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Satellite Observations of Typhoon-Induced Sea Surface Temperature Variability in the Upwelling Region Off Northeastern Taiwan

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Satellite Observations of Typhoon-Induced Sea Surface Temperature Variability in the Upwelling Region Off Northeastern Taiwan remote sensing Article Satellite Observations of Typhoon-Induced Sea Surface Temperature Variability in the Upwelling Region off Northeastern Taiwan Yi-Chun Kuo 1,2, Ming-An Lee 2,3,* and Yi Chang 4 1 Institute of Oceanography, National Taiwan University Taipei, Taipei 106, Taiwan; [email protected] 2 Department of Environmental Biology and Fisheries Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 20224, Taiwan 3 Center of Excellence for Oceans, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung 20224, Taiwan 4 Graduate Institute of Marine Affairs, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung City 80424, Taiwan; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 11 September 2020; Accepted: 10 October 2020; Published: 12 October 2020 Abstract: Typhoon-induced cooling in the cold dome region off northeastern Taiwan has a major influence on ocean biogeochemistry. It has previously been studied using numerical models and hydrographic observations. Strong cooling is related to upwelling of the Kuroshio subsurface water accompanied by the westward intrusion of the continental shelf by Kuroshio water. By employing satellite observations, local measurements, and a reanalysis of model data, this study compared 18 typhoon-induced sea surface temperature (SST) responses in the cold dome region and determined that SST responses can differ dramatically depending on the relative location of a typhoon path, the Kuroshio Current, and the topography off northeastern Taiwan. The results indicated that local westward and northward wind stress is positively correlated with upwelling intensity. Decreased northward transport in the Taiwan Strait created a condition that favored the Kuroshio intrusion, thus, the typhoon-induced change in Taiwan Strait transport was also positively correlated with the intensity of cooling. However, the strength of Ekman pumping was weakly correlated with the intensity of SST cooling. Nevertheless, Ekman pumping helped reduce the cover of warm water, facilitating the intrusion of the Kuroshio Current. Keywords: sea surface temperature; upwelling; typhoon; Kuroshio 1. Introduction The Kuroshio Current flows northward along the east coast of Taiwan, with its principal stream turning northeast along the continental shelf of the East China Sea (ECS) after leaving the coast (Figure1). Hydrographic observations and current measurements have confirmed the presence of subsurface Kuroshio waters off northeastern Taiwan [1]. Persistent upwelling off this area is associated with weak local cyclonic circulation and the intrusion of Kuroshio waters interacting with the ocean topography [2]. The upwelling brings cold and saline Kuroshio waters to the ECS continental shelf, forming a cold dome region. Higher concentrations of nutrients can be found in the upwelled waters, thus, the cold dome is a major fishing ground and its physical properties, along with its spatial and temporal variations, have been widely studied [1–9]. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 3321; doi:10.3390/rs12203321 www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing Remote Sens.Remote2020 Sens., 12 ,2020 3321, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16 2 of 14 Figure 1. Bathymetry around Taiwan. The blue circle in the zoom-in plot denotes the cold dome region. Figure 1. Bathymetry around Taiwan. The blue circle in the zoom-in plot denotes the cold dome Shen etregion. al. [3] attributed the summertime Kuroshio intrusion to a shoreward force, similar to the centrifugal forceShen et caused al. [3] attributed by the Kuroshio the summertime as it follows Kuroshio (approximately) intrusion to a shoreward the curvature force, similar of theto the isobaths off northeasterncentrifugal Taiwan. force caused The by cold the Kuroshio dome is as modulated it follows (approximately) by local current the curvature circulation. of the Toisobaths the west of Taiwan,off the northeastern Taiwan Strait Taiwan. (TS)’s The warm cold currentsdome is modulated flow northward by local to current join the circulation. ECS. TS outflowTo the west is relatedof to the strengthTaiwan, of the Taiwan cold dome. Strait (TS)’s Stronger warm (weaker)currents flow TS northward currents to often join the accompany ECS. TS outflow a weaker is related (stronger) Kuroshioto intrusionthe strength because of the cold of dome. changes Stronger in the (weaker) pressure TS currents field. Theoften circulationaccompany a oweakerff northern (stronger) Taiwan is Kuroshio intrusion because of changes in the pressure field. The circulation off northern Taiwan is also stronglyalso strongly modulated modulated by East by East Asian Asian monsoons. monsoons. The Kuroshio Kuroshio current current east eastof Taiwan of Taiwan is farther is farther offshoreoffshore during during summer, summer, and and thus, thus, intrusion intrusion to to thethe ECS continental continental shelf shelf is weaker is weaker than in than winter. in winter. The mechanismThe mechanism of the of upwelling the upwelling is complicated, is complicated, which which means the the temporal temporal and andspatial spatial scales scalesof the of the cold dome vary. The radius of the cold dome is approximately 50 km, and variations in the shape of cooling area are large [2]. Typhoons frequently occur over the tropical western Pacific and pass near the southern ECS. They can trigger phytoplankton blooms and increase primary production by inducing vertical mixing and upwelling near their paths and around Taiwan [10,11]. In an open ocean, a typhoon can induce significant upper ocean cooling, the primary process of which depends on the ratio of the typhoon’s moving speed to its radius. One major process is Ekman pumping induced by wind stress Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 3321 3 of 14 curl, and another is the vertical mixing or entrainment that accompanies typhoon-induced inertial oscillations [12,13]. However, the presence of the solid boundary, shoaling topography, and the coastal current in the continental shelf region means that a typhoon-induced ocean response is more complicated and unique. Studies have observed significant typhoon-enhanced cooling (4–8 ◦C) [9,10,14] in the cold dome region. Using hydrographic data, Tsai et al. [14] concluded that typhoon-induced cooling in the cold dome region is due to the Kuroshio being driven by strong typhoon winds onto the continental shelf north of Taiwan. Morimoto et al. [15] further investigated the fluctuations and mechanism of Kuroshio axis movement using sea surface current data. They proposed that the continuous blowing of southerly winds may push the Kuroshio axis onto the shelf and persist for a period of time after a typhoon has passed. Chang et al. [10] suggested that a drop in sea surface temperature (SST) might be caused by the Ekman pumping induced by typhoons. Although the mechanism of enhanced cooling associated with Kuroshio upwelling in the southern ECS has been investigated in numerous studies, these have primarily been case studies. Moreover, the enhanced cooling in the cold dome region that is associated with a typhoon is not limited to a particular type of track [14]. A more comprehensive study on typhoon-induced cooling off northeastern Taiwan, one that determines the different intensities and tracks of a typhoon, would be helpful in predicting typhoon-induced physical and biological responses in the cold dome region. To achieve this, high-resolution SST monitoring images are required to identify the pattern of SST changes associated with a typhoon. This study, therefore, investigated enhanced cooling off the northeastern coast of Taiwan after the passing of various typhoons. We used Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) SST data to identify areas of cooling. However, clear daily images were unavailable due to cloud cover, therefore, one-week composite images were used. Upwelling intensity was determined according to the SST difference between the mean location (25.25–25.75◦N, 122–122.5◦E) of the cold dome and the Kuroshio region southeast of the dome (24.5–25.0◦N, 122.0–122.5◦E) off eastern Taiwan. Higher contrast between the SST of the cold dome and the surrounding Kuroshio region was associated with stronger upwelling in the cold dome. We found that the strength and duration of southeasterly wind stress and the change in water transport in the TS were significantly correlated with upwelling intensity. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section2 presents the data sources and the index calculation of factors, Section3 presents the results, and Section4 presents the discussion and conclusions. 2. Methods AVHRR SST level 2 data of cloud and land masking from June 2009 to August 2013 were collected from series National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration satellite (NOAA 16~18) produced by regional High Resolution Picture Transmission (HRPT) data library at National Taiwan Ocean University. Navigation and cloud-detection techniques developed by Sakaida and Kawamura [16] were then employed. The multichannel SST (MCSST) algorithm [17] was used to produce pass SST data at a spatial resolution of 1.1 km, all passes in both daytime and nighttime were then composited into daily average images. Lee et al. [18] validated the SST algorithm by comparing 1998–2002 AVHRR-based MCSSTs with in situ data. The MCSSTs exhibited a small bias of 0.009 ◦C, with Root Mean Square Deviation (RMSD) of 0.64 ◦C. Weekly composite SST data were generated by arithmetically averaging all the available scenes in each month on a pixel-by-pixel basis (excluding missing data and clouds). The ocean color level 2 products with 1.1 km resolution of MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) onboard both Aqua and Terra satellites were collected from Ocean Color Web (https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/) of NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). Because the activated coverage was low, weekly mean maps are composed before and after the typhoon passage. The best track data were obtained from the Digital Typhoon website (http://agora.ex.nii.ac.jp/ digital-typhoon/) operated by Japan’s National Institute of Informatics. These provided access to SST Remote Sens. 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16 collected from Ocean Color Web (https://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/) of NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
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