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Varroa Mites and Honey Bee Health: Can Varroa Explain Part of the Colony Losses?*

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Varroa Mites and Honey Bee Health: Can Varroa Explain Part of the Colony Losses?* Apidologie 41 (2010) 353–363 Available online at: c INRA/DIB-AGIB/EDP Sciences, 2010 www.apidologie.org DOI: 10.1051/apido/2010017 Review article Varroa mites and honey bee health: can Varroa explain part of the colony losses?* Yves Le Conte1,MarionEllis2,WolfgangRitter3 1 INRA, UMR 406 Abeilles et Environnement, Laboratoire de Biologie et Protection de l’abeille, 84914 Avignon Cedex 9, France 2 University of Nebraska, Department of Entomology, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA 3 CVUA, Fachgebiet Bienen, 79108 Freiburg, Germany Received 16 December 2009 – Revised 9 February 2010 – Accepted 13 February 2010 Abstract – Since 2006, disastrous colony losses have been reported in Europe and North America. The causes of the losses were not readily apparent and have been attributed to overwintering mortalities and to a new phenomenon called Colony Collapse Disorder. Most scientists agree that there is no single explanation for the extensive colony losses but that interactions between different stresses are involved. As the presence of Varroa in each colony places an important pressure on bee health, we here address the question of how Varroa contributes to the recent surge in honey bee colony losses. Varroa destructor / Apis mellifera / colony collapse disorder / winter losses / honey bee stressors The Varroa mite (Varroa destructor) been attributed to overwintering mortalities switched from its natural host (Apis cerana) and to a new phenomenon called Colony to Apis mellifera, the European honey bee Collapse Disorder (CCD). Most scientists (HB), when HBs were moved into areas where agree that there is no single explanation for the Apis cerana is endemic. In Apis mellifera extensive colony losses but that interactions the mite found a far less resistant host, and between different stresses are likely involved. subsequently spread nearly worldwide (Peng AsthepresenceofVarroa in every colony et al., 1987; Oldroyd, 1999). Because Varroa places an important pressure on bee health, and HBs have not co-evolved for a long period we here address the question of how Varroa of time, they do not exhibit an adapted host- contributes to the recent surge in HB colony parasite relationship, resulting in Varroa often losses. killing its host. During the first years after its introduction in Europe and North America the There are undoubtedly various causes for mite could be easily controlled by one to two recent colony losses. However, CCD and win- chemical treatments per year. Colony losses tering mortalities have been cited as the most have continued to increase since the turn of frequent reasons. CCD was first reported in the millennium despite the development of HB colonies in the USA. One interesting ob- more intensive control measures. Since 2006, servation is that at the time of collapse, Var- disastrous colony losses have been reported roa mite populations were not at levels known in Europe and North America. The causes of to cause economic injury or population de- the losses were not readily apparent and have cline (vanEngelsdorp et al., 2009). Three dif- ferent descriptive case analyses have been con- Corresponding author: Y. Le Conte, ducted on colonies having CCD symptoms. [email protected] The first used a metagenomic approach to look * Manuscript editor: Marla Spivak at candidate pathogens associated with CCD Article published by EDP Sciences 354 Y. Le Conte et al. and found only one organism, Israeli acute the symptoms. A large number of dead bees paralysis virus (IAPV), to be strongly corre- at the hive bottom or in front of the entrance lated with CCD (Cox-Foster et al., 2007). An- point to food scarcity or a disease like Nosema. other study looked at changes in transcript Empty nests with brood and food suggest that abundance of bees related to CCD. Sixty-five Varroa may be the cause (Ritter, 1988). Possi- transcripts were identified as potential mark- bly in contrast to CCD, in those colonies the ers for CCD, but elevated expression of pes- existing bees and brood generally exhibited a ticide response genes was not observed, and high level of Varroa infestation (Ritter et al., genes involved in immune response showed 1984). Bees as well as brood parasitized by no clear trend in expression pattern despite Varroa are nearly 100% infested by Deformed the increased prevalence of viruses and other Wing Virus (DWV) (Genersch, 2005), and of- pathogens in CCD colonies (Johnson et al., ten also by Acute Bee Paralysis Virus (ABPV) 2009). A third epizootic study characterized (Ball, 1985). CCD and the risk factors associated with Many physical and physiological detrimen- populations exhibiting CCD (vanEngelsdorp tal effects of the Varroa mite have been de- et al., 2009). Bees in CCD colonies had higher scribed at the individual bee and colony lev- pathogen loads and were co-infected with a els. Repeated Varroa feeding on adult bee greater number of pathogens compared to con- and brood hemolymph injures the bees physi- trol populations, suggesting an interaction be- cally, reduces their protein content and wet and tween pathogens and other stress factors in dry body weights, and interferes with organ CCD and a possible legacy effect of mite para- development (Schneider and Drescher, 1987; sitism (vanEngelsdorp et al., 2009). An impor- Bowen-Walker and Gunn, 2001). The parasitic tant point is that descriptive case studies only mite and the viruses they vector contribute to showed the state of the bees when they were morphological deformities (small body size, collected. Varroa populations could have dif- shortened abdomen, deformed wings), which fered prior to sampling, causing an immuno- reduce vigor and longevity, and they also in- suppression response possibly leading to sub- fluence flight duration and the homing abil- sequent pathogen and virus development. Like ity of foragers (Schneider and Drescher, 1987; all descriptive studies, definitive statements Koch and Ritter, 1991; Romero-Vera and cannot be made concerning factors causing Otero-Colina, 2002; Garedew et al., 2004; CCD, and there is no clear evidence to date to Kralj and Fuchs, 2006). The mite weakens suggest that Varroa is or is not involved. The the bee’s immune system, suppressing the hypothesis that CCD is due to the invasive Var- expression of immune-related genes and in- roa mite and its capability to suppress immune creasing DWV viral titers, both of which responses cannot be excluded, and in fact is reduce worker survivorship and colony fit- supported by the study of vanEngelsdorp et al. ness (Yang and Cox-Foster, 2005, 2007). A (2009). number of viruses including DWV, ABPV, Wintering mortalities are well known to Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus (CBPV), Slow beekeepers, and some losses are inevitable. Bee Paralysis Virus (SPV), Black Queen Cell Twenty years ago, it was acceptable to have 5 Virus (BQCV), Kashmir Bee Virus (KBV), to 10% winter colony losses. Today, the losses Cloudy Wing Virus (CWV), and Sacbrood are often up to 20% or more in many areas (see Virus (SBV) have been shown to be associated the special issue on colony losses in Journal of to varying degrees with V. destructor infesta- Apicultural Research, 2010). Different causes tion (Ball and Allen, 1988; Allen and Ball, can explain winter mortality: queen losses, 1996; Martin, 1998, 2001; Tentcheva et al., lack of adequate food reserves, low fall popu- 2004; Carreck et al., 2010; Martin et al., 2010). lations, poor foraging conditions, diseases and However, recent findings did not find evidence parasites, including failure of treatments to ad- of CWV transmission by the mite (Carreck equately control Varroa. For an analysis of the et al., 2010). causes of winter losses it is very important to The role of Varroa mites as a vector in consider how and when the losses occur and transmitting viruses from infected individuals Varroa mites and honey bee health 355 to healthy bees has been demonstrated. Varroa to contribute to the build-up of colony strength feeds on brood and adult bees and moves in the early spring. When high mite levels quickly from one bee to another (Le Conte are present, parasitized colonies collapse dur- and Arnold, 1987). The Varroa mite can facili- ing the winter (Kovac and Crailsheim, 1988; tate the horizontal transmission of DWV, SBV, Boecking and Genersch, 2008). APV, IAPV and KBV viruses from nurse bees Therefore, V. destructor continues to be a to larvae through larval food and via brood very serious threat of the HB and the inva- to adults (Ball, 1985;Chenetal.,2004). It sive parasitic mite still decimates HB popu- can also be transmitted vertically by drones lations throughout the world. It has been the via semen and by queens via virus infected case in the USA where it reached disastrous eggs (Yue et al., 2006, 2007). In addition, proportions especially during winters of 1995 there is evidence for horizontal mite-to-mite to 1996 and 2000 and 2001 with colony deaths transmission of viruses (Bowen-Walker et al., reaching 50 to 100% in many beekeeping op- 1999;Chenetal.,2004, 2005). A few of those erations (Kaplan, 2008; Pettis and Delaplane, virus can replicate in the Varroa mite and are 2010, this issue). The situation is similar in Eu- present in mite saliva, which suggests that Var- rope (Moritz et al., 2010, this issue). In central roa is likely an active biological vector for Europe, a high number of colony losses oc- bee viruses (Ongus et al., 2004;Shenetal., curred in the winter of 2002 to 2003 (Hendrikx 2005;Chenetal.,2006). Clinical morpho- et al., 2009), and in southern Europe especially logical symptoms like deformed wings and during the year of 2005 (Higes, 2005). The his- shortened abdomens only develop when Var- tory of Varroa in the USA and Europe make roa is associated with DWV, which is lethal to it logical to ask what role Varroa parasitism the bees (Ball and Allen, 1988; Martin, 1998; plays in the recent HB losses worldwide.
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