleasant; the use of powdered saffron and ash, while a lighter unpleasant because the shaving was done at a meticulously slow color was made from burnt rose petals. pace, with a razor sharpened on a stone, either dry or wet with A white face, with rosy lips and cheeks, like the natural blush spit. Beard softeners and soap were not available. Those who that occurs with vigorous exercise, was the ideal. Many who wanted to avoid the blade used depilatories made of resin and could not achieve this appearance naturally used cosmetics to pitch, or pastes made from animal fat and other exotic ingredi- attain the desired look. Many women whitened their complex- ents. Some men had different parts of the beard shaved, depila- ions, with some of the more effeminate men doing the same. A torized, and tweezed. The customer was typically anointed with whitening cream or powder made from ceruse, or white lead, perfumed oils, and cosmetic cream was applied to his face to was often used to produce a fair complexion, even though the conceal pimples and blemishes. Razor cuts were covered with risks were known. little spots of flesh-colored cloth. These Roman patches were called "splenia." It was said by one author that Roman women used three main kinds of cosmetics: red lead, carmine, and processed crocodile Bathhouses dung. Two of these, red lead and carmine, a pigment made from The Romans adopted many Greek cultural institutions, including crushed insects, were reddish tints used to color the cheeks and the public bath. Early on, Roman men and women had limited mouth. Most Roman rouge was a rosy hue, made from a combi- access to running water. Common laborers washed their arms nation of white chalk and purple dye, and passed through a and legs in the Tiber or other rivers, bathing the whole body sieve-one time for the manufacture of , two times for about once every nine days, in the beginning of the Republic. rouge. Vermilion was also in use, as well as a dye made by Roman women typically washed their hair on August 13th, in soaking poppies in cold water, and applying them to the cheeks. homage to the goddess Diana, and rarely other times, as washing Women were also known to paint the veins of their temples blue, the hair too frequently was thought to bother the spirit protecting probably with an extract of shellfish. the head. Eventually, water was piped into the city using sophisticated Skin care aqueducts, and public baths became a necessary part of Roman Plasters and face-packs are in frequent use during this period, hygiene as well as the Roman social life. While the Greeks had with crocodile dung a desired ingredient. Dioscorides, a Greek developed hot and cold water systems, there was some sense that physician, warns women not to buy bird dung at crocodile dung it was unmanly to use hot water. More often, the Greek bath was prices. A great number of beauty trends of the day are document- a quick, functional, cold rinse. Unlike the Greeks, whose bath- ed in The Art of Love, written by the poet Ovid, who lived houses rarely developed hot water systems, Roman bathhouses between 43 BCE and 18 ACE. His topics, in short, are art, beau- made extensive use of hot water and steam. ty, and the appropriate behavior of Roman women, especially those of the upper classes. Formation of Empire (27 BCE) In 27 BCE, Julius Caesar declares a dictatorship and becomes Ovid recommends the following prescription for white skin: Two the first Emperor of Rome; ending its status as a Republic. This pounds Libyan barley mixed with ten eggs, dried in the open air begins the golden age of Rome. The "Romanization" of the then ground by a millstone, turned by a donkey. This should be empire includes the elaborate development of the public baths. strained and mixed with two narcissus bulbs and wheat from Tuscany, pounded with a , and mixed with Public baths turned into large complexes with multiple business- honey, for a shining complexion. es and services available, including barbershops, massage par- lors, restaurants, libraries, and stores. They became central to Another recipe requires 6 pounds of lupin seeds and 5 pounds of Roman's social life, a place to meet and talk. Engineers devel- beans, ground by a millstone and mixed with white lead, red oped hot water and steam systems into a fine art, with each suc- nitre (also known as saltpeter) residue, and Illyrian iris. All of cessive emperor further developing the art and engineering of this should be kneaded well by a strong young person. The the bath house, especially in regard to hot baths and steam resulting ounce of material should be mixed with a special kind rooms. of mud found only in a specific type of bird's nest. The final Greek slaves were commonly responsible for their Roman mas- product is a cure for spots, pimples, and other skin imperfec- ters or mistresses' cosmetic application and hair styling, and tions. many were employed at barbershops and bathhouses. Greeks set For blackheads, Ovid recommended a combination of 4 oz the hair and makeup trends, introducing common styles and use frankincense, 4 oz saltpeter, the addition of gum made from tree of the calamistrum (curling tongs). The Romans, however, make bark and a small amount of oil mixed with 9 sections of myrrh. even greater use of cosmetics than the Greeks. Crush and sieve, then mix the remaining powder with honey, Beauty Ideals in the Early Empire with the optional addition of fennel. Add dried rose-leaves, and Romans admired eyebrows that met in the center, over the nose, rinse with barley water. Apply to blackheads and pimples. He and would extend the natural eyebrow line using makeup. They also recommends an anti-wrinkle astringent called "teneipelli- also applied beauty marks (excessively, according to some crit- um" to prevent aging of the skin. ics). Dark eye make-up, painted on the brow and lids, came Despite the common use of cosmetics and the great deal of from a variety of materials, including antimony, lead, soot, lamp- money and labor (usually performed by slaves) that went into black, and kohl. A lighter color for the lids was achieved with the attainment, processing, and application of mundane and

28 exotic ingredients, there was some contention about the proper elite women no longer wore their hair simply. More elaborate role of makeup in Roman culture. Many voices called for make- hair styling becomes the norm, in many cases assisted by slave up moderation, saying that a natural, "clean" face was the most labor. beautiful. The poet, Propertius, had earlier expressed disgust at In the Early Empire, for example, Livia, wife of the first the practice of dying one's cheeks, which he saw as unnatural, as Emperor, usually wore her hair waved and gathered into a loose well as a foreign intrusion into the Roman aesthetic. Augustus roll at the back of the neck, with a few curls pulled out over the banned the application of ceruse to high status women at one forehead. Curls hanging over the forehead (like bangs) become point during his reign, but it didn't last long. very elaborate with the style known as the orb, the recreation of Part of this tension was associated with the fact that prostitutes a Greek style. Hair would be wrapped or arranged around an traditionally used excessive makeup and strong perfume. While oblong or C-shaped wire frame. Many different styles were it made them easy to identify, it also cast some dispersions on based on this basic form. Hair might alternately be piled in high the wearing of makeup, especially heavy makeup, by curls or twisted into complicated braids. "respectable" women. Not all cosmetics were considered appro- Under the Empire, elite men and women had their hair curled by priate for all occasions, for example, with women told, on some special curling professionals, called ciniflones, who operated the holidays, not to apply white lead to the face, as it insulted the calamistrum, or curling iron, winding hair around a rod that was gods, who bestowed natural beauty. encased in a heated metal tube, used to form a tight curl. There was also a sense that wearing cosmetics was dishonest, Women often coated the hair with expensive perfumes and oils, with increasing criticism of women made "beautiful" through which might be made from the root of Indian kostum and spike- artificial means. Pliny the Elder, who wrote the encyclopedic nard leaves, to maintain the curl. Men were also known to apply Natural History, felt that a plain demeanor was less offensive scented oils to the hair, as well as apply colored powder, or even than a garish, false one. He deplored women and men who kept gold dust. bits of their appearance, like fake eyebrows, in boxes and jars- As the Republic becomes a more distant memory, women, and accusing them of misrepresentation. Criticizing Messalina, a some men increasingly changed their hair color. Blond hair was woman of notorious promiscuity, and the wife of Emperor as prized by the Romans as it had been by the Greeks, and Claudius (41-54 ACE), Pliny said that a man who loves a Roman women used a rinse of bleach and vinegar, or saffron, to woman like this, loves much that is not her (referring to her get the blond look. Wealthy ladies dusted the hair with gold dust numerous artificial pieces). or dyed their hair with elderberries, St Johns worth, myrtle or While Ovid only approved of makeup tastefully applied with a walnut, even crushed leeches to make a black hair dye. Not all light hand, he felt that its application must be discreet and out of formulas are successful: Ovid warns women to avoid a particular the husband's view. One might lighten the skin using wax, rinse that causes , for example. extend and paint one's eyebrows, and use makeup to cover signs With styles becoming so complicated, many woman turn to of aging, but women should never allow their cosmetic use to be wearing wigs and hairpieces in public, for the ease of maintain- discovered: for example, he instructed his audience to hide ing complex styles. It is likely that many women simply obvious makeup containers and never clean the teeth in front of attached an elaborately curled hairpiece to their own hair to anyone. Ovid felt men should never know the lengths to which achieve the more complicated styles. Pre-styled hairpieces could a woman goes to achieve a look, nor should they ever see the be touched up with hot tongs, usually by an attendant, when the "artificial aids" (which would only distress them, if they knew). hairpiece was not in use. In other words, hide your imperfections, but don't let your hus- band know what you are hiding.31 The favorite hair types for wigs, at the time, are black hair from India and blond hair from the Teutons, or Germans. Messalina There was also a good deal of criticism regarding men's use of leads a fashion trend by wearing a blond wig. Following her makeup or excessive hair care. Martial, a famous poet and infamous example, many women don blond wigs. To supply the satirist, deplored men wearing "paint." He urged men not to curl demand in blond false hair for all the complicated hairstyles, or dye their hair, nor wear artificial hair. Ovid also criticized there is a flourishing trade in blond hair from captive blonde men who curled their hair or wore face powder. This sort of "barbarian," prisoners/slaves. Roman women who kept Teutonic behavior, he felt, was decidedly effeminate and undesirable in a slaves would cut off their blond hair and have it woven into wigs man. Men, should, however, be well-groomed, keeping the hair and hairpieces. Germans used "Hessian soap," a mixture of and beard well-trimmed, and the nails clean and smooth; clip goat fat and ash, to redden blond hair, which came to be used by hair emerging from the nose, keep breath fresh, and minimize Roman women, to color their blond hairpieces or wigs. body odor. Everything else, said Ovid, should remain the domain of women. Both men and women move further away from the simple natu- ral looks of the Republican period in the fashionable "do's" of Hair the day with the services of slaves or professional hairdressers. The tension between natural and artificial beauty became even The more involved hairstyles required a staff to create and main- more pronounced as hairstyles grew increasingly elaborate. tain. Upper-class Roman men either have a skilled personal Ovid advised women to tend their hair carefully, choosing a slave to shave them, or start their day with a trip to the tonsor, or modest style that flatters the face, and using one's own mirror as barber, who will shave the face with a Roman Razor, or novac- a guide, but after the Augustan period, which ended in 14 ACE,

29 ila, a flat straight iron blade. By now, Romans have developed unguents (oils) of all prices, and those who cannot afford oil the first warm shave, using warm water and softening the beard from the unctuarium used a cheap oil provided by the state. hairs with oil before shaving them. Barbers are so highly valued Some men and women are at the baths all day, using them like in Roman society that a statue is erected to the memory of the private clubs. Sometimes bathers were segregated by gender; first barber of Rome. other times men and women shared the same baths. Even Even Roman patrons who had their own slaves would go to the though the public baths are elaborate, wealthy individuals start baths for personal services like plucking or depilatating body wanting private baths connected to the home that are equally hair, very much like in salons and spas today. The services elaborate, with fountains and stone statues. Some people criti- available at the barbershops and baths are extensive. Romans, cize the bathing craze, however. Seneca, the Roman statesman like the Greeks, disliked hairy bodies, using a number of kinds and philosopher condemns the custom, saying that sweating of depilatories made from pitch or resin into a plaster. A pumice should come as a result of hard physical labor and not just sitting stone or other abrasive surface is also used to exfoliate hair in a hot room. away. Some men prefer their beard hairs plucked, rather than The great ladies of Rome take advantage of professional hair- shaved or cut. There are even special professional pluckers, at dressers at the bath, but usually have a hairdresser among their the public baths, assigned to tweezing underarm hair. Both men slaves, necessary for the development and maintenance of cer- and women like hairless bodies, but over-plucking by men is tain styles. Romans are less content with a small number of considered effeminate. household slaves, with the number of slaves in each home rising Originally baths were open only a few hours in the afternoon. steeply with Rome's increasing wealth. Simple tasks, like arrang- Emperor Nero (54-68 ACE) opened them a couple hours earlier, ing the master's bath, now required a retinue of slaves. In at noon, but now they are open dawn to dusk. It is common for wealthy households, where there are many slaves, they are divid- the upper classes to bathe two times a day. At the same time, ed into groups of ten, each under a specific "foreman." according to the philosopher Seneca, lower class Roman citizens Wealthy Roman women had slaves trained as cosmeticians, typically wash the face and limbs daily, with a complete bath known as cosmatae, overseen by an ornatrix, or "lady of the toi- once a week or on a shopping day, when the common man or let,"32 a slave of higher status who would assign tasks to other woman would go "downtown" to the market. slaves, defining each slave's role in preparing the lady of the Some men and women spend all day at the public baths, which house, even including who would carry a toilet kit to the bath resemble private clubs, as they are the location where men and house. women go for entertainment, exercise, therapy, or cleaning. Roman ladies of wealth and status used a variety of powder, There were 170 baths in Rome during the reign of Augustus paint, and pomades,33 with each slave or chambermaid carrying (ending in 14 ACE) and, by 300 ACE, that number had increased objects necessary to the regime, including a chamber pot, water to over 900 baths. As many as 800 hot water public baths are in pot, mirror, boxes containing false teeth and gum medicine, and Rome, alone, with one fitting as many as 1,200 bathers at once. even fake eyelashes and eyebrows. Existing class distinctions As they became the center of Roman cultural, social, and even were exacerbated by the lives of excess lived by the elite; lives educational (they house libraries, too) life, the baths within them exemplified by the insane Emperor Nero (54-68 ACE) and his grew even more ornate and magnificent, with each location first wife, Poppaea, a woman of great beauty but no morals. housing multiple pools of varying temperatures, and even Her beauty regime was said to have required a hundred slaves. equipped with wet and dry steam rooms. Poppaea was known to sleep in a face mask made of moist, per- Many Roman baths are free, but some have a nominal feel just fumed meal that would harden during the night and be washed to keep out the slaves and the poor people who could not afford off with milk in the morning. She also bathed in the same milk it. After a morning's work at the office or shop, many Romans to maintain the look of her skin, and, after bathing, applied chalk spend the afternoon at the baths, using the hot and cold pools, and white lead. The effect was heavy-handed and required con- towels, steam rooms, saunas, exercise rooms, and hair cutting stant maintenance, but was copied by many women. This beau- salons. The elite were usually accompanied by a slave, who ty regime resulted in a somewhat painted or plastered appear- brought the master's own bathing implements, which might ance common in the age, known as the "domestic face," as it include brushes, an oil flask, a flat dish for scooping water, and was the one the husband typically saw. the strigil, the curved metal , for scraping off oils and sweat. All of these might be attached to a ring for easy carrying. The All of a lady's slaves were organized into subsections relating to poorer visitors used a flour of lentils instead of oils and either a particular part of dressing or ornamentation; for example, one scraped their own backs or asked the services of a friend. group responsible for removal of the face mask, another for the application of eye makeup, another group responsible for white Generally, Romans would first go to the unctuarium where they paint and rouge, and another for the cleaning of the teeth. had oil rubbed onto their skin and might exercise in one of the Makeup is kept in little boxes and shells, with the most precious exercise yards. Bathing might include washing in the cold pool, items kept in containers of ivory and crystal. Nearly every cos- steaming for a while or taking a dip in a cold, warm, or hot bath, metic, except the white lead, comes from vegetable or animal then back to the cold pool, on to scraping by an individual, matter. called an apilator, using a strigil, then massaged again, with a better quality perfumed oil. There are many different kinds of

30 Perhaps the most labor-intensive production is the preparation of The shaving trend continues until the rule of Emperor Hadrian the hair. Hairstyles were supposed to be appropriate and harmo- (117-138 ACE) in the Second Century, when he, according to nious with the face and the shape of the head. The hair might be the Roman historian, Dion, was the first of all the Emperors to rinsed with a water and lye combination that bleaches black hair grow a beard. This was during a period when Romans were blond when exposed to strong sunlight. A curling iron is heated, mimicking aspects of Greek culture, and Hadrian and other and one slave arranges the hair on the forehead, while another is Romans were said to be emulating the Greeks. In reality, responsible for the back of the head. The hair is combed and Hadrian probably grew the beard to hide facial scars. Hadrian is scented with perfumed oil, perhaps worn with a diadem and a also known to have used a paint to cover his bald spot. couple of loose curls. It might also be decorated with ribbons, From that time on, beards were once again common in Rome. It precious stones, pearls, and gold. In the final step, a slave hands is interesting to note that when free men commonly shaved the mistress a mirror, fearing punishment if the lady is not happy (early in 1st Century), slaves were made to wear beards to set with her appearance. them apart and make them identifiable. At feasts, the wealthy often received "goody bags" including When free men (citizens) wore beards, in the 2nd and 3rd cen- personal care items such as strigils, made from silver, ivory, and turies, slaves were required to shave for the same reason. In a bronze; combs made of boxwood, bone, antler, and horn; matter of decades, following Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180 to redden hair (German-style); barber's instruments, ACE), the fashion trend for men is shaving the head. including implements to cut the hair of the head, clean nails, and shave chins; as well as tooth powder and perfume (in the form of Braids became very popular in women's hairstyles during this a men's balm that leaves his pillow perfumed). There were also period. "The orb" evolves into an even more a complicated hair long hairpins, made of gold, silver, bone, and ivory, used to style for women using braids as a headband, or requiring a dia- secure the more difficult hairstyles. The top of the long pins dem. Two prominent citizens, Septimus Severus and his wife were usually decorated with a design or carving, often in the Julia, add padding to the wire frames shaping the hair, and many shape of an animal or human figure, and might be set with jew- add coiled braids at the back of the head. The hair is worn both els. up and down, in most cases, with the ears exposed. At the end of the 3rd Century ACE and the beginning of the 4th, the mass of The Flavian Period (69 ACE) hair at the back shifts to the crown of the head. Hair styling reached a flamboyant peak during the age of the Flavian emperors (Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 69-96 ACE). Until the 3rd Century ACE, it is common to apply gold dust and One of the more popular styles had the hair arranged in several colored powders to hair. The early Christians are highly critical, layers, falling in an abundance of ringlets, requiring expert hair- especially of men who are involved in excessive hair ornamenta- dressers, as well as false hair, to create the appropriate amount tion, with Clement of Alexandria (150-211 ACE) officially con- of hair. Men had previously used wigs primarily for disguise or demning hair color, powder, frizzing, and curling-all of which he covering bald spots. Now, men wore partial (perukes) or full deemed effeminate-as well as the unnecessary fussing or styling wigs that were powdered with gold powder and anointed with the hair. He also declares that benedictions received by individ- perfumed oil. Most women only used wigs in cases such as uals wearing wigs would not count toward the wearer's blessing. baldness or severe hair damage, more commonly using hair- Instead, the blessing stays with the wig rather than the wig-wear- pieces. er. Tertullian of Carthage, a Christian writing in the 3rd Century, criticizes the wearing of wigs, writing, "perukes, paint, and pow- The Roman Empire reached its geographic peak under Emperor der are disguises and inventions of the devil."34 Trajan (98 - 117 ACE), when it stretched from the Middle East to northern Britain, and from Egypt to Germany. A series of The Roman Empire was ultimately overrun by foreigners from Roman cases (showing Egyptian influence), dating the north and east. The "Fall of Rome" occurred in the year 476 from the 1st to 4th centuries ACE, show the hair coiled in ACE, when Rome was finally conquered. corkscrew curls, with hairpins and red ribbon. The Middle Ages Both men and women are depicted with eyeliner. Eyebrows After the fall of Rome (around the 5th Century ACE) and before show a range of shapes, some natural, some artificial, some the historical period called the Renaissance (around the middle plucked; other's bushy or accentuated by makeup. In a number of the 16th Century ACE), Europe survived centuries of famine, of cases, eyebrows meet in the center, above the nose. Some war, and plague. This time is known as the Dark Ages (also the women with sparse or light eyebrows might pluck the eyebrow Medieval or Middle Ages), in part because there are few histori- completely, then wear an imitation made of fur. cal records that tell us about this period. Juvenal, a satirist writing between 100-120ACE criticizes priests Within the Middle Ages were periods of famine (the Great and generals for using eyebrow dye and black eye pencil. Both Hunger of 1044, The Famine of 1315, etc.) and the Crusades, a groups got a reputation for vanity and use of excessive makeup. series of military campaigns between English forces and Some soldiers, at the time, wash their hair with lime, sculpting it Muslims of the Middle East. In 1076, the Muslims captured into stiff hairstyles that resemble a horse's mane. Others grow Jerusalem, a city of critical importance to both Muslims and mustaches so large they apparently interfered with eating and Christians, and the Christians fought to get it back. These wars drinking. lasted nearly 200 years, ending in the late 1200's. The Middle

31 Ages are also characterized by the Black Death, or Black Plague, over tonsure, the shaving of the head in preparation for priest- a horrible epidemic estimated to have killed as much as two- hood; some demanded the head be shaved in a circular pattern thirds of the European population. While related illnesses (called the tonsure of St Peter), while others considered only the returned to Europe every generation through the 1700's, its high- semicircular pattern (the tonsure of St John) appropriate. ly virulent form disappeared from Europe around the end of the Then, as now, haircuts and styles were important cultural indica- 18th Century. tors. The Anglo Saxons shaved, in part, because their enemies, The Middle Ages were a period of transition in Europe and the Danes, all wore beards. Hair signified one's class, religion, England, with the solidification of a system called "feudalism." culture, rank, as well as personal style. Sometimes hairdos were The Feudal System was introduced to England following the associated with an influential person, who might promote a cer- invasion and conquest of the country by William I (The tain hairstyle. Emperor Charlemagne, for example, a French Conqueror) in 1072, but was established in France as early as ruler in the 8th Century ACE wore a mustache (and much later, a 900 ACE. According to this system, all land was owned by the beard), but required his court personnel to shave. In fact, before King. making one man a Duke, he required that all his followers cut off their beards to show their support. One quarter of the land was kept by the King as his personal property, a portion was given to the church, and the rest was Early Middle Ages leased out to individuals who swore an oath of allegiance to the Early in the Middle Ages, men's hair was typically cut above the King. The men who leased land from the King were known as shoulders, and combed straight down from the crown into bangs, Barons. They were wealthy, powerful, and had complete control or parted in the center, in simple natural styles. At this point, of the land (known as the "Manor") they leased. Barons estab- only ruling classes were allowed to wear beards, which were lished their own system of justice, making their own money and treated as cherished possessions. There were legal penalties, for setting their own taxes. In return for the land given them by the example, for touching or cutting off another's beard, as well as King, the Barons served on the royal council, paid rent and pro- fines for pulling individual hairs out of a beard. Only the very vided the King with Knights for military service. wealthiest men had a daily shave. Others were shaved (perhaps with a dull ) one day every two weeks at best. The Barons kept as much of their land as they wished for their own use, dividing the rest among their Knights. Although not as Medieval women wore long, natural hair, parted in the center. rich as the Barons, Knights were quite wealthy. Knights had to The majority of young women wore the hair loose before mar- protect the Baron and his family from attack, and were given riage, but changed to a bound and/or covered style after mar- land in return for military service. In turn, the Knights kept as riage. When hair was uncovered, it was often twisted with rib- much of the land as they wished for their own personal use and bons into lengthy plaits on the sides or back of the head that distributed the rest to serfs. would hang down the woman's front or back. Later hair was braided, and worn both up or down, instead of twisted with Serfs were given land by Knights, but had to provide the Knight ribbons. with free labor, food, and service whenever it was demanded. Serfs were poor, had no rights, were not allowed to leave the Elite women in the Middle Ages considered pallor the height of Manor, and had to ask their Lord's (Knight's) permission before beauty, pursuing it through two main practices: "painting" or they could marry.35 During this period, one's lot in life was bleeding. Performed for both health and beauty, "blood letting" largely determined by one's status in this hierarchy. All nobility required that blood be drained from a certain spot in your body, were members of Court, with special obligations to the King. often with the use of leeches, although unsanitary blades were also used, increasing the risk of infection. Much easier, and usu- Religion dominated many aspects of everyday life in this turbu- ally safer, was the application of whitening makeup. Those who lent time. Much about hairstyles of the day were a reflection of lived in more populated areas might purchase cosmetics at the the Church's attempt to control or regulate the length of hair and manufacturing location, while those in more remote areas were beards. In part this may be due to the fact they were fighting probably served by traveling vendors, who commonly provided Muslims, who had specific restrictions on cutting the hair. Long white enamel to paint the skin, color for the cheeks, and cotton hair on men was condemned by the Church, so much so that one to apply it along with personal care items such as tweezers, mir- bishop, during this time, carried a knife with him wherever he rors, hairpins, razors, and other haircutting implements. went. Anyone wanting to receive his blessing had his hair cut Hygienic practices varied enormously according to an individ- off, first. ual's wealth, location, and cultural norms. Anglo Saxons had hot Initially the church did not regulate or restrict the length of baths, but King Edgar (942-975), their ruler, commanded that no beards; beards might be long, short, natural-looking or carefully one sleep in soft beds or take warm water baths because he felt it coiffed, sometimes pointed or forked in the center. As time went "softened" men and made them effeminate. on, however, the Middle Ages became characterized by a vigor- While "natural" beauty was the ideal, and the Church preached ous struggle between bearded and beardless styles, both within vigorously against makeup and physical ornamentation, stressing the Church and without. Some Church officials felt priests that the use of paint or hair dye was dishonest and immodest, should not shave at all while others thought they should retain a and certainly a sin, use of makeup steadily increased throughout thin layer of hair on their heads, but never wear beards or mus- the Middle Ages. Paints were commonly used to lighten the taches of any kind. In the 7th Century, a similar debate raged skin and make it appear smooth and free of imperfections. The

32 color of this foundation varied considerably by region, personal decreed by the Pope, and vigorously supported by the religious tastes, and availability of makeup: In 6th Century Germany, authorities all over Europe, that those wearing long hair would upper class women wore a white powder, while pink was used be excommunicated and not prayed for when dead. St. Wulstan, by lower class women. In Spain, at the same time, a pinkish Bishop of Worcester, who lived between 1008 and 1095, used color was typically used. In 11th Century Britain, the paint used his knife to cut the hair of those who knelt before him to receive by prostitutes was white, while in Italy, all classes wore pink or blessings, telling them they should cut off all the rest, or they flesh tone paint, a shade darker than the natural tone of the skin. would certainly go to hell. This substance was typically purchased as a powder and mixed This historical period became a battle of wills between the with water to form a paste, then applied with the fingertips. Church and members of the Court. At the same time that the The same is true of the rose-colored hues used on the cheeks and Pope and ecclesiastical authorities were preaching the gospel of lips across Europe. In the 6th Century lower class Spanish short hair (claiming that long hair was a symbol of sloth, vanity, women were known to wear a rosy color on the cheeks and lips. and disobedience to God), members of the court, including the Centuries later, an orange hue would be worn in Germany and King and his nobles, were fussing more and more with the hair, Britain, made from clay colored ingredients applied in a round wearing it longer with ringlets of curls. stroke on the cheek. Eye makeup was worn in Spain as early as Henry I (who reigned from 1100-1135) and his nobles wore their the 6th Century, but became popular all over Europe by the 15th hair in long curls, becoming quite a scandal in the eyes of the Century, with many different colors of eyeshadow and black Church. One day, the king's chaplain preached a fire and brim- eyeliner, usually used on the upper lid. stone sermon describing the fires of hell waiting for those with In the 9th and 10th centuries, young men were wearing shorter long hair that even brought the King to tears. Taking advantage hairstyles, as the church specified that haircuts must leave the of the moment, the chaplain convinced Henry I to have his hair ears and eyes unobstructed. Beards, also discouraged by the cut right there in front of the Court, followed by the haircutting Church at this time, are worn much less frequently, especially by of a number of important courtiers. The short hair does not last younger men, except late in the 11th Century when long hair and long however, as many grew their hair long again before the long beards are worn by fashionable young men, called gallants, year was out. who curl, crimp and braid their hair. Still, most beards are those The Church was never as adamant about beards as it was about worn by older men, who have long, sometimes forked beards long hair on the head. One order of French monks, in 1160, for with mustaches, which they oil and insert into a special "beard example, allowed beards as long as they were modest and neat, bag" overnight. without excessive show or vanity. Christians, at this time, were In 1073, Pope Gregory decides that clergy cannot wear beards taught that in heaven, all beards conformed to a certain style and and orders all bishops to have their beards shaved. Further, any- length. On the earth, however, beards and mustache fashions one wearing long hair or a beard is denied entrance to church varied over the years, dictated both by fashion trends and and cannot receive communion. A similar situation exists in Church edicts. Italy, where the Church bans long beards on all Christians. The Knights Templar, a monastic military order formed at the Much of this antipathy to hair is rooted in St. Paul's declaration end of the First Crusade (in 1096) wore their hair short, but grew that long hair on a man is shameful, which became the basis for long beards. While long hair was generally considered effemi- many edicts requiring short hair. nate and unchristian, the Templars were forbidden to cut their It may seem strange that hairstyles were a significant state issue beards because it was believed that their Moslem enemies con- in France and England throughout the Middle Ages. This is part- sidered facial hair a trait of masculinity, and the show of beard ly because long hair had long been a symbol of high rank in hair was said to intimidate them. Europe for many generations. Gregory of Tours (538-594), a his- The "War of the Whiskers," beginning in 1152 ACE, refers to torian, who was also a Bishop, and eventually a Saint, noted the long period of conflict between medieval France and that, at one time, it was the exclusive privilege of the royal fami- England initiated by a hair-related issue. One version of this ly to have their hair long and curled. The nobles copied this story describes the refusal of Louis VII of France to shave the style, wearing not only long hair, but very long beards. This newly acquired beard he had grown while fighting during the fashion lasted, with slight variation, until the time of Louis the Crusades. The other story describes Louis VII cutting his hair Debonnaire (814-840). After that, until the rule of Hugh Capet, very short in response to a Vatican proclamation. In both stories, King of France in the late 900's, nobility wore their hair short, to his hairstyle displeases his wife, who intimated that he was like distinguish themselves from everybody else, who wore long hair. a monk not only in regard to his hair, but in other respects, as At that time, even the serfs wore their hair and beards longer. well. Their marriage was eventually annulled.36 At the time of the invasion of England by William the By the 12th Century, beards and mustaches were generally out Conqueror, around 1072, the Normans wore their hair very short of favor in France, although at the end of the century, following and shaved their faces while the English wore long hair and Richard the Lionhearted, short beards become popular. mustaches, shaving only the chin. Long hair was despised by Protestants are expected to shave once a month, and throughout the clergy, and prevailed to a considerable extent in France and the 12th and 13th centuries, monks shave two times a month, in Germany. Towards the end of the Eleventh Century, it was the winter, and every 10 days during other parts of the year.

33 There were strict penalties for not shaving, with monks even mirrors. Before this time, most mirrors have surfaces made of beaten for a repeat offence. shiny silver. These are replaced by glass mirrors backed in sil- ver or tin, which provide a much better reflective surface. In 1129, according to one appalled historian, all young gallants are wearing their hair long and luxurious, like women. He Women in Europe typically relied on older women in the area noted, "men [of the court], forgetting their birth, transformed for beauty aids, some of which were likely to take the form of themselves, by the length of their hair into the semblance of magical incantations as well as cosmetics. Beauty formulas woman kind." He also notes the appeal of thick hair, writing were often homemade. An early hair treatment from Italy that with thinning or balding, "knit about their heads certain rolls requires egg yolks and honey, applied to the hair, which is then and braidings of false hair."37 Wigs were not worn by wrapped in a piece of material, then washed in the morning with commoners. olive oil soap and water, and dried in the sun for as long as pos- sible. Women in the 1200's were likely to whiten their faces Women wore their hair as long as it would grow, even past the with flour. One formula requiring soaking wheat for fifteen knees in some cases. It was separated into long sections starting days, which allowed fermentation of the wheat starch, and on the sides or back of the head. Each long section was resulted in a fine powder that was mixed with rosewater and wrapped individually with ribbon, and then bound together with applied to the face. Other sources for cosmetic formulas another section. In some cases, the ends were decorated with included medical texts; a text from 1240 ACE recommends hanging ornaments or more ribbon. Sometimes hair was pulled brazilwood chips soaked in rosewater for coloring the cheeks into a plaited section or two, with part of the hair untied and and cyclamen root to whiten the complexion. hanging loose down the back. Eventually braids were wrapped around the head, or twisted into a bun. In the later part of this By the 13th Century, public baths are more common, although century, the hair was typically covered with a cloth, veil, or hat many closed in 1348 due to the plague of the Black Death. held on with a chin strap. Common people would take their own toiletries and basin to the bathhouse, and men would take shaving knifes, if they had them. In 1163, new responsibilities are assumed by France's first While the upper classes bathed as often as four times a week in known organization of professional barbers (formed in 1094), hot water and fresh herbs, rinsed with warm rosewater, and wore when the Council of Tours dictates that clergymen may no clean underwear each day, the lower classes bathed communally longer draw blood, leaving barbers to take over surgical medical in large tubs much less frequently, and often wore soiled cloth- procedures. ing. By the 13th Century beards are no longer in style, but are worn Like centuries before, there was a great range of opinion, both occasionally by older men. Even these beards are worn shorter culturally and individually, regarding the importance of bathing. than before. Gallants are using curling irons to create tight curls Many considered regular washing, combing of the hair, and across the brow and at the shoulders or neck. The hair is some- changing clothes frivolous. Soaps and herbs were considered times worn in a fillet, a headband, made of material or metal, cosmetics and both served the same purpose, to reduce vermin worn across the forehead, over hair that is either parted in the like lice and fleas on the body and cover body odor, which could center or not parted and brushed straight from crown down into be considerable as clothes were not washed or changed often by bangs. the lower classes. Scents were also used to repel moths from Most women's hair is covered until the end of the Thirteenth wool clothing. Century. Typically parted from one ear to the other, it is often Soaps made with lye, rendered animal fat, or hardwood ash were concealed with a veil or hat. Near the end of the century, braids luxury items. In some cases, urine was used as a cleaning agent are wrapped near the ears, in the familiar "Princes Leia" style. for clothing. Surprisingly, perfumes were relatively unpopular, Sometimes the braids were covered with a partial headdress or with only very few available to the upper classes, which might crown. This style is popular into the next century. wash the hair or bathe in sea water and herbs such as bay and The ideal medieval face was pale and oval-shaped, with blond wormwood and used scented powders as deodorants. The hair and narrow, arched eyebrows, spaced well apart from one wealthy had bedding stuffed with scented herbs like saffron, another. A high forehead was desirable, so some women began lavender, or violet. One of the most popular scents of the day to shave or pluck the hairline. Upper class women are noted for was made by mixing violets into clarified lard, then straining their pale pink complexions, while most lower class women and repeating the procedure until the scent was strong enough, grow dark or red laboring outside in the sun. Freckles are unde- and might be mixed with almond oil. sirable, and there are many formulas for bleaching them, as well Until the 14th Century, most women did not alter their eyebrows as magical charms, to make them go away. significantly, but in the 14th and 15th centuries, women com- Peddlers traveled through villages selling cosmetic staples monly plucked their eyebrow hairs. The fashionable icon at the including whitening powder and rouge, as well as mirrors, time was the Virgin Mary, portrayed with a broad forehead, razors, rosewater, and curling irons. Medieval toiletry kits typi- small lips, and straight nose. Eyebrows during this time were cally included tongue-scrapers, tweezers, toothpicks, and ear thin and showed ample space between the brows. This is also the scoops made out of a variety of materials. This is perhaps the period in which women in great numbers began to remove hair first time that common people are able to purchase really useful from the upper forehead by shaving or plucking to make the hairline higher. The fad continued for a couple hundred years.

34 While all classes of women plucked their eyebrows and hairline, partially cover the hair; they are less like a hat, and more like a the practice was generally condemned by the Church as a sin of frame around part of the head. Many women wear their hair in a pride and vanity. Plucking, it was explained, was dishonest and variety of inventive, diverse styles, many of which involve coil- unnatural, and offensive to God, it was thought, because humans ing braids around the head. In Italy, and later in the rest of were made in God's image Women are told that changing ones' Europe, styles become even more complicated and ornamented, appearance is an affront to God, and those who have plucked with strings of beads, jewels or ribbons wrapping and twisting hair from the neck, eyebrows, forehead, or chin, have committed around the hair, worn both up and down. These fancier styles a mortal sin (unless her husband requests it). are depicted in many painted portraits of nobility and the Cosmetics were considered sinful except in cases where the wealthy. Common women wear much simpler styles. makeup was covering up severe disfigurement. Women in con- It was said, if one didn't have a beautiful face, one might be con- fession were typically asked about the type of makeup they used, soled by having beautiful hair. Hairpieces and wigs made of if any, and their reasons for using it. The Church explained that wool, cotton, flax, and silk were commonly worn, by both men wearing cosmetics to inspire men's affection was an impulse and women, who frequently perfumed real, as well as artificial from the devil, but women continued to risk damnation by hair, with aromatic materials like rose and cardamom infused in wearing makeup and plucking. rosewater. There was even a fad for a while, of women sitting Frank and Anglo-Saxon women wore the hair loose until mar- outside on clear nights, exposing the hair to moonlight, which riage, referred to as "remaining in their hair,"38 Once a women was supposed to make the hair more beautiful. was married, the hair was fastened "up," often in braids, which Hair might also be lightened or dyed by upperclass men and were very popular, sometimes coiled over the ears, or hanging women, but not by commoners. Dark or black hair was very down the front or back. Some women used curling irons to popular, as was blond. Red hair was particularly out of favor, make soft waves and curls, and a small number dyed their hair, and a common old wives' tale of the day stated that redheaded which was also condemned by the Church. Women commonly children were the product of impregnation during a woman's used hairpieces, with material like cotton or wool used to "fill period, and might be potential witches. out" a style. Other types of ornamentation, like feathers or jew- eled fillets, were also worn. Blond hair was very desirable and there were many varieties of bleach available to make hair different shades, as well as a lot of Long hair and beards became popular for men once again, in the bleaching hair by exposure to the sun. The infamous Lucrezia 14th Century, first among the elite, then the general public, with Borgia (1480-1519), of Italy, bleached her hair blond repeatedly trends led by nobles of the day, much like movie stars today. applying lye and lemon juice to the hair for some length of time, For example, Edward II (1307-1327) started a fad with his long then drying it in the sun. Another formula for dying the hair yel- curled hair, long curled beard, and large droopy curled mustache. low used honey and white wine, oil of cumin seed and saffron. It His son, Edward III (1327-77), looking much like Jesus, began a required keeping this formula on the hair for 24 hours, then trend throughout England and France, though in France the washing with lye and ashes of rye straw. beard was worn slightly shorter. In the mid 14th Century, false beards became popular in Spain, but were forbidden in territories Men usually wore the hair short, with member of the court ruled by Peter, King of Aragon. sometimes wearing hair curled, teased, or frizzed, with the ends curled under or up. A popular shoulder length and highly frizzed Soap becomes more common around this time, making shaving style, called "zazzera," was worn by men in Italy, and soon less painful, which likely increases its popularity. Near the end became popular in France and England, where it became known of the century, Richard II (Edward the III's son and Edward the as the "Florentine." In most cases, men's hair was short, with II's grandson), who ruled from 1377-99, wore a small beardlette the prototypical style of the 1400's set by Henry V (who ruled and mustache, a style that was maintained by professional bar- from 1413-1422 ACE). His "inverted bowl cut," with bangs ber-surgeons, who established professional societies in England across the forehead, and the ends straight or curled under, was (1308) and France (1371) in this century. popular throughout the century. In general, each successive ruler In France the beard goes out of style in 1422 partly because the in this century wore his hair slightly longer than the ruler before new ruler is too young to grow one. In England, in 1447 (during him, except in France, where Louis XI (1461-83) wore his hair the reign of Henry VI), men are forbidden to have mustaches, quite long. and are commanded to shave the upper lip every two weeks. This century, especially the second half, saw women and men of During this century, beards are worn infrequently, usually on the court increasingly embellishing them with paint. This is in older, men, and signify high status. When they exist, they are sharp contrast to the practices of common people. who wear lit- often as long and full as could be grown, and might be rounded, tle makeup (unless they are prostitutes). Courtesans commonly pointy, or two-pronged at the end. used cosmetics, with those in Venice famous for their painted In many ways, women's hairstyles in the 15th Century are a con- faces and heavy use of false hair. In France, upper class women tinuation and elaboration of those from the century before. The wash their hair once a week. Even King Edward IV, who had hair is still almost always parted in the middle and might be his own personal barber, was shaved only once a week, and straight or lightly waved. Married women in the 15th Century washed his head, legs, and feet infrequently, by our standards. wear a variety of interesting head covers, most of which only

35 Women at the court of Edward IV are known for their beauty, Unfortunately, women who had ruined their appearance with the with the beauty icon of the day the King's wife, Elizabeth use of ceruse just used more to cover up the damage. Some of Woodville, who he married in 1464 ACE. Her portraits depict the wealthiest women of the day ruined their skin and poisoned her with a high forehead and straight nose, small, slightly red- themselves, while women who wore ceruse during their preg- dened lips and very pale skin. Women of the court typically used nancy had children who suffered from lead poisoning. whitening powder or paste, and red on the lips. There was also Mercury sublimate, which was used to remove imperfections, some light use of kohl, made from lampblack (in most cases was likely to eat through the skin, as well. A common freckle burned frankincense). By the end of the 1400's, however, eye bleach, called "Tristam's Water," might contain a mercury deriv- makeup is no longer the custom. ative along with oil of bay, spices, lemon juice, and egg. Cosmetic practices varied both by country and era. Depending Firenzuola, and others who wrote at this time, counseled against on the period and status of the women, there were many varia- the use of products containing lead and mercury (and other tions in the wearing of "stibium,"39 a general term for colored "foul-smelling ointments and plasters"), recommending instead pigments used on the face, like rouge, and excluding white or barley water and lemon juice to cleanse the face. pink "paint" that was used like foundation. It was not uncom- In the early 1500's, women's hair might be loose or bundled, mon to have reactions to the paint, which might exacerbate the exposed or partly covered. Most married women covered their same skin problems it was designed to conceal. One formula for hair, which might be braided or twisted into hair rolls, coils, and alleviating skin problems brought on by bad makeup was buns, as well as strung with ribbon. In France and Italy, during asparagus root, anise, white lily bulbs, and milk provided by a the early part of the century, and in England, mid-century, donkey and/or a red goat that was then aged in warm horse women frizzed, teased, or rolled the hair so that it fluffed out at manure. This was applied with a piece of bread. the sides and/or forehead. Metal hairpins were used to keep There is a great love of luxury items, like cosmetics, among some of the more complicated styles together. members of the court, which increases sharply in the second half Two major figures influenced hair more than any others in of the century during the rule of Edward IV (1461-83 ACE). The the1500's: King Henry VIII (1491-1547) in the first half of the same is true in France, where Charles VIII dresses flamboyantly century, and Queen (1559-1603), in the second. At and painting by men becomes increasingly common. the beginning of the century, men's hair is usually cut in a long 16th Century (1500's) pageboy, and beards are uncommon. Wigs are worn by individ- Ladies of the court had used makeup in the 15th Century, but uals with thinning hair or balding, and a kind of wig, known as a common people were unlikely to. In the 16th Century members peruke or periwig, is worn by courtiers. of the court are more visible personalities, and their makeup Leaders, like celebrities today, were often responsible for chang- practices are copied by the commoners who see and hear about ing hairstyles. When the Emperor Charles V (1500-1558), for them. The beauty ideal for women is still a pale pink and white example, takes the throne in Spain, he is too young to grow a face, with cheeks that were fair and "glow like ivory"40. Cheeks beard. His courtiers, who do not want to appear manlier than might also be touched with vermilion. The height of the ideal their king, all shave their beards, except for some of the oldest forehead equaled half the width, and noses should be narrow and men. Many people are horrified at the beardless trend, suggest- appropriately sized, slightly upturned, and not ruddy. The mouth ing that the loss of Spain's beards is like the loss of its soul. In should be small and vermilion and the head should rest on a 1520's France, all the King's courtiers cut their hair to show their long, slender neck. Surprisingly, a slight double chin was desir- support for their king whose hair is burned in a fire, necessitat- able. ing a shorter cut. Professional beauticians specialize in providing advice regarding Henry VIII cosmetics. Everyone wants the smoothest most blemish-free In the early 1500's, beards were infrequently worn. It was not skin possible. Venice is the fashion capital of the time and the fashion, at least not among young men, and some places did Venetian women of the court form a league dedicated to the not allow entry to men wearing beards. An English inn, for development and testing of new cosmetics. White lead, known example, required its male guests to shave every two weeks. as ceruse, is commonly used to achieve a matte finish. Made of Later on, this same inn required the bearded to pay an extra fee lead carbonate or lead oxide, which might also be mixed with for dinner. In France, beards were forbidden at the Sorbonne, lemon juice or vinegar, ceruse was applied to the face, neck, and and the courts required men to shave off their beards before hav- chest (the bosom should also be pale). This substance was horri- ing their cases considered. bly poisonous and ruined the skin, but was preferred because of its light powdery texture and ability to cling to the skin. When Henry VIII took the throne, his hair was shoulder length, but he decided to try a shorter French style, worn by King The best ceruse was imported from Venice, and its danger was Francis I, of France. He then decided everyone should try the compounded by the fact that women rarely washed their faces, shorter French style, and commanded his courtiers to wear it. sometimes applying a new layer of paint over the one from the According to one history (Stow's "Annales") on May 8, 1535, he day before. This filled in wrinkles but was extremely toxic, and commanded members of his court to trim the hair on their heads had an obvious unnatural look. Women using ceruse looked old very short, as he had. Around the same time, he and the King of before their time, with rotted teeth and horrific breath. France had also decided together that they would not shave until

36 they met again, and Henry VIII grew a low, thin beard, which (beginning in 1558), a convenient point to begin the was also imitated by his court. The two men started a short hair Renaissance, as it ushered in period of personal freedom, espe- craze that lasted until the end of the century. While in England, cially for women, which was not seen again for many years. Henry VIII brought the beard back into favor, after which beards Makeup was widely used by courtiers, but was much less preva- of all shapes, sizes, and styles were worn. In France, Francis I lent among common people. During Queen Elizabeth's reign eventually shaved his beard, leaving a moustache, which then there was a revival of personal ornamentation among common- became a French fashion. ers, including the application of cosmetics, for a number of rea- By the 2nd half of the century, beards were worn by clergymen, sons: First, Queen Elizabeth herself wore heavy makeup, laymen, nobility and commoners, but they varied enormously. removing some of the taboo associated with the practice. Some were only appropriate for royalty, like one style, called a Second, court figures and fashions were more visible to common Fantail, worn by Henry VIII, in which the beard is coated in people than ever before. Elizabeth's reign condoned the wearing scented wax overnight and slipped into a bag. Short well-tended of paints by women of all classes, even though the Church still beards were very popular. Cut with precision, they were likely preached against it. to be curled, waxed, starched, or perfumed, as well. Beards might also be bleached or dyed. Red and yellow were the most There was a boom in the use of cosmetics and personal care popular colors for beards. products, such as the heavy powders and pastes worn by the Queen. Both expensive and cheap cosmetics might contain Some were carefully coiffed into certain shapes; others were dangerous, or even poisonous, ingredients, however. As dis- bushy and natural. Some were frequently washed, brushed and cussed earlier, many types of whitening makeup had very toxic combed, others grew wild. Some men let their beards grow as effects. The Queen's white powders and paints contained lead long as they would grow. In Germany, there was a fad of exces- and powdered borax, which eventually destroyed the Queen's sively long beards (reaching to the ground, in some cases), complexion. In later years, she would avoid mirrors, which which had to be wrapped around the body, or tucked in clothing. reflected the damage to her face and teeth, although she contin- In Austria, at this time, a man with an almost nine foot beard ued to wear the white face paint and vermilion cheeks she was tripped on it climbing some stairs, and was killed in the fall. known for. Beards were washed, brushed, and combed with special imple- In the 1st half of the century, rouge was used among elite ments, naturally shaped, sharply pointed, or forked at the end, women, but its color was very subtle. As rouge became more square or round, worn with a mustache and without. Beards prevalent and pronounced, many more women purchased a com- commonly signified religion, rank, or other affiliation with a par- mon formula using ochre, a fairly benign substance, mixed with ticular group. For example, Puritans commonly wore no mus- mercuric sulphide, a toxin. Of course no safety assurances were tache, with a long beard cut square at the end. Military men guaranteed with cosmetics, which might be created using any often wore a wide, square cut beard called "the spade." Barbers type of ingredient. One formula, for example, required pigeon also cut beards, like today, to complement the shape of a man's wings and claws, turpentine, flowers, honey, and eggs, as well as face. mother of pearl and musk. Not only did cosmetics have hidden Barbers had to keep up with all the different names for all the dangers, some women attempted to achieve a sickly pallor by different styles of beards. For example, there were many differ- eating things that made them ill. ent types of short, pointy beards. Some beards known by the There was plenty of makeup advice, at this time, but not always names of nations where they were first popular (French, Dutch accurate information. Beauty formulas were as likely to include Italian, etc.) The "Cathedral" beard was long and full, especially magic charms as contain toxic ingredients. Some recipes at the ends (often worn by religious leaders). The "Sugar Loaf" required a certain time of day or way of doing things. For beard was long and round, and tapered in at the ends. A forked example, a common type of prescription, recommended by the beard was known as a "Swallow Tail." physician of Catherine de Medici (the mother of future King of As commoners and nobility were spending much more time and France, Henry III) told her to pick peach blossoms wet with dew, attention on their hair, barbers became important members of and crush them with almond oil by moonlight, then apply for a society as well as court. The king's barber was an exalted posi- fair complexion. Other recommendations for women who want- tion, in intimate contact with the King, and available whenever ed smooth complexions but did not want to wear paint included the king needed cutting or styling. washing the face in one's own urine, rosewater and wine, or a concoction made with lemon rinds. One famous beauty of the Common men had hair and beards cut in public barber shops, day used only rainwater to wash her hair. establishments (some with live music) requiring a certain proto- col or level of dignified conduct. This was also a period where trade and commerce boomed, and England had access to many new, exotic ingredients. Edward de The Renaissance Vere, Earl of Oxford, introduced a number of makeup trends The Middle Ages evolved into a period called the Renaissance. from foreign places that utilized dyes made from berries and No specific event marks the end of the Middle Ages and begin- flowers, and two important reference and recipe books were ning of the Renaissance because the latter was not a time period published in the latter half of the century. One, "L'Embellisse- so much as a change in ideology and culture, affecting both art ment et Ornement du Corps Humain," written by a medical doc- and science. Some consider the reign of Queen Elizabeth tor, included many recipes for cosmetics and , hair bleach

37 and dye, and hair and skin care. The other, published at the very this time dried in front of the fire. Sitting in the hot sun was end of the century was meant to be purchased by the merchant thought to be responsible for a variety of maladies, including and craftsmen classes. It discussed how to manufacture personal nosebleeds, headaches, eye pain, or blindness. care products and cosmetics for use by the upper classes. Tall hairstyles were popular in the early and late part of the cen- Moralists continued to warn against the sin of pride and vanity, tury, while wide hairdos were popular in the middle years. Hair condemning the practice of using paint, but more and more might be curled, frizzed, and crisped (waved), and there was women were doing so. Even the nuns in Paris wore white pow- increasing use of artificial wreaths and borders on which to hang der and red rouge. the hair. Sometimes the hair frame was hung with a veil. Hair Some men were also using makeup, and, according to Church was often bolstered around the face, rolled over pads and turned leaders, male courtiers were too often peering at their faces in out. Mary Queen of Scots wore her hair in this type of "winged" the small mirrors most carried on their person. Vanity might be style. By the end of the century, hair was pulled over wire fram- tolerated in women, but makeup for men was seen as disgraceful ing to make it as full as possible in front. Glass and jeweled gold by many. The trend was epitomized by Henry III (1581-1589), and silver accents were also woven into the hair. King of France, at one time, the intended groom for Queen While there were a variety of men's hairstyles, most men wore a Elizabeth. He was known to wear heavy, plaster-like white version of the pageboy, usually brushing hair straight forward makeup, and covered his hair and clothes with violet scented from the crown early in the century, and brushing it back from powder. At night, he slept in a mask of flour and egg whites, the forehead in the latter part. By the 1590's, the short hair which were washed off in the morning using a plant from the phase was moving out, and fashionable men were growing the parsley family. He was also known to wear an earring and dye hair longer and even wearing lovelocks, a style from France in his hair. His heavy use of scent and makeup was extreme how- which, very much like the long braided tail that was popular in ever, and he was criticized for his effeminate practices. Differing the 1980's and 90's, a single long piece of hair was left uncut, to religious views (she was Protestant; he was Catholic), as well as hang down, sometimes curled or braided. sexual orientation, doomed the match. Men of all classes, from, soldiers to courtiers, were bearded, and The Church criticized women's styling of hair and makeup, some men spent a great deal of time and money perfuming or preaching that such practices were attempts to lure men into starching their beards, curling them, or dusting them with orris immoral conduct. Instead, according to the Church, love should powder. Most English clergymen were clean shaven, so when be achieved through a modest, gentle, simple, and fair demeanor, the Protestant Reformation began, Protestant priests grew beards rather than the wearing of hairpieces and makeup, or the use of to show their opposition to the . Elizabeth I re- magical words and potions that "enchanted" men. Queen instituted a tax on beards (originally established by King Henry Elizabeth, however, had a greater impact, inspiring women to VIII), during this period, to raise government revenue. dye their hair and wear wigs, as well as apply makeup. During Queen Elizabeth's time, soap was not used regularly, and Both Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots wore wigs; so many it was not uncommon to go a week without washing the hands. other upper-class women followed the fashion. In fact, it was Poor hygiene and sanitation, common to both the upper and quite common for elite women to purchase hair from common- lower classes, was typically addressed with the use of strongly ers (sometimes children) in order to make a wig. Hairpieces scented waters or perfume. Men and women of the court used a were also popular, and first in Venice, then, later, in other places, very heavy scent that was also used to perfume clothing, such as fake hair was held in place with a gummy material. Both hair gloves, and wore jewelry with containers for holding perfume. and hairpieces were worn powdered and frizzed. While cosmetics were condemned by the Church, perfumes were not. In fact, one of the most important perfumeries in Europe Blond hair, said to be Queen Elizabeth's natural color, was the was run by monks of the Dominican Brotherhood in Florence. most popular hair color, but different formulas and practices existed for making the hair many other colors as well. Red also Teeth in Elizabethan England were usually in very poor shape, became popular, as women dyed their hair red to match Queen with many suffering rotten or missing teeth. The prevalent wis- Elizabeth's wigs. Mixtures to dye the hair yellow or bleach it dom at the time was that washing the mouth out with water in often lightened the hair but stripped it of oils, causing weakness the morning was an acceptable practice, but to do it more fre- of the hair shaft. Women of all classes seeking golden tints from quently was a waste. A formula for whitening the teeth called for the sun were likely to dry their hair in its hottest rays, sometimes vinegar, alum, salt, and honey, which were to be vigorously rinsing it with a bleaching product, all the time hiding their faces rubbed on the teeth with a rough cloth. Another called for sage so not to darken the skin. and salt to be ground together, and then baked into a powder, which was to be rubbed on the teeth in the morning and evening. Upper-class women in Italy desiring blond hair used a mixture Some people felt that teeth should be cleaned regularly, but to of saffron, sulphur, honey, and alum to lighten the hair. Many whiten them with powder was an unmanly vanity. had small areas built on their roofs where they would sit, rinsing the hair with bleaching ingredients, then exposing their hair to By end of the16th Century, brows had become more naturally the sun for as long as possible. When it was very hot, they full, and the practice of "patching" was first seen. In this new might wear a straw hat with a hole in the center, pull the hair fashion, beauty spots, little pieces of material, like taffeta or though the hole and array it evenly around the head for maxi- leather, were stuck to the face in strategic places, to contrast mum bleaching ability. In the winter, the same procedure, but with the skin's whiteness or highlight a feature. This strange cus-

38 tom may have begun with the use of a plaster to relieve a gum and stuck to the face, both to conceal pimples and highlight toothache or headache, which then became a style on its own features, worn by both men and women. Known as the "Mark of Cosmetic patches were worn by both Henry III and Queen Venus," patches were all shapes and sizes. During the 1650's, Elizabeth, as well as their courtiers, by the end of the century. patches were cut in the shape of animals, or things, such as a 17th Century (1600's) coach and horses, and many times they took the form of stars, By the time King James I reigned early in the 17th Century crescents, and suns. The names of patches varied according to (1603-25), the style of long hair among men was becoming firm- location: those at the corner of the eye were called "passion;" on ly entrenched. Both James I and King Louis XIII, of France the cheek, "finery;" if by the nose, "boldness;" and, at the corner (who took the throne in 1610 and wore long curls), wore their of the mouth, "kiss." hair long, firmly establishing the fashion of long hair on men, a While most vestiges of these ancient times have long since style that lasted two centuries. Both fashion icons of the era, passed away, customs such as personal adornment, attention to each eventually began to wear hairpieces and wigs to cover thin- hair, and makeup have survived the generations and form the ning, balding, or short hair, as he aged, and the courtiers fol- foundation of the practice of cosmetology today. lowed. By Charles II rule, in the middle of the century, it had become the norm for nobility to wear wigs, even if one still had ENDNOTES & BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 http://www.stonepages.com/glossary.html one's own hair. 2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic 3 http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=34721 The Kings and the courtiers might also wear lovelocks, also 4 http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/121590798v1.pdf called "cadenettes"; often one on each side, but as many as five 5 http://www.quikshave.com/timeline.htm 6 www.depilatory.com/ages.html or six was possible. Fashionable upper class men's hair was 7 P 9, The Artifice of Beauty. also likely to be powdered, perfumed, and curled. The Church, 8 http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/middle_east/sumer_citizens.html; Tom B. Jones, "Sumer," Grolier Electronic Encyclopedia, 1993;Samuel Noah Kramer, Cradle of highly critical of love locks, curling, crisping, frizzing, coloring, Civilization, New York: Time Incorporated, 1969; World History, Volume One, St. Paul, and powdering, etc., warned that men were turning into women, MN: West Publishing Company, 1991; http://www.ee.ucl.ac.uk/~lheagney/mesopotamia/SUMER.html and should be ashamed to follow such practices. Some schools 9 http://history-world.org/sumeria,%20dress.htm and other institutions would not allow their students or members 10 www.depilatory.com/ages.html to wear long hair or accoutrements, such as curls, and powders, 11 Corson, c p 25 12 13 p15, The Artifice of Beauty. among other practices. 14 Richard Corson Cosme p 25 15 corson c p 27 James I wore a goatee and mustache that his personal servant 16 http://www.people.vcu.edu/~djbromle/portrait04/jithin/indusvalley.htm would starch and curl. Facial hair was often coated with wax, 17 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization 18 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreadlocks with one popular bearded style coming to a sharp point (called a 19 www.ourkarnataka stiletto) at the end. After the end of James I's rule, the preva- 20 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreadlocks 21 www.ourkarnataka.com/Articles/starofmy sore/barbers.htm lence of beards declined. By the middle of the century, wearing 22 www.gurjari.net/ico/Mystica/html/chudakarana.htm a beard was considered boorish. Mustaches, however, continued 23 http://www.kamat.com/indica/culture/samskaras/upanayana.htm 24 www.thehistoryof.net/the-history-of-cosmetics.html to be common. Many mustaches were treated overnight to main- 25 p 17, Artifice of Beauty tain their proper form and curl. 26 p 131 Sacred Luxuries by Lisa Manniche, Cornell University Press, Ithaca NY, 1999. 27 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt While the Church and others considered men's vanity even more 28 http://www.museum.upenn.edu/Greek_World/cosmetics.html 29 30 Corson, p 41 undesirable than women's, there were increasingly men who 31 Corson, p 51 habitually wore makeup and carried personal mirrors to check 32 Pointer, p 38. 33 Corson P 60 the condition of their cheek rouge, pink or peach powder, and lip 34 Corson, p 76. color. While it was considered effeminate and deceptive, it was 35 http://www.historyonthenet.com/Medieval_Life/feudalism.htm increasingly tolerated. In 1616, a minister wrote "A Treatise 36 37 Richard Mason, http://robotics.caltech.edu/~mason/Delusions/epd_beard.html 38 Corson p 81 Against Painting and Tincturing of Men and Women," condemn- 39 Corson, p 78. ing the practice of painting, noting that all of God's other crea- 40 Corson p 93 tures are satisfied with their appearance. • Corson, Richard, Fashions in Hair, Peter Owen Publishers, Great Britain, 1965. • Corson, Richard, Fashions in Makeup, Peter Owen Publishers, Great Britain, 1972. Women were still applying ceruse thickly to fill in wrinkles, • Manniche, Lise, Sacred Luxuries, Cornell University Press, Ithaca NY, 1999. some achieving an enameled look, with a sheen rather than a • Pointer, Sally, The Artifice of Beauty, Sutton Publishing Ltd., United Kingdom, 2005 matte finish. Rosy cheeks and lips were considered attractive, and a full lower lip was especially desirable (the look of "bee stung" lips). A moist rouge was often used on the lips and cheeks. At this point, cosmetics were used by all classes; with even servants able to afford red ochre and powder. Upper class women typically used bright apple red all over the cheeks, while lower class women used an ochre color. Neither style with sub- tle. The fashion of patches comes to full fruition in this century. These small pieces of black fabric or leather were coated with

39 CHAPTER 3 ny to continue to do business. Marketing is a creative, ever- Introduction to Marketing for changing orchestration of all the activities needed to accomplish Salon/Cosmetology Professionals both of these objectives. (3 CE Hours) The American Marketing Association's definition of marketing Objectives is: 4 Define "target marketing" and list two ways to segment The process of planning and executing the conception, a market. pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods, and 4 List the four key components of every marketing pro- services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and gram. organizational objectives. 4 Explain the benefits of preparing a Competitor and Issues Analysis. You see in the above definition that the process of marketing 4 List four items that belong in a Competitor and Issues begins with discovering what product customers want to buy. Analysis. Providing the features and quality customers want is a critical 4 Name and describe the "four P's" of marketing strategy; first step in marketing. You will be facing an uphill battle if you 4 Define "U.S.P." and explain its significance to market- provide something you want to produce and then try to convince ing. someone to buy it. 4 Distinguish between public relations and advertising. The marketing process then continues with setting a price, let- 4 List the five components of most print ads. ting potential customers know about your product, and making it 4 Define "customer-centered" marketing and explain its available to them. significance. 4 List the five critical points you should learn from a sur- Marketing activities are numerous and varied because they basi- vey of customers. cally include everything needed to get a product or service off 4 Describe six promotional strategies you can implement the drawing board and into the hands of the customer. Marketing in your business this year and how you will track your includes activities such as designing the product so it will be degree of success. desirable to customers (using tools such as marketing research and pricing); promoting the product so people will know about it To succeed, salon professionals must attract and retain a growing (using tools such as public relations, advertising, marketing base of satisfied customers. Marketing programs, although var- communications); and exchanging it with the customer (through ied, are all aimed at convincing people to try out or keep using sales and distribution.) particular products or services. Business owners should carefully plan their marketing strategies and performance to keep their It is important to note that the field of marketing includes sales, market presence strong. but it also includes many functions besides sales. Many people mistakenly think that marketing and sales are the same; they are The following chapter suggests marketing activities and strate- not. gies that the cosmetology professional can use to help develop his/her business. It defines marketing, explains some common Another way to describe marketing activities is to consider the terms related to the subject area, and introduces the following big picture of how they fit in with the other business functions. topics: • Through marketing efforts, decisions are made and v The Marketing Plan; strategies are implemented concerning: v Advertising and Public Relations; o What products (goods, services or ideas) are to be v Marketing Strategies You Can Use; offered; v A Legal Guide to Advertising. o to whom (the target market); and o How (how to inform potential customers of the 1 Introduction to Marketing offering, how to make the transaction, etc.) Marketing activities and strategies result in making products and services available that satisfy customers while making profits for Often, a marketing approach relies upon the coordination of sev- the companies that offer those products. eral business areas to be successful. As a result, marketing usual- ly crosses more departmental boundaries than other business Marketing produces a "win-win" because: functions do, out of necessity. So, marketing requires the orches- • Clients and customers have a product or service that tration of everyone who plays a part in the common goal of meets their needs; and pleasing the customer. Whether you are a small business owner • Healthy profits are achieved for the business or compa- or manager, an employer, or an employee, you have an important ny. (These profits allow the company to continue to do role in marketing strategies. business in order to meet the needs of future clients/customers.) What is Marketing? Marketing is based on the importance of customers to a business Stated another way: A focus on what the customer wants is and has two important principles: essential to successful marketing efforts. This customer-orienta- 4 All company policies and activities should be directed tion must also be balanced with the company's objective of toward satisfying customer needs; maintaining a profitable volume of sales in order for the compa-

40 4 Profitable sales volume is more important than maxi- on advertising. Good telephone book advertising is also mum sales volume. important. Direct mail is an effective, low-cost medium available to small business. To effectively employ these principles, a small business should: • Determine the needs of their customers through market Price - The right price is crucial for maximizing total rev- research; enue. Generally, higher prices mean lower volume and vice- • Analyze their competitive advantages to develop a versa; however, small businesses can often command higher market strategy; prices because of their personalized service. • Select specific markets to serve by target marketing; Location/Distribution - Working through established distrib- • Determine how to satisfy customer needs by identifying utors or manufacturers' agents generally is easiest for small a market mix. manufacturers. Small retailers should consider cost and traf- Market Research fic flow in site selection, especially since advertising and rent Successful marketing requires timely and relevant market infor- can be reciprocal: A low-cost, low-traffic location means mation. An inexpensive research program, based on question- spending more on advertising to build traffic. naires given to current or prospective customers, can often The nature of the product or service is also important in deci- uncover dissatisfaction or possible new products or services. sion-making. If purchases are based largely on impulse, then Market research will also identify trends that affect sales and high traffic and visibility are critical. On the other hand, location profitability. Population shifts, legal developments, and the local is less a concern for products or services that customers are will- economic situation should be monitored to quickly identify ing to go out of their way to find. The recent availability of problems and opportunities. It is also important to keep up with highly segmented mailing lists, purchased from list brokers, competitors' market strategies. For more information about mar- magazines, or other companies, has enabled certain small busi- keting research, see Elite's Introduction to Marketing Research. nesses to operate from any location, yet continue to serve nation- al or international markets. Marketing Strategy A marketing strategy identifies customer groups that it can better Marketing Performance serve than its target competitors, and tailors product offerings, After implementing a marketing program, entrepreneurs must prices, distribution, promotional efforts, and services toward evaluate its performance. Every program should have perform- those market segments. Ideally, the strategy should address ance standards to compare with actual results. Researching unmet customer needs that offer adequate potential profitability. industry norms and past performance will help to develop appro- A good strategy helps a business focus on the target markets it priate standards. can serve best. Entrepreneurs should assess their company's performance at Target Marketing least quarterly. The key questions are: Owners of small businesses usually have limited resources to • Is the company doing all it can to be customer/client- spend on marketing. Concentrating their efforts on one or a few oriented? key market segments - target marketing - gets the most return • Do employees ensure the clients/customers are satisfied from small investments. There are many methods used to seg- and leave wanting to come back? ment a market: • Is it easy for the client/customer to find what he or she Geographical segmentation: Specializing in serving the wants at a competitive price? needs of customers in a particular geographical area. For The Marketing Plan2 example, a neighborhood salon may send advertisements While you may never need every component of a formal market- only to people living within one-half mile of the store. ing plan, you will find pulling the required information together Customer segmentation: Identifying those people most in the format described is a valuable exercise that will provide a likely to buy the product or service and targeting those sound framework for your marketing decisions. Even if you do groups. not have the data to fill every information need outlined below, try to collect the most accurate, reliable information you can Segmentation by demographic variables: Characteristics about your business and its competitors. including gender, age, race, education, and income. A Marketing Plan: The Marketing Program Describes the Unique Products and Services You Provide: Every marketing program contains four key components: You may find it useful to develop a short description of the Products and Services - Product strategies may include con- unique solutions your business provides; i.e., its purpose. centrating on a narrow product line, developing a highly spe- cialized product or service, or providing a product-service Defines Your Target Market: This may be one of your most package containing unusually high-quality service. challenging tasks. Many companies find themselves overex- tended, trying to meet the needs of too many different types Promotion - Promotion strategies include advertising and of consumers or clients. Narrowing and targeting your ideal direct customer interaction. Good salesmanship is essential clients or customers will allow you to use resources more for small businesses because of their limited ability to spend efficiently.

41 Describes How Your Products and/or Services Will listen to; Benefit Clients or Customers: Why should your clients or • Qualities your customers value most about your product customers come to you? or service - selection, convenience, service, reliability, Considers How You Want to Position or Present Your availability, affordability; Products and Services: How do you want to be known? Your • Qualities your customers like least about your product positioning determines your market "niche," driving how and or service - can they be adjusted to serve your cus- at what price you will market your products and services. tomers better; Finish the statement: "I want my company to be known as • Prospective customers you are not currently reaching. ______." Define your plan and budget • Previous marketing methods you have used to commu- Considers Possible Marketing Channels and Strategies: nicate to your customers; Through what media and methods will you tell the public • Methods that have been most effective; about your products and services? Discuss the types of • Cost compared to sales; public relations, advertising, and/or other promotional pro- • Cost per customer; grams you will participate in or develop to market your prod- • Possible future marketing methods to attract new cus- ucts or services. Each part of the communication plan should tomers; be associated with a specific message, delivery method, and • Percentage of profits you can allocate to your marketing budget. Be realistic about your budget and resources, but campaign; always consider marketing a necessary investment in your • Marketing tools you can implement within your budget business. - newspaper, magazine or Yellow Pages advertising; Is Constantly Being Fine-Tuned: Revisit your plan and radio or television advertising; direct mail; tele-market- keep it current with updates that reflect changes in the busi- ing; public relations activities such as community ness or market over time. Also gauge your progress accord- involvement, sponsorship or press releases; ing to the specific objectives within your marketing plan, and • Methods of testing your marketing ideas; realistically evaluate your performance against those objec- • Methods for measuring results of your marketing cam- tives. paign; • The marketing tools you can implement immediately. A sound marketing plan should include all the data from any market research, as effective marketing, planning, and promotion The final component in your marketing plan should be your begins with current information about the marketplace. You may overall promotional objectives: to communicate your message, want to visit your local library, talk to customers, study the create an awareness of your product or service, motivate cus- advertising of other businesses in your community, and consult tomers to buy and increase sales, or other specific targets. with any relevant industry associations. Objectives make it easier to design an effective campaign and help you keep that campaign on the right track. Once you have A good marketing plan will help you define your business' goals defined your objectives, it is easier to choose the method that and develop a series of activities to meet those goals. Initially, will be most effective. your marketing plan may be a bit skimpy on details, but as your experience and knowledge base grows, you can revise and Part I: The Executive Summary3 update your marketing plan by filling in the gaps. Start by gath- The Executive Summary section of your marketing plan allows ering the following information: you to introduce your company and explain the major points of Define your business your plan "in a nutshell." •Your product or service; You will need to write it after the other sections have been writ- •Your geographic marketing area - neighborhood, ten, since it is a summary of their major points. Some of the key regional or national; points to cover are listed below: •Your competition; 1. Introduce your company by briefly describing the nature of • How you differ from the competition - what makes you your business and the products or services you offer. special; • If your business is already in operation, state how long •Your price; you have been in business and how long you have been • The competition's promotion methods; at your current location. Describe your business activi- •Your promotion methods; ties including sales and customers. Highlight your •Your distribution methods or business location. accomplishments and successes. Define your customers • If your business is not yet in operation, describe the •Your current customer base: age, sex, income, neigh- experience and training you have, that qualifies you to borhood; operate this type of business. Include similar informa- • How your customers learn about your product or serv- tion for business partners or key managers of the com- ice - advertising, direct mail, word of mouth, Yellow pany. Pages; 2. State your founding philosophy-often called a mission state- • Patterns or habits your customers and potential cus- ment-and company objectives. tomers share - where they shop, what they read, watch, • Mission statements are relatively abstract, such as "to

42 provide quality hair care for children." shrinking, or staying the same. If the size of your target • Company objectives are more specific, such as "to be market is changing, explain why. the child hair-care provider of choice in the Tri-County • Describe your target market in the following terms: area and to increase enrollment by 25% in 12 months." o Characteristics they share such as age, income 3. Introduce your management team. (This may be you-wear- level, sex, race, number of children, marital ing many hats!) status, where they live, etc. • Describe the organizational structure of your business. o Habits or hobbies they exhibit. For example, Is it a sole proprietorship, partnership, or corporation? your target audience may be women aged 18 • List key management. Include copies of their resumes to 55. What makes them a good candidate for in the supporting document's section. your products and services? • Disclose management and ownership, management o Wants and needs they have and how your assistance and training needs, and supporting profes- product fulfills them. For example, many hair sionals (such as a bookkeeper or lawyer). stylists offer appointments on the weekends • List the board of directors. and evenings to accommodate working women 4. Close the executive summary with a brief statement of the o Describe your market's buying habits. For main marketing objectives and strategies contained in the example, how do they spend their disposable plan. income? When do they buy? How much? How often? Part II: Assess Your Current Situation4 In the Current Situation section of your marketing plan, you'll Note: You may have more than one target market. Identify your provide information about your location, target market, and com- primary market - the customers who buy your products or serv- petitive environment. You will briefly describe the competitive ices most often. Then, include secondary groups if you feel they environment and key issues your company faces in this section; will provide significant business. For each group, you must iden- more detail is provided in the Competitor and Issue Analysis tify their characteristics, needs, etc. because you will most likely section. change your marketing strategy accordingly. Location Part III: Competitor and Issues Analysis 5 Describe your current or planned business location. The purpose of the Competitor and Issues Analysis section of • If you do not yet have a business location, name areas your marketing plan is to explain in detail the external chal- or properties under consideration and the criteria you lenges and opportunities your business may face. Even though will use in selecting a location. Consider customer preparation of the analysis will take time, it will be worth it. You proximity, parking availability, accessibility by public can benefit in a number of ways. transportation employee availability, inventory storage Benefits of Preparing a Competitor and Issues Analysis and movement, compliance with federal, state and local •You will discover your company's competitive advan- laws and codes (such as those for zoning, safety or tage-the reason customers do business with you instead health), security, and site expansion potential. of your competition. Then you will be able to commu- • List any negative aspects of your location that would nicate your competitive advantage effectively to win affect sales (such as a lack of sufficient parking) and try potential customers. to list solutions for such problems. Remember that no • Analyzing current issues and your competitors' offer- location is perfect- try to turn every negative around ings may spur ideas for innovative improvements to and make it work for you. your product offerings. • Describe any plans for the future expansion of your •You might find that there are some categories of cus- business. Do you intend to move? Will you offer addi- tomers whose needs are not being met in your location. tional goods or services as you grow? Will you hire An example would be to provide spa treatments in an employees? area not currently being served. If you can satisfy • Explain how services and products will be exchanged. unmet needs, you will develop a market "niche." Where will the contact occur? Describe the location and • By observing the actions of your competitors, you type of interaction. might learn more about your market. For example, does Target Market Description a successful competitor offer reduced prices during a Critical to your success in marketing any product is aiming all particular season? If so, what might that tell you about your marketing efforts at a target market. Planning your market- your market's spending habits? ing strategy without knowing to whom you're trying to appeal, is • If you find that your market is saturated with capable like planning a party without knowing anything about the people competitors, you can avoid the costly mistake of start- attending. ing a business without adequate demand. You can then • Describe the size of your target market. Remember, a redirect your efforts toward something that will pay off market is people with something in common, not a instead. (For example, your research may tell you that place or a thing. Be specific and include statistics about there are an ample number of thriving spas in your tar- the size of your target market. Include information on geted market area already.) whether the size of your target marketing is growing,

43 Competitor Analysis o Industry research and surveys; What to address in your competitor analysis o Computer databases (available at many public • Names of competitors - If you sell hair cutting and libraries); styling services and products, your competitors will o Annual reports; include other hair salons. However, you're also compet- o Yellow Pages. ing with products offered by grocery and drug stores Hint: Create a file for each competitor. As you run across things (shampoo, conditioner, etc…) as well as other items like their marketing literature, tips from sales people or cus- competing for consumers' discretionary funds. So, list tomers, or articles that mention them, place it in their file. Then, all of your competitors and include information on any when you're ready to conduct or update your competitor analy- that might enter the market during the next year. sis, you will already have some relevant resources. • Summary of each competitor's products - This sum- mary should also include their location, quality, adver- Issues Analysis tising, staff, distribution methods, promotional strate- Your business will face obstacles to success in addition to those gies, customer service, etc. posed by the competition. Much of the battle of overcoming • Competitors' strengths and weaknesses - It's impor- these external obstacles is understanding them, just as much of tant to see your competitors' strengths and weaknesses the key to benefiting from "lucky breaks" is being on top of from your client's and customer's viewpoint, not your developments and events that can be used to your advantage. viewpoint. List their strengths and weaknesses. State Identifying External Threats and Opportunities how you will capitalize on their weaknesses and meet Identify, and rank by order of importance, any threats or oppor- the challenges represented by their strengths. tunities your business may face from outside influences. Threats • Competitors' strategies and objectives - In most and opportunities come from a variety of sources including: cases, you will need to do some detective work or con- • The economic outlook of your market's economy -- duct an analysis of many information sources to under Are you starting your business in a healthy economy? If stand competitors' strategies and objectives. not, can your product still thrive? • Strength of the market - Is the market for your prod- • Product innovations -- How will changes made to uct growing sufficiently so there are plenty of cus- your products or those of your competitors affect you? tomers for all market players? Or, is the market so tight • Technological advancements -- What changes in tech- you are selling primarily to your competitors' cus- nology will impact you? tomers? (If so, you need to have a strong competitive • Environmental issues - Are your products and services advantage.) "green" or earth-friendly? Ideas for gathering competitive information • Government regulations -- What impact does comply- • Internet - A great deal of different kinds of reliable ing with government regulations have on your busi- (and unreliable!) information exists on the Internet ness? Is there any pending legislation that may impact • Personal visits - If possible, visit your competitors' you? locations. Observe how they interact with clients or • Barriers to market entry -- Are there high or low bar- customers. What do their premises look like? How are riers to market entry in your field? What would it take their products displayed? Priced? for a competitor to start a business in your field? What • Talk to clients and customers - You are in regular con- special knowledge, expensive machinery, etc, is tact with clients and prospects. Your competition is also required? in contact with these people. Learn what your cus- Internal Strengths and Weaknesses tomers and prospects are saying about your competi- Identify internal strengths and weaknesses of your company. tors-and about you, too! Your education, experience and reputation in your area of • Competitors' ads - Analyze competitors' ads to gain expertise are examples of strengths. A weakness might be lack information about their target audience, market posi- of supervisory experience, if you plan to manage employees. tion, product features and benefits, prices, etc. • Speeches or presentations - Attend events such as Summarize the Main Issues in an Issues Statement speeches or presentations made by your competitors. Finally, determine which issues are most significant and inte- • Displays and Presentations - View your competitor's grate them into an Issues Statement. Use your carefully display with a critical eye and from a potential cus- researched Issues Statement to establish your marketing objec- tomer's point of view. What does their display "say" tives and strategy. about the company? Even observing which industry Part IV: Marketing Objectives & Strategies 6 events your competitors attend, provides information on Meeting marketing objectives should lead to sales. (If not, you their marketing strategy and target market. need to set different marketing objectives.) They should: •Written sources: • Be clear; o General business publications; • Be measurable; o Marketing and advertising publications; • Have a stated time-frame for achievement. o Local newspapers and business journals; o Industry and trade association publications;

44 Examples of marketing objectives follow: Then tools or tactics might be: • Increase product awareness among the target audience • Advertise in appropriate magazines; by 30 percent in one year; • Distribute product samples to women in the age group; • Inform target audience about features and benefits of • Offer free hair product how-to seminars to women in your product and its competitive advantage, leading to a the age group. 10 percent increase in sales in one year; If your marketing objective is to: • Decrease or remove potential customers' resistance to Increase sales of conditioner to teens. buying your product, leading to a 20 percent increase in sales that are closed in six months or less. Then tools or tactics might be: • Distribute free samples or discount coupons at high If you have multiple objectives, make sure they are consistent school football games; and not in conflict with each other. Also, be sure that the remain- • Sponsor an event attended by teens. der of your marketing plan components-the marketing strategy, budget, action programs, controls and measures, etc.-support In your Action Programs section, you will describe the steps that your marketing objectives. need to be taken in detail, when they should be done, who will do them, and so on. Setting your marketing objectives and finalizing the remaining components of your marketing plan may serve as a reality check: Placement (Sales and Distribution) Do you have the resources necessary to accomplish your objec- In this section, describe how your products and customers tives? "meet" or come together through sales and distribution. Strategizing With the Four "P's" 7 Describe your sales philosophies and methods. Do you employ The marketing strategy section of your plan outlines your game an aggressive sales method for a large number of quick sales, or plan to achieve your marketing objectives. It is, essentially, the a relaxed method where the emphasis is on having customers heart of the marketing plan. The marketing strategy section feel comfortable to come back another time even if they don't should include information about: buy now? Do you use contract sales people or employees? • Product - your product(s)and services; Explain your approach to sales issues. • Price - what you will charge customers for products and Describe your distribution system. (Where will your product be services; placed so customers have access to it?) A few points about distri- • Promotion - how you will promote or create awareness bution to address in your marketing plan are: of your product in the marketplace; • Is the exchange of the product made in a store? In the • Place (distribution) - how you will bring your client's home? Through a direct sales representative? product(s) together with your customers. • What are your production and inventory capacities? Product Description (How quickly can you make products and how many A product can be a physical item, a service, or an idea. can you store?) • Describe in detail your products or services in terms of • Are there cyclical fluctuations or seasonal demands for the features and benefits they offer customers. your products? For example, if you offer , how • Describe what you need to have or do to provide your will you handle peak as well as slow periods? product or service (how it is produced). • Do you sell to individuals or to re-sellers? Your compa- ny may use more than one method. Pricing List the price of your products and describe your pricing strate- Part V: Action Programs 8 gy. List price ranges for product lines. For example, if your In the Action Programs' section of your marketing plan, you are product is a line of cosmetics, include information in this strate- basically developing a very detailed promotions "to do" list. It's gy section about your "ranging in price from $5.00 to a task list that describes what will be done, when it will begin or $15.00 per item" rather than a detailed product price list. be completed, who will accomplish the tasks, and so on. Describe any price flexibility or negotiating room, as is common The Action Plan picks up where the promotion plan leaves off. with large purchases such as houses or cars. Outline any dis- Whereas the Promotion Plan might state that your business will counts you offer for long-term customers, bulk purchases or participate in neighborhood promotions, the Action Program lists prompt payment. Also, include the terms of sale, such as "net the neighborhood events and their dates, which company repre- due in 30 days," extended payment plans, and whether you sentatives will participate, the results you expect, the marketing accept credit cards. tactics you will employ, and so on. Promotion Plan Action programs can be formatted in a chart, table, timeline or in A promotion plan describes the tools or tactics used to accom- any other way that makes sense to you. Programs can be plish your marketing objectives. grouped chronologically or by event types. For example, you could list all the activities planned in each month, or you could If your marketing objective is to: group similar activities, such as public relations activities, Create awareness of exciting new hair care products among together, regardless of when they'll occur during the year. women ages 18-55.

45 If your action plan becomes too lengthy, you might decide that Equally important, is establishing a realistic advertising budget. it's better to place some of the more detailed bits of information- By rule of thumb, it should amount to three to five percent of such as a media placement plan outlining where and when ads your annual revenues, although you will need to consider adjust- will run for an advertising campaign-in the supporting docu- ing up or down depending on the extent and spending levels of ments' section. your competition. This budget should cover any community sponsorships you may provide, as well as your advertising in Part VI: Your Marketing Budget 9 newspapers, magazines, Yellow Pages, newsletters, on radio and Estimate the cost of the marketing activities you have described television, by direct mail, and any other promotional avenues in the marketing plan so you will have a budget to keep every- you choose. one on track over the course of the year. Typical marketing expense categories are marketing communications, market Think like A Buyer research, promotions, advertising, events and public relations. If you're like most small businesses, you receive frequent calls and visits from advertising representatives, all with convincing Because marketing needs and costs vary widely, there are no stories. It can be confusing to try to compare and weigh the simple rules for determining what your marketing budget should advantages they cite. So to decide if a particular advertising be. A popular method with small business owners is to allocate a option is right for you, think the way a buyer does. small percentage of gross sales for the most recent year. This usually amounts to about two percent for an existing business. Think like a buyer, or potential buyer, to assess which media or However, if you are planning on launching a new product or publications connect you with the greatest concentration of peo- business, you may want to increase your marketing budget fig- ple you are trying to reach. Examine not only demographics and ure, to as much as 10% of your expected gross sales. Another geographics, but also the programming or the editorial style. Is method used by small business owners is to analyze and esti- your target market likely to watch this TV channel, listen to this mate the competition's budget and either match or exceed it. radio station, or read this magazine or newspaper? Are they like- ly to trust and respond to the advertising they find there? Does Avoid falling into the trap of spending "all you can afford," or the medium or publication cover the geographic area where your "as much as your competition." Your budget should be based likely customers are located, without including so broad a region on your goals for the coming year and your projected sales. A that you're paying mostly for exposure you do not need? Take rule of thumb for developing and advertising budget is spending the time to watch, listen and read for yourself. Know your media 10% of gross sales the first year in business, 7% the second year, firsthand, and get a feel for who their audiences are. and never less than 5% a year after that. Base the figure on pre- dicted future sales, using your knowledge of average annual Likewise, think like a buyer to figure out what would make peo- sales. ple buy from you, rather than from companies selling either the same products and services, or different ones that provide the Introduction to Advertising 11 same psychological benefit as yours. In short, arrive at what is At this very moment, there must be at least nine other companies called your "Unique Selling Proposition," or U.S.P. This is the competing for your customers. Some are in your line of busi- unique or special benefit to customers that sets you apart from ness, while others may be in an entirely different industry. But the competition. Your U.S.P. tells people the specific advantage all are trying to convince your customers to buy their goods or they receive if they buy from you. services instead of yours. You are ready for action when armed with knowledge of your How can you win sales in this competitive environment? One industry, market and audience; a media plan and schedule; your way is with advertising. And to understand how advertising product or service's most important benefits; and measurable works and how to obtain the best results, begin by targeting a goals in terms of sales volume, revenue generated, or other crite- buyer segment and marketing strategically to that particular ria. niche. This means determining who your existing customers are, and defining the target market you want to reach. The first step is to establish the theme that identifies your prod- uct or service in all of your advertising (branding). The theme of You also need to know what you are truly selling, which is prob- your advertising reflects your special identity or personality, and ably not only your product or service per se, but also an intangi- the particular benefits of your product or service. For example, ble concept such as status, self-enhancement, or peace of mind. cosmetics ads almost always rely on a glamorous theme. Many These have been called the "secret motivators" of sales. Once food products opt for healthy, all-American family campaigns. you determine the intangible benefit of your product or service, Automobile advertising frequently concentrates on how the car you will have a clearer sense of whom else offers that intangible makes you feel about owning or driving it rather than perform- and what advertising approach and image you need in order to ance attributes. compete successfully. Tag lines reinforce the single most important reason for buying Take into account target markets, the sale messages, the image your product or service. "Nothing Runs Like a Deere" (John and competitive environment. In your advertising approach, you Deere farm vehicles) conveys performance and endurance with a must determine your underlying objectives in running an adver- nice twist on the word "deer." "Ideas at Work" (Black & Decker tising campaign such as expanding the wholesale side of your tools and appliances) again signifies performance, but also relia- business or developing a more affluent clientele. bility and imagination. "How the Smart Money Gets that Way"

46 (Barron's financial publication) clearly connotes prosperity, intel- of the next three years? Appeal to younger or older buy- ligence, and success. ers? Sell off old products to free resources for new ones? What Advertising Can Do For Your Business • How much can you afford to invest? Keep in mind that • Remind customers and prospects about the benefits of whatever amount you allocate will never seem like your product or service; enough. Even giants such as Proctor & Gamble and • Establish and maintain your distinct identity; Pepsi always feel they could augment their advertising • Enhance your reputation; budgets. But given your income, expenses and sales • Encourage existing customers to buy more of what you projections, simple addition and subtraction can help sell; you determine how much you can afford to invest. • Attract new customers and replace lost ones; Some companies spend a full 10% of their gross • Slowly build sales to boost your bottom line; income on advertising, others just 1%. Research and • Promote your business to customers, investors and oth- experiment to see what works best for your business. ers. Fill in the Details What Advertising Cannot Do For Your Business • What are the features and benefits of your product or • Create an instant customer base; service? Next, and more difficult, determine the bene- • Cause an immediate sharp increase in sales; fits those features provide to your customers. How does • Solve cash flow or profit problems; your product or service actually help them? For exam- • Substitute for poor or indifferent customer service; ple, a great haircut makes a woman feel more confident • Sell useless or unwanted products or services. and attractive. Advertising's Two Important Virtues • Who is your audience? Create a profile of your best •You have complete control. Unlike public relations customer. Be as specific as possible, for this will be the efforts, you determine exactly where, when and how focus of your ads and media choices. A restaurant may often your message will appear, how it will look, and target adults who dine out frequently in the nearby city what it will say. You can target your audience more or suburban area. A computer software manufacturer readily and aim at very specific geographic areas. may aim at information managers in companies with •You can be consistent, presenting your company's 10-100 employees. A bottled water company may try to image and sales message repeatedly to build awareness appeal to athletes or people over 25 who are concerned and trust. A distinctive identity will eventually become about their health. clearly associated with your company, like McDonald's • Who is your competition? It's important to identify your golden arches. Customers will recognize you quickly competitors and their strengths and weaknesses. and easily - in ads, mailers, packaging or signs - if you Knowing what your competition offers that you don't, present yourself consistently. and vice versa, helps you show prospects how your product or service is special, or why they should do Advertising's Drawbacks business with you instead of someone else. Knowing • It takes planning. Advertising works best and costs least your competition will also help you find a niche in the when planned and prepared in advance. For example, marketplace. you will pay less per ad in newspapers and magazines by agreeing to run several ads over time rather than Arm Yourself with Information deciding issue by issue. Likewise, you can save money • What do you know about your industry, market and by preparing a number of ads at once. audience? There are many sources of information to • It takes time and persistence. The effectiveness of your help you keep in touch with industry, market and buy- advertising improves gradually over time, because cus- ing trends without conducting expensive market tomers do not see every one of your ads. You must research. Examples include U.S. Government materials repeatedly remind prospects and customers about the from the Census Bureau and Department of Commerce. benefits of doing business with you. The long-term Public, business or university libraries are also a good effort triggers recognition and helps special offers or option, as are industry associations, trade publications direct marketing to pay off. and professional organizations. You can quickly and easily learn more about your customers by simply ask- Preparing Your Advertising ing them about themselves, their buying preferences Design the Framework and media habits. Another, more expensive, alternative • What is the purpose of your advertising program? Start is to hire a professional market research firm to conduct by defining your company's long-range goals, then map your research. out how marketing can help you attain them. Focus on advertising routes complementary to your marketing Build Your Action Plan - Evaluating Media Choices efforts. Set measurable goals so you can evaluate the •Your next step is to select the advertising vehicles you success of your advertising campaign. For example, do will use to carry your message, and establish an adver- you want to increase overall sales by 20% this year? tising schedule. In most cases, knowing your audience Boost sales to existing customers by 10% during each will help you choose the media that will deliver your

47 sales message most effectively. Use as many of the same design features. Experts suggest the following above tools as are appropriate and affordable. You can tips: stretch your media budget by taking advantage of co-op - Select a unique border and use it in every ad advertising programs offered by manufacturers. - Use clip art Although programs vary, generally the manufacturer - Use one typeface for the headline and one for body will pay for a portion of media space and time costs, or copy. Use bold or large type for emphasis, rather mailer production charges, up to a fixed amount per than a different type of font. Above all, it should be year. The total amount contributed is usually based on readable. Avoid small type, and colors that make the the quantity of merchandise you purchase. words difficult to read. Leave adequate white space • When developing your advertising schedule, be sure to or background. Do not clutter your ad with too take advantage of any special editorial or promotional much information. coverage planned in the media you select. Magazines - Photos in many newspapers tend to print poorly. often focus on specific themes in each issue. You may prefer to rely on non-photo images. • In choosing a newspaper or publication, consider the Important Points for Print Advertising number of people in your target audience who read the If you are part of a small business, you probably spend the paper. Note the publications circulation statistics, largest portion of your advertising budget on newspapers. To get which are usually broken down by age, gender, income, the most out of your ads, consider the following steps: and other characteristics. Look for publications that • The most successful advertisers are consistent. If you reach the greatest number of people in your target audi- constantly change your approach, your audience will ence. Newspaper space is measured in inches per col- not recognize you. Plan ads around a central selling umn or lines per column. (One inch equals 14 lines.) message and consistent look. To help develop your "CPM" refers to the price or cost per thousand-how image or brand, consider the "unique selling proposi- much it costs to have the ad seen by 1000 people. tion" of your businesses. Ask "What does this business CPM is equal to the cost of an ad divided by the news offer that others do not?" Make that dimension a focus paper's circulation in thousands. If you buy a $200 ad in of your campaign. a newspaper with a circulation of 20,000, your CPM • Think about your current customers' gender, age, and would be 200 divided by 20, or $10 to reach 1000 read- income. Is it your target market? What are other iden- ers of the paper. If you buy a $300 ad in a paper with a tifying characteristics of this group? This is your circulation of 50,000, your CPM would be $6. By intended audience. Your ad should speak directly to the computing the CPM for each publication you consider, customer/client. Call them by name: "Discounts for stu- you can determine the best deal. Remember that an dents." inexpensive ad is no bargain if it reaches few people. • Advertising copy needs to be customer-oriented, •Avoid advertising on days when there are a lot of extra emphasizing benefits to the user rather than features. ads already in the paper (traditionally Wednesday and • Emphasize your unique selling proposition throughout Friday). the ad campaign. What is the one thing you want cus- • Repetition or frequency is one of the most important tomers to know about your business? Does it relate to aspects of successful advertising campaigns. It may price, quality, selection, or convenience? Make sure take months of consistent advertising to have an impact you pick the right services to advertise. The Newspaper on your target audience. Always choose frequency over Advertising Bureau suggests promoting your most cut- size: running many small ads over a period of time will ting edge services and products, your most profitable tend to have a greater impact than running a large ad services and products, your best values, services with less frequently. new value, and services typical of your salon or busi- • Position your ad carefully on the page. The optimum ness.12 location is on a right hand page, near the right margin, • Choose one objective for each ad and insure every part but above the fold line. Choose "preferred position" of the ad reinforces that objective. Use short phrases instead of "run of the paper ("ROP"). This means you and be specific: Write actual prices in ads choose a specific section, page, or location in the paper. • Confirm that the salon or spa name, location, phone • Use coupons to test different newspapers' effectiveness. number, and hours are correct. Note if credit cards are If you run the same ad in a number of papers, make accepted and the date of any sales. sure the coupons note which paper they were printed in • Use design to present an integrated image in all your so you can determine what most of your clients are ads. They should use the same type and size of font, reading. layout, and images. Recognition of your ads should be easy and immediate. Using Other Promotional Avenues •A budget approach to advertising might include the • Advertising extends beyond the media described above. development of a template or "shell" by an artist that Other options include imprinting your company name can be reproduced over time with a different headline, and graphic identity on pens, paper, clocks, calendars illustration, copy, or logo, but maintain many of the and other giveaway items for your customers. Put your message on billboards, inside buses and subways, on

48 vehicle and building signs, on point-of-sale displays believable; and shopping bags. - Can also create image, but can sometimes stray from •You might co-sponsor events with nonprofit organiza- how it was originally intended; tions and advertise your participation; attend or display - Writing style relies heavily on journalism talents - any at consumer or business trade shows; create tie-in pro- persuasion is artfully inserted in the fact-based content. motions with allied businesses; distribute newsletters; Six Essentials Of A Successful Ad Program conduct seminars; undertake contests or sweepstakes; If you are new to advertising, or if you are using media or publi- send advertising flyers along with billing statements; cations you have not tried before, you will probably want to use telemarketing to generate leads for salespeople; or assign your ads to outside specialists rather than try to create develop sales kits with brochures, product samples, or them yourself. These specialists may be the creative group at an application ideas. advertising agency, a freelance writer and designer, or the ad • The number of promotional tools used to deliver your department of the newspaper, magazine, TV channel or radio message and repeat your name is limited only by your station where you plan to advertise. Such people are experienced imagination and your budget. in translating information about a product or service, target mar- Some promotional strategies rely on public relations; others rely ket, U.S.P. and advertising goals into advertising that suits each on advertising. The Institute of Public Relations defines public medium and conveys an effective image and sales message. relations practice as the planned and sustained effort to establish Moreover, it's extremely helpful to work with and learn from and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an specialists for several years before you consider doing advertis- organization and its publics. Public relations is not limited to ing in-house. certain media, and it is not focused on promoting products or Consider freelance writers and artists who work on a per-project services. Instead it is the use of any media, including TV and basis at a smaller fee than you would pay an advertising agency. print advertising, to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual Some sources for freelance assistance are local advertising clubs understanding between an organization and its public. or trade associations, your Chamber of Commerce, the advertis- Comparing Advertising and Public Relations 13 14 ing, journalism or art department at a local college, or ask local Advertising printers. "Adweek Magazine," for example is a regional journal - Space or time in the mass media must be paid for; that includes a directory of freelancers. - You determine the message; Whether you work with specialists or create advertising on your - You control timing; own, here are six guidelines to follow in developing an ad pro- - One-way communication - using the mass media does gram: not allow feedback; 1. Do your homework. Start compiling your own ad file. - Message sponsor is identified; Collect ads you like, to give you ideas, as well as ads - The intention of most messages is to inform, persuade, run by your competitors, so you can monitor what they or remind about a product - usually with the intention are doing. Read books on advertising, including of making a sale; anthologies of the best ads of the year, how-to's by - The public may view the message negatively, recogniz- advertising greats. ing advertising as an attempt to persuade or manipulate 2. "Sell the sizzle, not the steak." The old rule about sell- them; ing products based on the benefits and excitement they - Very powerful at creating image; provide has proved true time and time again. So focus - Writing style is usually persuasive, can be very cre- on your U.S.P. -- and on those intangibles that motivate ative, often taking a conversational tone - may even be human behavior and generate sales. This rule does not grammatically incorrect. apply to Yellow Pages ads, which do sell steak, but it Public Relations remains the essence of all other advertising you do. - Coverage in mass media, if any, is not paid for; 3. Stick to your own image and personality. Stay with the - Interpretation of the message is in the hands of the basics of who you are. Make sure that the personality media; and image projected in all your advertising rings true. - Timing is in the hands of the media; 4. Work as a team with your ad rep or ad agency. The best - Two-way communication - the company should be lis- advertising results from a synergy of your expertise in tening as well as talking and the various PR venues your business and your ad specialists' expertise in often provide immediate feedback; advertising. Carefully explain your product, market and - Message sponsor is not overtly identified; goals, and let the ad people go from there to develop - The intention of public relations efforts is often to cre- their ideas. Advertising is a give-and-take process, and ate good will, to keep the company and/or product in both sides need to communicate and work together, front of the public, or to humanize a company so the without dictating, until the outcome feels right. public relates to its people or reputation rather than 5. Give each advertising medium you choose a fair test. viewing the company as a non-personal entity; Advertising rarely brings sales overnight. Run your ad - The public often sees public relations messages that at least five times -- or at least two months in weekly have been covered by the media as more neutral or publications -- to test out the market properly. Often,

49 consumers need to get used to seeing your ad before sions stipulated by the publication. It is best to study the ads in they will act on it. Results take time. that publication in advance, and consider what your ad might 6. Don't overlook current customers. Nobody sells you look like in order to stand out on the page. Experiment with dif- better than a satisfied customer. So in your efforts to ferent layout ideas rendered in thumbnail sketches, and then gain sales from new prospects, remember that you can fine-tune your ad to fit the layout you prefer. Obviously, it is build sales equally well through the customer referrals highly advisable if not imperative, when you are doing ads in- and repeat purchases of existing clientele. Maintain a house, that the person composing your ad has design experience. mailing list and, at your earliest opportunity, start pro- Not only is skill required to make an ad look right, but the quali- ducing sale notices, newsletters, catalogues, or other ty of your ad must compete favorably with others appearing in goodwill and sales-generating materials for the cus- the publication. tomers you already have. Some of these items lend It is also a good idea to prepare your ad well ahead of the dead- themselves to a direct mail campaign targeted at new line. This way, you can put it aside for a few days and then prospects as well. review the ad with a fresh perspective while there is still time to What's In an Ad make revisions. Print ads generally have four written parts -- headline, support As a final check, lay your ad on a page of the publication where copy, call to action, and company name -- plus a visual. Spend it will appear and make sure it stands out from the articles and time developing the headline and support copy. It has been esti- other ads on the page. mated that about 60-75 percent of an ad's effectiveness is associ- ated with the headline and visual. Visuals are usually more Avoid These Pitfalls important than copy because they're more effective in attracting Perhaps the greatest obstacle to good advertising is excess. Ads readers' attention and can instantly present your product or serv- can end up so crammed with ideas and features that they appear ice in a dramatic and motivating way. Unless you are commis- dense and uninviting. If over-designed, they can be more artistic sioning your own original artwork or photography, the visuals than motivational, obscuring the sales message. If over-written, you will use, will probably be either drawings and photographs they can become over-subtle or over-cute. Certainly, some of the from your suppliers, or non-copyrighted artwork (clip art) found best ads ever created are clever and visually arresting; but good in clip-art books and scrap-art computer programs. So choose ads must also sell. the strongest visual among them -- the one that best draws the Similarly, selling points may over-promise. Use "largest," "best" eye and explains what you are selling -- and move on to copy. and other superlatives only if you can back them up. Avoid any The most prominent piece of copy -- your headline -- must not claim that could be construed as deceptive. only work with your visual, amplifying its meaning, but also In addition, make sure the overall tone of your ad is upbeat and attract attention with a word, phrase or sentence announcing a appealing. Emphasize the solutions you provide, not the prob- benefit that appeals to your target market. One expert wrote that lems you address. And get outside opinions on your new adver- a headline is that final, mind-changing, sales-clinching comment tising concepts to be certain they carry the personality and mes- you would make when leaving the office of a prospect who, sage you intend. until then, had responded with nothing but negatives. Others point to the enduring effectiveness of the standard headlines Tracking Your Results "Sale," "Free" and "Buy now and save." Collect ideas that are Establish a method to determine how customers found you, and right for you from people you know, from the ads in your file, keep track of the results. Some companies routinely ask "How and from advertising books. And remember, it is not so much the did you hear about us?" when new customers phone or visit. words, but the ideas they express, that sell; determine your mes- Others have a "Referred by" box filled in on each invoice. sage, then find words to convey it. Whatever system you use, unless you've done a coupon promo- Below the headline, support copy explains the headline premise tion and can simply count the number of coupons redeemed, and adds secondary benefits or any assurance readers might need tracking is the only way you can assess how effectively your to dispel suspicions raised by the headline, such as the assurance advertising is working. Tracking tells you which ads or media of "same great quality" when you're offering a "new low price." bring inquiries and which bring sales -- a key distinction. If you Following this copy, as a sign-off, is a call to action urging the track by invoice, you can also determine how much revenue reader to respond ("Call for an appointment today," or each ad dollar is producing. "Remember, sale ends March 21"). Most importantly, tracking helps you decide how to readjust Your company name, traditionally at the bottom of the ad, your advertising program periodically to make your budget work should include your address and phone number. Make your its hardest. You'll know when to discontinue certain media and phone number larger to help stimulate response by phone. Add a publications and when to pump more money into others. You'll cross street to your address (e.g., "5730 Sheridan, at La Monte") be able to see which Yellow Pages directories and headings pull if you are a new business or if, for other reasons, people might hardest for you. And you'll know when results are dropping off have difficulty finding you. from previously good sources, signaling that it's time to give them a rest. The next step is to combine all these visual and copy elements into an eye-catching, easy-to-read ad formatted to the dimen-

50 In the end, advertising is a trial-and-error process. You may need o Full range of product line; to spend several years trying out various advertising options and o Location (with maps, when helpful); assessing results to know the target markets and media mix that o Business hours; work best for you. o Special features such as parking, credit cards honored, discounts, licenses, guarantees, delivery How to Create an Effective Yellow Pages Ad policy and emergency services. Yellow Pages ads resemble no other kind of advertising. They're • Try to get your ad placed in the most prominent not aimed at motivating consumers to buy a product, but rather position possible under each heading. If positions are at convincing them to buy a desired product from a particular assigned on a first-come-first-served basis, it's advanta- company. Because companies attract business by showing they geous to finalize your contracts with Yellow Pages pub- have got whatever consumers want, Yellow Pages ads also tend lishers as rapidly as possible. to be full of brand names and information. Improving your Existing Yellow Pages Advertising 15 The first thing your ad must do is get itself read. Here, your suc- When consumers pick up the Yellow Pages to help them make cess depends in part on which Yellow Pages directory (or direc- purchase decisions, they are often not looking for a particular tories) you choose to place your ad. The bottom line is to get the business name, nor will they subsequently walk into an advertis- greatest amount of exposure. So compare competing directories er's place of business and say, `I'm here because I really like on the basis of their usage figures -- not their distribution fig- your phone number.' So rather than emphasizing a name and ures, but the number of actual consumer uses per year. If you phone number, advertisers should be highlighting key selling then divide directories' uses-per-year figures by their charge for points - instead of treating such information as incidental. The the same size ad, you will see which directory provides the high- historical emphasis in this medium on attracting attention has est number of uses per dollar. That is the directory that delivers often been to the exclusion of communicating a marketing mes- the best value for your money. sage. Another key factor determining whether your ad will be read is Most small business owners, who comprise the primary Yellow the size of ad you decide to buy. Obviously, the larger the ad, the Pages customer base, don't think that much about their ads until more attention it gets. Once you select the heading or headings the sales representative calls. Few other critical business deci- under which your ad will appear -- and they should be headings sions are made with so little time and analysis, even though for for the products and services that give you the greatest prof- many entrepreneurs, the Yellow Pages is their only or primary itability -- open to those headings and see what ad sizes your means of advertising. Instead, Yellow Pages advertising should competitors have. You can then choose ad sizes larger than be an ongoing process that takes place throughout the year. theirs, on par with theirs, or smaller than theirs -- depending on Owners should ask themselves, `what is it that I want to say?' budget constraints and the competitive stance you want to take. rather than simply `what size do I want to be?' Deciding on the Once you have decided on directories, headings and ad sizes, appropriate message to put across, and acquiring enough infor- concentrate on creating an ad that both attracts attention and mation to make this and the other decisions involved, takes time. stimulates customer response. Experts such as Jeffrey Price, The three critical areas in which entrepreneurs should acquire author of "Yellow Pages Advertising: How to Get the Greatest information are your business, your competitors and your cus- Return on Your Investment," say you can achieve those results tomers. by including the following in your ad: The first area should be easy because you know your business • Attention-getting artwork. Artwork is the greatest and live it on a daily basis. However, you must ask yourself eye-catcher for an ad, after size. You can use visuals what you want to accomplish. Do you want to grow? Are you from your suppliers or non-copyrighted artwork. Stick satisfied with maintaining the status quo? Determining the with illustrations whenever possible, since photographs answers to long-term questions such as these, and being as well may reproduce poorly. And keep areas of blank space prepared as possible before you meet, will enable your Yellow around your artwork, and throughout your ad as well, Pages sales representative to better serve you in the consultative so your ad is uncluttered-looking and easy to read. capacity of planning your advertising program. • A headline that says what makes you special. Identify the special or unique characteristic that, for your target In terms of competitors, small business owners have a tendency customer, puts you ahead of the competition. Write a to think that they compete with everyone in their heading. In short, to-the-point headline stating that advantage. If fact, taking attorneys as an example, you can see by looking at your headline must focus on just one of your products the ads that they project different images, and specialize in dif- or services, choose the one that is most profitable. ferent areas of the law. So it's important to first eliminate non- • Complete information buyers need to make a pur- competitors in your heading and hone in on those who directly chase decision. Your ad must convince buyers that you compete for your current and potential customers. are the best source for what they need. So support your In addition to determining what distinguishes them from the headline with information, usually presented in list competition, entrepreneurs should think about how customers form, about your: are likely to shop for their product or service in the Yellow o Reliability (e.g., years in business); Pages. In some instances, such as ordering pizza or in a plumb- o Authorized products and services; ing emergency, the key is being called first - it's a one-shot deal.

51 However, in other purchase situations, the key is being what I Using Color call `part of a consideration set, in that potential customers are The Yellow Pages medium is changing significantly in terms of likely to make several calls before reaching a decision. This has the number of products now being offered. By including differ- important implications in terms of how you should advertise in ent colors, white knock-out ads and process color photographs, the Yellow Pages. these features provide more options for advertisers than ever before. However, historically, whenever a new product is intro- Just as business owners may overestimate the number of com- duced, everyone - including the Yellow Pages rep doing the sell- petitors they confront in the Yellow Pages, many entrepreneurs ing and the advertisers doing the buying - thinks in terms of how assume they sell to everyone rather than to a specific target mar- it will attract attention. Instead of just gauging how a particular ket, The business owner should be able to define existing cus- feature will help them stand out, business owners should deter- tomer demographics, income level, and product or service bene- mine how they can use these new options to enhance communi- fits sought. And they should also be able to define the type of cation of key marketing messages. customers they are trying to attract. Color should be used purposefully in the Yellow Pages, and do An example is a small business owner who told his Yellow more than simply highlight the company name or border of the Pages sales representative that he wanted to cut the size of his ad. First determine what you want to communicate, and then display ad. "I'm not getting the kind of calls I want," he com- decide if using color will better help you do so. plained. "I want quick in-and-out jobs that involve a minimal amount of equipment and time, rather than being asked to add a Color should be considered in conjunction with the overall second story or remodel a kitchen. My classified ad does a much impression a company wants to project through its existing better job of getting the kind of customer I want." And the rea- graphic elements -- including signs, business cards and trucks. son? The advertiser's classified ad stated "we will do the small An advertiser already has a lot invested in a visual identity, and jobs you don't want to do," while his Yellow Pages display ad should use Yellow Pages advertising as another element to carry boasted "no job too large or too small." This is a clear case of through the established theme. If your colorful store sign is well really thinking about the message he wanted to convey in the known, for example, one option is to portray it in color. former instance, while being off target with the message in his Entrepreneurs may want to highlight important selling points Yellow Pages ad. that distinguish them from competition, such as breadth of prod- uct line or extended hours of operation. In designing their Yellow Pages ads, many advertisers make judgments based solely on what they personally like, and instead Whether we are aware of it or not, color affects us subconscious- of showing several versions to customers to ascertain their pref- ly, and can be very effective in evoking feelings and emotions. erences. What we think is far less important than what our cus- It should therefore be consistent with the message an advertiser tomers think. AYellow Pages ad is an investment. Once it's out is trying to convey. Blue, for instance, typically does not go well there, it's out there for one year. So why not get customer feed- with eating as -- other than blueberries and the requisite tourist back before the ad runs? This does not involve sophisticated drink in Hawaii -- there are no blue foods. It's not in our realm research. Just asking your customers a few questions and observ- of familiarity, and is simply not inviting in that context. So while ing their reactions can provide very useful information -- and at blue would not work well for a restaurant ad, it would be appro- no cost. priate for a diet center -- which is trying to encourage a disincli- nation to food. If business owners feel uncomfortable with the ad designs sug- gested by their Yellow Pages sales representative, you might However, blue, which subconsciously implies security and sta- want to use the services of a graphic designer, or an advertising bility, would be an excellent choice for a bank or an attorney. In firm that specializes in creating ads for this medium. addition, because of its connotation with water, it would be an obvious choice for a pool service, or for a company marketing a It is important to set up an advertising budget before talking with product positioned as cool or refreshing -- such as air condition- the Yellow Pages sales rep. The most common method is to cal- ers. In the same vein, green is a relaxing and calming color culate advertising expenditures as a certain percentage of sales, (ideal for a therapist or a retirement community), while red although that figure may need to be adjusted based on what the evokes a stimulated psychological response. People tend to eat competition is spending, as well as other factors. If you are and spend more in a red environment, so it's great for restau- uncertain what to allocate, trade associations can provide recom- rants. mendations, and you might also network with other businesses of similar size or product/service scope. But by all means, do not One inclination to discourage is the "since I'm paying, I might as go into the meeting with your sales rep without a definite dollar well use all the colors" approach. Red, blue and green combined figure in mind. have a carnival connotation, implying fun and festivities. This is perfect for a party supply company or a bus charter operation, Treating your Yellow Pages display ad like real advertising is the but inappropriate for a financial planner or a convalescent home, key. Attracting attention is only part of the concern. Having a for example. The important thing is to focus in on what is best message that is right for your target market and right for your for a particular ad, and use color to emphasize key selling points business is just as important. It takes some planning, but it is or strengths about a business. well worth the investment of time.

52 With the advent of process color in the Yellow Pages, which Marketing-oriented companies, on the other hand, see their pri- allows advertisers to incorporate full-color photographs, entre- mary job as attracting and keeping customers by satisfying cus- preneurs can be even more creative in conveying what makes tomer needs. They are externally focused, concentrating more on their business special. "However, rather than showing the build- customers than on internal benchmarks such as productivity. ing exterior or the face of the owner -- a common portrayal that They measure success in terms of increased gross revenues and is not necessarily the best use of space -- advertisers should con- market share, not profit margins. In addition, they move quickly centrate on what sells the business. A restaurant, for example, to provide new products and services once the need for them has could highlight its interior and the atmosphere it offers patrons, been identified. while a photographer could visibly demonstrate the kind of work A Note about Customer Service 18 in which he specializes." The Golden Rule, "do unto others as you would have them do There are times when incorporating a photograph of the business unto you," may seem self-evident in the way we try to conduct owner is appropriate; if he or she is a well-known presence in our personal lives. Yet this axiom is assuming new importance the community, if the interaction with customers is likely to be a as a guiding principle in the world of business. close one, or if the owner wants to project a warm and inviting The time when customers blithely traded away high-quality image, a photo could be helpful. However, owners should not be service in exchange for price reductions or convenience is no caught up with the implicit ego aspect involved, and must be more. Instead, customers are demanding service again. And sure they have a good reason to use their advertising space this companies of all sizes are realizing that their strongest selling way. A photo can be tricky and either work for or against you, point can sometimes boil down to treating customers as they so advertisers need to be very careful in terms of what they would like to be treated -- or better. "Consumers are beginning select. For example, an unflattering photo or one that shows a to feel that their needs have not been met," explains Bonnie dated hairstyle or clothing can be deleterious for both the owner Jansen of the U.S. Office of Consumer Affairs. "They are sick of and his business. Conversely, a shot showing an ethnically getting poor service all the time." diverse office staff sends out a clear message without spelling it out. For these reasons, it might be wise to show the photo being And the message is getting through. In the past few years, com- considered to really candid friends and colleagues to gauge their panies began to realize that service was really competitive factor, reaction. and began to view it as an integral part of their product. "Color is just another means of communication," Rosen con- The growing significance of meeting -- or exceeding -- customer cludes. "The question is not whether or not to use it, but how demands for quality service has special implications for small best to do so to project effective marketing messages to your tar- business. For it is in this arena that small companies can, in the get audience. And if everyone else is using color, but you use it least expensive way, set themselves apart from the competition. more effectively, you win." In fact, a recent three-year study by the National Federation of Independent Business (NFIB) in Washington, D.C., showed that Marketing Ideas 16 17 small businesses which put heavy emphasis on customer service Ideas about marketing have changed dramatically during the past were more likely to survive and succeed than competitors who several years. The current style focuses on developing a service- emphasized such advantages as lower prices or type of product. oriented business dedicated to solving customers' problems. It is "A strong customer ethic must guide your business from the sometimes called "customer-centered" marketing, and it is not as inception," writes author and business owner Paul Hawken in his simple as it sounds. For one thing, providing customers with real book, Growing a Business. "No matter whether you manufac- solutions requires a good deal of research and insight. Yet busi- ture, grow, produce, distribute or sell, you are 'in service.'" nesses too often adopt a quick-fix response convenient for them and call it customer-centered. In short, mere lip service to cus- Quality customer service begins with your employees. An owner tomer support is not enough. Companies must truly look beyond of a successful chain of hair salons advises that the first step is their internal considerations to focus squarely on their target to quality customer service set standards. Then make sure every- audience. one in the company understands them. Finally, he says, reward employees for achieving your service goals. And be sure to seek The other challenge in customer-centered marketing is that it out and solve any annoyances they might have that could lead to must also be competition-centered. The only way to "pry cus- poor morale. An employee with a complaint cannot be complete- tomers loose" from your competitors is to offer better solutions ly effective in dealing with customers. "If you take care of your than they do - and exploit new markets or new opportunities employees, they will take care of your customers." your competitors have not thought of. And that means being constantly aware of what the competition is doing. On the other hand, Hawken warns, if your employees are not customer-oriented, no standards or goals will change that. "We A further hurdle is that many firms are simply not marketing-ori- concentrate on hiring people who embody the quality of service ented. Where does your company stand? A key sign of problems for which we strive. It is difficult to teach someone to be helpful is that businesses have no established marketing plan, taking and serve others if he or she is misanthropic to begin with." action only when sales lag. Moreover, they balk at spending money for marketing yet expect big results from small-budget, Hiring the best people means trusting them. Your employees amateur advertising materials that simply imitate the competi- should be able to do what is necessary to make the customer tion.

53 happy without fear of reprisal. Says Hawken, "Policies and pro- To succeed, you must give your customers what they want, not cedures are helpful only as guides toward an end result. When what you think they want. And as you never know who might employees run out of possibilities to make the customer happy, eventually become a customer, that means providing courteous, they must have the latitude to improvise to make it right. Most friendly service to all with whom you come in contact, as well employees operate in a state of fear that their own generosity as current customers. If you want to keep customers coming with a customer will be viewed as foolishness by their boss. This back for more, practicing the Golden Rule has never made better situation will stifle flexible customer service." business sense. In the smartest companies, asking questions and listening care- Critical to keeping customers happy is understanding them and fully to the answers is an important part of customer service. the way they think. For example, customers do business on the These firms train their employees to focus on what the customer basis of emotional desire: they want what they want, when they is saying, and then tailor products or services to meet customer want it. Customers also tend to gravitate toward a company or needs. Says one corporate executive and his words hold true for group of people they like. Plus, most customers have a strong smaller firms as well, "Knowing what's on the customer's mind tendency to stick with businesses with which they are familiar, is the smartest thing we can do." and are slow to change buying habits unless given a very good reason. It is also cheaper than attracting new customers. According to the Customer Service Institute, 65% of a company's business However, when they are displeased, even by a small disappoint- comes from existing customers, and it costs five times as much ment or discourteous word, various surveys have revealed that to attract a new customer than to keep an existing one satisfied. customers tell from seven to 11 people about their dissatisfac- tion. Losing a customer is even more expensive. According to studies by the Technical Assistance Research Programs Institute, 91% of An important key to serving customers well is this: don't try to unhappy customers will never buy again from a company that change them. Here are five specific steps to help you take full has displeased them and will also voice their dissatisfaction to at advantage of the critical element of customer care: least seven other people. • Conduct your own survey. Profit from the ideas, sug- gestions and complaints of your present and former This responsibility to be receptive does not lie solely with your customers. Talk and meet with your customers. Ask employees, however. If you want your business to be successful, questions. Learn their attitudes, what they want and you must listen to and talk with customers as well. There is no what they dislike. substitute for getting out "where the action is" to learn from the • Check employees' telephone manners periodically. This customers themselves how you might serve them better. The best link is particularly important for small businesses, as business owners are not only committed to staying close to their bad telephone handling can undermine other construc- clientele, but also identify with them. They give their customers tive efforts to build a profitable enterprise. the level of service they themselves would expect to receive. • Rules such as prompt answering and a cheerful attitude Moreover, a good relationship with customers necessitates pay- of helpfulness are of critical importance. Have someone ing attention to every link in the distribution chain. That means whose voice is unfamiliar play the role of a customer or listening to everyone who helps your business and asking them prospective customer, preferably a difficult one. for suggestions on improving your service. Be sure to take • Make customer service a team effort. Use group meet- advantage of feedback from employees, especially those whose ings, memos, posters and in-house publications to build everyday job is dealing with customers. They can serve as customer consciousness throughout the organization. tremendous of information. Continually drive home the crucial rule that getting and Many owners search for a special touch that will make them holding customers requires team play, and invite stand out from the crowd. Discount coupons, longer hours, home employee ideas. delivery or free coffee, for example, all show customers you • Extend your efforts after hours. It is the friendly feel- want to take that extra step to please them. ings people have that draw them to you and your busi- ness. Take advantage of the relaxed atmosphere of Some of the most effective "extras" are really very basic adages social occasions or a neighborly chat over the back of conducting good business, although customers are often sur- fence to turn friends into customers, or to reinforce the prised when they take place. These include answering the phone loyalty of existing ones. by the third ring; treating customers respectfully and courteously at all times; greeting them by name; promptly answering their All told, the way to success is clear. Go the extra mile to give questions and, if you cannot, getting back to them with an your customers high-quality, competitive products and services. answer as quickly as possible; and providing high-quality goods Spend money to make money. Work to attract and, more impor- and services. tant, retain your customers with every well-produced marketing device appropriate to your business: newspaper and Yellow Customer service is definitely enjoying a resurgence. It is no Pages ads, brochures, direct mail, TV and radio spots, newslet- longer the domain of a few clever companies which have made ters, telemarketing, public relations, community sponsorships, it synonymous with their names. No business, whatever its size, trade shows, billboards, special events and more. can afford to take customers for granted, because it's without question a buyer's market and becoming more so every day.

54 Promotional Strategies Whatever else you may include as part of your marketing plan, Every successful company uses some sort of promotion to influ- do not skimp on follow-up. Follow-up the key to loyal cus- ence certain audiences - usually customers or prospects - by tomers. informing or persuading them. Reasons for promoting a business Use Your Database To Write Customers a Personal Letter. include: increasing visibility; adding credibility to you or to your Database marketing, aims not to make the sale, but keep the cus- company; enhancing or improving your image; and bringing in tomer. The underlying technique is to use database records of new business. The following cost-effective, easy-to-execute customers' latest purchases, and frequency and amount of past ideas have the power to increase sales in a way conventional purchases, to create targeted mailers that let you stay in touch advertising cannot. The key is to find the methods that are with your customers. appropriate for your business, marketplace and professional style. Start by considering the fast, low-cost, easy-to- implement Personal letters are fast and inexpensive to produce, and some- marketing ideas outlined below: times prove very powerful. A personal letter is a one- page letter that recaps what a customer has just purchased and then Survey Your Customers. describes new products or services the customer might need - or Survey your customers directly. What you need to learn from simply provides helpful professional information. It conveys, in them can be summed up in five points: short, what you can do for that customer in the way of service, • Why they buy from you; attention and expertise. • How they use your product or service; • What they like and dislike about doing business with Take the time to concentrate on customers individually by writ- you; ing them letters personally tailored to their specific situation. • How you compare to the competition; Mention that you will phone in a week to follow up on the mat- • What you do that "annoys, infuriates or delights" them. ters you have broached. And add a handwritten P.S. recapping your main message. Put these points into a short questionnaire and ask customers to return it, anonymously, in the stamped self- addressed envelopes Try Niche Marketing. you provide. Ideally, survey all customers during the course of Many of today's most successful companies have stopped mar- three or four weeks, so that even a small rate of return will give keting to the broad, some say meaninglessly broad, customer you a meaningful sampling of opinions. Above all, be prepared categories of the 1980s (e.g., "heavy users" or "women aged 25- to change or solve what customers identify as problems. 49"). Instead they reach out to narrowly-focused groups, using a strategy called "niche marketing." Follow Up On Every Sale. Do not stop with a one-time customer survey, however. Niche marketing gained wide popularity through Donald K. Regularly evaluate all your transactions with customers to moni- Clifford, Jr. and Richard E. Cavanaugh's The Winning tor the quality of your products and services, and ask customers Performance, which studied 6,117 small companies that had how you can improve it. Fortunately you can do this easily, grown four times faster than the Fortune 250. Ninety percent of again using a questionnaire. these firms, the authors found, competed in small market niches. All were customer- rather than sales-driven. All developed new Keep questionnaires short, and make sure each question con- products with the end-user in mind. And all concentrated on cerns only one issue (e.g., "Was the sales staff prompt and cour- advertising to - and generating repeat sales from - not just any teous?" is two questions, not one). In addition, try to avoid yes- customer, but a small, credit-worthy, qualified group. no questions and offer check-off ratings in no more than four questions, ensuring that customers are putting their ideas into Clifford and Cavanaugh present a series of steps companies can short answers more often than mechanically checking boxes. take to adopt niche marketing for themselves: • Compile a comprehensive list of your prospects and To keep the questionnaire well-focused and concise, stick to the customers; big issues or the critical points. Begin constructing your ques- • Narrow the list to a profitable group you believe you tionnaire by writing out every potential question you can think can serve better than the competition; of; then narrow it down to the six to 12 that matter most. • Create a profile of the traits common to these cus- An even more important part of follow-up than questionnaires is tomers, such as sales volume or location; to thank customers for their business - which you can do in a • Use this profile to tailor products, services and advertis- short note - and put their names on a mailing list. Then send ing to your niche market and qualify new prospects.; them any of a variety of useful mailers: notices of new products • Be prepared to experiment with several niches before or services, information about products and services related to finding the one that fits your company best. recent purchases, sales notices, special promotions and newslet- Distribute Free Samples. ters. No matter what you do to promote your business, giving poten- Saying, "Thanks," is one of the best ways to let customers know tial customers a sample is an excellent way to attract attention you value their business, and to encourage their continued and make a positive impression. In many cases, it makes just as patronage, is also one of the easiest. It boils down to saying much sense to spend your marketing and advertising dollars on "thank you" - in letters, mailers and surveys. On statement giving out your own products instead of buying advertisements - stuffers, receipts and invoices. And in person.

55 especially if cash is tight. The key is to give samples to the audi- refrigerator magnets, baseball caps, paperweights - just about ence you want to reach. anything that can be engraved, imprinted, silk-screened or embroidered with your company name and phone number. Free samples are always welcome. Food and beverages are natu- ral candidates, as are free trials of non-consumables like furni- Consider handing out specialty gifts to prospects and customers: ture or office equipment. In fact, anything customers must try in free pens, scratchpads, mugs, T-shirts and other items printed order to appreciate, lends itself to sampling. Sampling has his- with your company name, address, phone number and business torically produced great successes, from the free nibbles that slogan. To explore the range of gifts available, consult some of have launched cookie stores to the mass mailings and giveaways the "Advertising Specialties" firms listed in the Yellow Pages. that have introduced products ranging from cereals to Post-it Ask the reps to suggest gifts that have been used successfully in notes. your industry and pay special attention to new, just-introduced items whose advanced design or technology may appeal strongly When distributing free samples, be sure you have an adequate to your customers. Select gifts based on their appropriateness to supply, and try to combine free samples with coupons or other your customers and your business, quality of construction and marketing techniques. If you have a hair salon, give away a free tastefulness of design. sample of a hair product you use with a haircut. If you are in the cosmetics business, offer customers a free sample blusher Use Coupons As An Advertising Vehicle. when they buy mascara and lipstick. Coupons offer a proven method of generating trial. Enclose them in invoices. Hand them out at the cash register. Distribute them If you cannot afford to give away products, offering your servic- through your sales force. Include them in a coupon pack pre- es as a way of generating new business can also pay off. For pared by a direct-mail advertising house. example, if you own a salon, send out a flyer offering customers a free style consultation to bring them in. If you decide to produce your own coupon, study samples around you to see how they are written and designed to specify A business should keeps track of how much of the product was the product and trumpet the savings boldly and unequivocally. If given away, and gather information on what people said about you give your coupon an expiration date, which you should do the product and how much of it was subsequently purchased. to encourage prompt use, make sure it's conspicuous. Present Free Demonstrations, Consultations & Seminars. Like all other forms of advertising, coupons work best with rep- An analog to free samples is free demonstrations or consulta- etition. You'll need to try four or five, issued on a regular basis, tions, which can take place on your premises or that of your cus- to know how well they're working; measure their effectiveness tomers, or at homes, community centers, rented conference simply by counting the number redeemed. rooms, trade fairs, festivals or other events. When staging demonstrations, talk for no more than 15 minutes. When doing For best results, the price break should be significant - at least consultations, determine how much information you must impart 15 percent. This is one of the least expensive ways to develop to prove expertise without giving away too much. new trade, and an excellent tool for evaluating advertising. However, one theory holds that coupons draw people who only Demonstrations are an option to attract people to your place of buy discount and never become regular customers. So be sure to business, show them how to best use a product, and establish monitor the results. your credibility. A retail-wholesale fish outlet might hold cook- ing demonstrations twice a week, featuring a different restaurant Build Awareness Through Sweepstakes or Contests. chef each time and attracting substantial crowds. Recipe cards Sweepstakes and contests provide exciting ways to build aware- are given out. Wallpaper demonstrations, fashion shows, gift ness of your products, services and company, as well as produce wrapping, refinishing and computer demonstrations all work the goodwill that giveaways naturally inspire. Whether entrants well for retailers selling products associated with them. will win a free haircut at your salon or a free week in Paris (per- haps co-sponsored by a local travel agent), you must check the Levinson suggests extending demonstrations and consultations legalities with your lawyer before you start. into free seminars. Promoted through signs, circulars, media ads and other publicity, these one-hour lectures should concern a Then plan out your promotion step by step, from how customers topic related to your business and comprise 75% information, will enter and how entries will be handled to whether you will 25% sell. Give participants an easy, compelling way to sign up award prizes below the grand-prize category. For example, will for your services or more information before they leave. everyone win something just for entering? Hand Out Free Gifts. Finally, create an entry form and eye-catching collection box and If you want guaranteed attention, offer a free gift. A free gift for advertise with flyers, mailers, banners, store signs, newspaper a particular amount or item of purchase. A free gift for respond- ads or radio spots, as appropriate. If you are collecting entries in ing to a direct-mail solicitation. A free gift of a second item with your store, place the box at the back of the premises so every- the purchase of a first - a more tantalizing and successful version body must pass through your merchandise to reach it. of the two-for-one sale. Afterwards, generate publicity about the winners - and display Also called an advertising specialty, a premium is a gift of some photocopies of all resulting news stories at your business. kind that reminds your customer of you and your service. There are thousands from which to choose: key chains, coffee mugs,

56 Be Creative With Telephone-hold Marketing. ularly good way to promote your expertise in a business. In most businesses, callers will at some point be placed on hold. • Donations: Donating your product or service to a charitable So play a telephone-hold audiotape that, over background music, cause often results in positive exposure to community leaders, talks about your products, services or even your company itself. charity board members, PTAs and civic groups. While con- Besides helping the time pass faster, tapes can answer callers' sumer products are desired most, many organizations also look questions and even inform them of products or services they for donations of professional service time. If you have a large need but did not know you provide. area that can be used as a meeting facility, consider hosting an event for a charitable organization. This works best if volun- To find a company to produce your telephone-hold tape, check teers for that charity are potential customers. the Yellow Pages under "Telecommunications-Telephone • Special Benefits, Rates, and Notices: Smart organizations go Equipment, Services & Systems." Most firms provide everything out of their way to make customers feel important and appreci- you need - produced tape, hookups and phone equipment - for a ated. Frequent flyer clubs are the most pervasive example of monthly fee. loyalty-building benefits for customers only, now adapted by Sell With Store Signs. many kinds of businesses. Most software companies sell pro- Use interior signs to tell customers about the goods and services gram updates to customers at discounted prices. And advance you offer, such as free trials. If you stock a specialty line, like notices about sales or other changes or opportunities can help environmentally-safe products, point it out. If you've just cement customer ties. received merchandise with a high-demand feature, let customers eMarketing know. E-mail marketing is one of the most effective ways to keep in Signs also provide an easy way to answer customers' most com- touch with customers. It is generally cost-effective, and if done monly-asked questions. Post explanatory labels to help cus- properly, can help build brand awareness and loyalty. At a typi- tomers differentiate among various models. Write out shelf signs cal cost of only a few cents per message, it's a bargain compared describing special features that make products outstanding val- to traditional direct mail at $1 or more per piece. In addition, ues or unique in their field, or telling customers where to find response rates on e-mail marketing are strong, ranging from 5% accessories. to 35% depending on the industry and format. Response rates for traditional mail averages in the 1% to 3% range. Use signs, in short, to showcase your company's competitive advantages and to make shopping easier, more informative and One of the benefits of email marketing is the demographic infor- more motivating for your customers. mation that customers provide when signing up for your email newsletter. Discovering who your customers really are - age, Act Now to Extend Your Seasonal Sales. gender, income and special interests, for example - can help you Is your business seasonal? If so, utilize year-round marketing to target your products and services to their needs. Points to con- improve your sales. Before the season, stimulate repeat sales by sider when creating your email newsletter: sending coupons to current customers for upcoming purchases or • HTML vs. Plain Text: Response rates for HTML offering special deals on early orders. After the season, use fol- newsletters are generally far higher than plain text, and low-up mailings or phone calls to stay in touch with customers graphics and colors tend to make the publications look and encourage their loyalty. Or maintain interest with an end-of- far more professional. The downside is that HTML season or off-season sale of leftover merchandise. email is slower to download, and some email providers may screen out HTML email. In the longer term, consider a second-season business or product • Provide incentive to subscribe: Advertise the benefits line that would both be a logical extension of your current opera- of receiving your newsletter to get customers to sign up tion and appeal to your customers. A holiday fruitcake company, for your newsletter, such as helpful tips, informative for example, might branch out into year-round baked goods; a content or early notification of special offers or cam- ski shop, into camping gear. Or, if you are a retail firm, expand paigns. not your season but your customer base by adding a catalog or • Do not just sell: Many studies suggest that email direct-mail wholesale operation. newsletters are read far more carefully when they offer You may also want to try: information that is useful to the customers' lives rather • Newsletters: Another good way to promote is through newslet- than merely selling products and services. Helpful tips, ters. They demonstrate how much you know about your field, engaging content and humor are often expected to and do it in a low-key, informative way. They help keep your accompany email newsletters. company high in the consciousness of your prospects. • Limit questions: As each demographic question you • Speeches: Depending on your topic and your market, you ask may reduce the number of customers signing up, it might want to speak before chambers of commerce, trade is best to limit the amount of information you solicit or associations, parent groups, senior citizens or other local give customers the option of skipping the questionnaire. organizations. Even if you choose not to sell your goods or services online, a • Articles: Another possibility is to write an article for a trade business web site can be a virtual marketing brochure that you journal, reprint it, and mail it off to your friends, customers can update on demand with little or no cost. Your presence on and prospects. This positions you as an expert, and is a partic- the Internet can be a useful marketing tool by providing richer

57 pre-sale information or post-sale support and service. This might • The FTC looks at both "express" and "implied" claims. temporarily differentiate your product or service from your com- An express claim is literally made in the ad. For exam- petitors'. E-marketing has lessened the disadvantage that small ple, "ABC Mouthwash prevents colds" is an express businesses have faced for years when competing with larger claim that the product will prevent colds. An implied businesses. claim is one made indirectly or by inference. "ABC Mouthwash kills the germs that cause colds" contains E-Commerce has redefined the marketplace, altered business an implied claim that the product will prevent colds. strategies, and allowed global competition between local busi- Although the ad does not literally say that the product nesses. The term "electronic commerce" has evolved from mean- prevents colds, it would be reasonable for a consumer ing simply electronic shopping to representing all aspects of to conclude from the statement "kills the germs that business and market processes enabled by the Internet and other cause colds" that the product will prevent colds. Under digital technologies. the law, advertisers must have proof to back up express Many small businesses assume that the Internet has little value and implied claims that consumers take from an ad. to them because they feel that their product or service cannot be • The FTC looks at what the ad does not say - that is, if easily sold online. But inexpensive information processing and the failure to include information leaves consumers electronic media can help most small businesses provide better, with a misimpression about the product. For example, if faster customer service and communication. a company advertised a collection of books, the ad would be deceptive if it did not disclose that consumers A Legal Guide to Advertising actually would receive abridged versions of the books. The following article, provided by the Small Business Associa- • The FTC looks at whether the claim would be "materi- tion, is a brief guide to legal issues related to advertising: 19 al" - that is, important to a consumer's decision to buy Frequently Asked Advertising Questions: A Guide for or use the product. Examples of material claims are rep- Small Business resentations about a product's performance, features, GENERAL ADVERTISING POLICIES safety, price, or effectiveness. What truth-in-advertising rules apply to advertisers? • The FTC looks at whether the advertiser has sufficient Under the Federal Trade Commission Act: evidence to support the claims in the ad. The law • Advertising must be truthful and non-deceptive; requires that advertisers have proof before the ad runs. • Advertisers must have evidence to back up their claims; What kind of evidence must a company have to support the and claims in its ads? • Advertisements cannot be unfair. Before a company runs an ad, it has to have a "reasonable basis" Additional laws apply to ads for specialized products like con- for the claims. A "reasonable basis" means objective evidence sumer leases, credit, 900 telephone numbers, and products sold that supports the claim. The kind of evidence depends on the through mail order or telephone sales. And every state has con- claim. At a minimum, an advertiser must have the level of evi- sumer protection laws that govern ads running in that state. dence that it says it has. For example, the statement "Two out of three doctors recommend ABC Pain Reliever" must be supported What makes an advertisement deceptive? by a reliable survey to that effect. If the ad is not specific, the According to the FTC's Deception Policy Statement, an ad is FTC looks at several factors to determine what level of proof is deceptive if it contains a statement - or omits information - that: necessary, including what experts in the field think is needed to • Is likely to mislead consumers acting reasonably under support the claim. In most cases, ads that make health or safety the circumstances; and claims must be supported by "competent and reliable scientific • Is "material" - that is, important to a consumer's deci- evidence" - tests, studies, or other scientific evidence that has sion to buy or use the product. been evaluated by people qualified to review it. In addition, any What makes an advertisement unfair? tests or studies must be conducted using methods that experts in According to the Federal Trade Commission Act and the FTC's the field accept as accurate. Unfairness Policy Statement, an ad or business practice is unfair Are letters from satisfied customers sufficient to substantiate if: a claim? • It causes or is likely to cause substantial consumer No. Statements from satisfied customers usually are not suffi- injury which a consumer could not reasonably avoid; cient to support a health or safety claim or any other claim that and requires objective evaluation. • It is not outweighed by the benefit to consumers. My company offers a money-back guarantee. Very few peo- How does the FTC determine if an ad is deceptive? ple have ever asked for their money back. Must we still have A typical inquiry follows these steps: proof to support our advertising claims? • The FTC looks at the ad from the point of view of the Yes. Offering a money-back guarantee is not a substitute for sub- "reasonable consumer" - the typical person looking at stantiation. Advertisers still must have proof to support their the ad. Rather than focusing on certain words, the FTC claims. looks at the ad in context - words, phrases, and pictures -to determine what it conveys to consumers.

58 What kind of advertising claims does the FTC focus on? • Civil penalties, consumer redress and other mone- The FTC pays closest attention to: tary remedies -- Civil penalties range from thousands • Ads that make claims about health or safety, such as: of dollars to millions of dollars, depending on the o ABC Sunscreen will reduce the risk of skin cancer; nature of the violation. Sometimes advertisers have o ABC Water Filters remove harmful chemicals from been ordered to give full or partial refunds to all con- tap water; sumers who bought the product. o ABC Chainsaw's safety latch reduces the risk of • Corrective advertising, disclosures and other infor- injury. mational remedies -- Advertisers have been required to • Ads that make claims that consumers would have trou- take out new ads to correct the misinformation con- ble evaluating for themselves, such as: veyed in the original ad, notify purchasers about decep- o ABC Refrigerators will reduce your energy costs by tive claims in ads, include specific disclosures in future 25%; ads, or provide other information to consumers. o ABC Gasoline decreases engine wear; Will the FTC review my company's ads before they run to o ABC Hairspray is safe for the ozone. make sure that we've complied with the law? • Ads that make subjective claims or claims that con- FTC staff cannot clear your ads in advance. However, there is sumers can judge for themselves (for example, "ABC guidance to help you comply with the law. Information about Cola tastes great") receive less attention from the FTC. advertising particular kinds of products (for example, foods, How does the FTC decide what cases to bring? dietary supplements, or "environmentally friendly" merchan- The FTC weighs several factors, including: dise), advertising credit, and guidelines for advertising on the • FTC jurisdiction -- Although the FTC has jurisdiction Internet is available at www.ftc.gov. For more general informa- over ads for most products and services, Congress has tion on advertising policies, call the FTC's Division of given other government agencies the authority to inves- Advertising Practices at 202-326-3090. tigate advertising by airlines, banks, insurance compa- How can I keep up-to-date on what's going on at the FTC? nies, common carriers, and companies that sell securi- The Federal Trade Commission website (www.ftc.gov) is updat- ties and commodities. ed almost every day, so bookmark it for instant access to FTC • The geographic scope of the advertising campaign -- news and views, including recent enforcement actions, speeches, The FTC concentrates on national advertising and usu- public hearings, and other business information. Before running ally refers local matters to state, county, or city agen- an ad, check out what the FTC has had to say about products or cies. advertising claims similar to yours. From the homepage, you can • The extent to which an ad represents a pattern of search the entire FTC website using key words or phrases. For deception, rather than an individual dispute between example, a search using the word "diet" will yield cases, reports, a consumer and a business or a dispute between two news releases, and other materials related to FTC policies about competitors -- State or local consumer protection agen- the advertising of diet products and services. In addition, you cies or private groups such as the Better Business can visit www.consumer.gov for consumer and business infor- Bureau (BBB) often are in a better position to resolve mation from the FTC, FDA, SEC, and other federal agencies. disputes involving local businesses or local advertising. You also may want to check with the Better Business Bureau for To get the address and phone number of your state tips on truthful advertising, the BBB's voluntary Code of Attorney General's office, your local consumer agency, Advertising, and information about scams targeting small busi- or the nearest BBB, check your telephone directory. nesses. • The amount of injury - to consumers' health, safety, or wallets - that could result if consumers rely on the How does the FTC address the needs of small businesses? deceptive claim. The FTC concentrates on cases that In its continuing commitment to regulatory reform, the FTC has could affect consumers' health or safety (for example, repealed almost 50% of its trade regulation rules and has stream- deceptive health claims for foods or over-the-counter lined and simplified remaining rules. The FTC's Small Business drugs) or cases that result in widespread economic Compliance Assistance Policy Statement describes other forms injury. of assistance available to small businesses to help them comply with truth-in-advertising laws. For example, the Business What penalties can be imposed against a company that runs Guidance section of the FTC's website (www.ftc.gov) includes a false or deceptive ad? an expanding library of materials written especially for small The penalties depend on the nature of the violation. The reme- businesses. Small businesses also may contact the FTC head- dies that the FTC or the courts have imposed include: quarters or one of the FTC's regional offices with specific • Cease and desist orders -- These legally-binding inquiries about how to comply with the law. In addition, one of orders require companies to stop running the deceptive the FTC's top law enforcement priorities is fighting fraudulent ad or engaging in the deceptive practice, to have sub- and deceptive practices aimed at small businesses. The agency stantiation for claims in future ads, to report periodical- has taken the lead in challenging deceptive invention promotion ly to FTC staff about the substantiation they have for services, questionable franchise opportunities, bogus office sup- claims in new ads, and to pay a fine of $11,000 per day ply scams, and other practices that prey on aspiring entrepre- per ad if the company violates the law in the future. neurs.

59 What can my company do if a competitor is running an ad disclose whether an investigation is going on. To find out if a that I think is deceptive? company or product has been the subject of a recent FTC action, You can: search the FTC's website (www.ftc.gov). • Explore your legal options under federal and state OTHER ADVERTISING ISSUES statutes that protect businesses from unfair competition. Advertising Agencies For example, the Lanham Act gives companies the right Are advertising agencies subject to the FTC Act? to sue their competitors for making deceptive claims in Yes. In addition to the advertiser, the advertising agency also ads. may be held legally responsible for misleading claims in ads. • File a complaint with the National Advertising Division Advertising agencies have a duty to make an independent check (NAD) of the Council of Better Business Bureaus, if on the information used to substantiate ad claims. They may not your competitor's ad is running nationally or regionally. rely on an advertiser's assurance that the claims are substantiat- The NAD is a private, self-regulatory group affiliated ed. In determining whether an ad agency should be held liable, with the BBB. It investigates allegations of deceptive the FTC looks at: advertising and gives advertisers a mechanism for • The extent of the agency's participation in the prepara- resolving disputes voluntarily. tion of the challenged ad; and • Call your local BBB or file an online complaint with • Whether the agency knew or should have known that the Better Business Bureau if the ad is local. Many the ad included false or deceptive claims. BBBs have procedures for resolving disputes between businesses. Bait and Switch • Contact the radio station, television station, or publica- How does the FTC define "bait and switch" advertising? tion where the ad ran. Let them know that they are run- It's illegal to advertise a product when the company has no ning an ad you think may be deceptive. intention of selling that item, but instead plans to sell a con- • Contact your state Attorney General's Office or your sumer something else, usually at a higher price. For more infor- city, county, or state Office of Consumer Affairs. To get mation, ask the FTC for its Guides Against Bait Advertising. their phone numbers, check your telephone directory. Catalogs • Contact the FTC. By mail: Federal Trade Commission, My company distributes a catalog of products manufactured Consumer Response Center, 600 Pennsylvania Avenue, by other companies. What's our responsibility for ensuring NW, Washington, DC 20580; by telephone: toll-free 1- the accuracy of what is in the catalog? 877-FTC-HELP. Rather than just repeating what the manufacturer says about a If my company files a complaint about a competitor with the product, catalog marketers - including companies with online FTC, will the FTC resolve the dispute? catalogs - should ask for material to back up the claims. If the The FTC is authorized to act when it appears that a company's manufacturer does not come forward with proof or turns over advertising is deceptive and when FTC action is in the public questionable material, a catalog marketer should see a yellow interest. Although the FTC cannot intervene in an individual dis- "caution light." This is especially true for products with extrava- pute between two companies, the agency relies on many sources gant performance claims, health or weight loss promises, earn- - including complaints from consumers and competitors - to find ings guarantees, and the like. In writing ad copy, catalogers out about ads that may be deceptive. To file a complaint against should stick to the claims that can be supported and avoid a competitor who you believe has engaged in false advertising, embellishing manufacturers' representations. Most importantly, contact: catalog marketers should trust their instincts when a product Federal Trade Commission sounds too good to be true. For more information about selling Consumer Response Center merchandise by catalog or through direct marketing, ask the 600 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW FTC for the "Business Guide to the Federal Trade Commission's Washington, DC 20580 Mail" or "Telephone Order Merchandise Rule and Business Toll-free 1-877-FTC-HELP (382-4357) Checklist for Direct Marketers." If my company files a complaint against a competitor with Comparative Advertising the FTC, will we be kept informed about the status of any Is it legal for a company to compare its product to another investigation? company's product in an ad? No. The FTC keeps investigations confidential. Matters become Comparative advertising is legal as long as it is truthful. For public only after the FTC reaches a settlement with a company more information, ask the FTC for the Comparative Advertising or files a lawsuit. However, you can be assured that complaints Policy Statement. received from companies alleging that competitors are advertis- Disclosures and Disclaimers ing deceptively are reviewed carefully. Does FTC law specify how disclaimers or disclosures must Can I find out if the FTC already has an investigation appear in ads? against a company? Some laws and regulations enforced by the FTC, such as the 900 The FTC can tell you if it has already taken formal action (e.g., Number Rule, the Truth in Lending Act, and the Consumer filed or settled a lawsuit) against a particular company or against Leasing Act, have specific requirements that apply to advertis- similar kinds of advertisements or products. But the FTC cannot ing, including that certain information must be "clearly and con-

60 spicuously" disclosed. For more information, ask the FTC for will get these results," or, "Your results may vary," is the publications "Complying with the 900 Number Rule and not enough. Advertising Consumer Leases". You also can see the publication, • Endorsements by celebrities must reflect the celebrity's "How to Advertise Consumer Credit: Complying with the Law honest experience or opinion. If the endorsement repre- on the FTC's website". sents that the celebrity uses the product, that celebrity actually must use the product. Once a celebrity (or How prominent does a disclaimer or disclosure have to be in expert) has endorsed a product, the advertiser has an other kinds of ads? obligation to make sure the endorsement continues to When the disclosure of qualifying information is necessary to reflect the endorser's opinion. prevent an ad from being deceptive, the information should be •To give an expert endorsement, a person must have suf- presented clearly and conspicuously so that consumers can actu- ficient qualifications to be considered an expert in the ally notice and understand it. A fine-print disclosure at the bot- field. But just being an expert is not enough. Expert tom of a print ad, a disclaimer buried in a body of text unrelated endorsements must be supported by an actual evalua- to the claim being qualified, a brief video superscript in a televi- tion, examination, or testing of the product that other sion ad, or a disclaimer that is easily missed on a website are not experts in the field normally would conduct to support likely to be effective. Nor can advertisers use fine print to con- the conclusions in the endorsement. tradict other statements in an ad or to clear up misimpressions • Advertisers also must disclose any material connection that the ad would leave otherwise. For example, if an ad for a between a person endorsing a product and the company diet product claims, "Lose 10 pounds in one week without diet- selling the product. A "material connection" is defined ing," the fine-print statement, "Diet and exercise required" is as a relationship that might affect the weight or credi- insufficient to remedy the deceptive claim in the ad. To ensure bility of the endorsement. For example, if an endorser is that disclosures are effective, advertisers should use clear and an employee or relative of the advertiser, that fact must unambiguous language, place any qualifying information close be disclosed because it is relevant to how much weight to the claim being qualified, and avoid using small type or any a consumer would give to the endorsement. Similarly, distracting elements that could undercut the disclosure. Although an advertiser must disclose if a consumer has been paid there is no hard-and-fast rule about the size of type in a print ad for giving an endorsement. or the length of time a disclosure must appear on TV, the FTC often has taken action when a disclaimer or disclosure is too Environmental Advertising small, flashes across the screen too quickly, is buried in other Are there rules for using environmental claims like "recy- information, or is otherwise hard for consumers to understand. cled" or "ozone-friendly"? Most importantly, if you are concerned that a disclaimer or dis- The FTC's Guides for the Use of Environmental Claims cover closure may be necessary to clarify a claim, evaluate your ad how words like biodegradable, recyclable, and environmentally copy and substantiation carefully to ensure that you are not mis- friendly can be used in ads. In addition, some states have laws leading consumers. governing environmental claims. Check with the Attorney General's office of the state(s) where you plan to advertise. If What about disclaimers and disclosures online? you make environmental claims or use environmental symbols Regardless of whether you advertise on TV or radio, in print ads, on your direct mail advertising, ask the FTC for, "Making through direct mail or online, the law is the same: disclaimers Environmental Marketing Claims on Mail". and disclosures must be "clear and conspicuous." Dot Com Disclosures offers special guidance for online advertisers regard- Food and Drug Administration ing Internet specific issues such as banner ads, pop-up windows, When are claims regulated by the Federal Trade scrolling, hyperlinks, etc. Commission and when are they regulated by the Food and Drug Administration? Endorsements and Testimonials The FTC and the FDA have a long-standing liaison agreement to Are there any rules on how endorsements may be used in allocate their efforts efficiently. As a general rule, advertising for ads? foods, over-the-counter drugs, dietary supplements, medical "The FTC's Guides Concerning the Use of Testimonials and devices, and cosmetics is regulated by the FTC. Labeling for Endorsements" offer practical advice on endorsements by con- these products is regulated by the FDA. In addition, the FDA sumers, celebrities, and experts. All endorsements must reflect handles most matters related to prescription drug advertising and the honest experience or opinion of the endorser. Endorsements labeling. For more information about marketing a product within may not contain representations that would be deceptive, or the FDA's jurisdiction, visit the FDA's website at www.fda.gov could not be substantiated, if the advertiser made them directly. or call the FDA Inquiries Line, 1-888-INFO-FDA. • Endorsements by consumers must reflect the typical experience of consumers who use the product, not the "Free" Claims and Rebate Offers experience of just a few satisfied customers. If an When can a company advertise something as "free"? endorsement does not reflect users' typical experience, When a "free" offer is tied to the purchase of another product, the ad must clearly disclose either what consumers can the price of the purchased product should not be increased from expect their results to be or the limited applicability of its regular price. For more information, ask the FTC for, "The the endorser's experience. Saying,"Not all consumers Guides Concerning Use of the Word 'Free'" and, "Other Representations and the Guides Against Deceptive Pricing". In

61 addition, if you are advertising a product as "free" or offering it Deceptive Pricing. Since this issue often involves local practices, at a low cost in conjunction with the purchase of another item, you may also want to contact the Attorney General's office in the the ad should clearly and conspicuously disclose the terms and state(s) where you plan to advertise. conditions of the offer. Disclose the most important information Telemarketing - like the terms affecting the cost of the offer - near the adver- What rules must a company follow if it sells goods or servic- tised price. For more information, ask the FTC for "Big Print. es over the telephone? Little Print. What's the Deal?" You also may want to check with As with any other form of advertising or promotion, claims the Attorney General's office in the state(s) where you plan to made through telemarketing must be truthful and substantiated. advertise. In addition, the Better Business Bureau has voluntary In addition, the FTC's "Telemarketing Sales Rule", applies to standards for when something can be advertised as "free." transactions involving the use of interstate telephone calls to sell What are the rules on advertising rebates to consumers? goods or services. The Rule requires companies to make speci- Ads that include rebate promotions should prominently state the fied disclosures in their telephone calls and prohibits misrepre- before-rebate cost, as well as the amount of the rebate. Only then sentations. For more information, ask the FTC for a copy of will consumers know their actual out-of-pocket cost and have Complying with the Telemarketing Sales Rule. the information they need to comparison shop. Rebate promo- tions also should clearly disclose any additional terms and con- ENDNOTES ditions that consumers need to know, including the key terms of 1 http://www.sba.gov/managing/marketing/market.html (Online Women's Business Center, 6/97) any purchase requirements, additional fees, and when consumers 2 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/plan.html can expect to receive their rebate. The FTC's brochure, "Big 3 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/execsummary.html Print. Little Print. What's the Deal?" outlines other factors adver- 4 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/currentsituation.html tisers should bear in mind when making rebate promotions. 5 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/competitorissue.html 6 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/marketingobj.html Guarantees 7 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/fourps.html When a company advertises that products are sold with a 8 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/actionprograms.html 9 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/marketingbudget.html guarantee or warranty, what information about the terms 10 http://www.tanningtraining.com/isc/sopc/chp10html and conditions must be included in the ads? 11 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/primeradv.html If an ad mentions that a product comes with a guarantee or war- 12 http://www.tanningtraining.com/isc/sopc/chp10html ranty, the ad should clearly disclose how consumers can get the 13 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/adspr.html 14 Vicki Hudson, Grand Rapids Opportunities for Women, Grand Rapids, MI, details. Any conditions or limits on the guarantee or warranty 1/99 (such as a time limit or a requirement that the consumer return 15 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/yellowpage.html the product) also must be clearly disclosed in the ad. Finally, the 16 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/foolproof.html law requires companies to make copies of any warranties avail- 17 http://www.sba.gov/starting_business/marketing/highimpact.html 18 http://www.sba.gov/managing/marketing/customer.html; National Women's able to consumers before the sale. This applies to retail sales, Business Center, Washington, D.C., 4/97 sales by phone or mail, and online transactions. For more infor- 19 http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/conline/pubs/buspubs/ad-faqs.htm mation, ask the FTC for the "Guides for the Advertising of Warranties and Guarantees". Pricing Are there any standards governing the advertising of prices? The same standards for truthfulness apply when companies make claims about price comparisons, "sale" prices, and the like. For more information, ask the FTC for the, "Guides Against Deceptive Pricing". Since many pricing issues involve local practices, you also may want to contact the Attorney General's office in the state(s) where you plan to advertise. What responsibility does a company have to make sure that prices are accurate? In many jurisdictions, companies are legally required to charge no more than the advertised or shelf price for a product, so good pricing practices are important for both customer satisfaction and a company's bottom line. For tips on accurate pricing prac- tices in advertising and in retail stores, ask the "FTC for Good Pricing Practices? SCAN DO". Sales When may a company advertise that a product is "on sale"? The same standards for truthfulness apply when a company makes advertising claims about sale prices or products being "on sale." For more information, ask the FTC for the Guides Against

62 Course Final Examination 8. Disinfectants are inactivated and ineffective when visi- Select the best answer for each question and mark them on the bly contaminated with debris, hair, dirt, particulates answer sheet found on page 66 or complete your test online at and/or when heavily soiled. www.elitecme.com. True False

1. Any sale or any other type of transfer of any salon or school license is subject to the prior approval of the 9. A closed dustproof cabinet must be provided for clean "Board". The "Board" may deny any such sale or trans- towels and linen, and a closed dustproof hamper or fer if the "Board" finds that any outstanding alleged receptacle must be provided for all soiled towels and violation exists, any fine if unpaid, or suspension time linens. has not been served. True False True False

10. Dogs (except dogs providing assistance to individuals 2. All chemicals, and any equipment used in providing with physical handicaps) cats, birds, or other animals any cosmetology service, used in any type of licensed shall not be permitted in a cosmetology salon. salon or school, are subject to the approval of the "Board" to ensure the health and safety of licensees and True False patrons.

True False 11. Every person engaged in the practice of cosmetology or any of its branches shall thoroughly cleanse his or her hands with soap and water or an alcohol-based handrub 3. Salon facilities need only to provide cold running water immediately before serving each patron. in their restrooms. True False True False

12. Electrical equipment, (whether professional or con- 4. Salons are not required to have a separate room to store sumer design) which provides circulating, whirlpool or and dispense supplies and sanitizing products. vacuum effects, (for example, all microdermabrasion machines, facial machines, pedicure stations, nail drills True False and body treatment equipment) shall be cleaned and disinfected after each use. 5. Every establishment licensed by the "Board" shall dis- True False play a sign at its main entrance which will be clearly visible from the street using at least 2 foot tall letters, stating the name of business as submitted on the appli- 13. Heated electrical equipment such as, all types of ther- cation. mal irons, pressing combs and stoves are sanitized by the heat source. True False True False

6. In any facility licensed as a salon by the "Board," the service area does not need to be equipped with exhaust 14. Salons offering food shall comply with local health fans or air filtration equipment if you are able to leave board requirements. the doors and windows open. True False True False

15. Salons providing tanning services by ultraviolet means 7. Any implements to be used on any patrons shall be for public consumption do not need to be approved or properly sanitized. All methods of sanitation shall be permitted by the "Board". bacteriologically effective and all commercially pre- pared sanitizing agents shall be used in accordance with True False manufacturer's instructions. True False

63 16. Archaeologists have found sharpened rocks and shells 25. In the 4th century BCE, use of makeup among the gen- used to scrape hair from the face 30,000 years ago. eral public was uncommon. True False True False

17. Excavations from the Bronze Age tell us that prehistoric 26. In the early Middle Ages, there were legal penalties for humans used elaborately carved razors as well as touching or cutting off another's beard, as well as fines tweezers to remove hair. for pulling individual hairs out of a beard. True False True False

18. According to artwork found in excavations at Ur, 27. In the 4th and 5th centuries, young men were wearing Sumerian women wore their hair short. shorter hairstyles, as the church specified that haircuts must leave the ears and eyes unobstructed. True False True False

19. For the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians, apply- ing oils to the hair and body functioned not only as a 28. Toward the eleventh century, it was decreed by the skin softener and moisturizer, but was also a way to Pope, and vigorously supported by the religious reduce the risk of infestation with pests such as body authorities all over Europe, that those wearing long hair lice. would be excommunicated and not prayed for when dead. True False True False

20. The French were likely the first to extract herbal and flower essences using the mechanism of distillation. 29. By the 13th Century beards were in style and worn by most all men. True False True False

21. During the time of the Trojan War, the Greeks wore their hair long and showed little gender differentiation 30. A popular shoulder length and highly frizzed style, in hairstyles. called "zazzera," was worn by men in Italy, and soon became popular in France and England, where it True False became known as the "Florentine." True False 22. Athenian boys wore their hair long in childhood, and received their first haircut when the beard began to grow. 31. A sound marketing plan should include all the data from any market research, as effective marketing, plan- True False ning, and promotion begin with current information about the marketplace. True False 23. Oil was generally produced by crushing unripe olives using a stone mill. 32. The Executive Summary section of your marketing plan True False needs to be written after the other sections have been written, since it is a summary of the major points of your marketing plan. 24. High foreheads were considered a sign of beauty, so hair was often set over the top of the brow to maximize True False the height of the forehead.

True False 33. A founding philosophy is also called a mission state- ment

64 True False 34. It is not possible to have more than one target market. True False

35. The "Four 'P's" of marketing strategy include product, price, performance, and people. True False

36. A promotion plan describes the tools or tactics used to accomplish your marketing objectives. True False

37. In your Action Programs section, you will describe the steps that need to be taken in detail, when they should be done, who will do them, and so on. True False

38. Advertising can create an instant customer base. True False

39. The most successful advertisers are consistent. True False

40. "ROP" refers to "run of the paper." True False

65 NOTES

COURSE EVALUATION This is the attendee's evaluation of the continuing education course (any comments will be appreciated).

Course Name ______8 Hour Continuing Education Course for Salon Professionals (circle one - 1 being the Worst 10 being the Best)

I would rate this course...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 The content of this course met my expectations...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 The course material was presented in a clear, concise and well organized format...... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I would recommend this course...... YES NO The material presented met the course’s stated objective...... YES NO I found this course affordable...... YES NO

Comments______

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r I agree to allow Elite Continuing Education to use my above comments.

Did you remember: 1) To clearly print your name and address on the answer sheet. 2) To fill out your License Number. 3) To include your payment or credit card information. 4) A $10.00 fee will be added for all checks that are returned for insufficient funds.

Thank you for choosing Elite CME for your continuing education

Elite CME’s continuing education course is approved by the Ohio State Board of Cosmetology

Elite CME, Inc. s P.O. Box 37 s Ormond Beach, FL 32175 Telephone 1(888) 857-6920 s Fax 1(386) 615-1812

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