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Disease of Aquatic Organisms 133:57 Vol. 133: 57–68, 2019 DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS Published online February 21 https://doi.org/10.3354/dao03326 Dis Aquat Org OPENPEN ACCESSCCESS Detection and characterisation of haplosporidian parasites of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis, including description of the novel parasite Minchinia mytili n. sp. Georgia M. Ward1,2,3,*, Stephen W. Feist2, Patricia Noguera4, Mar Marcos-López4,5, Stuart Ross2, Matthew Green2, Ander Urrutia2, John P. Bignell2, David Bass1,2 1Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK 2Centre for the Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences (Cefas), Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK 3College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK 4Marine Scotland Science, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, UK 5FishVet Group Ireland, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland ABSTRACT: The edible mussel Mytilus edulis is a major aquaculture commodity in Europe, with 168 000 t produced in 2015. A number of abundant, well characterised parasites of the species are known, though none are considered to cause significant mortality. Haplosporida (Rhizaria, Endomyxa) is an order of protistan parasites of aquatic invertebrates, the best studied of which are the oyster pathogens Haplosporidium nelsoni and Bonamia ostreae. While these species are well characterised within their hosts, the diversity, life-cycle and modes of transmission of haplosporid- ians are very poorly understood. Haplosporidian parasites have previously been reported from Mytilus spp., however the majority of these remain uncharacterised, and no molecular data exist for any species. In this study, we identified 2 novel haplosporidian parasites of M. edulis present in the UK. The first of these, observed by light microscopy and in situ hybridisation infecting the gills, mantle, gonadal tubules and digestive connective tissues of mussels in the Tamar estuary, England, we describe as Minchinia mytili on the basis of 18S sequence data. The second, observed infecting a single archive specimen collected in Loch Spelve, Mull, Scotland, infects the foot mus- cle, gills and connective tissue of the digestive gland. Sequence data places this parasite in an uncharacterised clade of sequences amplified from tropical bivalve guts and water samples, sister to H. nelsoni. Screening of water and sediment samples collected at the sample site in the Tamar estuary revealed the presence of both sequence types in the water column, suggesting host-free or planktonic life stages. KEY WORDS: Ascetosporea · Haplosporida · Haplosporidium · Minchinia · Mussel · Mytilus · Parasite 1. INTRODUCTION Europe (168 000 t), with France (61 000 t), the Neth - erlands (54 000 t) and the UK (20 000 t) being the The blue mussel Mytilus edulis Linneaus, 1798 is largest producers. Outside of Europe, the Atlantic of immense significance to aquaculture worldwide, coast of Canada is also a major producer (22 000 t in with over 190 000 t produced globally in 2015 (FAO 2015). In addition to the value of this species to global 2017). The majority of these mussels were farmed in aquaculture, as filter feeders, mussels play an impor- © The authors 2019. Open Access under Creative Commons by *Corresponding author: georgia.ward@nhm.ac.uk Attribution Licence. Use, distribution and reproduction are un - restricted. Authors and original publication must be credited. Publisher: Inter-Research · www.int-res.com 58 Dis Aquat Org 133: 57–68, 2019 tant role ecologically, filtering waterborne nutrients have revealed significant uncharacterised molecular and particles, and their sessile lifestyle makes them diversity within the order. ideal proxies for the detection of local environmental The most well-studied haplosporidian species are contaminants such as heavy metals and organic the oyster parasites Haplosporidium nelsoni and chemicals, as demonstrated by the United States’ Bonamia ostreae, responsible for mass mortalities NOAA Mussel Watch program (Kimbrough et al. in Crassostrea spp. and Ostrea edulis respectively 2008). (Ford & Haskin 1982, Robert et al. 1991). Economic Continued interest in the economic exploitation of losses associated with B. ostreae infection are so sig- mussels for aquaculture has led to a number of nificant that the parasite is currently listed as notifi- attempts to establish baselines for population health, able to the World Organisation for Animal Health aiming in particular to shed light on the parasites (OIE) (http://oie.int/en/international-standard-setting/ and pathogens of the species, their significance and aquatic-code 2017). distribution (e.g. Figueras et al. 1991, Bignell et al. Urosporidium spp. parasitise free-living annelid 2008). Such studies predominantly utilize histopatho- worms and Platyhelminthes, themselves parasites of logical methods and have identified several highly marine molluscs and crustaceans. Minchinia spp. prevalent, widely distributed parasites, including the have been reported only from marine molluscs (Ford copepod Mytilicola intestinalis and the gill ciliate et al. 2009), and Bonamia spp. from oysters (En - Ancistrum mytili. Both of these are ubiquitous in gelsma et al. 2014). The most speciose genus, Mytilus spp. populations across Europe, and though Haplosporidium , is comprised of species parasitising they can be linked to a loss of condition, they are not molluscs, crustaceans and annelid worms in both thought to be associated with increased mortality in marine and freshwater environments (Arzul & the host (Villalba et al. 1997). More recently, studies Carnegie 2015). of baseline population health have incorporated The morphology of haplosporidian spores has fre- molecular screening of mussel tissues for specific quently been used to assign species to genera, with parasite groups, allowing for the more sensitive species belonging to the ‘microcell’ genus Bonamia detection of rarer, low-prevalence parasitic infections previously presumed not to form spores (Perkins (e.g. Lynch et al. 2014). 2000). Haplosporida form ovoid, walled spores with- Over recent decades, the protistan class Asce- out polar filaments or tubules, with an orifice at one tosporea (Rhizaria, Endomyxa) has emerged as an pole. Urosporidium spp. produce unornamented important group of parasites of economically sig - spores with an internal flap composed of spore wall nificant aquatic species. Ascetosporea is comprised material covering the orifice. In Minchinia and Hap- of 5 orders, the most well known of which is the losporidium spp., the orifice is covered by an external Haplosporida, which includes species known to hinged lid. Both genera form ornamented spores, infect molluscs, crustaceans and annelid worms in though differ in the origin of this ornamentation: in both marine and freshwater environments. The Minchinia spp., ornamental extensions are formed of orders Mikrocytida, Paramyxida and Paradinida epispore cytoplasm, while the extensions of Hap- also in clude important invertebrate pathogens, losporidium spp. spores are composed of spore wall though their diversity and host range are only very material (Burreson & Ford 2004). All Urosporidium re cently becoming apparent (Hartikainen et al. and Minchinia species for which the spore structure 2014b, Ward et al. 2016, 2018). The fifth order, is known are concordant with these criteria, but the Claustrosporida, remains very poorly characterised, only species of Bonamia known to form spores, B. comprising just 2 described species, Claustrospo - perspora, produces spores matching the criteria for ridium gammari and C. asellii, with no molecular Haplosporidium (Carnegie et al. 2006). Further, line- data available for either species (Larsson 1987, ages with the ‘haplo’ spore structure do not form a Cavalier-Smith & Chao 2003). monophyletic clade (Burreson & Reece 2006; sup- Haplosporida includes over 40 described species ported by more recent analyses by Hartikainen et al. across 4 genera (Haplosporidium, Minchinia, Bona - 2014a, Pagenkopp-Lohan et al. 2016) and are there- mia and Urosporidium) and a number of undescribed fore unsuitable for defining Bonamia and Hap- species (Arzul & Carnegie 2015). In addition, recent losporidium; even more so when the necessary taxo- haplosporidian-targeted molecular studies using nomic revisions have been made to Haplosporidium. group-specific primer sets to probe environmental It is likely that more genera must be created in order water and sediment (Hartikainen et al. 2014a) and to resolve the paraphyletic Haplosporidium. How- bivalve gut samples (Pagenkopp-Lohan et al. 2016) ever, with spore structure and molecular data cur- Ward et al.: Haplosporidians in Mytilus edulis 59 rently lacking for the type species, H. scolopli, it re - (Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa recipe) in mains unclear which clade should be considered the batches of 10, clustered according to sampling prox- true Haplosporidium (Arzul & Carnegie 2015). imity. Transverse sections to include the digestive The life-cycles of haplosporidian parasites are also gland, gonad, gills and mantle were then fixed in largely unknown, though evidence exists to suggest Davidson’s solution for histological processing and direct transmission between hosts in at least some examination, 2.5% glutaraldehyde for transmission non spore-forming Bonamia species, including B. electron microscopy (TEM) and 100% molecular- ostreae (Engelsma et al. 2014). Numerous unsuccess- grade ethanol for molecular analyses, as in Ward et ful attempts have been made at direct transmission of al. (2016). Subsequent
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