Analysis of English Golf Terminology

Home , Caddie, Golf ball, Golf club, Golf course, Golf equipment, Golf swing

MASARYK UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH GOLF TERMINOLOGY

FINAL THESIS

Written by: Mgr. Ladislava Jagošová Supervisor: Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D.

BRNO 2012

Hereby I declare that I have worked on this final thesis by myself and that all the sources of information I have used are listed in the bibliography.

I would like to thank Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D., for his kind supervision and also for his valuable remarks, observations and scholarly advice that he provided me.

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 5 1. THEORETICAL PART 6 1.1 Lexicon 6 1.2 Types of word-formation 6 1.3 Sources of English lexis 9 2. HISTORY OF GOLF AND ITS TERMINOLOGY 12 3. GLOSSARY 14 3.1 English golf terminology 14 3.2 Czech golf terminology 22 4. ANALYSIS OF GOLF TERMINOLOGY 25 4.1 Formal criterion 25 4.2 Etymological criterion 27 5. CONCLUSION 29 REFERENCES 30

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this final thesis is to provide the English and Czech golf terminology and to analyse it. I have chosen fifty golf terms commnonly used in English.

I have decided to write about golf and its terminology because I visited Troon, a town situated on the west coast of Scotland, six years ago. Troon is known for its Royal Troon golf course and from time to time holds the Open Golf Championship. The people living there are excited about golf, even small children play it. I can still remember their enthusiasm for the game and my first attempts to tee off and that is why I have decided to write about it from a linguistic point of view.

This final thesis is divided into two main parts. The first part is theoretical and consists of two chapters. Chapter one deals with the lexicon, types of word-formation and sources of English lexis. Chapter two is devoted to the history of golf and its terminology.

The practical part consists of two chapters. Chapter three concentrates on comparing English and Czech golf terminology. Chapter four includes analysis of golf terminology from formal and etymological criterion.

Finally, the conclusion summarizes the whole thesis and provides the results of the analysis of the stated English and Czech golf terms.

1. Theoretical part 1.1 Lexicon Lexicon is ―the anglicized version of a Greek word (λεξικόv), which basically means ―dictionary‖, and it is the term used by linguists to refer to those aspects of a language which relate to words, otherwise known as its lexical aspect.‖ (Singleton 2000: 1)

Lexicon is based on the term lexis(λέξη), whose Greek meaning is ―word‖, but which is used as a collective expression in linguistic terminology in the sense of ―vocabulary‖.‖ (Singleton 2000: 1)

A lexeme is ―an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word.‖ (―lexeme‖). Another definition says that it is ―a minimal meaningful unit of language, the meaning of which cannot be understood from that of its component morphemes. Take off (in the senses to mimic, to become airborne, etc) is a lexeme, as well as the independent morphemes take and off.‖ (―lexeme‖ in dictionary.reference.com). On the other hand, the word is ―an uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes and which typically occurs in the structure of phrases. (Jackson and Zé Amvela 2000: 59) Words also belong to a certain word class. For example, boy and boysare forms of the same lexeme boy.

The study of lexis and the lexicon is called lexicology. According to the definition by Jackson and Zé Amvela, lexicology may be defined as ―the study of lexis, understood as the stock of words in a given language, i.e. its vocabulary or lexicon.‖ (2000: 2)

As Jackson and Zé Amvela state ―lexicology deals not only with simple words in all their aspect, but also with complex and compounds words, the meaningful units of language.‖ (2000: 2) They also say that ―lexicology relies on information derived from morphology, the study of the forms of words and their components, and semantics, the study of their meanings.‖ (2000: 2)

1.2 Types of word-formation Word-formation processes can be defined as ―the different devices which are used in English to build new words from existing ones‖ (Jackson, Zé Amvela 2000: 81). When using English on everyday basis we are not aware of these processes and we are using new words in a

6 language. The processes are nevertheless based on specific rules and ―understanding of these processes is one way of studying the different types of word that exist in English‖ (ibid.).

Here follows the description of the most frequent word-formation processes. Derivation is defined as ―a lexical process which actually forms a new word out of an existing one by the addition of a derivational affix‖ (Jackson, Zé Amvela 2000: 82). Three types of affixes exist: prefixes, suffixes and infixes. For example, the prefix un- may be added to the adjective healthy to form the opposite adjective unhealthy. The suffixes unlike the prefixes change the word class of the word. For example, the suffix –ly added to the adjective slow derives the adverb slowly.

Another word-formation process is compounding. Quirk et al. define a compound as ―a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.‖ (Quirk et al. 1985: 1567) For example, doghouse, seasick, blackboard, black market.

There are many classifications of compounds: - subordinate compounds – one of the elements, usually the first one, modifies the other element; - coordinate compounds – the elements have an equal status;

- endocentric compounds – e.g. bookshop is a formally endocentric compound because it belongs to the same form class as its second component, and it is also semantically endocentric compound because bookshop is a kind of shop; - exocentric compounds –semantically exocentric compounds are composed of elements which by themselves do not refer to the entity named and when combined, characterize the entity, e.g. paperback (Hladký 1994: 42-44).

There are three classifications of subordinate compounds: - functional: we compare the relationships between the compound elements with the relationships between the elements of clause structure: atribute: blackbird; adverbial: place: homemade, purpose: birdcage (P), comparison: goldfish (P), respect: fireproof (P); subject + predicate: daybreak (P); predicate + object: handshake; verb +

adverbial: waiting room (P); subject + object: doorknob (the door has a knob) (P); subject + complement: girlfriend; - semantic: compounds expressing, for example, place (mountain-snow), time (nightclub), purpose (hairbrush), means (windmill), kind (fruit-tree), comparison (snow-white), property (highway), etc. - formal: we distinguish substantival compounds, adjectival compounds etc. (Hladký 1994: 42-43).

According to Jackson and Zé Amvela, conversion is ―a process by which a word belonging to one word class is transferred to another word class without any concomitant change of form, either in pronunciation or spelling.‖ (2000: 100) Jackson and Zé Amvela also stress that there may be a change within the same word class. For example, beer, cofee, sugar, tea are uncountable nouns and two beers, coffees, sugars, teas are countable (2000: 100).

Hladký points out that the most productive types of conversion in English are denominal verbs (to coat) and deverbal nouns (want) (1994: 47). According to Hladký, we distinguish three types of abbreviations: clippings (ad, lab, prof), acronyms (FBI, UFO), and blends (smog) (1994: 48).

Clippings are ―frequent in English informal usage because they replace polysyllabic words, especially nouns. Most clippings preserve the initial fragment of the original word (ad, lab, pub).‖ (Hladký 1994: 48) A clipping may be morphologically adapted by adding suffixes (final –s in maths

Acronyms are ―words formed from the initial letters of words or of constituents in a compound.‖ (Hladký 1994: 49)

Hladký distinguishes two main types of acronyms: - acronyms pronounces as sequences of letters (also called alphabetisms), eg FBI, TV, UFO; - acronyms pronounced as words, eg NATO, WASP (1994: 49).

Jackson and Zé Amvela define a blend as ―a new lexeme built from parts of two (or possibly more) words in such a way that the constituent parts are usually easily identifiable, though in some instances only one of the elements may be identifiable‖ (2000: 101). For example, breakfast + lunch = brunch, motor + hotel = motel, channel + tunnel = the Chunnel, etc.

Back formation means ―the making of a new word from an older word by the reduction of a morpheme‖ (Jackson and Zé Amvela, 2000: 102). For example, the verb televise from the noun television, the verb babysit from the noun babysitter, etc.

1.3 Sources of English lexis In the following section of my final thesis I would like to write about the influences on the English language which has undergone a dramatical change from its beginnings.

―English is a Germanic language, having a grammar and core vocabulary inherited from Proto-Germanic.‖ (―Latin influence in English‖) However, many English words come from Romance and Latinate sources.

According to the survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd ed.) which was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973), the origin of English words is the following: - French and Old Norman: 28.3 % - Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24 % - Germanic languages – inherited from Old English, from Proto-Germanic, or a more recent borrowing from a Germanic language such as Old Norse; does not include Germanic words borrowed from a Romance language, i.e., coming from the Germanic element in French, Latin or other Romance languages: 25 % - Greek: 5.32 % - No etymology given: 4.03 % - Derived from proper names: 3.28 % - All other languages: less than 1 % (―Latin influence in English‖).

Anglo-Saxon lexicon ―Germanic settler tribes (Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians) entered Britain in AD 449 onwards and displaced the original Celtic-speaking inhabitants.― (―The sources of English words―) The original Anglo-Saxon lexicon was about basic, down-to-eartch matters.

The lexicon includes parts of the body, arm, bone, chest, ear, eye, foot, hand, heart, the natural environment, field, hedge, hill, land, meadow, wood, the domestic life, door, floor, home, house, the calendar, day, month, moon, sun, year, animals, cow, dog, fish, goat, hen, sheep, swine, common adjectives, black, dark, good, long, white, wide and common verbs, become, do, eat, fly, go, help, kiss, live, love, say, see, sell, send, think, (Jackson, Zé Amvela 2000: 31).

Latin influence Latin was the scholarly and diplomatic lingua franca of Europe and many educated and literate people could speak this language. ―One of the ways the influence of Latin can be seen is that many Latin words for activities came to also be used to refer to the people engaged in those activities, an idiom carried over from Anglo-Saxon but using Latin words. This can be seen in words like militia, assembly, movement, and service.‖ (―Old English‖)

Many Latin borrowings include scientific and technical words, medical terminology, academic and legal terminology. (―Foreign language influences in English‖)

Scandinavian influence Another major source of loanwords was the Scandinavian lexicon. It includes many place names, basic vocabulary and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the Danelaw. (―Old English‖)

It is not easy to distinguish Scandinavian loan-words in English. They appear to have the same quality and texture as Anglo-Saxon words. ―They are ordinary, everyday words, and quite often monosyllabic and include grammatical words (like the verb are (to be), or the pronouns their, them and they and some of the commonest words in English today like bag, dirt, fog, knife, flat, low, odd, ugly, want, trust, get, give, take, raise, smile and though. A good number of sc- or sk- words today are of Scandinavian origin (scathe, scorch, score, scowl, scrape, scrub, skill, skin, skirt, sky).― (―The sources of English words―)

Celtic influence There is a small number of Celtic borrowings. ―However, a more recent and still minority view is that distinctive Celtic traits can be discerned in syntax from the post-Old English period, such as the regular progressive construction and analytic word order in opposition to the Germanic languages.‖ (―Old English‖)

Some of the words are ―dialectal such as cumb (deep valley) or loch (lake). Reminders of Britain‘s Celtic past are mainly in the form of Celtic-based placenames including river names such as Avon, ‗river‘, Don, Exe, Severn and Thames. Town names include Dover, ‗water‘, Eccles, ‗church‘, Kent, Leeds, London and York.― (―The sources of English words―)

French (Norman) influence French borrowings include partucilarly the legal, military, and political terminology. There are words for the meat of an animal, noble words or words referring to food – e.g., au gratin. Nearly 30 % of English words (in an 80,000 word dictionary) may be of French origin. (―Foreign language influences in English‖)

Examples of more French loanwords are as following: - government: parliament, chancellor, government, country, crown - finance: treasure, wage, poverty - law: attorney, plaintiff, larceny, fraud, jury, verdict - war: battle, army, castle, tower, siege, banner - religion: miracle, charity, saint, pardon - morality: virtue, vice, gentle, patience, courage, mercy, courtesy, pity - recreation: falcon, covert, scent, chase, quarry - art, fashion, etc.: apparel, costume, gown, art, beauty, colour, image, design, cushion, tapestry - cuisine: stew, grill, roast, . . . (compare these with AS-based terms like bake), bacon, mutton, pork, veal, venison (compare these with AS-based terms like boar, calf, cow, deer, ox, sheep, swine) - household relationships: uncle, aunt, nephew, cousin (form from OE: father, mother, brother and from Scandinavian sister). (―The sources of English words‖)

2. History of golf and its terminology The origins of golf are quite unclear. Although Scotland is said to be the ―home of golf‖, who actually invented the game is much debated.

A golf-like game is said to be of Dutch origin. In 1297, in the Netherlands, the Dutch played a game with a stick and leather ball. The aim was to hit the ball with the least number of strokes into a target several hundred yards away. Some scholars say that a game similar to golf was played in China, 500 years before Scotland. The Mongolian travellers brought golf to Europe and then Scotland in the late Middle Ages. Golf as it is played now is a Scottish invention. Unlike the others who played with a stick and a ball, the Scots introduced the hole. The first documented mention of golf is in a 1457 Act of the Scottish Parliament. King James II of Scotland prohibited the playing of golf because it meant a distraction from archery practice. In 1603 James VI of Scotland succeeded to the throne of England and his son Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales and his courtiers played golf at Blackheath, London. During the 18th and early 19th centuries the Scottish soldiers, expatriates and emigrants took the game to British colonies and elsewhere. By the 1880s golf clubs had been established in Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa. (―History of golf‖).

We can also learn about instructions for playing golf from the diary of Thomas Kincaid. The rules of golf were written in 1744 for the Company of Gentlemen Golfers.

The word golf was possibly derived from the Scots gouf meaning ―to strike or cuff‖. Gouf may be derived the Dutch word kolf, meaning ―bat‖ or ―club‖. (―History of golf‖).

Scotland, England and the United States have had an enormous impact on the modern golfer‘s lexicon. Purely Scottish words are: bunker, caddie, divot, links, putt, stance, stymie, and tee and such straightforward but technical terms as drive and stroke; match and medal; drop and lift; head, shaft, and whipping; ballmaker and clubmaker were already in standard golfing usage in Scotland in the 18th century or before. The modern period of overwhelming American prowess and influence on the game can be illustrated by terms birdie, eagle, Mulligan and Nassau. (Davies 2005: 9)

As new golfing terms have accumulated, old ones have changed or faded away. The golfer of one hundred years ago spoke of the fair green not the fairway, etc. Words such as course and

12 hazard were in familiar use, but they did not mean what they do now. The origins of most of the words have been more or less cleared up, but a few classic cases remain, not surprisingly, lost in the mists of golfing antiquity.

3. Glossary 3.1 English golf terminology There is a lot of golf terminology and it is essential for any beginning golfer to familiarize with at least basic terms to be able to play the game and communicate adequately with other golfers. The golf terminology can be described from different aspects, from golf etiquette, golf swing and golf attire.

I have gathered fifty most common golf terms to analyse their history background. There are some terms in which it was not possible to find their etymology and there are only their definitions.

Ace is ―when a player hits the ball directly from the tee into the hole with one stroke.‖ (―Ace‖ in en.wikipedia.org) Another expression of the word ace is a hole in one. It comes from Old French meaning ―one at dice,‖ from Latin (gen. assis) ―a unit, one, a whole, unity.‖ (―Ace‖ in www.etymoonline.com)

Albatross, or Double Eagle, means a hole played three strokes under par. The golf term albatross is probably from ―Spanish/Portuguese alcatraz.― (―Albatross‖) The word means pelican and it comes from 16th century.

Birdie expresses a hole played in one stroke under par. It is from late 18th century. The golf term comes from ―US slang bird and stands for any first-rate thing.― (Hoad 1986:doplnit)

Bogey means a hole played one stroke over par. The term comes from a song that was popular in the British Isles in the early 1890s, called "The Bogey Man" (later known as "The Colonel Bogey March"). The man from the song was hiding in the shadows and telling others to catch him. It is said that ―golfers in Scotland and England equated the quest for the elusive Bogey Man with the quest for the elusive perfect score.‖ (―Bogey‖)

Bunker is ―a hazard consisting of a prepared area of ground, often a hollow, from which turf or soil has been removed and replaced with sand or the like.― (―Bunker―)

The origin of the word is Scottish and it comes from bunker meaning ―chest or box,― hence also ―small deep sandpit in linksland.― (Davies 2005: 29)

Caddy/Caddie is a person, who carries a player‘s clubs, offers advice to the player and is often paid for it. The word is of Scottish origin and comes from caddie or cadie (18th century) meaning ―messenger, errand-boy,― from Old Scottish caddie, cadie, or caudie meaning ―army cadet,― from French cadet meaning ―younger son, army cadet.― (Davies 2005: doplnit)

The term represented a gentleman who became a member of the army without a commission and wanted to learn the profession and be in a military career. Later it meant ―odd-job man.― (―Caddie―)

Cart is the electrical or gas-powered vehicle used for ―transporting players and their equipment from hole to hole.― (―Cart― in en.wikipedia.org) It is from ―Old Norse kartr, akin to and replacing Old English cræt.― (―Cart― in www.etymoonline.com)

The golf expression carry has two meanings. You can ―carry clubs as a caddie or play clear over a hazard or obstacle.― (Davies 2005: 35) It is from ―Anglo-Norman French and Old North Frenchcarier, based on Latincarrus.‖ (Pearsall 2002: doplnit)

Club serves in golf ―to strike the ball, consisting essentially of a thin shaft with a grip for holding it and a clubhead of wood or iron.‖ (Davies 2005: 41) The word is of ―Middle English origin, from Old Norse clubba, variant of klumba; related to clump.‖(―Club‖)

Clubhead is ―the part of the golf club attached to the end of the shaft.― (―Clubhead― in golf.about.com) Club is from ―Middle English clubbe, from Old Norse klubba and head is from Middle English hed, heed, heved, heaved, from Old English hēafod.― (―Clubhead― in en.wiktionary.org)

Cut in golf has got three meanings. Firstly, it is the elimination of the lower half of a stoke- play field at the midpoint of the game. Secondly, it can mean a shot in which the player causes a fade. Thirdly, it can also refer to ―the positioning of the hole on the green.― (―Cut― in golf.about.com)

It is of ―Middle English origin, probably of Germanic origin and related to Norwegian kutte and Icelandic kuta (cut with a small knife), kuti (small blunt knife).― (―Cut― in oxforddictionaries.com)

Divot is ―a piece of turf cut from the ground by the clubhead in the making of a stroke or the cavity left by a divot.― (Davies 2005: 50) It is of Scottish origin and derives from Old Scottish divot, devat, or duvate=piece of turf, esp. as used for roof insulation or for fuel. The ultimate origin is unknown.

Dogleg can be ―a fairway embodying a sharp turn, or a hole that has such a fairway or to make a sharp turn.― (Davies 2005: 50)

Double bogey expresses ―a score of two strokes over par for a hole.― (Davies 2005: 51)

Dormie means that a player can relax and cannot loose the match because he is in the lead by as many holes as there are still to be played. It is derived from the French/Latin cognate ―dormir,― meaning to sleep. (―Dormie―)

Drive is ―the first shot of each hole, made from an area called the tee box.― (―Drive―). It is from ―Old English drīfan ‗urge (a person or animal) to go forward‘, of Germanic origin; related to Dutch drijven and Germantreiben.― (―Drive― in oxforddictionaries).

Driver is ―the golf club that is designed to hit the ball from the tee.― (―Driver―).

Driving range is ―a tract of land for practicing long golf shots, especially drives, with clubs and balls available for rent from the management.― (―Driving range―).

Eagle means―a score of two under par for a given hole, was clearly the extension of the theme of birds for good scores.‖ (Davies 2005: doplnit) It is natural for American golfers think of the Eagle, which is their national symbol. A score of two under Par could be 'big birdie' and an Eagle is a big bird. It is of ―Middle English origin, from Old French aigle, from Latinaquila.― (―Eagle‖).

Equipment is ―anything used, worn or carried by the player or anything carried for the player by his partner or either of their caddies, except any ball he has played at the hole being played and any small object, such as a coin or a tee, when used to mark the position of a ball or the extent of an area in which a ball is to be dropped.― (―Equipment― in golf.about.com) It was first used in 1717. It is from ―French équipement.‖ (―Equipment‖ in www.etymoonline.com)

Fade is ―a shot that, for a right-handed golfer, curves slightly to the right, and is often played intentionally by skilled golfers.― (―Fade― in Wikipedia). It is ―Middle English origin (in the sense ‗grow weak‘), from Old French fader, from fade' dull, insipid', probably based on a blend of Latin fatuus 'silly, insipid' and vapidus 'vapid'.― (―Fade― in oxforddictionaries.com).

Fairway is ―the area of the course between the tee and the green that is well-maintained allowing a good lie for the ball.― (―Fairway―). The word fairway was originally used as nautical term and it meant ―a clear channel between rocks or shallows.‖ (Davies 2005: doplnit) Later it replaced the old golf term fair green.

Flagstick is ―a tall marker, often a metal pole with a flag at the top, used to indicate the position of the hole on a green.― (―Flagstick― in en.wikipedia.org) The word flag is ―of Middle English origin, flagge (flag), of Dutch or North Germanic origin. Stick is ―of Middle English stikke (stick, rod, twig), from Old English sticca (rod, twig).― (―Flagstick― in www.memidex.com)

Flier is ―a shot that flies further than desired as a result of decreased backspin, usually resulting from long (but also could be water) between the ball and clubface at impact.― It can also be ―a lie that causes the ball to fly farther than intended.― (―Flier― in www.pgaprofessional.com) It is formed from to fly + er. The origin is ―of Old English flȳġe, flēoge.― (―Flier― in www.etymoonline.com)

Flight is ―a term for a division of golfers within a golf tournament.― There are golfers with similar skills in each flight. (―Flight‖ in golf.about.com). The origin is ―of Old English flyht ‗action or manner of flying‘, of Germanic origin; related to Dutch vlucht and fly.― (―Flight― in oxforddictionaries.com).

Fore is of Scottish origin, from the shortened word before or afore. ―The old Scottish warning, essentially meaning "look out ahead," most probably originated in military circles, where it was used by artillery men as a warning to troops in forward positions.‖ (―Fore‖) In the early 18th century, golfers started to used this warning cry on the links.

Golf is ―of Scottish origin, from Old Scottish golf, glove, gowf, gouf (and other spellings); probably borrowed from medieval Dutch colf =‖club,‖ and spel metten colven =‖game

(played) with club,‖ name of a Dutch game resembling golf.― (Davies 2005: 75-76) Golf which probably developed from Dutch atecedents, was first recorded in Scotland in the 15th century and from the 18th century in was played under codified rules.

Green is chiefly Scottish origin. It is ―the clear area of short grass on which a hole is situated; now generally mown and rolled to the smoothest possible texture.― (Davies 2005: 79)

Hacker is ―an unskilled golfer.― (―Hacker― in en.wikipedia.org) It comes from ―Old English tohaccian (hack to pieces).― (―Hacker― in en.wiktionary.org)

Handicap is ―a number assigned to each player based on his ability and used to adjust each player's score to provide equality among the players.― (―Handicap― in Wikipedia)

It comes from ―mid 17th century, from the phrase hand in cap.― Originally a pastime in which one person claimed an article belonging to another and offered something in exchange, any difference in value being decided by an umpire. All three deposited forfeit money in a cap; the two opponents showed their agreement or disagreement with the valuation by bringing out their hands either full or empty. If both were the same, the umpire took the forfeit money; if not it went to the person who accepted the valuation. The term handicap race was applied (late 18th century) to a horse race in which an umpire decided the weight to be carried by each horse, the owners showing acceptance or dissent in a similar way: hence in the late 19th century handicap came to mean the extra weight given to the superior horse.― (―Handicap― in oxforddictionaries.com)

Hole is a ―circular hole in the ground which is also called the cup, 4.25 inches in diameter.― (―Hole― in en.wikipedia.org) It is of ―Old English origin hol ―orifice, holllow place, cave, perfomation.― (―Hole― in www.etymoonline.com)

Hole-in-one means ―getting the ball directly from the tee into the hole with one stroke.― (―Hole-in-one―).

Hook means ―of a right-handed player, to play (the ball or a shot) so that it curves owing to sidespin strongly from right to left, often having started in a path to the right of the target line;

18 and the converse for a left-handed player.― (Davies 2005: doplnit) The origin is ―Old English hoc, of Gmc origin.‖ (Pearsall 2002: doplnit)

Iron is ―a club with a flat-faced solid metal head generally numbered from 1 to 9 indicating increasing loft.‖ (―Iron‖ in en.wikipedia.org) It is from ―Old English isaern.‖ (―Iron‖ in www.memidex.com)

Links is ―a stretch of land near the coast characterised by undulating terrain, often associated with dunes, infertile sandy soil and indigenous grasses.‖ (―Links‖ in www.britishgolfmuseum.co.uk) It is from ―Scottish/Northumbrian link meaning sandy, rolling ground near seashore and from Old English hlinc meaning rising ground, ridge.‖ (―Links‖ in www.etymoonline.com)

Loft is ―of a right-handed player, to play (the ball or a shot) so that it curves owing to sidespin strongly from right to left, often having started in a path to the right of the target line; and the converse for a left-handed player.― (Davies 2005: 92) It originates from ―Old English, from Old Norse lopt meaning air, upper room, of Gmc origin.‖ (Pearsall 2002: doplnit)

―There are several clubs and several people who have staked claims about the origin of the term ’mulligan.‘ The story most widely accepted focuses on a gentleman named David Mulligan who played at the St. Lambert CC in Montreal, Canada during the 1920s. There are several versions of the David Mulligan story. Mr. Mulligan was a hotelier in the first half of the century, a part-owner and manager of the Biltmore Hotel in New York City, as well as several large Canadian hotels.

One story says that the first mulligan was an impulsive sort of event—that one day Mulligan hit a very long drive off the first tee, just not straight, and acting on impulse re-teed and hit again. His partners found it all amusing, and decided that the shot that Mulligan himself called a ‘correction shot‘ deserved a better named, so they called it a ‘mulligan.‘

Story two: Mulligan played regularly with a group of friends at St. Lambert, and in the morning he drove to pick up his golfing buddies. The road into the club was reportedly bumpy and windy and just sort of generally poor, with bridge of bumpy railroad ties. An extra

19 shot was allotted to Mulligan, the driver of the car, on the first tee because he was jumpy and shaking from the difficult drive.

Story three: this story again identified a specific moment, citing a day when David Mulligan showed up late to the course, having scrambled to get out of bed late and get dressed and get to the course on time. He was frazzled on the first tee, hit a poor shot, and re-teed.

Another version of the ‘mulligan‘ story comes from the Essex Fells CC in N.J. This story is one of the latest, and may therefore be less credible. According to this version, the term was named after a locker room attendant at the club named John A. ‘Buddy‘ Mulligan, who worked at the club during the 1930s and was known for replaying shots, particularly on the first tee.‖ (―Mulligan‖).

Par is―standard score for a hole (defined by its length) or a course (sum of all the holes' pars)― (―Par― in Wikipedia). The golf term dates from ―the late 19th century.― (―Par― in oxforddictionaries.com).

Pitch is―a short shot (typically from within 50 yards), usually played with a higher lofted club and made using a less than full swing, that is intended to flight the ball toward a target (usually the hole) with greater accuracy than a full iron shot.― (―Pitch― in Wikipedia).

The origin is ―Middle English (as a verb in the senses thrust (something pointed) into the groundand fall headlong): perhaps related to Old Englishpicungmeaning stigmata, of unknown ultimate origin. The sense development is obscure.― (―Pitch― in oxforddictionaries.com).

Putt is ―a shot played on the green, usually with a putter.― (―Putt―). ―Origin is Scottish, from put or putt=―to push gently, nudge‖; a Scottish form of the same verb that in standard southern English became put (Old English Putian=―to push, place‖). In golf, whether spelled put or putt, the word was always pronounced to rhyme with but. The alternate spelling put survived into the 20 century but is not obsolete.― (Davies 2005: 134-135)

Putter is ―a club designed for putting, generally straight-faced or nearly so, of upright lie, and short-shafted. Up to the 1850s the putter was always a wooden club; then iron putters were

20 introduced and became prevalent; and from the turn of the century numerous innovative designs such as the center-shafted putter were also introduced.― (Davies 2005: 135)

Rough is ―ground on a course where the grass and other vegetation is considerably heavier than on the fairway.― (Davies 2005: 142) Origin is ―Old Englishrūh, of West Germanic origin; related to Dutchruw and Germanrauh. ―(―Rough―)

Sand wedge is ―a lofted club designed especially for playing out of a bunker. The modern sand wedge was invented by Gene Sarazen.― (―Sand wedge―).

Slice is ―a poor shot that, for a right-handed golfer, curves sharply from the left to the right.― (―Slice― in Wikipedia). Origin is ―Middle English (in the sense ‗fragment, splinter‘): shortening of Old French esclice 'splinter', from the verb esclicier, of Germanic origin; related to German schleissen 'to slice', also to slit.― (―Slice― in oxforddictionaries.com).

The golf term Stableford was ―invented in 1931 by Dr. Frank Stableford of the Wallasey and Royal Liverpool Golf Clubs. It is chiefly British. It is a form of stroke competition in which points are won for scores in relation to a fixed score (or par) at each hole of a round.― (Davies 2005: 162)

Swing is ―the movement a golf player makes with his/her club to hit the ball.― ―A perfect golf swing is regarded as the ―holy grail― of the sport, and there are many approaches as to how to achieve ―perfection―.― (―Swing― in en.wikipedia.org) It is from Old English swingan ―to rush, fling oneself―. (―Swing― in www.memidex.com)

Tee is ―a small peg, usually made of wood or plastic, placed in the ground upon which the golf ball may be placed prior to the first stroke on a hole.― (―Tee― in Wikipedia). ―In golf, 1721, back-formation from teaz (1673), taken as a plural; a Scottish word of uncertain origin. The original form was a little heap of sand. The verb meaning "place a ball on a golf tee" is recorded from 1673.― (―Tee― in etymoonline.com).

Wedge is a type of golf club. A subset of iron designed for short range strokes. Origin is ―Old Englishwecg (noun), of Germanic origin; related to Dutchwig.― (―Wedge―).

Wood is ―a type of club where the head is generally bulbous in shape except for the clubface. Named because the head was originally made of wood, although almost all are now metal.― (―Wood― in en.wikipedia.org)

It is from Old English wudu, earlier widu ―tree, trees collectively, the substance of which trees are made.― (―Wood― in www.etymoonline.com)

3.2 Czech golf terminology In golf there are around one thousand expressions that are adopted from the English language and are pronounced phonetically, following the English spelling of the respective words, or they are adopted to Czech language and they have become either expressive or part of specific golf slang, being often synonymous with a more formal expression. I mostly used www.golf- start.cz, www.golfczech.cz and www.golfistou.cz when looking for Czech golf terms.

There are terms that are used both in English and in Czech. These terms are described in the previous chapter. They are as follows: albatross, backspin, birdie, bogey, bunker, caddie, carry, cut, divot, dogleg, dormie, double bogey, drive, driver, driving range, eagle, fade, fairway, flier, flight, fore, golf, green, handicap, hole-in-one, hook, loft, mulligan, par, pitch, putt, putter, rough, sand wedge, slice, stableford, tee, wedge.

I have found only one Czech golf term that does not exist in English. Gagarin - high, steep falling shot. It is informal.

There are also terms that were translated literally from English into Czech. Amatér (from amateur) – the opposite of professional, he does not receive money from the game.

Devatenáctá jamka (translation from English the nineteenth hole) – a slang golf term which refers to a pub or a bar near the golf course. It can be the clubhouse too. Players often go there after the game.

Dřevo (translation from English wood, also a driver) – a type of club used to hit the ball farther than any other type of golf club.

Eso (translation from English ace) – a hole in one.

Golfová výbava (translation from English golf equipment) – anything needed for playing golf.

Hlava hole (translation from English clubhead) – the head of the club which strikes the ball.

Hra na rány (translation from English stroke play) – is the most common form of golf competition. The player competes 18 holes and counts the total number of strokes. The winner is the player with the lowest number of strokes over the course.

Hřiště na mořských písčitých pobřeţích (translation from English links).

Jamka (translation from English hole) – hole in the putting green of 108mm to which a ball is supposed to fall down or the fairway between teeing ground and the putting green.

Jamkovka (translation from English match play) – scoring by holes rather than strokes, the way golf was originally played.

Krátká hra (translation from English short game) – passes on the green and putts.

Markovátko (translation from English marker) – usually a small, flat object (like a dime) used to mark the ball‘s position.

Odpaliště (translation from English teeing area) – the area used for the first putting.

Praporková tyč (translation from English flagstick) – a stick with a flag on it.

Řízek (meaning the same as the English term divot) – a piece of turf lifted when ball is struck.

Sněhulák (translation from English snowman) – a score of 8 on a hole.

Šlajs (transliteration from English slice) – a wildly curving shot from left to right for a right- handed player.

Švih (translation from English swing) – golf movement.

Týčko or Tee – a small plastic or wooden stand used to hold a ball for an initial drive.

Vozík (translation from English cart) – a vehicle to carry two golfers and their clubs around a golf course.

Ţelezo (translation from English iron) – a type of club mostly from number 3 to 9.

Ţiletka (translation from English blade) – a hole with wrought head of the hole.

The division of the E-Cz terms into: a) literal translations (calques) – devatenáctá jamka, dřevo, eso, golfová výbava, hlava hole, hra na rány, jamka, krátká hra, praporková tyč, sněhulák, švih, vozík, železo, žiletka, b) transliterations – amatér, markovátko, šlajs, týčko, c) equivalent translations – jamkovka, odpaliště, řízek, d) paraphrases – hřiště na mořských písčitých pobřežích.

4. Analysis of golf terminology 4.1 Formal criterion As far as word classes are concerned, most of the English golf terms are nouns. There are 30 ―pure‖ nouns out of 50 terms. 17 terms can be both nouns and verbs. Only 1 term can be used as a noun, a verb and an adjective. There is no ―pure‖ verb. There is also 1 adjective and 1 interjection.

Nouns – ace, albatross, backspin, bogey, cart, clubhead, cut, divot, driver, driving range, eagle, equipment, fade, fairway, flagstick, flier, flight, green, handicap, hacker, hole, iron, links, mulligan, putter, rough, sand wedge, stableford, swing, wood. Nouns and verbs – birdie, bunker, caddy/caddie, carry, club, dogleg, double bogey, drive, golf, hole-in-one, hook, loft, pitch, putt, slice, tee, wedge. Noun, verb, adjective – par. Adjective – dormie. Interjection – fore.

Graph 1. The proportion of word classes.

2% 2% 2%

Nouns

34% Nouns and verbs

Noun, verb and 60% adjective Adjective

Interjection

Graph 1 shows in percentages how nouns, verbs, adjectives and interjections are represented in the chosen golf terminology. There are 30 nouns (60 %), 17 nouns and verbs (34 %) which belong to multiple word class. There is 1 word (2 %) belonging to nouns, verbs and adjectives, 1 word (2 %) to adjectives and 1 word (2 %) to interjections.

Countable nouns – ace, albatross, birdie, bogey, bunker, caddy/caddie, cart, club, clubhead, cut, divot, dogleg, double bogey, drive, driver, driving range, eagle, fade, fairway, flagstick, flier, flight, green, hacker, handicap, hole, hole-in-one, hook, iron, links, loft, mulligan, pitch, putt, putter, sand wedge, slice, swing, tee, wedge, wood.

Uncountable nouns – backspin, carry, equipment, golf, par, rough, stableford.

Graph 2. The proportion of countable and uncountable nouns.

15%

Countable nouns

85% Uncountable nouns

Out of 48 nouns, there are 41 countable nouns and only 7 uncountable nouns. It is 85 % of countable nouns and 15 % of uncountable nouns.

Word formation Transfer from proper noun – albatross, bogey, eagle, mulligan, stableford. Derivation – birdie, dormie, driver, equipment, flier, flight, putter.

Conversion – bunker, caddy/caddie, carry, club, cut, divot, drive, fade, fore, golf, green, hacker, hook, loft, par, pitch, putt, rough, slice, swing, tee, wedge. Compounding – backspin, clubhead, dogleg, double bogey, driving range, fairway, flagstick, handicap, hole-in-one, sand wedge.

The most common way of coinage represents conversion with 22 words (50 %). Then follows compounding with 10 words (23 %). Derivation with 7 words (16 %) and transfer of proper noun with 5 words (11 %).

Grap 3. The percentage representation of the type of coinage.

11%

16% Conversion

50% Compounding

Derivation 23%

Transfer of proper noun

4.2 Etymological criterion In this part I will draw attention to the origin of the 50 golf terms.

Modern English - birdie, bogey, double bogey, driving range, handicap, mulligan, stableford. Old English – backspin, drive, fairway, flier, hacker, hole, hole-in-one, iron, swing, wood. Middle English – clubhead, cut, driver, dogleg, flagstick, pitch. French – equipment.

Old French – ace, eagle, fade, slice. Anglo-Norman French – carry. Old Norse – cart, club. Scottish – bunker, caddy/caddie, divot, fore, golf, green, links, putt, putter, tee. West Germanic – rough. Latin – par. Spanish/Portuguese - albatross. French/Latin origin – dormie. Germanic – flight, hook, loft, sand wedge, wedge.

There are 10 words (19 %) that are Scottish origin, 10 words (19 %) with Old English origin, 7 words (14 %) with Modern English origin. 6 words (12 %) belong to Middle English origin. There are 5 words (10 %) of Germanic origin that I wasn‘t able to specify more 4 words (8 %) are Old French origin. 2 words (4 %) are of Old Norse origin. There is 1 word (2 %) with French, Anglo-Norman French, West Germanic, Latin, Spanish/Portuguese and French/Latin origin.

Graph 4. The loanwords in the English golf terminology

Scottish

Old English 2% 2% 2% Modern English 2% 2% 2% 2% Middle English 19% Germanic 4% Old French 8% Old Norse

10% 19% Anglo-Norman French French

12% West Germanic 14% Latin

5. Conclusion The present thesis deals with the theory concerning the topic and the analysis of English golf terminology. The main focus is on golf lexicon from the etymological point of view.

The first part – chapters one and two – is theoretical and presents the lexicon and the sources of English and the types of word-formation. It also outlines the history of golf and its terminology.

Chapter one provides answers to the questions related to lexeme and lexicology. It also presents definition of word-formation processes and descriptions of the most frequent ones. There are also described the influences on the English language.

The following chapter focuses on the interesting and much debatable origins of golf and the word golf itself and its changing lexicon.

The second part – chapters three, four and five – is practical. The most extensive chapter three comes with the list of English and Czech golf terminology and the description of its meaning. The list contains 50 English golf terms and 22 Czech golf terms. Czech golfers translated some terms from the English language but still English terms are more often used.

Chapter four comes with the analysis of golf terminology from formal and etymological criterion. Out of 50 golf terms, there are mainly nouns - 30 (60 %) words, 17 (34 %) words can be used as nouns and verbs. There are forty-one (85 %) countable nouns. The most typical word-formation process is conversion with 18 (41 %) words. Most words, 10 (20 %), are of Scottish and Old English origin.

To sum up, the contribution of this thesis lies in the compilation of a golf glossary, analysis according to the formal, word-formation and etymological criteria, comparison with equivalent Czech golf terminology, identifying the links between the English and the derived Czech terminology.

Works cited Books Adams, Valerie. An Introduction to Modern English Word-formation. London: Longman, 1973.

Davies, Peter. The Historical Dictionary of Golfing Terms: from 1500 to the present. University of Nebraska Press: 2005.

Hoad, T.F. The Consice Oxford dictionary of English etymology. Oxford/Clarendon Press: 1986.

Jackson, Howard, Zé Amvela, Etienne. Words, Meaning, and Vocabulary: an Introduction to Modern English Lexicology. London: Continuum, 2000.

Pearsall, Judy. Concise Oxford English dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 2002.

Quirk, Randoplh, Greenbaum Sidney, Leech Geoffrey, Svartvik Jan. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. New York: Longman, 1985.

Singleton, David. Language and the Lexicon. Oxford University Press Inc., New York: 2000.

Vogel, Radek. Basics of Lexicology. Brno: Masarykova Universita, 2007.

Electronic Sources ―Ace‖. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 22 March 2012. Web. 1 February 2012.

―Ace‖. Etymoonline.com. Douglas, Harper, 2001. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Albatross‖. Etymoonline.com. Douglas, Harper, 2001. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Bogey―. Usgamuseum.com. United States Golf Association, 2010. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Bunker―. Golf.about.com. About.com, 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Caddie―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Cart―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 4 March 2012. Web. 1 February 2012.

―Cart―. Etymoonline.com. Douglas, Harper, 2001. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Club―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Clubhead―. Golf.about.com. About.com, 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Clubhead―. Wiktionary, The Free Dictionary. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 8 April 2012. Web. 14 April 2012.

―Cut―. Golf.about.com. About.com, 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Cut―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Dormie―. Usgamuseum.com. United States Golf Association, 2010. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Drive―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Drive―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Driver―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Driving range―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Eagle―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Equipment―. Golf.about.com. About.com, 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Equipment―. Etymoonline.com. Douglas, Harper, 2001. Web. 4 February 2012. ―Fade.― Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Fade―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 4 February 2012.

―Fairway―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Flagstick―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 April 2012. Web. 10 April 2012.

―Flagstick―. Memidex.com. Memidex. 13 February 2012. Web. 10 April 2012.

―Flier―. PGAProfessional.com. 1998-2012. Web. 10 April 2012.

―Flier―. Etymoonline.com. Douglas, Harper, 2001. Web. 10 April 2012.

―Flight―. Golf.about.com. About.com, 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Flight―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Fore―. Usgamuseum.com. United States Golf Association, 2010. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Foreign language influences in English―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 11 April 2012. Web. 18 March 2012.

―Hacker‖. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Hacker‖. Wiktionary, The Free Dictionary. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 10 April 2012. Web. 14 April 2012.

―Handicap‖. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 5 February 2012. ―Handicap‖. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―History of golf‖. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 February 2012. Web. 11 February 2012.

―Hole‖. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 April 2012. Web. 15 April 2012.

―Hole―. Etymoonline.com. Douglas, Harper, 2001. Web. 15 April 2012.

―Hole-in-one‖. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 April 2012. Web. 15 April 2012.

―Iron‖. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 April 2012. Web. 15 April 2012.

―Iron―. Memidex.com. Memidex. 13 February 2012. Web. 10 April 2012.

―Latin influence in English―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 11 April 2012. Web. 29 March 2012.

―Lexeme‖. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 22 November 2011. Web. 1 February 2012.

―Links‖. Britishgolfmuseum.co.uk. 2001-2012. Web. 10 April 2012.

―Links‖. Etymoonline.com. Douglas, Harper, 2001. Web. 15 April 2012.

―Mulligan‖. Usgamuseum.com. United States Golf Association, 2010. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Old English‖. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 11 April 2012. Web. 9 April 2012.

―Online Etymology Dictionary‖. Etymoonline.com. Douglas, Harper, 2001. Web. 2 February 2012.

―Par―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Par―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Pitch―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 5 February 2012.

―Pitch―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 6 February 2012.

―Putt―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 6 February 2012.

―Rough―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 6 February 2012.

―Sand wedge―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 6 February 2012.

―Slice―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 6 February 2012.

―Slice―. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 6 February 2012.

―Swing―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 April 2012. Web. 10 April 2012.

―Swing―. Memidex.com. Memidex. 13 February 2012. Web. 10 April 2012.

―The sources of English words‖. Courses.nus.edu.sg/course/elltankw/history/vocab/d.htm. Web. 11 April 2012.

―Tee―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 January 2012. Web. 6 February 2012.

―Tee―. Etymoonline.com. Douglas, Harper, 2001. Web. 6 February 2012.

―Wedge‖. Oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford University Press, 2012. Web. 6 February 2012.

―Wood―. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 April 2012. Web. 10 April 2012.

―Wood―. Etymoonline.com. Douglas, Harper, 2001. Web. 6 February 2012.