Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology Volume 8 · 2016‒2017 Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology Volume 8 • 2016‒2017

An annual publication of The Samuel and Saidye Bronfman Archaeology Wing, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem

This volume was made possible by The Montgomery Securities and Friends Endowment Fund of the Israel Museum Additional support was provided by Dr. David and Jemima Jeselsohn, Zurich

Editor: Silvia Rozenberg Associate editors: Shirly Ben-Dor Evian, Debby Hershman English editor: Miriam Feinberg Vamosh Advisory Board: Tallay Ornan, Rina Talgam, Haim Goldfus

Design adaptation: Batya Segal Original design concept: Masha Pozina Printed by Elinir Digital Print, Petah Tikva

All correspondence and papers for publication should be addressed to:

The Editor Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology The Israel Museum, Jerusalem P.O.B. 71117, Jerusalem 9171002 Israel

E-mail address: [email protected]

Front cover: Bronze candelabra and lamps from a Byzantine hoard, 6th century CE Back cover: Bezel design of a bronze signet ring from a Byzantine hoard, 6th century CE (drawn from the positive) Contents

Yigal Bloch and Laura A. Peri 2 I Placed My Name There: The Great Inscription of Tukulti-Ninurta I, King of Assyria, from the Collection of David and Cindy Sofer, London

Rachel Caine Kreinin 57 “Divine Reflexivity”: a Case Study of Greco-Roman Egyptian Terracotta Figurines from the Collection of the Israel Museum, Jerusalem

Orit Peleg-Barkat, Hillel Geva and 74 A Monumental Herodian Ionic Capital Ronny Reich from the Upper City of Jerusalem

Ronny Reich 89 Addendum 1: Where was the Capital Incorporated?

Orit Peleg-Barkat, Hillel Geva 91 Addendum 2: A Monumental Herodian Ionic Capital from the Royal Stoa? – a Reply to Ronny Reich

Tali Sharvit 97 A Marble Sphinx Statue from Horvat Omrit

Moshe Fischer, Arie Nissenbaum and 116 Appendix: Yannis Maniatis Marble Analysis of the Omrit Sphinx

Karni Golan, Haim Goldfus and 117 Why Hide? – Hoarding in Late David Mevorah Antiquity in View of a Byzantine Hoard from Israel

Bruno Callegher 162 A Hoard of Byzantine Folles (ca. 610 CE) within a Hoard of Bronze Objects: Some Hypotheses

170 Information for Contributors

171 Abbreviations

A Marble Sphinx Statue n incomplete white marble sculpture of a female sphinx was found during from Horvat Omrit Athe 2004 excavation season in Horvat Omrit (hereafter, Omrit), in northern Israel (fig. 1).2 The sphinx, whose head is missing, Tali Sharvit1 is depicted with a winged human torso with female breasts on a lion’s lower part. The Israel Museum, Jerusalem Crouching on its hind legs, its tail curls over the right hind paw, while the forepaws are broken down from the elbows. Hair locks remain over the shoulders as well as parts of the broken wings springing from the shoulder blades. Traces of red color are still preserved over the nape and inside the hair curls. The sphinx is attached to a rectangular plinth with a high, partly broken, vertical board at the back that was presumably concealed to the viewer (2:a–d).3 The statue was found in the temple complex at Omrit, where a series of three temples was built, each new temple replacing and enveloping its predecessor. Its exact find spot was in fill that was cleared from Area SP1, related to the secondary foundation walls of Temple II, dated to the Flavian period, within the earlier Temple I podium (fig. 3). The fill contained other sculpted marble fragments and inscriptions, fragments of architectural elements, ash, bones, plaster, pottery and glass. The sphinx was found under a marble slab with an inscription of a probable Late Roman–Byzantine date, and in the adjacent locus a Byzantine lamp was found. It seems that this sub-floor area was opened and filled in the Byzantine period.4

Background The sphinx is a hybrid mythological creature with an animal body (usually a lion) and a human head (male or female); adorned with wings and/or horns.5 Over the centuries the creature’s depiction has

IMSA 8 • 2016–2017: 97–115 97 Fig. 1 appeared in a remarkable variety of combi- ended in a snake head and the paws were Map of the Omrit region nations that integrate various animals. The occasionally depicted as bird’s claws. From Fig. 2:a–d earliest artistic depictions, as a half-human, the 5th century BCE the female features, The sphinx from Omrit half-lion male creature, appeared in Egypt including breasts, became more prominent Fig. 3 around the middle of the 3rd millennium and the sphinx was commonly depicted in The Temple complex at 6 Horvat Omrit BCE. From Egypt the sphinx probably a crouching posture. spread to Mesopotamia, the Levant and The sphinx also found its way to the Mediterranean, usually in a religious Greek literature and myth. While Homer or heroic context. In the first third of the has no reference to the sphinx, Hesiod (8th 2nd millennium BCE, female sphinxes, century BCE) refers to it as the daughter of depicting queens or princesses, started to Echidna (or Chimera) and Orthus and the appear in Egypt.7 During the 2nd mil- sister of the Nemean Lion.9 In 5th-century lennium BCE, slightly differently depicted Greek literature the creature was described winged presentations of the Egyptian as a young winged woman with a lion’s10 sphinx spread to Asia and the Classical or dog’s11 lower body. In Boeotian myths, world. In the Near East and the ancient it is described as a female winged creature Land of Israel heraldic male and female related to Oedipus and the city of Thebes.12 pairs or pairs of female sphinxes became The sphinx was said to have been sent rather common.8 In Greece the sphinx to Thebes by Hera to bring disaster to was commonly depicted beginning in the the Kadmeians. In Thebes it seized and archaic period in Greek art. It appeared in devoured men, mostly young, every day. A painting, sculpture and in funerary contexts riddle composed on the advice of the Muses usually with a female head, wings and a was offered as a means of escape to her lion’s lower body. The lion’s tail sometimes victims: “What is that which has one voice

98 T. Sharvit: A Marble Sphinx Statue 2a 2b

2c 2d and yet becomes four-footed and two-footed seems to be an eclectic representation of the and three-footed?” Oedipus solved the riddle creature and not a direct copy of a known declaring that it referred to man, “for as a statue.15 babe he is four-footed, going on four limbs, In addition to the Omrit sphinx, a as an adult he is two-footed, and as an old few other sphinxes were found in Roman man he gets besides a third support in a Palestine. One is a fragment of an imported staff.” Oedipus then killed the monster, or oil lamp from Caesarea Maritima, depicting the sphinx killed herself by throwing herself a female sphinx crouching in a frontal from her rock.13 Apollodorus also gives the pose, with outspread wings and female fullest description of the sphinx: “She had breasts, probably of the 1st century CE. the face of a woman, the breast and feet and Its legs are tightly attached and its hair is tail of a lion, and the wings of a bird.”14 gathered behind with locks on its shoul- In Italy, the Etruscan sphinx followed ders.16 Another example is a lead coffin the Greek type and gradually gained popu- from Akhziv decorated in relief with female larity, subsequently becoming a common sphinxes, crouching to left or right, upon a theme in Roman art all over the Roman plinth. The coffin is dated to the late 2nd Empire. Greek, Hellenistic and Etruscan to mid-3rd centuries CE.17 None of these sphinxes were widely imitated; most examples are similar to the Omrit sphinx. common were the sphinxes copied from the The depiction of the Omrit sphinx is depictions on the throne of Zeus at Olympia quite naturalistic and it is well conveyed by and on the helmet of the Athena Parthenos the various textures achieved by carving, in Athens, both by Phidias. The Roman such as the smooth skin, coarse hair, tender type was usually depicted with a classical fur and delicate, feathered wings, and by the hairstyle (a braid on the back of the neck emphasized ribs and muscles under the skin. or hair locks over the shoulders) and with The well-proportioned body, naturally and stylized wings, and it incorporated animal correctly carved organs depicted by delicate udders on the stomach in addition to human plastic transitions, emphasize the superb female breasts. Fig. 4 In the Greek-speaking East, a region The sphinx from Omrit, detail: color preserved deeply influenced by Hellenistic culture, on the nape the Roman classicism of the imperial period receptively returned to Greek and Hellenistic traditions. Hence, it is no surprise that the Omrit sphinx, revealed in a Roman site in the Galilee, seems to be related to the later stage in a long evolution.

The Omrit Sphinx Depicted sitting alone, the Omrit sphinx cannot be connected to the Greek myths. It should be considered the image of a hybrid creature whose meanings and depictions were already well rooted in the collective culture of the Roman world. The statue

100 T. Sharvit: A Marble Sphinx Statue work of the artist. The variety in depiction featuring this hairstyle technique are also Fig. 5 The sphinx from Omrit, of the curls on the shoulders, the tail resting dated to the Antonine period, for example in detail: upper torso nonchalantly over the right paw, and the the statues of Dionysos from Ephesus (Asia Fig. 6 feathered wings break the rigid symmetry Minor); the Dionysos head with a wreath Head of Apollo or of of the frontal stance, and add to its lively and two women’s heads, presumably muses, a goddess, fragment of sculpture from the effect. The naturalistic nature of the statue from Nysa on the Meander (Asia Minor); theater, Aphrodisias, was probably intensified by color, traces of and the head of Apollo or a goddess from the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE which were preserved at the nape (fig. 4) theater at Aphrodisias (Asia Minor), dated and in the curly hair. to the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE (fig. 6).21 The curls, designed by drill and chisel work, lay gently on the shoulders (fig. 5). Inside the drilled channels for the hair, small bridges were left intentionally, a feature of Roman carving technique most likely beginning in the Antonine period.18 An early appearance of this technique can be observed in the reliefs decorating the first floor of the scaenae frons of the theater at Perge (Asia Minor), e.g., in the images of a river god and a nymph. The friezes of Perge belong to the early stage of the theater’s construction, dated by some scholars to the Hadrianic-Antonine period.19 This dating would mark this work as one of the earliest appearances of this stylistic feature in relief.20 The earliest three-dimensional statues

IMSA 8 • 2016–2017: 97–115 101 Fig. 7 An Antonine dating of this technique’s present small light wings emerging from Two Erotes, relief decorating the theater first appearance would set a terminus post the upper back, and their size and volume scaenae frons, Nysa on the quem for dating our sphinx. The technique resemble the wings of the Omrit sphinx. Meander, 2nd century CE became a trend all around the Roman world, The winged Erotes in a relief decorating but was especially associated with the art the theater scaenae frons at Nysa on the of Asia Minor,22 and particularly notable Meander, dated to the 2nd century CE (fig. in the Perge region.23 Still, an association 7)25 is a good example of such appearance. with a specific workshop based only on this The sphinx’s wings in the garland sar- technical trait cannot be certain. cophagus from Germencik in southwestern As for the wings, all that was preserved Asia Minor, dated to the 2nd century CE, is their connection to the upper back, closely resemble those from Omrit (8:a‒b).26 including some short, leaf-shaped round Different types of wings, usually long but feathers with a central shaft. Emerging with a similar connection to the upper from them are long, thin, downward- back, are known in images of sphinxes or curling feathers with a central shaft. From Victories.27 these remains it seems that the wings were The artist working on the Omrit sphinx relatively small, and did not continue much chose to create delicate female breasts and downward or sideward, though there is no hands attached to a human torso. Greco- hint to whether the wings were in a resting Roman female sphinxes portray different posture or wide open, facing upward.24 ways of connecting the human and animal The wings resemble those depicted in torsos: Some statues are depicted without 2nd–3rd century CE statues and reliefs of human breasts or with the front part of the winged images of sphinxes, Erotes, Psychai wings replacing the breasts, while others or Victories. Depictions of Erotes usually possess disproportionally large breasts or

102 T. Sharvit: A Marble Sphinx Statue have human breasts in addition to animal examples seem to indicate that the torso and Fig. 8:a–b 28 Sphinx reliefs on the udders. Italian sphinxes of the 1st century breast design of the Omrit sphinx are part Garland Sarcophagus CE, in contrast to the Omrit sphinx, usually of the classicism of the 2nd to 3rd centuries from Germencik, 2nd century CE, details present an animal torso with a human head CE, the Greek classicism that swept Roman and instead of a woman’s breasts they art from the Hadrianic period on. Fig. 9 Sphinx, from a table depict the upper joint of the legs and the support, 1st century BCE wings’ covering feathers.29 A sphinx table to 1st century CE support in the Israel Museum collection dated from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE has a similar composition, with wings replacing the female breasts (fig. 9).30 Moreover, in some of these Roman examples dogs’ legs replace the lions’ paws. Closer examples for the human torso can be seen in statues and reliefs from the Hellenistic period depicting goddesses, their Roman copies, and in images of sphinxes from the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. A torso similar to the Omrit sphinx torso can be seen, for example, in the Hellenistic statue of the Aphrodite Anadyomene from Benghazi (Libya).31 A similar Roman example are the sphinxes on the above mentioned sarcophagus from Germencik (8:a–b). These

IMSA 8 • 2016–2017: 97–115 103 One of the most charming details of can be seen in a statue from Ephesus of the the Omrit sphinx is the way the lion’s tail first half of the 2nd century CE (fig. 11).36 curls over the right hind paw and rests on The last is probably a Roman copy of the top of it. In common sphinx depictions the sphinxes attacking young men described tail usually curls in the lower hind quarters by Pausanias as decorating the armrests of of the animal, or at its hips.32 The Omrit the throne, in the chryselephantine statue tail feature might represent a late variation of Zeus in Olympia, by Pheidias.37 One of an earlier motif, well known in examples might wonder whether this tail was also a from Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Asia feature of the original renowned work. The Minor, Crete, Cyprus and Etruria, in which tail motif, rather common in Hellenistic and Roman Asia Minor and the East, is quite rare in the western parts of the Roman Empire. The artist who produced the sphinx from Omrit used Greek and Hellenistic models, combining traditions typical of the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire creating a newly integrated Roman image.38 He might have been inspired by ancient models or their copies, imitating the general theme, posture, depiction of the ribs, textures, hair-style, human torso etc. of ancient examples.39 The classicist creation of the Roman artist seems to symbolize an attempt to imitate Classical and Hellenistic artistic traditions and merge them into a Fig. 10 sphinxes, griffins and lions are depicted new Roman style, in which the depictions of Sphinx relief, sarcophagus from with a tail emerging from behind, continu- Perge, Asia Minor, ing under or next to the hip and rising over 2nd century CE, detail it.33 The specific depiction of the tail resting Fig. 11 over the paw was observed in various statues Sphinx attacking a youth, sculpture, in Asia Minor as well as in the Land Ephesus, first half of of Israel, as, for example, in a statue the 2nd century CE (reconstruction) from Erez in the Negev, dated 210–211 CE. This statue depicts a crouching female griffin with bent hind legs, right foreleg resting over the Nemesis fate wheel, and tail resting gently over the left foreleg.34 Sphinxes adorning the corners of a garland sarcophagus from Perge (fig. 10)35 and on the sarcophagus from Germencik (fig. 8:a–b), both dated to the 2nd century CE, have a similar pose with their tails resting over the rear left paw. A similar posture

104 T. Sharvit: A Marble Sphinx Statue the wings, tail and torso are the outcome of seemingly typical of the major schools Fig. 12 Relief of sarcophagus new work methods, innovations and trends, in Asia Minor, as those at Ephesus and with the Triumph of which drifts away from the early trends Aphrodisias.42 In Roman Palestine, Greek Dionysos and the Seasons, ca. 260–270 CE, detail: into a new pronounced classicist creation. marbles were less common than the Asia panther depicted on the A panther, depicted on a sarcophagus at the Minor types; however, marble analysis of front Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, the Omrit sphinx (Appendix 1) determined presents a creation made in the same spirit that the marble originated from the quarry (fig. 12): The depiction of the muscles, the of Marathi in the Island of Paros (Greece). naturalistic rendering of texture and volume Most of the marble from Greece used to and the delicate transitions, the fur over the manufacture statues or sarcophagi came legs, similar paws and the drill work of the from the Pentelikon, whereas marble from hair are all similar to the Omrit sphinx.40 Thasos, Hymmetus and Paros was mainly Indeed, the various comparisons designated for sculptures, and even then in indicate that the sphinx from Omrit is a small quantities.43 Roman classicist and eclectic creation that The absence of indicative parts of the cannot be dated earlier than the Antonine sphinx, such as its face or a fabric, makes it period, with a probable range of dating well difficult to detect a specific regional style, into the 3rd century CE. but some points indicate that Greece was not the statue’s place of origin. The texture Artist’s Origin and Source of Marble of skin at the neck, shoulders and breasts, Since no marble quarries exist in the Land of for example, was polished and smoothed, a Israel, the statue must have originated from technique not characteristic to the ateliers one of the Roman provinces rich in marble, in Greece (Attica and Peloponnese) during either brought as a complete product, or what the Roman period. Furthermore, the drill seems less probable – partially sculpted.41 used for carving the hair was rarely used for Marble statues found in the region usually this purpose by artists in Greek ateliers.44 bear stylistic and technical characteristics

IMSA 8 • 2016–2017: 97–115 105 Fig. 13 Therefore, we can deduce that the sphinx One can easily notice the stylistic The sphinx from Omrit, from above was not a product of a Greek workshop. resemblance of the Omrit Sphinx to a Regional sculpture workshops also Roman sphinx table support from Alabanda Fig. 14 (right) 47 Nemesis, sculpture, existed in various centers in Asia Minor, in Asia Minor (fig. 15) : The muscle Perge, 2nd century CE, like Aphrodisias, Ephesus, Side and Perge, design, the naturalistic depiction of texture detail: neck support during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE.45 and volumes, the delicate transitions, the Sculpture from these areas from the end paw shape and even the position of the tail of 1st to the 3rd centuries CE featured a are alike. Thus, the two were most likely typical “Asiatic” style, different from the a product of the same “Asiatic” sculptural Greek sculptural styles. tradition, despite the fact that the statue Based on its preserved stylistic details, was sculpted from Greek Parian marble. In it seems rather clear that the sphinx from fact, the relationship between technique or Omrit was carved in the “Asiatic” style of style of an artwork and the origin of the one of Asia Minor’s artistic centers, as two material is not necessarily linear. Technique of the “Asiatic” characteristics can be seen and style usually indicate the training center in this piece: the emphasized drill-work in of the artist rather than the actual working the hair, and the roughly blocked-out neck location, let alone the provenance range support. In the statue the neck support of the marble used. An artist from Asia was broken, but is still partly detectable Minor could, in all probability, create a (fig. 13).46 Regretfully the sphinx’s state statue from a block of imported marble of preservation does not permit a clear and brought to the atelier, in one way or another, positive association with one of the Asiatic and vice versa – he might seek work in centers. a workshop far from home. For example, several sarcophagi found in Israel show no

106 T. Sharvit: A Marble Sphinx Statue relation between their sculptural style and the marble was imported from Paros to one their marble origin.48 Furthermore, a group of the major workshops of Asia Minor where of statues from Copenhagen assumed, due it was carved. to their style, to be from Asia Minor were actually executed in marble from Carrara Function and Meaning (Italy), as artists from Aphrodisias were In the ancient world sphinxes had diverse known to work in other centers as well.49 meanings, either positive or negative. A statue base in Paros was signed by Marcus They could personify the pharaohs as in Kossutios from Aphrodisias, indicating the Egypt, guard the gates as in the Hittite nomadic spirit of the artists.50 Similarly, kingdom, take the life of young men as in the Omrit sphinx was carved from Parian Greece, or be protective creatures displayed marble by an artist trained in the “Asian” over shields, tombstones, sarcophagi and sculptural tradition, working in Paros or urns, their terrible gaze threatening any even in the Land of Israel,51 or more likely, disturbance to the deceased as in examples

Fig. 15 Sphinx table support, Alabanda, Roman period

IMSA 8 • 2016–2017: 97–115 107 Fig. 16 from the ancient Mediterranean area. In Sphinx Throne with the statue of Venus Classical times sphinxes were occasionally Heliopolitana placed in temples and adorned vessels and (Atargatis), Baalbek, Roman period buildings as ceremonial offerings. It seems that the cruel and intimidating meanings of early Greek mythology and culture were gradually softened during the Hellenistic and Early Roman periods as their symbolic cultic nature gave way to an ornamental function.52 Thus, throughout the Roman period sphinxes decorated table supports, vessels and candelabras, and were depicted in wall-paintings and mosaic floors. Their meaning was not constant; sometimes they represented a heavenly figure or its close companion with their significance changing accordingly. When associated with Artemis from Ephesus or Athena Parthenos the sphinx could symbolize wisdom, while next to Nemesis it personified Egypt.53 When depicted as décor in tombs, urns and sarcophagi, they still retained clear apotropaic Sphinx depictions functioning as meaning but essentially, their role was guardians of the sacred were very popular in ornamental. the ancient world, especially when integrated As a decorative piece, the Omrit in temples, city gates, palaces, tombs and sphinx could have been part of a common sarcophagi. Sphinxes also adorned thrones and quite popular table, usually equipped and ceremonial vessels. On a throne the with a single support (monopodia), shaped sphinx informed the viewer of the presence as an animal or animal’s leg. Numerous of divinity, highlighting the importance of examples of such tables have, as support, the figure sitting on it.56 Therefore, if a an animal or sphinx crouching over a flat cultic site featured an impressive throne, base with a rounded or squared, thin, high sphinxes might have adorned its armrests. column connected to their upper back to Thrones became rather popular in Rome’s support the table board. Sphinx wings rising official events, following Greek prototypes, from the sides usually hide the supporting though more grandiose. They were richly column (fig. 9).54 The wings in the Omrit decorated, in most cases with a round or sphinx emerge from the upper back, leaving rectangular back and animal - or monster no room for a support of this type, because - shaped armrests.57 Sphinx thrones in a of the neck support on the nape and above royal context were an earlier creation of the it, the hair. The excavators rightly conclude Levant, with Egyptian prototypes. They that the angle of the figure’s position, and had sphinxes standing or crouching with especially the wings protruding upward, spread wings, supporting the seat. The type makes it difficult to regard the sculpture as was rather common in the Phoenician realm a table support.55 during the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE.

108 T. Sharvit: A Marble Sphinx Statue Another possibility that should be Fig. 17:a Marble Sphinx placed considered is that the sphinx adorned the in the edge of the edge of a bench or an elongated architec- balteus in the theatre at Verona, end of the tonic element. One can see such an example 1st century CE in the sphinxes probably placed in both ends 61 Fig. 17:b of the balteus in the late 1st century CE Hypothesis of a sphinx theater at Verona (Italy) (fig. 17:a–b).62 The position in relation to the balteus in the posture of the Verona sphinx is similar to theater at Verona. that of the Omrit sphinx and the connection to the vertical slab at its rear is similar as well.63 Another option is that the sphinx might be one of a guardian pair flanking an entrance or a passageway. For example, Daniel N. Schowalter brings a comparison to a pair of sphinxes from Egypt in the British Museum, dated to the 2nd century

Some of those thrones were empty, while others served as seats for statues of the gods. The Phoenician throne was adapted by the Achaemenid rulers in the East, and in Punic and Roman provincial contexts in the West. Hellenistic and Roman thrones continued to be popular, reviving earlier iconographic models.58 The throne from Baalbek (today in Lebanon) with the statue CE that could have originally been placed of Venus Heliopolitana (Atargatis), dated at the entrance to the tomb of a Greek to the Roman period, is one example (fig. inhabitant in Egypt (fig. 18).64 16).59 Omrit’s location and its proximity to Finally, taking into account the pos- Phoenicia might have had some influence, sibility that the earlier temple at the site resulting in the presence of a sphinx throne, was an Augusteum dedicated by Herod to well rooted in the religious art of the area, Augustus and Rome, it is interesting that as the seat of a cultic statue.60 But neither the sphinx carried a deep significance in a second sphinx (that would have served as Augustus’ time. As early as the 30s BCE the other armrest) nor a cultic statue were the sphinx was considered as a symbol of found at the site. Moreover, in most thrones hope. Under Julius Caesar it was depicted the sphinx is depicted in high relief and on coins and then by Octavian on his seal. not as a three-dimensional statue, therefore After the battle of Actium it appeared on our sphinx’s function as a throne armrest is coins in the eastern part of the empire, as difficult to accept. well as on Augustus’ armor in the statue

IMSA 8 • 2016–2017: 97–115 109 from Prima Porta, following the triumph sometime in the 3rd century CE. It might over the Parthians.65 If so, our sphinx, later have functioned as one of a pair that flanked in date, might hark back to an Augustean a furnishing of some kind, such as a bench, tradition. or guarded an entrance or a passageway. In Whatever the original meaning may any event, although the function and partic- have been, one last question must be asked: ular meaning of the Omrit sphinx remains Did the later inhabitants of the site, who inconclusive it is still the largest sculptured were Christian, see magic power or a threat find at Omrit yet found, and an outstanding in the hybrid creature and therefore threw it, and beautiful example of Roman sculpture defaced, into the fill of a pit once the temple in the East. lay in ruin? Was the decapitation an act of iconoclasm, known from other examples 1 in the Byzantine period,66 or the result of Photos: ©The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, by Vladimir Naikhin (figs. 2:a–d, 4, 5, 13); by Elie different circumstances? The answer is still Posner (fig. 9); ©Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien unclear. (fig. 11); ©the Metropolitan Museum of Art, To sum up, the Omrit sphinx should New York (fig. 12); ©The Archaeological Museum at the Roman Theatre, Verona, inv. no. 22157 be dated to the second half of the 2nd (fig. 17:a); ©Silvia Rozenberg (fig. 18); Photo by the century or the 3rd century CE. Made of author (figs. 6, 7, 8:a–b, 10); after Nelson 2015. 85, Parian marble, it was most likely produced fig. 1 (fig. 1) and 88, fig. 5A (fig. 3); after Wiegand, 1921, taf. 13 (fig. 16). in one of the major art centers of Asia Minor, Drawings: ©The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, by executed in the Asiatic classicistic spirit, and Alexander Bogdanovsky (fig. 14); by Michael was probably shipped to the temple at Omrit Smelansky (fig. 15); ©Margherita Bolla, Civic Archaeological Museum at the Roman Theater, Verona, by Daniele Vanzo (fig. 17:2). I would like to thank the excavators of the Horvat Omrit expedition, J. Andrew Overman, Daniel N. Schowalter, and Michael C. Nelson, who granted me permission to publish the statue and kindly helped in any way needed; thanks are due also to Fig. 18 David Mevorach and Silvia Rozenberg from The Sphinx, sculpture, Upper Israel Museum, Jerusalem who guided the research, Egypt, second century CE to Moshe Fischer, Arie Nissenbaum, and Yannis Maniatis for their contribution of the Appendix dealing with the marble analysis and to Rina Talgam, Gaby Mazor, Daphna Ben-Tor, Adi Erlich, Lotem Pinchover and Rachel Caine-Kreinin, for their warm assistance. A preliminary report of the research was presented in a poster at the Tel Hai Conference “Tradition and Transition,” June 24–25, 2012, Tel Hai Academic College. 2 For more information about the temple complex at Omrit see Nelson 2015. 3 The statue, broken in three parts, was cleaned and restored by Victor Uziel, of the Israel Museum’s conservation laboratory. It is 58 cm high (including the base), 20 cm wide and 42 cm long. The plinth on which the statue stands is 3.5 cm high, 19.5 cm wide and 28 cm long; its front side is broken. The partly broken board at the rear is preserved to a height of 39 cm; it is 15.5 cm wide and 7 cm thick

110 T. Sharvit: A Marble Sphinx Statue and its vertical sides end with a bordering scotia (Bober and Rubinstein 1986, 229–30, no.196), profile. or in the hair of several figures depicted on the 4 Meleager sarcophagus in the Louvre, dated around See Schowalter, 2011, 76. The description is also 190 CE (Zanker and Ewald 2012, figs. 51–52). based on discussions with the excavators. 21 5 Aurenhammer 1990, 62–64, nos. 41–42; Gärtner See Schachter 1996; Kourou et al. 1997, 1149–1174; 2007, figs. 704–705; Kenan 1989, 86, fig. 119. Reinach 1965, Vol. I, 6–7, 25, 28, 120, 123, 128, 617, Vol. II, 703–709, Vol. III, 206–207, 285, Vol. 22 The same hair technique was observed in several IV, 446–450, Vol. V, 403–408, Vol. VI, 146–148; statues and reliefs from the ancient Land of Israel. Demisch 1977; Fink 1998, 197–198; Goodnick Rivka Gersht attributed the technique to Asia Westenholz 2004, 35–36. Minor artists (Gersht 1982, 46; Gersht 1987, p. 21 6 no. 12, p. 24–25, no. 16, p. 37, no. 31, 123–124; see E.g. the big Sphinx-Pharaoh crouching at Giza also Fischer and Grossmark 1996, 476, fig. 7). (2520–2494 BCE). 23 7 M. Edip Özgür points out the unique sculptural Keller 2005a; Keller 2005b; Keller 2005c; style of Perge, characteristic in its hair style, skin Russmann, 2005. rendering and facial features (Özgür, 2010, 12). 8 E.g. Aruz 2008, 142–146; Cluzan 2008, 369–371. 24 At the left elbow a rounded bulk was preserved that 9 Hesiod, Theogony 326. First mentioned in Greece might be mistaken as part of the open wing, but is by Hesiod, the origin of the name Sphinx is vague. more likely to be a part of the fur on the lion’s hind In Egypt the creature had no specific name. In legs. Greece the name was related to the Greek verb 25 Newby 2003, figs. 56–57. sphingein which means grasp, hold, tighten, strangle. 26 Strocka 1978, pls. CCX:23–24; CCXII:28–29. Fig. 8:a–b Photographed by the author at the Izmir 10 Euripides, The Phoenician Women, 806–809, Archaeology Museum. 1019–1025. 27 See e.g. the winged Victories depicted on the 11 Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus, 391. spandrels of the Severan Arch in Leptis Magna 12 Apollodorus, The Library 3. 5. 7–9. Apollodorus (Bandinelli et al. 1966, figs. 30, 36). (Pseudo-Apollodorus, 2nd century CE) and others 28 E.g. Kourou et al. 1997, nos. 31, 55, 58, 248, 268, wrote that the Sphinx was sent by Hera to punish 271–272, 280–281, 306; Gärtner 2007, fig. 674. Laios for his illegal love for Chrysippos. In other versions of the story the sphinx was sent by Ares, 29 Moss 1988, cat. nos. A73, A75, A76, A90, all Dionysos or even by Hades to pester the Thebans dated from the Augustan to the middle of the (see e.g. Euripides, The Phoenician Women, 810). Julio-Claudian period. 13 Apollodorus, The Library 3. 5. 7–9. 30 Fig. 9: The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, see Rozenberg 2004. 14 Apollodorus, The Library 3. 5. 8. 31 Hill 1981, pl. X, Fig. 16. See also the Aphrodite 15 On Roman copies discovered in the Land of Israel from Sidon (Jidejian 2007, fig. 218). see Gersht 1996. 32 See e.g. Moss 1988, cat. nos. A76, A90; Kourou et 16 Sussman 1999, 116–117, fig. 4. al. 1997, nos. 58, 59, 268. 17 Rahmani 1999, 61–62, figs. 177–178, cat. nos. 8, 33 See e.g. Aruz 2008, 143, fig. 46; Cluzan 2008, 369, 18, pls. 4, 10. And see there one more lead coffin cat. no. 235a; Solomidou-Ieronymidou 2001, 173, from the Hefer Valley decorated with sphinxes. fig. 4:1–2, 176, fig. 5:1–5; Demisch 1977, figs. 25, There are more Roman sphinxes said to be from 31, 32, 34, 42, 74, 96, 97, 138, 325, 344. Israel, but without a clear archaeological context, see e.g. a marble sculpture of a female sphinx, of 34 Avida 1986. A similar presentation was found in the 1st–2nd centuries CE (Archaeological Center lamps from Dor (Rosental-Heginbottom 2012, Auction Catalogue 2011). 311–319) along with a marble paw and a small section of a wheel, presumably of a griffin statue 18 Strong and Claridge 1976, 200. from Dor (Rosental-Heginbottom 2010, 213–221). 19 Gärtner 2007, 220–231, fig. 586. 35 Fig. 10: photographed by the author at the Antalya 20 The technique becomes rather common in friezes Archaeology Museum. and sarcophagi reliefs from the Antonine-Severan 36 Kourou et al. 1997, 1173, no. 319. Fig. 11: period, especially in the 3rd century CE, as for Reconstruction in the Ephesus Museum, by instance in the hair of the Oceanus masks on a courtesy of the Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien. sarcophagus from Rome dated to 164–182 CE (Original fragments inv. no. I 1536). Reconstruction

IMSA 8 • 2016–2017: 97–115 111 © Institut für Klassische Archäologie, Universität 49 Squarciapino 1991, 126. Wien. 50 de Chaisemartin 1999, 261. 37 Pausanias, 5. 11. 1–2. See Description of Greece, 51 See discussions on this subject: Gersht 1982, 44–47; reconstruction in Aurenhammer 1990, s. 110, no. Gersht 1987, 120–121; Fischer 2009b. 148. 52 Goodnick Westenholz 2004, 35–36. 38 On Roman Sculpture in the Land of Israel: Foerster 2008; Gersht 2002, and see references there. 53 Kourou et al. 1997, 1174. 54 Moss 1988, 18–19; Richter 1966, 112–113. Also, in 39 Variations of Classical types similar, for example, to the sphinx relief depicted on a sarcophagus lid wall paintings from the Pompeii area sphinxes can from Sidon, dated to 425 BCE (Kourou et al. 1997, be seen supporting water basins and fountains in a 1156–1157, no. 102; Jidejian 2007, fig. 66) were manner that resembles the table supports. See e.g. known in Hellenistic and Roman times. the wall painting at the House of Ceius Secundus (Jashemski 1979, 70, fig. 113). 40 Fig. 12: by courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. See Picón et al. 2007, 400–401, 55 Schowalter 2011, 77. 497, no. 470. The sarcophagus was dated to 260–270 56 Demisch 1977, 222. CE. Its provenance is unknown as it comes from a 57 Richter 1966, 99–101. private collection, it was presumably found in Rome in the 18th century. The marble is from the Eastern 58 Gubel 1987, 37–75. Mediterranean. 59 Metzger 1985, pl. 118:1218. Fig. 16: The National 41 Museum in Istanbul, photo after Wiegand, Marble reached our region in the Roman period from six main quarries: Afyon/Aphrodisias, 1921, taf. 13. Pentelikon, Thasos, Paros, Hymettus/Carrara and 60 This regional influence is exhibited in the Temple Marmara, see Fischer 2009a, 402. The marble at Kedesh as well (Ovadiah and Turnheim 2011, import came to a considerable peak during the 25–34). years 190–220 CE (Fischer, 1998, 212).Evidence from sunken ships indicates that statues in various 61 A wall separating three rows of seats for eminent production states, partly or fully carved, were members of the audience on the orchestra from the shipped from quarries or production centers to standard rows of seats in the cavea. locations all around the Mediterranean (Gersht 62 Fuchs, 1987, fig. 57, no. 4, AIIa6. 7, s. 116; Bolla 1982, 44–47). See also Friedland (1997; 2012) 2010, 14–16, 43–45, figs. 26–27, 73–79. Fig. 17:a–b methodological study of the marble sculptures by courtesy of the Archaeological Museum at the from Panias – the Roman city located 4.3 km Roman Theatre, Verona, inv. no. 22157. northeast of Omrit. 63 A similar use was observed in the public garden of 42 As concluded by Friedland in her research of the the Triangular Forum at Pompeii, in which a lion’s statues from Banias, see Friedland 1997, 45–47; paw with a bird’s wing adorns the end of a bench. 2012, 24 and references there. It also stands on a plinth that is attached to a rear board (Farrar 1998, 37). 43 Fischer 1998, 258. 64 Schowalter 2011, 77. Fig. 18: Photo taken at The 44 Friedland 1997, 48–51; 2012, 24–25 and references there. British Museum, London, EA 1604. Another example comes from a Hellenistic tomb in the 45 Friedland 1997, 54; Rockwell 2008. Inter-center cemetery of Mustapha Pasha in Alexandria, where influences and transfer of artists from one center at the entrance to room 8 were two sphinxes to the other makes it rather difficult to characterize (Grimm 1998, 94–95, fig. 93). the differing styles of those centers. 65 Zanker 1988, 269–272. 46 Friedland 1997, 52–54; 2012, 24–25; Foerster 2000, p.138. See also the statue of Nemesis from Perge 66 Tsafrir and Foerster 1997, 128–130. of the 2nd century CE (Özgür 2010, 61, no. 23), in which the hair-dress integrates above the neck support the same way it was probably done in the Omrit sphinx (fig. 14: Drawing after photo taken by the author at the Antalya Archaeology Museum).

47 Fig. 15: drawing designed at the Aydin Archaeology Museum, Turkey.

48 Gersht 1987, 120–121; Fischer 1998, 256–257.

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IMSA 8 • 2016–2017: 97–115 115 Appendix: Marble Analysis of the Omrit Sphinx

Moshe Fischer, Tel Aviv University Arie Nissenbaum, Weizmann Institute of Science Yannis Maniatis, Demokritos Institute, Athens, Greece

Horizontal: δ13C = about +4.4 Vertical: δ18O = -1.8

The conclusive characterization of the 1 They were presented at the ASMOSIA X confer- sphinx sample is based on isotopic analysis ence (Rome, May 2012) together with other items from Hellenistic and Roman Palestine, and will (Arie Nissenbaum), in combination with the be published in the Conference Proceedings (M. maximum grain size and marble structure Fischer, with contributions by A. Nissenbaum and (Yannis Maniatis); the latter has been Y. Maniatis, forthcoming). defined as having very good crystallization, a high transparency and a highly calcitic texture. The marble sample taken from the sphinx seems to originate from Marathi, one of the many known quarries of the Island of Paros. The quarries of Marathi are known to have been in operation throughout Hellenistic times and up to the 1st and probably 2nd centuries CE. The marble analysis graph was produced by Arie Nissenbaum and by Yannis Maniatis. The results were interpreted by Moshe Fischer and Yannis Maniatis.1

116 M. Fischer, A. Nissenbaum, and Y. Maniatis : Marble Analysis of the Omrit Sphinx Information for Contributors Book by more than one author Ovadiah, R., and Ovadiah, A. 1987 Hellenistic, Roman, and Early Byzantine IMSA is a peer-reviewed journal. All manuscripts Mosaic Pavements in Israel. Rome. submitted to IMSA will be reviewed by the editorial board and by outside readers. Preference will be given Book with editor as author to articles related to objects in the Israel Museum’s Tsafrir, Y., ed. archaeological collections or presented in the depart- 1993 Ancient Churches Revealed. Jerusalem. ment’s exhibitions. Manuscripts should be submitted in a PC format computer file using Word, accom- Book in more than one volume panied by three copies of all illustrations, also as Note that the name of the book and the name of the computer files, and of an abstract (100 words or less), volume are italicized, but not the volume number. to: The Editor, Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology, Volume numbers for books should be given in either Bronfman Wing, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Arabic or Roman figures, depending on how they P.O.B. 71117, Jerusalem 91710, Israel. A cover letter appear on the volume. providing the title, author’s name, affiliation, mailing Buchanan, B., and Moorey, P. R. S. address, telephone number, and e-mail address should 1988 Catalogue of Ancient Near Eastern Seals in the accompany all submissions. Ashmolean Museum III, The Iron Age Stamp When an article is accepted for publication, the author Seals. Oxford. will be asked to provide a revised version of the manu- When a volume in a multi-volume work has two or script that incorporates, where necessary, suggestions more parts made by the editors and the readers and conforms to IMSA’s reference system (described below). One hard Fugmann, E. copy of the revised manuscript and one electronic 1958 Hama II.1, L’architecture des périodes pré- copy (flash drive or email attachment) in Word should hellénistiques. Copenhagen. be re-submitted. The revised manuscript must be Book in a series accompanied by original high-quality, camera-ready illustrations (photographs or drawings), numbered Bagatti, B. consecutively on the back. It is the responsibility of 2001 Ancient Christian Villages of Galilee. Studium the author to obtain permission to reproduce any Biblicum Franciscanum. Collectio Minor, material protected by copyright. The revised manu- no. 37. Jerusalem. script should also be accompanied by a complete list of Chapter or titled part of a book figures with captions and credit information and a full Welles, C. B. list of references used. 1938 The Inscriptions. In Gerasa: City of the Authors should indicate any special problems, such as Decapolis, ed. C. H. Kraeling, 355–494. charts, diagrams, specific typesetting requirements, New Haven. and provide computer files of any special fonts used. Journal article After design the final text and final figures/plates of the article will be sent to the authors for approval. At Rahmani, L. Y. that stage, changes other than printer’s errors may not 1988 Roman Lead Coffins in the Israel Museum be allowed. Upon publication, authors will receive a Collection. The Israel Museum Journal 7: pdf version of their article as printed. 47–60. Entry in a reference work Reference System (encyclopedia, lexicon, dictionary) Volume numbers for books should be given in either Reference lists should be prepared according to the Arabic or Roman figures, depending on how they following guidelines: appear on the volume. Book by a single author Stager, L. E. Rahmani, L. Y. 1993 Ashkelon. The New Encyclopedia of 1999 A Catalogue of Roman and Byzantine Lead Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 1: Coffins from Israel. Jerusalem. 103–12. Jerusalem. Book with a main title and subtitle Ph.D. Galavaris, G. The Herodian Architectural Decoration, in 1970 Bread and the Liturgy: The Symbolism of Light of the Finds from the Temple Mount Early Christian and Byzantine Bread Stamps. Excavation. Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University Madison, Milwaukee, and London. of Jerusalem (Hebrew).

170 Notes should be prepared as endnotes according to JJS Journal of Jewish Studies. Oxford the system shown here: JMA Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology. 1 Welles 1938, 484, no. 326. Sheffield 2 Rahmani 1999, 43–44, figs. 123, 137; JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Chicago cf. Rahmani 1988, pl. II:3. JPOS The Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society. 3 I–XXI. Jerusalem, 1920–1948 For a somewhat similar depiction of an arched ciborium over a cross, with a surrounding Greek JRA Journal of Roman Archaeology. Portsmouth, inscription reading: “Blessing of the Lord on Rhode Island us,” see Galavaris 1970, 119, fig. 64 (from the JSOR Journal of the Society of Oriental Research. Byzantine Museum, Athens). The provenance of Chicago the stamp, dated to ca. 600 CE, is unknown. Levant Levant. The Council for British Research in the Levant. London Abbreviations LA Liber Annuus. Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. Jerusalem AASOR The Annual of the American Schools LIMC Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae of Oriental Research. Cambridge, Classicae. I–VIII. Zurich-Munich, Massachusetts 1981–1997 ADAJ Annual of the Department of Antiquities of MAAR Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. Jordan. Amman Rome AJA American Journal of Archaeology. New Enc. The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Archaeological Institute of America. Excavations in the Holy Land. Israel Boston Exploration Society. Jerusalem ‘Atiqot ‘Atiqot. Israel Antiquities Authority. PalJb Palästinajahrbuch des Deutschen Jerusalem evangelischen Instituts für BAR Biblical Archaeology Review. Biblical Altertumswissenschaften des Heiligen Landes Archaeology Society. Washington, DC zu Jerusalem. Berlin. 1905–1941 BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental PBSR Papers of the British School at Rome. London Research. Boston PEQ Palestine Exploration Quaterly. Palestine BCH Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Exploration Fund. London CdE Chronique d’Égypte. Turnhout Qadmoniot Qadmoniot. A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands. Israel EI Eretz-Israel. Archaeological, Historical and Exploration Society and the Israel Geographical Studies. Israel Exploration Antiquities Authority. Jerusalem Society, in cooperation with the Institute (Hebrew) of Archaeology of the Hebrew University. Jerusalem QDAP The Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine. I–XIV. London, ESI Excavations and Surveys in Israel. Israel 1932–1950 Antiquities Authority. Jerusalem Qedem Qedem. Monographs of the Institute of HA Hadashot Arkheologiyot. Excavations Archaeology. The Hebrew University of and Surveys in Israel. Israel Antiquities Jerusalem. Jerusalem Authority. Jerusalem (Hebrew) RB Revue Biblique. L’École Biblique et IEJ Israel Exploration Journal. Israel Archéologique Française. Jerusalem Exploration Society and the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University. RM Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Jerusalem Instituts (Römische Abteilung). Mainz am Rhein IMJ The Israel Museum Journal. Jerusalem SHAJ Studies in the History and Archaeology of IMSA Israel Museum Studies in Archaeology. The Jordan. Amman Israel Museum, Jerusalem ZDPV Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins. JdI Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Leipzig Instituts. Berlin ZPE Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. JGS Journal of Glass Studies. The Corning Bonn Museum of Glass. Corning, New York JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies. Cambridge

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