Notes

Introduction

1. The question of whether to use the phrase 'women's movement' or the plural 'women's movements' is a thorny one for academics and activists, especially with reference to the global level. To speak of a single women's movement may attribute too great a unity to what can be perceived only as a plurality of activities and approaches, diversified by class, culture, region and the like. Yet to speak of women's movements in the plural raises concerns about what, if any, commonality there is among these groups and whether it is possible to speak of them in a global context. I will be using the plural women's movements since it reflects the diversity among women while recognizing they may organize around common goals and concerns.

1 Assessing International Relations Theory: Nonstate Actors, Change and Gender

1. Michael Banks (1985) suggests three paradigms currently in existence: realism, pluralism and structuralism. I have chosen to separate world• systems theory and its precursors from the work of Robert Cox and other critical or neo-Gramscian theorists since there is enough significant difference to warrant this. Both Mark Hoffman ( 1987) and Sandra Whitworth (1989) also make this distinction. 2. Cox (1986) goes further to argue that there is a significant difference between the classical realism of E.H. Carr which has a broader scope and could include social, economic and ideological factors, and neo-realism which has a much narrower focus and is a theoretical response to the Cold War. 3. Willetts includes women's groups as a subsection of communal groups because they are dealing with issues of group identity and status. 4. Some examples of this literature are Mitrany (1943), Haas (1958, 1975, 1976). 5. Wallerstein distinguishes between a world-system and a world-economy in the following way. A world-system is 'a unit with a single division of labor and multiple cultural systems. It follows logically that there can, however, be two varieties of such world-systems, one with a common political system and one without. We shall designate these respectively as world-empires and world-economies' (Wallerstein, 1979, p. 5).

2 Nonstate Actors, Change and Gender: A Framework for Analysis

1. Although Walker does not use neo-Gramscian theory as his starting point, he does, at least in the works cited here, adhere to its underlying commitments and thus I include him in this approach.

160 Notes 161

2. Stephen Gill (1990) gives a good example of how the Trilateral Commission has organic intellectuals who help to organize the hegemonic order. 3. Whitworth (1994) provides an excellent and extensive analysis of these feminist approaches to international relations. 4. See for example Zald and McCarthy's discussion of social movement organizations (1987). 5. Or as Jane Jenson describes it, 'whether any of them defined "women" as their collective subject' (1987, p. 68).

3 Challenging Gender Relations at the International Level, 1840-1920

I. See Appendix I for a complete list. See also Sherrick, 1982, and Hurwitz, 1977, for a further discussion of these groups. 2. There were indigenous feminist movements prior to the arrival of foreign activists, often linked to nationalist movements (Jayawardena, 1986, p. 19). 3. For example, Mrs Philip Snowden [sic] writes of her trips to Berne to attend the meetings of the Second International, and the International Women's Congress in Zurich in 1919 (Snowden, 1921). 4. This clause led to the establishment of an advisory committee on these issues in 1921. 5. Jane Addams of the , Charlotte Despard and Chrystal Macmillan of Great Britain, Gabrielle Duchene of France, Rosa Genoni of Italy and Clara Ragaz of Switzerland.

4 Institutionalizing Gender Relations in International Organizations, 1920-70

l. This was a network of 12 international and five national organizations that worked with the League of Nations and the International Labour Conference (League of Nations, 1938, pp. 26-7). 2. This new name was adopted by the International Women's Suffrage Alliance in 1926 (Whittick, 1979, p. 94). 3. The WWP was started in 1938 but was overwhelmed by the war, joined with ERI in 1941 and lost much of its organizational base during the war (Becker, 1981, pp. 181-3). It began work again in 1945 at the San Francisco Conference, led initially by members of the National Women's Party, and continued through the 1940s under the leadership of Lady Pethick-Lawrence (Equal Rights, 1946a, 1947). 4. The Committee of Representatives of Women's International Organizations, in their 1931 statement (League of Nations, 1931, pp. 7-14), claimed that women began to work on this issue internationally as early as 1905. I can find no evidence to support this claim. 5. Two qualifications were added to the report (League of Nations, 1931, p. II). 6. The first group initially included the Equal Rights International, but a week later they withdrew their support for the report. 7. During the first half of the first session of the General Assembly, the women representatives, alternate representatives and advisers presented an open letter 162 Notes

to the women of the world calling for the increased participation of women in national and international affairs (Yearbook of the UN, 1947, pp. 77-8). 8. Pandit was the daughter of the president of the Indian National Congress and president of the All-India Women's Conference from 1941-3. She was the first woman leader of a delegation to the UN General Assembly (UN Weekly Bulletin 1946, p. 15). 9. It has long been argued that the WIDF is a front organization for the communist governments of Eastern Europe and there seems to be evidence to support this, especially in its early years.

5 Making Global Connections Among Women, 1970-90

l. The Appendix lists the groups with their consultative status as of 1989. 2. There are three levels of status within ECOSOC arrangements: I or general status is available to groups that are concerned with most of the activities of the United Nations and represent major segments of the population; II or special status is available to groups with an expertise in only a few areas; and, the Roster is available for groups that can make an occasional and useful contribution to the work ofECOSOC (ECOSOC resolution l296(XLIV)). 3. TheACWW withdrew in 1987. 4. . The information in the following paragraphs was gleaned from interviews with members of the established groups and officials of the United Nations Secretariat, personal observation at international conferences and a review of several newsletters from established groups, including the International Alliance of Women and Women's International Democratic Federation. 5. FINRRAGE was initially known as FINNRET (Feminist International Network on New Reproductive Technologies) but its name was changed during the 1985 emergency conference on new reproductive technologies ('Feminist Forum', 1984; 'Feminist Forum',l985a; 'Feminist Forum', l985b). 6. Initially this network was called Women for a Meaningful Summit. 7. This group was initially called World Women in Defence of the Environment.

6 Shifting the Focus on Women in the United Nations: Women and Development, 1970-90 l. In neither case was the use of the term development limited to that of development assistance or aid. Rather, in line with the broad definition of development used in the UN Development Decades, it referred to the entire range of policies and practices that are aimed at the improvement of the well• being and full participation of the population as well as a fair distribution of benefits (UNGA resolution 35/56 Annex, para. 8). 2. This is the negotiating group of nations from the South within the United Nations. While it began with 77 countries, and hence the name, it currently has approximately 120 members. 3. A World Congress for International Women's Year was held in Berlin from 20-4 October 1975. It was sponsored by the German women's committee Notes 163

and the documents resulting from this conference indicated a socialist flavour. Even though almost 2000 people attended, it had very little impact on the international level (Documents ... , 1975; 'IWY Congress ... , 1976; 'World Congress ... ', 1976). 4. This is not a narrow discussion of economic development issues alone. Rather, women and development is used to mean the entire range of women's concerns and the ways in which they are interrelated. The review proceeds by organizing the discussion around five issues: equality; access to productive resources, income and employment; access to services; participation in decision-making; and information. 5. For example, the International Civil Aviation Organization, Universal Postal Union, the International Telecommunication Union, the World Meterological Organization and the World Intellectual Property Organization. As well, a number of the research institutes within the UN may not need to participate since INSTRA W was given the primary responsibility for research on women. Appendix: Women's International Organizing, 1840-19901

1840 World Anti-Slavery Convention, where American women delegates were refused admittance. 1852 International women's peace publication, Sisterly Voices. 1868-71 International Association of Women. 1883 World Women's Christian Temperance Union (WWCTU) [identity• oriented, religious] ECOSOC II. 1888 International Council of Women [issue-oriented, international cooperation], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, ILO, WHO, FAO, UNICEF, UNCTAD, UNDP, UNEP, UNIDO. 1890 General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC) [service-oriented]. 1893 Girls' Brigade International [identity-oriented, religious]. 1894 World Young Women's Christian Association (WYWCA) [identity• oriented, religious], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, UNICEF, UNHCR. 1899 International Council of Nurses (ICN)2 [identity-oriented, professional affiliation], ECOSOC Roster, WHO, ILO, UNESCO. 1904 International Alliance of Women (lAW) [initially known as International Women's Suffrage Alliance; issue-oriented, equality of women], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, UNICEF, UNCTAD, UNEP, WHO, UNFPA. 1907 Socialist International Women (SIW) [initially called Socialist Women's International; identity-oriented, socialist], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO. 1908 International Federation for Home Economics (IFHE) [identity-oriented, professional affiliation], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, UNICEF, WHO. 1910 World Union of Catholic Women's Organizations (WUCWO) [identity• oriented, religious], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, UNICEF. International Association of Liberal Religious Women (IALRW) [identity-oriented, religious]. 1911 St. Joan's International Alliance (SJIA) [initially called St. Joan's Social and Political Alliance; identity-oriented, religious], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO.

164 Women's International Organizing, 1840-1990 165

1912 International Council of Jewish Women (ICJW) [identity-oriented, religious], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, UNICEF. 1915 Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) [initially called the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace; issue-oriented, peace and international cooperation], ECOSOC II. 1915 27-30 April, The Hague International Congress of Women, 1500-2000 people from 11 countries attended. 1917 Altrusa International (AI)3 [service-oriented business and professional], ECOSOC Roster. 1919 Medical Women's International Association (MWIA) [identity-oriented, professional, medical], ECOSOC II, WHO, UNICEF. 1919 International Federation of University Women (IFUW) [identity• oriented, university, international cooperation], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, UNICEF. 1919 Zonta International (ZI) [service-oriented, business and professional], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, UNICEF, ILO. 1919 12-19 May, Zurich International Congress of Women, 150 women from 16 countries attended. 1920 Women's International Zionist Organization (WIZO) [issue- and identity-oriented, social welfare and education], ECOSOC II, UNICEF. League of Jewish Women [identity-oriented, religious/cultural]. 1921 International Cooperative Women's Guild [later became ICA Women's Committee; issue-oriented, cooperation, mothers, disarmament]. 1922 International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) [identity-oriented, professional, medical], ECOSOC Roster, WHO, ILO, UNICEF. 1924 International Committee of Women Trade Unionists [identity-oriented, working women, linked to International Federation of Trade Unionists]. 1925 Commonwealth Countries League (CCL) [issue- and identity-oriented, international cooperation]. Ladies' Hairdressing International [identity-oriented, hairdressing]. 1928 World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGS) [identity• oriented, young women], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, FAO, ILO, UNICEF, WHO. Soroptimist International (SI) [identity-oriented, professional], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, ILO. International Federation of Women in Legal Careers (IFWLC) [identity• oriented, professional, legal], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, UNICEF. 166 Appendix

International League of Mothers and of Women Teachers for the Promotion of Peace [identity- and issue-oriented, peace]. 1929 Open Door International for the Economic Emancipation of the Woman Worker [issue-oriented, women workers], ECOSOC Roster. 1930 Equal Rights International [issue-oriented, equal rights]. Associated Country Women of the World (ACWW) [issue- and identity• oriented, international relations], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, FAO, UNICEF. International Federation of Business and Professional Women (IFBPW) [identity-oriented, business and professional], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, ILO, UNICEF, UNIDO. 1931 Peace and Disarmament Committee of the Women's International Organizations [issue-oriented, peace and disarmament]. 1934 International Inner Wheel (IIW) [service-oriented], ECOSOC Roster. 1938 World Women's Party (WWP) [issue-oriented, equal rights]. 1939 World Federation of Methodist Women (WFMW) [identity-oriented, religious], ECOSOC II. 1944 International Federation of Women Lawyers (IFWL) [identity-oriented, professional, lawyers], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO. 1945 Women's International Democratic Federation (WIDF) [issue-oriented, international cooperation], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, ILO, UNICEF, UNIDO. 1946 World Association of Women Entrepreneurs (WAWE) [identity• oriented, professional, business], ILO. 1947 World Movement of Mothers (WMM) [identity- and issue-oriented, mothers and education] ECOSOC II, UNESCO, UNICEF, FAO. 1948 World Federation of Ukrainian Women's Organizations (WFUWO) [identity-oriented, Ukrainian nationals]. United Nations Women's Guild [service and identity-oriented, United Nations]. 1950 International Association of Women in Radio and Television (lAWRT) [identity-oriented, professional, media], ECOSOC II. Women's Corona Society [identity-oriented, Commonwealth]. 1952 International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) [issue-oriented, family planning], ECOSOC I. 1953 International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPSGW) [identity-oriented, physical education and sports]. 1958 International Women's Cricket Council (IWCC) [identity-oriented, sports]. Women's International Organizing, 1840-1990 167

1961 Women's International Cultural Federation (WICF) [issue-oriented, cultural cooperation]. 1963 International Union of Women Architects (IUWA) [identity-oriented, professional, architects]. 1964 International Association of Women and Home Page Journalists (IAWHPJ) [identity-oriented, professional, media], UNESCO. 1968 International Federation of Women's Travel Organizations (IFWTO) [identity-oriented, travel industry]. 1969 Virginia Gildersleeve International Fund for University Women (VGIFUW) [service-oriented, project funding]. 1970 All Nations Women's League [issue-oriented, culture, education]. 1971 International Association of Women Ministers (IAWM) [identity• oriented, professional, religious]. Ecumenical Group of Women (KAIRE) [identity-oriented, religious]. 1972 International Wages for Housework Campaign (IWHC) [issue-oriented, wages for housework, network]. 1973 Women's International Tennis Association (WITA) [identity-oriented, professional, sports]. 1974 World Feminist Commission (WFC) [issue-oriented, international cooperation]. Isis International [issue-oriented, communications, network], Isis Women's International Cross Cultural Exchange (lsis-WICCE) [issl!e-oriented, information and direct exchange] 15-17 November, Frankfurt International Feminist Conference, attended by over 600 women, mainly from Western Europe. 1975 International League of Women Composers (ILWC) [identity-oriented, professional, music], Women's International Network (WIN) [issue-oriented, communications, network]. Women's International Professional Tennis Council (WIPTC) [identity• oriented, professional, sports), 15-18 June, Seminar on Women in Development, Mexico City, attended by 95 women and men from 55 countries. 19 June to 2 July, Non-governmental Tribune, Mexico City, 6000 participants from more than 90 countries. 20-4 October, International Women's Congress for International Women's Year, Berlin Sponsored by Women's International Democratic Federation, with 2000 participants from 140 countries. 168 Appendix

1976 International Women's Tribune Centre (IWTC) [issue-oriented, communications, network] ECOSOC Roster. International Feminist Network (IFN) [issue-oriented, solidarity and support, network]. International Women's Writing Guild (IWWG) [identity-oriented, professional, writers]. 4-8 March, International Tribunal on Crimes against Women, Brussels, 2000 women from 40 countries attended. 2-6 June, Women and Development Conference, Wellesley College, Mass., Center for Research on Women, 500 people attended. 1977 First International Meeting on Women and Health, Rome. May and June, Paris and Amsterdam, two meetings on feminism and socialism - in May in Paris 3-5000 women attended. 1978 Women's Feature Service (WFS) [service-oriented, news media]. Equity Policy Centre [service-oriented, coordination of conferences]. International Women's Anthropology Conference (!WAC) [identity• oriented, academic], ECOSOC Roster. Women's Global Network for Reproductive Rights (WGNRR) (initially called International Contraception, Abortion and Sterilisation Cam• paign, ICASC) [issue-oriented, reproductive rights, network]. 1979 Women's World Banking (WWB) [service- and issue-oriented, banking and credit], ECOSOC II. CHANGE [issue-oriented, education, information exchange] ECOSOC II. Women's Network on Global Corporations [issue-oriented, global corporations]. 24-30 June, international meeting on 'Feminist Ideology and Structures in the First Half of the Decade for Women', Bangkok. 1980 International Resistance of Women to War (RIFG) [issue-oriented, peace]. Third World Movement Against Exploitation of Women (TW MAE W) [issue-oriented, exploitation against women, network], ECOSOC Roster. International Alliance [identity-oriented, professional, executives]. 20-5 April, International Feminist Workshop, Stony Point, New York. 14-24 July, Non-governmental Forum, Copenhagen, 8-10000 participants from 128 countries. 27-31 December, International Lesbian meeting, Amsterdam, 70 women from 16 countries Second International Meeting on Women and Health, Hannover. Women's International Organizing, 1840-1990 169

1981 6-8 June, Third International Meeting on Women and Health, Geneva, 500 women from over 35 countries attended. 8-13 October, World Congress of Women: Equality, National Independence, Peace, Prague, 1000 participants from 133 countries. 31 October-1 November, London, Workshop of the International Contraception, Abortion and Sterilisation Campaign (ICASC, which became the Women's Global Network for Reproductive Rights), 60 participants from 11 European countries, Latin America, Mauritius, India, Israel and South Africa attended. 28 December-1 January 1982, lntemationallnterdisciplinary Congress on Women, University of Haifa, Israel. 1982 World Women in the Environment (WorldWIDE) [issue-oriented, environment] UNEP. 16-19 April, Women's International Media Network Conference, Washington DC. July-August, Montreal, International Conference on Research and Teaching related to Women, 350 women from 71 countries attended. Dakar, Senegal, 40 women and some men from the North and South drew up the 'Dakar declaration on another development with women'. 1983 International Black Women's Congress (IBWC) [identity-oriented, women of African descent]. International Feminist Network Against Forced Prostitution and other Forms of Female Sexual Slavery [issue-oriented, exploitation of women, network]. International Council on Women's Health Issues [issue-oriented, women's health care]. Women's Exchange Programme International (WEP International) [service-oriented, organizational infrastructure development]. 6-15 April, Rotterdam, Global Feminist Workshop to organise Against Traffic in Women. June, International Women and New Technology Conference, Geneva, women from Hong Kong, Philippines, India and Malaysia, Japan, Europe, USA and Canada attended. 1984 Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN) [issue• oriented, third world women, network]. Feminist International Network of Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering (FINRRAGE) [initially called Feminist International Network on the New Reproductive Technologies, FINNRET; issue-oriented, reproductive and genetic engineering, network]. 170 Appendix

Women Living Under Muslim Laws International Solidarity Network [issue-oriented, information about and solidarity for women under Muslim Law, network] Women's International Squash Players Association (WIPSA) [identity• oriented, professional, sports]. Commission on Women's Concerns [identity-oriented, religion]. International Association of Women Philosophers [identity-oriented, professional, philosophy]. 17-21 April, Second International Interdisciplinary Congress on Women, Groningen, the Netherlands, over 600 women participated. 22-8 July, International Tribunal and Meeting on Reproductive Rights, Amsterdam, almost 400 women from 65 countries attended. Fourth International Women and Health Meeting, Amsterdam. December, Bellagio Conference on women's organizations and changing public policy, 22 women attended. First International Congress on Women's Health Issues, Canada. First International Feminist Book Fair, London. 1985 Friends of the International Federation of Business and Professional Women [identity-oriented]. World Women Parliamentarians for Peace (WWPP) [identity-, issue• oriented, parliamentarians, peace], ECOSOC Roster. 5-9 June, The Urgency for True Security: Women's Alternatives for Negotiating Peace, Halifax, Canada 350 women from 33 countries participated. 3-8 July, FINNRETIFINRRAGE Emergency Conference on the New Reproductive Technologies, Sweden, women from 16 different countries participated. 10--19 July, Non-governmental Forum, Nairobi, at least 15000 women from 150 countries attended. 13-18 July, Third World Forum on Women, Law and Development, Nairobi, 60 panellists and 500 attendees daily. 1986 Women for Mutual Security (WMS) [issue-oriented, peace and disarmament, network]. International Women's Rights Action Watch (IWRAW) [issue-oriented, women's rights, network]. 18-24 April, Meeting of Women Living Under Muslim Law network, participants from 8 countries. 21-27 June, Oslo, Norway, Second International Feminist Book Fair. Women's International Organizing, 1840-1990 171

1987 International Federation for Research in Women's History (IFRWH) [identity-and issue-oriented, historians, women's history]. World Federation for Mental Health Women's Network [issue-oriented, women's mental health, network]. Foundation against Trafficking in Women/International Network against Trafficking in Women [issue-oriented, trafficking in women, network), ECOSOC II. 22-5 January, International Symposium on Women and the Military System, Helsinki, Finland, 120 women and lO men from 17 countries attended. March, First Eleanor Roosevelt International Caucus of Women Political Leaders, San Francisco, 63 women from 42 countries participated. April, Seminar on Women in International Leadership, . 23-8 May, Fifth International Women and Health Meeting, Costa Rica, nearly 800 women from 80 countries participated. 23-7 June, Moscow, World Congress of Women: Towards 2000 Without Nuclear Weapons, for Peace, Equality, and Development. 6-10 July, Third International Interdisciplinary Congress on Women, Dublin, Ireland, over 1000 women attended, most came from the US, Canada and Europe. October, Mexico, International Women's Centers Meeting. 1988 14-22 June Third International Feminist Book Fair, Montreal, over 6000 women attended. November, International Consultation on Refugee Women, 150 women from 40 countries attended. 1989 Women, Environment and Development Network (WEDNET) [issue• oriented, sustainable development, network]. 18-25 March, International Conference on Reproductive and Genetic Engineering and Women's Reproductive Health, Comilla, Bangladesh, 145 participants from 30 countries. 30 October-! November, International conference of Women's Documentation and Information Centres, Geneva, 25 participants from 16 countries. 1990 Gender-focused Alternatives to Structural Adjustment Programs Network [issue-oriented, structural adjustment alternatives, network]. 23-5 April, International Women's Seminar, 'Beyond the Debt Crisis: Structural Transformations', New York, 60 participants from 23 countries. 3-7 June, Fourth International Interdisciplinary Congress on Women, Hunter College, New York. 172 Appendix

3-8 June, First World Summit on Women in the Many Dimensions of Power, Montreal. 19-23 June, Fourth International Feminist Bookfair, Barcelona, announced. Meeting of Grassroots Women Organizing Ourselves Together (GROOTS), Madras, India, announced. Sixth International Women and Health Meeting, the Philippines, announced.

Notes

I. Most dates are founding dates unless otherwise noted. In square brackets [ ] is the primary orientation of the groups, whether service, issue or identity, and the basis for identity or the primary issue identified. Following are listed the United Nations organizations and agencies with which the group has consultative status (Union of International Associations, 1990/91). 2. When both the International Council of Nurses and the International Federation of Home Economics were formed, their memberships were almost exclusively female. This has changed over the years in both organizations. 3. Altrusa International was originally only open to women, but is now open to both women and men. Bibliography

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Numbered United Nations Documents

A/CONF.94/19, 'Recommendations relating to women and development emerging from conferences held under the auspices of the United Nations or the specialized agencies', world conference of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Copenhagen, Denmark, 14-30 July 1980. A/CONF.94/31, 'Review and evaluation of global and regional programmes of the United Nations system (1975-1980)', world conference of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Copenhagen, Denmark, 14-30 July 1980. A/CONF.94/35, Report of the World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Copenhagen, 14-30 July 1980. A/CONF.94/BP/6, 'Measures taken to implement the programme of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace: Report of the International Labour Organisation', world conference of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Copenhagen, Denmark, 14-30July 1980. A/CONF.ll6/8, 'Review and appraisal of the progress achieved and the obstacles encountered by the United Nations system at the regional and international levels in attaining the goals and objectives of the United Nations Decade for Women: 192 Bibliography

Equality, Development and Peace', world conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Nairobi, Kenya, 15-26 July 1985. NCONF.ll6/14, also known as NCONF.ll6/PC/23, 'The participation of non• governmental organizations in the United Nations Decade for Women', world conference to review and appraise the achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Nairobi, Kenya, 15-26 July 1985. A/CONF.II6/28/Rev.l, Report of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality Development and Peace, Nairobi, 15-26 July 1985, sales no. E.85.1V.IO. DP/1988115, 'United Nations Development Programme co-operation with non• governmental organizations and grass-roots organizations; Women in development', Governing Council of the United Nations Development Programme, Thirty-fifth Session, 6 June-I July 1988, Geneva. EICN.6/NG0/244, 'Statement submitted by the International Council of Women, Women's International Democratic Federation, World Federation of Trade Unions, non-governmental organizations in category I; Baha'i International Community, International Catholic Child Bureau, International Council of Social Democratic Women, International Federation of Social Workers, International Federation of Business and Professional Women, International Federation of Women in Legal Careers, Catholic Union for Social Service, non• governmental organizations in category II', Commission on the Status of Women, Twenty-fourth session. EICN.6/198917, 'Peace: Full participation of women in the construction of their countries and in the creation of just social and political systems', Commission on the Status of Women, Thirty-third session, Vienna. EICN.611990/S, 'Progress at the national, regional and international levels in the implementation of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women', Commission on the Status of Women, Thirty-fourth session, Vienna, 26 February-9 March 1990. EICN.6/199017, 'Monitoring the implementation of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women', Commission on the Status of Women, Thirty-fourth session, Vienna, 26 February-9 March 1990. EICN.6/1990/CRP.2, 'Improvement of the status of women in the Secretariat: Note by the Secretary-General', Commission on the Status of Women, Thirty-fourth session, Vienna, 26 February-9 March 1990. E/CN.6/1990/CRP.3, 'Excerpts from decisions adopted by the Administrative Committee on Co-ordination at its second regular session of 1989 (ACC/1989/ DEC/24-32)', Commission on the Status of Women, Thirty-fourth session, Vienna, 26 February-9 March 1990. EICN.6/l990/L.25, 'Recommendations and conclusions arising from the first review and appraisal of the implementation of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women to the Year 2000', Commission on the Status of Women, Thirty-fourth session, Vienna, 26 February-9 March 1990. E/CN.6/l99l/3, 'National, regional and international machinery for the effective integration of women in the development process, including non-governmental organizations', Commission on the Status of Women, Thirty-fifth session, Vienna, 27 February-8 March 1991. Bibliography 193

FJCONF/66/34 Report of the World Conference of the International Women's Year, Mexico City, 19 June-2 July 1975. FJCONF/66/BP/1, 'United Nations system and the elimination of discrimination against women', World Conference of the International Women's Year, Mexico City, 19 June-2 July 1975. FJCONF/66/BP/9, also known as EICN.6/575/Rev.l, 'Report of the Special Rapporteur on women and family planning', world conference of the International Women's Year, Mexico City, 19 June-2 July 1975. FJCONF/66/BP/10, 'United Nations system and the elimination of discrimination against women: report of the International Labour Organisation', world conference of the International Women's Year, Mexico City, 19 June-2 July 1975. EGM/EPPDM/1989/WP.I, 'Women and Decision-Making', Vienna: United Nations Office at Vienna. F11985/45, also A/CONF.ll6/l5, 'Review of selected major issues in the medium• term plans of the organizations of the United Nations system: women and development', Economic and Social Council, First regular session of 1985, 7-31 May 1985. FJ1987/15, 'Report of the Commission on the Status of Women'. FJ1987/52, 'Proposed system-wide medium-term plan for women and development for the period 1990-1995', Economic and Social Council, second regular session of 1987. FJ1989/16, 'Plans and programmes of the organizations of the United Nations system to implement the system-wide medium-term plan for women and development for the period 1990-1995', Economic and Social Council, second regular session of 1989. F11989/19, 'Cross-organizational programme analysis of the activities of the United Nations system for the advancement of women', Economic and Social Council, Second regular session of 1989.

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) Resolutions

771 H (XXX), 'Aid for advancement of women in developing countries', 25 July 1960. 1296 (XLIV), 'Arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organ- izations', 1968. 1326 (XLIV), 'Family Planning and the status of women', 31 May 1968. 1684 (LII), 'Integration of women at all levels of development', 2 June 1972. 1850 (LVI), 'Establishment of a fund for voluntary contributions for IWY', 16 May 1974. 1959 (LIX), 'World Conference of the IWY', 28 July 1975. 1985/46, 'Women and Development', 31 May 1985. 1987121, 'Improving the ability of the Commission on the Status of Women to carry on its mandate' 26 May 1987. 1987122, 'Measures to strengthen the role and functions of the Commission on the Status of Women', 26 May 1987. 1987123, 'Enlargement of the Commission on the Status of Women', 26 May 1987. 194 Bibliography General Assembly (UNGA) resolutions

1177 (XVII), 'United Nations assistance for the advancement of women in developing countries', 7 Dec. 1962. 2716 (XXV), 'Programme of concerted international action for the advancement of women', 15 Dec. 1970. 3010 (XXVII), 'International Women's Year', 18 Dec. 1972. 3342 (XXIX), 'Women and development', 17 Dec. 1974. 3520 (XXX), 'World Conference of the International Women's Year', 15 Dec. ~975. 31/133, 'Voluntary Fund for the United Nations Decade for Women', 16 Dec. 1976. 35/56, 'International Development Strategy for the Third United Nations Development Decade', 5 Dec. 1980. 35n8, 'Effective mobilization and integration of women in development', 5 Dec. 1980. 40/108, 'Implementation of the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies for the advancement of women', 13 Dec. 1985. Index

Addams, Jane 52-4, 59, 60 civil rights, women's 59, 75 Advocates for African Food Security 99 Clemenceau, G. 55, 58 African Training and Research Centre for Cold War 87 Women (ATRCW) 135 Commission on Human Rights, United Ahemd, Begum Anway 88 Nations (CHR) 81-3,96,98, 137 All-Asian Conference of Women 71, 72, Commission on the Status of Women, 74 United Nations (CSW) 38, 75, 81, All-Indian Women's Conference 82 84-9,97,98, 118, 119, 133, 135, 138, American National Women's Party 76 141, 154-6 American Women's Peace Party 54 Committee of Nongovernmental Amnesty International 96 Organizations (CONGO) 97 anti-feminist groups 32, 40, 47, 147 Commonwealth 97 Antrobus, Peggy 112 communications among women 48, apartheid 127 102-6 Armistice, Novemberl918 55 'communities of consciousness' 16 Asia and Pacific Centre for Women and community development, women in 118 Development (APCWD) 108 continuous mediation 52, 53 Associated Country Women of the World Convention on Nationality 68, 69, 71,72 (ACWW) 98 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms Association of Aftican Women for Research of Discrimination against Women and Development (AAWORD) 110, (CEDAW) 133, 136, 146 128 Copenhagen NGO Forum 1980 109, 112, 113, 128-30 Barnes, George 56 Copenhagen World Conference on Women Begtrup, Bodil 82, 83 1980 109, 120, 126, 127, 129, 143 Bernadino, Minerva 77 ,82 counterhegemonic world order 23, 24, 26, birth control 45, 86, 94, 95 32,40,158 Bondfield, Margaret 56 critical theory 25-7, 32 Bunch, Charlotte 109 culture, women in 44, 95

capitalist world system 18-20, 45 Dakar Declaration I 09 Casselman, Cora 78 debt crisis 91, 92, 157 Catt, Carrie Chapman 49, 50 Decade for Women, United Nations, Cecil, Lord 57, 59 1976-85 13,91,95,97,99, 102,103, CHANGE 148 112, 120, 121,123, 127, 134, 136, 139, change 143, 147, 152, 154, 157 critical theory of 25, 26 decision-making, women in 95, 131 definition I Declaration of Comilla 114 incremental change 36, 38, 39, 42, 53 decolonization 88 qualitative changes 36 Department of International Economic and process-level 12 Social Affairs, United Nations problem-solving theory 12 (DIESA) 93, 121, 137, 140 structurallevel 12 dependency theory 15 child care 44, 56, 82, 94, 97, 119, 125, 132, Depression, Great 63 140, 151, 156 Deraniuagala, Ezlynn 87 child labour 57 Development Alternatives for Women for a citizenship rights, women's 51 NewEra(DAWN) 92,110,113,122, civil society 30 141, 143, 145, 147, 159

195 196 Index

development, approaches to family 35, 45, 121, 122, 130, 132, 147 efficiency approach !56 feminism as basis for women's equality approach 120, 121, 151, 153 organizing 106-10, 115, 116, 147 growth-oriented development 113 international 130, 158, 159 integration of women 113, 118, 125, feminist analysis 122, 128 137, 139, 142, 143, 150, 153 feminist critical theory 26, 41, 42 development, UN Decade for Women feminist epistemologies theme 112,113,123,140,154 empiricism 2, 3, 27, 39, 41 disabilities, women with 97, 98 standpoint 2, 3, 13-15, 27, 40,41 disarmament 66 postmodemism 2, 3, 27,41 discrimination against women 75, 77, 85, Feminist International Network of 115, 125, 135, 138 Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic disengagement 32, 38-40,42, 147-9, 156, Engineering (FINRRAGE) 114, 143, 158 146, 159 marginalization 63 feminist publishing 92 Division for Advancement of Women, feminist research 110-11, 114, 115, 125, United Nations 133, 139 135 domestic labour, division of 37, 44, 45, 92, fertility rates 63, 94, 152 126, 130, 131, 151, 156 Food and Agriculture Organization, United Dumbarton Oaks Conference 1944 77, 78 Nations (FAO) 97, 135, 137, 140 Ford Foundation 9, 152 Earth Summit1992 116 Economic and Social Commission for Asia gender and the Pacific, United Nations analysis 8, 13, 18-19,26,28,32,37-9 (ESCAP) 135 assumptions about 53, 74, 79, !57 Economic and Social Council, United UNCIO 78 Nations (ECOSOC) 81-4,86, 87, 89, UN 83, 90, 132 96,101,119,123,131 gender relations Economic Commission for Africa, United assumptions about 19,35-42,62,68 Nations (ECA) 135 implications of 74-6, 80 economic crisis 98, 150, 151 shift in 142, 150 economic status, women's 82,92 UN 84, 89, 138, 144 education, women in 46, 49, 59, 74, 82, 85, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 93-5,97,98,119,125,127,132,150-2 (GATT) 13, 136, 138 UN Decade for Women theme 98, 125, genital mutilation 105, 128 127, 132, 150-2 Gildersleeve, Virginia 77,81 elderly women 97, 100, 101 global women's movements 30-42 employment, UN Decade for Women commitment to feminism 32 theme 119, 127, 139, 151 definition 30 environment 102, 110, 116, 125, 131, 132, organizational form 31 151, 152 purpose/orientation: identity-based envoys, Hague Conference 1915 53, 54,60 groups 31-2; issue-based equal pay for women 57, 90, 93, 125, 147 groups 31, 86, 102; service Equal Rights Amendment 1930 70 groups 31,32,102 equal-rights feminists 89 relationship to existing social equal rights for women 43, 44, 65, 66, 70, relations 32 72, 74-6,89,90,99, 146,154 grassroots networks, women's 91, 100, Equal Rights International (ERI) 66, 67, 105, 114, 149 71, 74, 147 Greenham Common 115 Equal Rights Treaty 1935 72, 73, 83, 89 Group of 77, 125,127 equality 70-2, 78, 85, 128, 150 groups, women's UN Decade for Women theme 120, identity-oriented groups 31-2, 86 123-5, 140 issue-based groups 31, 86, I 02 European Community 12, 17 service groups 31, 32, I 02 Index 197

Hague Conference on Nationality 1930 67, International Feminist Bookfairs Ill, 147 71,72 International Feminist Network 102, l 04 health 34,93-5,97, 99, 102, 103, 127, International Feminist Workshop 147 140,150-2 International Interdisciplinary Congress on UN Decade for Women theme 127, 140, Women 110, 114 150-2 International Labour Organisation hegemonic world order 23, 40 (ILO) 56, 69, 75, 76, 84, 86, 97, 134, historical structures 137, 153 discourse 34,35 international law 68, 69 institutions 35 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 136, material capabilities 34 138, 154 Hoskens, Fran 105 International nongovernmental organizations House, Colonel 53, 59 (INGO) 9-13,27, 29, 40, 87,97-101, householdlabour 19,44,59,63,64,96 131, 133, 141, 146 Housewives in Dialogue 131 promotional II, 31 housewives 19, 20, 83, 88 sectional ll, 31 Hutchinson, Dorothy 88 International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) 86 illiterate women · 94, I 05, lll International Relations, field of 1-27,37, indigenous people 131 60,146 industrialization 44, 45 liberal pluralism 9-15 industry and labour, women in 63, 125, 140 neo-Gramscian critical theory 22-7 assembly line 63, 145 realism 4-8 electronics ll4 world-system theory 15-21 engineering 62 International Research and Training Institute garment 45 for the Advancement of Women, mining 62 United Nations (INSTRA W) 136 public service 93 International Socialist Women's service sector 63, 93 Conference 50 textile industry 44, 45, 62, 114 International Tribunal of Crimes against white blouse work 45 Women 91,104,126,132,148 institutionalization 35, 39 International Wages for Housework 131, integration theory 12 147 Inter-American Commission of Women International Women's Congress 1919, (CIM) 70-4,77,82, 147 Zurich 58-9 International Alliance of Women International Women's Day 51 (lAW) 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 82, 87, 88, International Women's Information and 96,97,99 Communications Service (ISIS) International Bureau of Education and 102-4, 109, 133, 143, 145, 147 Public Health 58 international women's movements 54,147, International Congress of Women 1915, The 150, 155, 156 Hague 5J:-5, 153 international women's organizations 36, international cooperation 78, 96, 99, 146 48,66,69-73,75,76,84,89,101 International Council of Social Democratic International Women's Rights Action Women (ICSDW) 88 Watch (IWRAW) 133, 141, 143, International Council of Women 146, 148 (ICW) 48, 49, 52, 54, 58, 60, 71, 72, International Women's Suffrage Alliance 74,87,89,97,98, 106,145,147 (IWSA) 49, 50, 55, 56, 58, 60 International Development Strategy International Women's Tribune Centre (IDS) 120, 121 (IWTC) 98, 105, 133, 143, 147 International Federation of Business and International Women's Year (IWY) 91, 97, Professional Women 96-8 99,104,123,124,135,136 International Federation of Young ISIS-Women's International Cross-Cultural Women 71, 72,98 Exchange (ISIS-WICCE) 104 198 Index

Jacobs, Dr Aletta 50 antislavery movements 16, 48 Joint United Nations Information antisystemic movements 16, 17, 21, 28, Committee 98 32 coopted movements 22, 23 Karl, Marilee 102 international movements 37-42, 116 multinational corporations I, 9, 107, 128 labour, women in 20, 23, 47, 56, 57, 63, 65,92,97, 150,159 Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the land tenure, women's 64 Advancement of Women (FLS) 121, Latin American Feminist Meeting 109, 130-2, 134, 137, 138, 140, 141 147, 158 Nairobi NGO Forum 1985 103, 110, 113, League of Nations 3, 36, 43, 44, 67-75, 115, 130, 131, 134, 148 146, 148, 149, 153-9 Nairobi World Conference on Women Commission on the League 57 1985 116, 130, 133, 137, 140, 141, 143 Covenant 56-8 National Council of Women 76, 82 Labour Commission 56 National League of Women Voters 73 process of establishment 44-58 National Women's Party 70, 71,73 legal rights, women's 59,75 National (US) Women's Suffrage liberal pluralism I, 9, 11-13, 15, 27, 28, Association 48 30, 146 nationality, women's 26, 57-9,67,68, change in international system 12, 13 70-5 definition 9-10 Neo-Gramscian critical theory I, 21, 22-7, failure to deal with gender 13-15 30 international pi uralism 10 change 24,25 nonstate actors I 0-12 definition 22 role ofiNGOs 10 production relations 22, 23, 25 life expectancy, women's 94 social movements 28-30 literacy, women's 99 state-society complex 22-4 Lloyd George, David 55, 56 world orders 22, 25, 26 lobbying by groups, effects of 31, 56, 10 I, neofunctionalist 12 147, 148, 156 neoliberal institutionalism 9, 13, 14 Lutz, Bertha 77, 80 Network on Women and Global Corporations 1979 145 Macmillan, Chrystal 52 networking 31, 109, 149 mainstreaming 32,38-40,42,60, 108, New International Economic Order 147-9, 156, 158 (NIEO) 125, 127 institutionalization 39 nongovernment conferences 91, 98, 99 marginalization 39 nongovernmental organization (NGO) I, maniage 45,67,69, 72,82,100 30, 57, 89,98-101, 105, 131, 132 MATCH International 152 nonstate actors 1, 4, 5, 8-12, 15, 27-33, 146 material capabilities 34, 36, 42 definition I maternity leave, women's 57, 73, 119 nontraditional occupations for women 63, media, women in 53, 54, 105, 106 64 Mehta, Hansa 83 North Atlantic Treaty Organization MexicoCityNGOTribune 1975 106,112, (NATO) 145 125, 126 Mexico City World Conference on Women Open Door International (001) 66, 147 1975 124-6, 135, 148 organic intellectuals 24 military security issues 115, 136 Organization of American States Miller, David 57 (OAS) 70-1,97 moral reform, women involved in 48, 49 organizations 29-30 Mott, Lucretia 47 mixed gender 30, 97, 99 movements women only 30 anticolonial movements 64 Orlando, Signor 55, 59 Index 199

Pan-American Conference 1933 72 sex discrimination 70, 77,86 Pan-American Union 70 sexism 19, 129 Pandit, Viuaya Lakshmi 83 Sipila, Helvi 119 Papendreou, Margarita 116 Six Points Group 66, 82 Paris Peace Conference 1919 55, 56, social feminists 73-5 58-60,83 social forces 28, 33 parliament, women in I 02 social movements 22-4 Paul, Alice 73, 76, 84 antislavery movement 16,48 peace 78, 79,98, 102,115,120,132,140, antisystemic movements 16, 17, 21, 28, 146, 148, 159 32 UN Decade for Women theme 115, 132, critical movements 22 140, 159 coopted movements 22, 23 Peace Tent 115, 148 environment 102, 110, 125, 131,116, Percy Amendment 119, 154 132, 151, 152 Policy Research for Development peace 29, 159 Alternatives (UBINIG) 114 reactionary movements 22, 23, 83 population, and women 118, 119 social reform activity 43, 48, 81 Population Conference, United Nations suffrage 16,47-54, 156 1974 135, 137 social work, women in 46 pornography 125, 132 socialism 107, 108 poverty 91,95, 104,122,130 Socialist International 50, 51 production relations 22, 23 Socialist Women's International (SWI) 50, professional sports, women in I 02 88 Project Five-0 98, 99, 148 Soroptimist International 98 prostitution 37, 48, 102, 104, 146, 153, 154 Stanton, Elizabeth Candy 47, 49 protective legislation 64 statecentric approach 4, 5, 8, 9, 13 status groups 16 qualitative changes 36, 42 status of women 75-7,81,82, 126, 133, 137, 141, 155 race 28,37,79,149 Steinhem, Gloria 106, 107 racism 19, 129 Stevens, Doris 71 rationality of actors assumption 7 Street, Jesse 77 REAL women 40 structural adjustment policies 92, 95, 141, realism I, 4-21, 146 142,151 definition 4 Sub-Committee on Status of Women, United exclusion of nonstate actors 4, 5 Nations 82, 83 invisibility of gender 7, 8 suffrage 16,43,47-54,57,58,67,68, 150, lack of attention to change 5-7 156 statecentric approach 4, 5, 8, 9, 13 system-wide medium-term plan on reformist strategies I 08 Women and Development religion 26, 79, 94, 102 (SWMTP-WD) 138, 140 reproductive rights and roles 46, 73, 74, 102, 113, 122, 146, 147 technical-assistance projects 155 retail, women in 45, 63 technology 5, 93, 105, 112, 114, 125, 131, revolutions 16 132,143 Roman Catholic Church 10 Third World Forum on Women 46 Roosevelt, Eleanor 82, 83 Third World Movement against the Exploitation of Women Schwimmer, Rosika 52, 60 (TWMAEW) 114 Second International 1907 50 traditional roles for women 53, 60, 85, 98, self-employed women 65 105, 147, 150, 151 semi-skilled labour, women's 63 trans-Atlantic culture 47, 48 Seneca Falls Convention 1848 48 transformative change 38, 159 service group 32, I 02 transnationalism 9, 10, l3 200 Index transportation 62, 125, 131, 132, 140 First World (North) 43, 89, 90, 93, travel, international 48 100-3, 107, 109, 114, 115 Third World (South) 23, 43, 45, 86, 89, 90, United Nations (UN) 92,93,95,98, 100-2,105-7,109-14, Charter 78-81 120-22, 153, 155, 159 early years, 1948-70 86-9 Women for Mutual Security (WMS) 116, establishment 75-86 145,148 integration of women's concerns 134-42 Women Living under Muslim Law 103, 146 NGOs 96-9, 101 women's alternative development women and development 118-22 projects 148 see also specific UN agencies Women's Charter, League of Nations 59 United Nations Children's Fund Women's International Cultural (UNICEF) 97, 137 Federation 86 United Nations Conference on International Women's International Democratic Organization (UN! CO) 77, 78 Federation (WID F) 86, 87, 96, I 00, United Nations Conference on Trade and 145, 147 Development (UNCT AD) 97, 136, Women's International League for Peace and 139 Freedom (WILPF) 59, 67, 72, 74, 87, United Nations Development Fund for 88,115, 147 Women(UNIFEM) 98,124,136, Women's International Network 137, 154 (WIN) 105 United Nations Development Programme Women's Institute for Freedom of (UNDP) 97, 121, 137 Press 106 United Nations Educational, Scientific and women's studies I 10-11 Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 84, Women's Studies International 91 97, 106, 137 Women's World Congress for a Healthy United Nations Environment Programme Planet 116 (UNEP) 97 work, women inland United Nations General Assembly academics 102, 155 (UNGA) 120, 138 agriculture 44, 45, 93, 99, 128, 131 United Nations Industrial Development arts 102 Organization (UNIDO) 97, 135 clerical 45, 63 United Nations Population Fund medical 112 (UNFPA) 97, 106, 137 migrant workers 128, 131 United Nations Relief and Works Agency nursing 46 for Palestine (UNRWA) 139 occupational segregation 45 United Nations Secretariat 98, 133, 138, 148 prostitution 37, 48, 102, 104, 146, 153, unpaid work, women's 131, 143 154 teaching 45, 46 violence against women 20, 129, 126, 132, trade 125, 131, 132 156 volunteer work 46, 99, 101, 152 von Suttner, Bertha 48 wages 45,64,93,151 work patterns 45 Warsaw Pact 145 World Anti-Slavery Convention, 1840 47 welfare, women in 95 World Assembly on Aging 137 Wilson, Woodrow 54-6 World Food Conference 135 wives and mothers 53, 75, 60, 74, 151 World Health Organization (WHO) 97, women, differences based on 137, 140 class 28, 37, 44, 88, 89, 140; world order 2, 22-6, 32, 38, 40, 42 bourgeois 43, 46, 48-51; middle antisystemic activities 32 class 45, 46, 49, 63, 75, 89, 100, counterhegemonic activities 32 101; upper-middle-class definition 25 women 43,46-8,75,89, 100,149 disengagement 32,38-40,42, 147-9, ethnicity 26, 37, 147 156,158 Index 201 world order - coninued World Women's Party (WWP) 66, 76, mainstreaming 32, 38-40, 42, 60, 108, 82-4, 147 147-9, 156, 158 world-system theory 15-20, 28, 29, 32, 33 World Peace Council 87 change 17, 18 World Union for International Concord 71, definition 15-16 72 gender relations 18-20 World War I 47, 50, 53, 61, 62, 64, 89, global and histmical perspective 15 148, 150, 151, 153 social movements 15, 16 World War II 9, 31, 44, 64, 66, 76, 82, 86, 87,89,151 Young Women's Christian Association World Women in the Environment (YWCA) 71 (WorldWIDE) 116 World Women's Parliament for Peace 116, Zetkin, Clara 50 148 Zionism, debates of 125, 127