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How Filmstrips Depicted the Story of European Integration to Dutch

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How Filmstrips Depicted the Story of European Integration to Dutch ( ) How filmstrips depicted the story of European integration to Dutch schoolchildren in the early post-war years: a perspective on concepts of Europe between 1950 and 1967 Sarah Tilstra - van Wijk (3108988) MA Thesis | Research Master History Buren 23, 8754 CX Makkum Utrecht University | June 26, 2017 [email protected] Advisor: Prof. Dr. Joris van Eijnatten Table of contents Introduction 6 Topic of research 7 The filmstrip as historical source 7 Archival digging 9 Selection of sources 9 Approach 10 Thesis structure 10 Editorial notes 11 I Europe: star in her own story 12 Border constructions 12 Towards a Grand Narrative of Europe 13 Making Europe: from idea(s) to institution(s) 15 The demise of the nation-state 17 An American Europe? 19 An intricate web 20 II Conquering the school: a short history of filmstrips 22 Filmstrips as a medium: common and cheap 22 The filmstrip: an educational powerhouse? 23 The danger of the visual 24 Towards a filmstrip theory 26 Differences between film and filmstrip 28 A new approach to teaching? 29 III Methodology 30 Distorting images 30 Different approaches, different results 31 ‘Reading’ filmstrips 32 An interpretative framework: image sites and modalities 32 Why even one filmstrip is worth looking at: evaluation theory 34 Anchorage & iconotext: do words speak louder than pictures? 35 Stating the obvious: different narrative modi at work 36 How to… analyze a filmstrip 37 IV Winning minds and hearts: Marshall filmstrips 39 An American release 39 Peacetime propaganda: a Trojan horse? 41 ‘You too can be like us’ 42 Mutual security 44 A joint effort: the MSA and the European Movement 45 Europe: a national awakening 47 How far we have come 47 The greedy selfishness of nations 50 International solidarity 50 Europe as civilization 51 A continent in ruins 51 From citizen to customer 52 Legitimate photographs 53 A raft at sea 54 Stereotyping 55 A Europe in its own right 56 We, The People 57 The gospel of coal and steel 59 Old and ailing or young and strong? 59 Divided or united? 60 The promise of the ECSC: peace and politics 61 The face of Europe 62 Financially fair and socially square 64 No man is an island 66 A shipwrecked life? 67 From prehistory to modernity 68 A happy family? 70 Chapter synopsis: what does ‘Europe’ look like in the Marshall filmstrips? 71 V Through the lens of the Community: a European campaign 73 Addressing ‘the great European family’: a public information policy 74 Communicating Europe 74 Educating Europe 76 A teacher’s perspective 78 Building Europe 79 A European home 80 Echoing pictures 82 The atom without the bomb 83 Europe: a success story 84 The nation, Europe, and the world 85 Chapter synopsis: what does ‘Europe’ look like in the filmstrips of the Community? 87 Project(ing) Europe: a conclusion 88 The story of European integration 89 Through American eyes 89 Shrinking Europe 90 From faith to doubt: Dutch perceptions of European integration 90 Suggestions for further research 91 The filmstrip in the spotlight 92 Appendix: filmstrip images and captions 93 Bibliography 131 Introduction ‘Stories constitute the single most powerful weapon in a leader’s arsenal.’ Harvard Professor of Education Howard Gardner Stories structure the chaotic world around us and provide it with meaning. Their social function is to help us know who we are and where we come from, rooting our identity in past, present, and possible futures. However, narratives are not only formative to individuals, but position states and societies as well.1 They tell about in- and exclusion, beginnings and endings, the mores and morality that bind a community. As the above quotation already points out, such stories are never innocent. One very powerful narrative is the story of European unity. It has been told over and over again and has recurring tropes and themes: throughout the ages, Europe has been – and sometimes still is – regarded as the epitome of Christendom, of Freedom and Democracy, of Civilization.2 Yet, this story is not a straightforward one. Several, sometimes divergent ideas have shaped its plot. These ideas came clearly to the fore in the years following World War II, when Europe turned into a political project. Some said that the unification of the continent would be a safeguard against the continual conflicts between its nation-states.3 Meanwhile, others believed cooperation would revive the ruined nations of Europe and help them rebuild their empire.4 Then there was America, which wanted to remake the ‘old’ world in the image of the ‘new’5: would the dream of a ‘United States of Europe’ soon prove to be real? The battle for and defense of political unity on the continent was not only fought in conference rooms, parliamentary assemblies, and meetings between heads of state. It also permeated the public arena in the form of a full-fledged propaganda campaign. For instance, the European idea was promoted by the federalist European Movement, as part of the Marshall Plan, and through the channels of the Information Service of the European Communities. From magazines to movies: all types of media were used to tell the story of European unification. One of these media was the filmstrip (fig. 1): a now long forgotten means to project a sequence of still images on a large screen. Filmstrips were mostly used in an educational setting: in the 1950s, they were well integrated into the Dutch classroom (fig. 2). Fig. 1 (left): End slide from one of the filmstrips promoting European unity Fig. 2 (right): Impression of a filmstrip lesson 1 Martin Alm, “Europe in American World History Textbooks,” Journal of Transatlantic Studies 12-3 (2014): 239. 2 See Pim den Boer, “Europe to 1914: The Making of an Idea,” in The History of the Idea of Europe, ed. Kevin Wilson & Jan van der Dussen (London: Routledge, 1993), 53. 3 Bram Boxhoorn and Max Jansen, De integratie van Europa. Een historische balans (Bussum: Coutinho, 2002), 23. 4 Boxhoorn and Jansen, De integratie van Europa, 70. 5 Richard J. Aldrich, “OSS, CIA and European Unity: The American Committee on United Europe, 1948-60,” Diplomacy & Statecraft 8-1 (March 1997): 186. 6 Topic of research In this thesis, I analyze narratives of Europe from the early years of post-war European integration. On the basis of filmstrips used in Dutch primary schools, I reconstruct the story of Europe’s rise from the ashes of war, its ambivalent rescue by America, the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), and the road towards further economic integration. Through the lens of the filmstrip projector, the federalist belief in an almost mythical Europe will come to the fore. However, we will also see how in the 1960s this belief gradually disappeared from view. What remained was the narrative of a successful institutionalized ‘Europe of the Six’6, a Europe that was both more united and more divided than ever before.7 Of course, the filmstrips are but a representation of the multifaceted reality of Europe: the perspective of any tale depends on the one telling it. Commissioned by different institutions, these filmstrips speak for the zealous Marshall planners and their Europe-wide propaganda campaign, for the federalist European Movement and its support from the CIA. They are also a mouthpiece of the European Community, whose Information Service wanted to instill ‘European thinking’ among its nation-bound citizenry. Each filmstrip results in a different account of what came to be known as ‘Europe’. Thus, the analysis of this unique set of sources is underpinned by the following research question: Which stories of European integration come to the fore in filmstrips used in Dutch primary schools between 1950 and 1967 and how do they relate to concepts of Europe extant at that time? The period 1950-1967 was chosen because the first filmstrips about European integration were published in the early 1950s, as an informative part of the Marshall Plan. The year 1967 marks the enforcement of the Merger Treaty, which combined the judicial, legislative, and administrative bodies of the European Communities. This initiated a new phase in the Community’s public information campaign, of which the filmstrips of the 1960s formed an integral part. Furthermore, around this time the filmstrip was gradually replaced by other, more technically advanced audiovisual teaching aids. The filmstrip as historical source Educational filmstrips are an untapped historical source. As far as I know, no extensive research has been published on this topic in the Netherlands8, apart from the explorative studies by Marja Roholl and Eelco Kramer.9 The unfamiliarity of the filmstrip among historians is probably caused by two 6 Until 1973, the European Community consisted of six countries, namely: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Together, these countries were called ‘The Six’. 7 This change in ‘storytelling’ partly mirrors the transformation in the Dutch intellectual debate about European integration. For a concise introduction, see Jieskje Hollander, “The Dutch Intellectual Debate on European Integration, 1948-present. On Teachings and Life,” Journal of European Integration History 17-2 (2011): 197- 218. 8 Recently, a French student wrote a Master’s Thesis about the representation of Germany in French filmstrips. See Valentine Michez, “Résistance temporelle du film fixe” (MA Thesis, Université Lumière Lyon II, 2016). 9 See Marja Roholl, “Het Marshall-plan in een schoenendoos. Hoe de lagere scholen in Nederland via filmstrips kennismaakten met het Marshall-plan,” in Van Strohalm tot Strategie. Het Marshall-plan in perspectief, ed. R.T. Griffiths et al. (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1997), 49-58; Eelco Kramer, “Papoea’s in beeld. Filmstroken als tijdgeest 1939-1958,” Lessen 10-1 (Summer 2015): 22-25.
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