A CASE STUDY OF INTERINSTITUTIONAL COOPERATION OF

THREE PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER

LEARNING IN ABILENE, TEXAS

by

RANDY ARMSTRONG, B.A., M.A.

A DISSERTATION

IN

HIGHER EDUCATION

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

/ December, 1997 ^LC i.

/Oi), I)? Ct>P'f •^

Copyright 1997, Randy Lee Armstrong ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to the members of my doctoral committee for their willingness to serve and for their many insightful contributions. In addition, I am particularly grateful to my major professor, Dr. Albert B. Smith, who generously gave of his expertise and compassion during the course of this project. I would like to thank the many members of both present and former administrations of Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, and McMurry University, who, by their participation and cooperation helped to make this case study a reality.

To my typists, Ann Giddens and Shirley Pylant, thank you for your many hours of contribution to this project. It would have been difficult, if not impossible, to finish this document without your many talents and helpful suggestions. I would like to acknowledge a lifetime of support and encouragement from my parents. I am indebted to them for seeing me through my educational endeavors to the finish. And finally, to my wife Jody, and son Eric, without your endurance and understanding I could never have made my way through such difficult times. To them go both my eternal love and gratitude.

11 TABLE OF CONTEXTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii ABSTRACT vii

LIST OF TABLES ix CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of the Problem 4 Purposes of the Study 4 Questions for Study 5 Need for the Study 5 Delimitations 7 Limitations 8 Basic Assumptions 9 Definition of Primary Terms 10 Definition of Secondary Terms 13 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 17

Content and Focus of Consortial-Related Literature 17 Chronology of Consortial Research Beginnings 18 Autonomy-Related Concerns 20 Key Consortial Literature and Research in the 1960s 22 Key Consortial Literature and Research in the 1970s 24 Key Consortial Literature and Research in the 1980s 31

Key Consortial Literature and Research in the 1990s 32 Fiscal Concerns and Realities 32

111 Innovative Collaborative Arrangements 36 Examples of Collaborative Longevity 37

III. REVIEW OF HISTORICAL LITERATURE 40 History of Consortia and Interinstitutional Cooperation 40 International Beginnings 40 Domestic Beginnings 42 Legislated Cooperation 43 Voluntary Cooperation 44 First Academic Consortium Constitution 45 Claremont College Corporation 46 Atlanta University Center 46 Consortial Activity of the 1930s 47 Consortial Activity of the 1940s 49 Post-War Interstate and Regional Compacts 50 Limited Association and Cooperation 51 Multipurpose Cooperation 51 Planned and Integrated Activity of the 1960s 52 External Influences on Consortial 52 Reassessment and Justification of Purpose 54 Revival, Renewal, and Redirection 55 Current Consortial Trends 56

IV. METHODOLOGY 67 Definitions and Evolution of History 67 Historical Research Procedures 69 Historical Research in Education 70 Sources and Classification of Documentation 72

IV Oral Tradition and Interviewing 7o Basic Background Parameters of the Abilene Study 75

V. CHRONOLOGY OF INTERINSTITUTIONAL COOPERATION IN ABILENE, TEXAS 82

Introduction S2

Description of Hardin-Simmons University S2

Description of Abilene Christian University 8.S

Description of McMurry University ^"^

Other Post-Secondary Institutions Represented in this

Study 85

Description of Cisco Junior College 85

Description of Texas State Technical College Sweetwater — S(S

Chronology of Informal Cooperation So Introduction ^ Interinstitutional Activity Before 1960 87 Cross-Registration 90 Cooperative Academic Programs 92 Chronology of Formal Cooperation ^M Introduction 94 Interinstitutional Activity of the 1960s 97 Interinstitutional Activity of the 1970s 102 Interinstitutional Activity of the 1980s 124 Interinstitutional Activity of the 1990s 130

Summary 140

VI. SUMMARY, MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS. RECOMMENDATIONS US Summary 14'5

y Introduction 143

Research Questions and Findings 144

Observations and Recommendations for Future Policies, Practices, and Projects in Abilene. Texas 156 Strengths 156 Weaknesses 157 Suggestions for Future Cooperation 157

Observations and Recommendations for Future Cooperative Policy and Practice Among Similar Institutions of Higher Learning 158

Recommendations for Further Research 159

Conclusions 161 REFERENCES 163 APPENDICES 178

A: QUESTIONS FOR INTERVIEWEES 17S

B: LIST OF KEY INTERVIEWEES 187

VI ABSTRACT

The research problem was to determine and describe the historical development from 1906 to the present the formal and informal examples of interinstitutional and consortial collaboration of three private, church- related institutions of higher learning located in Abilene, Texas. The purpose of this case study was to formulate suggestions that similar institutions could draw on when trying to duplicate or improve comparable collaborative endeavors. It was assumed that knowledge derived from a case study of Hardin-Simmons University. Abilene Christian University, and McMurry University, may contribute to a better understanding of this and other similar interinstitutional collaboration.

The methodology consisted of established and accepted precepts of historical research and interviewing techniques. A timeline of interinstitutional cooperation and consortial endeavor amon^:^ the three subject institutions was formulated using the historical methodoloixy suggested by Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996). A questionnaire based on six research questions was also designed to elicit answers from 35 principal participants who were/are in some way responsible for the creation and evolution of the various consortial relationships and endeavors shared by the subject institutions.

The major findings of this study suggested that a system of decentralized and internalized governance of essentially revenue neutral consortial components has proven to be a common theme repeated throughout the consortial activity shared by the three subject institutions. The results also indicate that the existing consortial relationships

vii investigated by this study are the result of three autonomous but cooperative universities with realistic expectations and aspirations.

In the recommendations for future policies, practices, programs, and research in this study, results also suggest that this largely successful and mutually beneficial collaborative relationship is the result of eclectic institutional constituencies, styles of leadership, and motivations for cooperative affiliation. There is also evidence to suggest that at the heart of this long-standing cooperative relationship is a willingness to change and improve as time and circumstance requires.

The researcher concluded that the Abilene experience is the lesult of a long-term process of calculated course corrections and fine tuniim which ultimately produced a number of workable collaborative endeavors for the three institutions addressed by this case study.

Vlll LIST OF TABLES

1. List of Informal Cooperative Projects and Their Current Status 141

2. List of Formal Cooperative Projects and Their Current Status 142

IX CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

The phenomenal proliferation of interinstitutional cooperation and consortia within the American system of higher education has for many years been a topic of intense interest and conjecture for the chroniclers and pundits of all aspects of higher education. A review of the literature reveals a wide range of theories and opinions concerning all of the various components and elements of contemporary educational coalitions.

In the forward of the 1994 edition of A Classification of Institutions of Higher Education (The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1994), Ernest L. Boyer (1994), president of The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, former United States Commissioner of Education, and former Chancellor of the State University of New York, advocated a movement to join institutions of higher learning for the purpose of defining "distinctive missions." These new "clusters" would be created based on special "qualities" rather than degree granting levels. According to Boyer, members of the Carnegie Commission had jointly expressed both concern and regret regarding the apparent lack of "unapologetically experimental" college and university missions currently found in this country. He further contends that:

Several years ago a group of Liberal Arts institutions met to consider the possibility of defining their mission as Research Colleges. And we've been much encouraged by a movement among a group of Comprehensive colleges Inow classified as Master's Colleges and Universities]. They have formed a consortium to define, for themselves, a special niche in American higher education, establishing what might be called The New American College, (pp. viii-ix) Boyer (1994) concludes his forward by obsen'ing that "Colleges and universities in the United States have an amazing capacity to respond creatively to new conditions" (pp. ix).

Whereas structured and unstructured institutional linkages within the American higher education system have long been a recognized entity for many decades, modern consortia are in and of themselves a relatively new phenomenon (Neal, 1988). There is an ample body of evidence to support the oft-stated contention that the age of substantial and pertinent interinstitutional cooperation in American higher education is less than 50 years old. According to Neal (1988), the contemporary concept of academic consortia and interinstitutional cooperation was a product of the 1960s and early 1970s when higher education was operating in an expansionist mode. WTiereas these cooperative programs and agreements were the avenues of growth and expansion during the 1960s; toda}', they are becoming vehicles for consolidation, focus, and self-preservation (Pritzen, 1988).

A plethora of interinstitutional cooperation currently exists in a variety of forms throughout the American system of higher education. Despite current trends, a system developed by Swerdlow in 1972 to categorize cooperative arrangements is still valid. Swerdlow contends that "the almost endless array of cooperative arrangements may be categorized in one or more of the following genres: bilateral, multilateral, legislative, and voluntary" (pp. 3-4). The bilateral approach involves the cooperative linking of just two institutions. Multilateral involvement constitutes three or more institutions. Legislative cooperation is the result of state decree. A fourth type is the voluntary arrangement which may also include the bilateral and multilateral categories. The voluntary designation is reserved for those consortial members

entering cooperative agreements of their own volition. The body of the research in this study will be limited to the investigation of voluntary consortial arrangements and agreements. According to Swerdlow (1972'

With the exception of legislative mandate, cooperation may be formal or informal. Informal cooperation is an arrangement between two institutions based upon a 'gentleman's agreement.' No contract exists and the cooperation continues based upon the mutual good faith of the cooperating institutions. A formal cooperative agreement between institutions is founded on a contractual agreement and is legally binding for the period of time of the contract. Most formal cooperative ventures result in the formation of an agency to help with the cooperating endeavors and that agency tends to become incorporated, (p. 4) Offerman (1985) maintained that:

The majority of cooperative efforts between educational institutions are much less formal arrangements or joint projects and are engaged in with increasing frequency. It is important to note, however, that research and formal arrangements involved a different unit of study, a different frame of reference. The reference point was that of the participating member as opposed to the cooperative relationship itself. In addition, this collaboration was often on a bilateral basis with far less complex interrelationships than consortia, (p. 33)

Fundamental and continuing precepts of this now common educational amalgamation are the basic fiscal and philosophical realities and resulting constraints which have inevitably led to their sometimes cautious, yet deliberate metamorphosis. Regardless of original purpose or function, the development and assessment of consortia and interinstitutional cooperation continues at every level. Consortia in this country may have been artificially stimulated by both educational and governmental interest. Consortia have been perceived to be both an affordable and realistic approach to complex problems in higher education. Statement of the Problem The problem was to determine and describe the historical development from 1906 to the present of the formal and informal interinstitutional cooperation of three private, church-related institutions of higher learning located in Abilene, Texas. Abilene Baptist College (Hardin-Simmons University) was established in 1891 and was the only institution of higher learning in this West Texas community for a jieriod of 15 years. This singular status obviously ruled out any form of interinstitutional cooperation until the establishment of the Childers Classical Institute (Abilene Christian University) in 1906 and McMurry College (McMurry University) in 1923.

Using standard historical research and interviewing methodology, a comprehensive profile of major instances of interinstitutional cooperation and consortial endeavor of the three aforementioned private, church- related institutions of higher learning was developed. These findings may be of some value to other private, church-related institutions of higher learning that may be considering interinstitutional cooperation or a consortial membership as a means of confronting fiscal and regulatory challenges of this century and the next.

Purposes of the Studv The purpose of this study was to formulate a profile with suggestions that other private, church-related institutions of higher learning could use when trying to duplicate comparable arrangements or improve (existing collaborative endeavors. Questions for Studv The following questions were formulated to help achieve the purpose.- of this study: 1. Based on the history of the establishment of three autonomous, private, and church-related institutions of higher learning in Abilene, Texas, what events led to the formation of formal, interinstitutional cooperation?

2. Who was/were responsible for such a bold step and how was it achieved? 3. Does this long-standing relationship have any unique features or characteristics related to its organization, administration, leadership, funding, governance structure, project development, legal arrangements, staffing, strategic planning activities, or procedures? 4. Are there any short or long-range plans to curtail, alter, or embellish any of the existing cooperative arrangements? 5. Based on the findings of this study, what are indications of the need for improvement or expansion of the existing tri-university arrangement? 6. What criteria, standards, and methods, if any, havt> been used to evaluate the impact and success of this tri-university arrangement?

Need for the Studv According to Neal (1988), a natural tendency toward interinstitutional cooperation should be expected to develop in a country with well over 3,000 institutions of higher learning. A close c^xamination of the American higher education system has predictably revealed colleges and universities "similar in mission, in program emphasis, in character, or in sponsorship; in addition, many of these colleges and universities find themselves neighbors" (p. 1).

Conversely, experience and research has shown it is less common for two or more colleges or universities to formalize their cooperation by developing or joining a consortium: "a semi-permanent organization, typically supported largely by financial contributions from its members, that employs a professional staff whose sole responsibility is to encourage and to facilitate cooperative activities between and among the members, and between them collectively and others" (Neal, 1988, pp. 12).

The 1991 Consortium Directory does not indicate a listing for any of the three private, church-related universities that comprise the subject matter for this study. This suggests that the Abilene, tri-university arrangement is but one example of a "nonaligned," consortial affiliation that owes its evolutionary existence to a combination of physical proximitv and the ever-escalating fiscal demands inherent with providing a quality higher education experience (Love & Barnett, 1991). A search of the ERIC holdings pertaining to all variations of the terms consortium, interinstitutional cooperation, and higher education revealed that since 1969 at least 80 doctoral dissertations have been completed nationwide concerning some aspect of interinstitutional cooperation in higher education. A review of these documents and all collateral literature for the same period of time indicated a lack of available information on voluntary and nonaligned consortial arrangements of private, church-related colleges and universities. Therefore, the close proximity of these aforementioned educational institutions, their similarity of purpose, and their combined longevity made Abilene an ideal site for the study of voluntary and nonaligned interinstitutional cooperation of church-related and privately supported entities of higher learning.

Delimitations The primary thrust of this study was the development of a historical profile of the interinstitutional cooperation between Hardin-Simmons University. Abilene Christian University, and McMurry University over an 91-year period of time. The archival repositories of all three institutions plus key individuals with valuable first-hand recollections and anecdotes provided the core of knowledge necessary for this dissertation. Sources included memoranda, university histories, legal documentation, boards of trustee minutes, institutional catalogues/bulletins, personal papers, the collective memory of former administrators and faculty, and the insight of the three current administrations. To date, no other attempt has been made to chronicle the merging of the internal or external resources of these three universities.

Since the more significant and ambitious examples of this consortial relationship represent a relatively recent phenomenon, a sufficient body of primary and secondary information were available to illustrate the various consortial relationships of these three degree-granting institutions of diverse origins, purpose, and philosophies.

Every attempt was made to present an accurate picture of what may prove to be a successful example of private, church-related interinstitutional cooperation. The findings, assumptions, and suggestions provided by this historical investigation may be of use to similar institutions of higher learning in their efforts to create or duplicate comparable cooperative arrangements.

Limitations The relative success or failure of historically based case studies is often in direct proportion to the quantity and quality of the available primary and secondary sources. Any study involving historical research or perspective is predictably faced from the outset with varying degrees of informational deprivation related to the passage of time and/or institutional policy and restrictions regarding privileged information. Federal and state laws pertaining to the free and open access of information do not apply to private institutions such as the three chosen as subjects for this case study. This protected status proved to be a barrier to some primary and secondary sources such as minutes from trustee and other closed meetings and internal and external evaluation results. In addition to information gleaned from available sources such as college catalogues and bulletins, interinstitutional memoranda and correspondence, committee minutes, legal documentation, newspajDer articles, and private papers: a structured questionnaire was employed to obtain the personal recollections and observations from those who had a personal knowledge of interinstitutional and consortial activity in .\bilene, Texas. Although key participants and/or eyewitnesses are valuable as primary resources, such information may be biased. Bias of this nature can originate from personal experience, perception, or normal memory

8 loss due to the transitory nature of personal recollection. A further limitation of this procedure was the reluctance of respondents to provide information that might reflect negatively on individuals in particular oi- any of the three subject institutions in general.

Another limiting factor of this case study was the absence of statistical investigation. The scope of this case study did not allow for quantitative research of such factors as enrollment levels and internal/external funding activity in those years since the inception of formal consortial cooperation in 1973. One final limitation to consider was the employment of the author by one of the subject institutions.

Basic Assumptions The following assumptions were applied to this study: 1. The Abilene example of consortial and interinstitutional cooperation is unique when its longevity and ecumenical profile are combined and used as points of reference. 2. The three private, church-related institutions of higher learning in Abilene, Texas have been engaged in both formal and informal consortial arrangements and interinstitutional cooperation for a number of years.

3. An accurate history of the Abilene consortium can be reconstructed using available resources.

4. Findings, assumptions, and suggestions from this study may provide the basis for future formulations of evaluative criteria for predicting or assessing success or failure of comparable cooperative arrangements between/among other private, church-related institutions of higher learning. 5. Other similar private, church-related institutions of higher learning are involved in voluntary cooperative agreements.

Definition of Primarv Terms Roueche, Taber, and Roueche (1995) noted that while writing The Companv We Keep: Collaboration in the Communitv Collei^e. the authors discovered a number of terms currently in use to denote interinstitutional cooperation and consortial arrangements. "The authors refer interchangeably to partnerships, collaborations, collaborative initiatives. and alliances. The vocabulary was evolving as they wrote, and it continues to evolve" (p. ix). A review of the literature on consortial and interinstitutional cooperation revealed an abundance of denotative and connotative meanings for terms essential to this study. A prime example of this semantic proliferation is the numerous and varied meanings assigned to the term Consortium. According to Johnson (1971), the word consortium became a permanent addition to the lexicon used by those in higher education because other previously accepted terminology (center, union, association, federation, council, group, committee) proved inadequate when used to denote a variety of shared endeavors. His delineation of the term as found in The Encvclopedia of Education offers a somewhat different view of this now widely recognized educational phenomenon:

A voluntary combination of three or more higher educational institutions for the joint attainment of one or more mutually desired objectives through formal machinery, usually characterized by special officers, a representative policy- 10 making body, a separate budget, authority to sustain and extend itself as a new corporate entit\\ and common programs distinct from those of the constituent members. (Johnson. 1971. p. 425)

A perhaps more all-inclusive definition of consortium may be found in The Facts on File Dictionary of Education. Shafritz. Koeppe. and Soper (1988) describe a contemporary educational consortium as:

... a combination of people, groups, associations, or organizations that have joined for a particular purpose. A consortium may be assembled to accomplish a single, short- term purpose, or as a semi-permanent alliance to pursue a number of ongoing purposes. Schools at all levels frequently utilize consortia arrangements for a variety of purposes, (p. 119) A considerably more generic definition of the term and its intended usage was found in Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionarv (Mish, 1991, p. 280):

1. an agreement, combination, or group formed to undertake an enterprise beyond the resources of any one member 2. association, society 3. the legal right of one spouse to the company, affection, and service of the other. While these definitions relate directly or indirectly to a legal. business, or marital perspective, a less narrow interpretation would tend to support the contention that a consortium is any association for a common good. A more concise definition of consortium is found in the Educational Administration Glossary. Dejnozka (1983, p. 37) characterizes the term as "a group of independent organizations (e.g., universities) engaged in a single effort in which each has an interest and from which each presumably benefits."

11 Arguably the most appropriate definition for the purpose and scope of this study is located in the Dictionarv of Education:

A combination or organization of higher education institutions to share offerings or other education resources, conduct research and experiments, and/or develop new programs primarily for the purpose of enriching without duplication the opportunities offered bv all and of reducing costs. (Good, 197'^). p. 130)

No doubt consortia are mandated to provide avenues of fulfillment for one or more of these fundamental goals and objectives. Howe\'er, external as well as internal pressures often, if not always, develop which can significantly alter the composition and purposes of each consortium. Thus, this phenomenon can arguably be held accountable for the verifiable uniqueness of the hundreds of consortia currently in existence thi'oughout the United States. One additional term that will be frequently used in this studv is Interinstitutional Cooperation. Lancaster (1969. p. 619 A) and Derrick, (1974, p. 3451 A) conclude that such cooperation can be described as "any formal cooperative arrangement between two or more otherwise independent institutions of higher learning which voluntarily impose certain limitations, contributions, and expectations on themselves in order to achieve interdependent ends which fulfill them in ways not otherwise possible."

It should be noted at this juncture that in spite of the preponderance of readily available specific definitions relating to some aspect of educational linkages, a review of the entries under Consortia and Interinstitutional Cooperation in ERIC suggests that members at every level of the American educational svstem use these terms interchaniieablv

12 to describe any formal or informal educational venture entered into by postsecondary institutions in the spirit of resource pooling. Despite an obvious trend to the contrary, this study shall endeavor to be consistent when using designated primary terminology. Appropriate definitions for consortium and interinstitutional cooperation will be as follows: Consortium will always refer to a formal and voluntarv cooperative arrangement between at least two institutions of higher learning. Whereas, interinstitutional cooperation will refer to voluntary instances of informal cooperation or a combination of formal and informal cooperation of nonaligned colleges and universities such as the three subject institutions presented in this study. For example, the use of the latter term could connote a formal consortial arrangement on one or more levels of a more complex, informal cooperative "gentleman's agreement."

A basic search of the ERIC Index holdings from 1969 to the present using all variations of the terms Consortium. Interinstitutional Cooperation, and Higher Education as the major descriptors revealed the following additional terms as minor descriptors: (a) intercollegiate cooperation, (b) institutional cooperation, (c) cooperative programs, (d) collaborative arrangements, and (e) cooperative arrangements.

Definition of Secondarv Terms The following terms have been given definitions perhaps unique to this study and thus have restricted meanings. Therefore, the terms are presented to develop a common frame of reference.

13 Autonomous relationships are those between institutions of higher learning engaging in consortial arrangements without sacrificing centralized administrative input or control. Formal cooperation is a structured cooperative agreement and is legally binding for the period of time of the contract. Informal cooperation is an arrangement between two or more institutions of higher learning based upon a "gentleman's agreement." Gentleman's agreement has traditionally been used to indicate an arrangement secured only by the honor of the participants. Voluntarv agreement is a designation reser\^ed for those consortial members entering cooperative agreements of their own volition. Statutory/legislative mandate refers to those consortial arrangements or institutional cooperation resulting from state decree. Institutional linkage is a catchall phrase referring to some aspect of interinstitutional cooperation. Nonaligned is a designation for colleges and universities engaged in voluntary formal and informal consortial arrangements without affiliation to the Council for Interinstitutional Leadership (CIL) or any similar organization. Formally incorporated in 1975, the CIL comprises some 50 member organizations whose chief purpose is to provide avenues of cooperative opportunities for American colleges and universities.

Private, church-related institutions of higher learning is a term reserved for those colleges or universities affiliated with and supported by an organized group of religious congregations.

14 Selective linkage refers to those coalitions between autonomous educational entities involved in voluntary and carefully selected avenues ot institutional altruism.

Tri-college is a coined term used since 1973 by Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, and McMurry University- when referring to various cooperative arrangements in force at any given time. From 1973 to 1981 a more formal designation for this term was in vogue when referring to the Tri-College Continuing Education and VocationaVTechnical Training Program then housed on the campus of Hardin-Simmons University. Tri-universitv is a term informally adopted by the three subject institutions in 1989 upon the changing of McMurry College to McMurry University to replace tri-college as the descriptive term of choice when referring to their collective collaborative involvements. This unofficial adoption took place to more accurately reflect the change m status of a member institution. As academic overindulgence has given way to the realities of financial exigency, both interinstitutional cooperation and consortia have been thrust into the dual role of facilitator and emancipator. A summary of the contemporar}^ semantics of institutional linkage tends to support this contention. Currently, a broad definition of institutional collaboration provides for a common good derived from responsible association, and of shared fiscal responsibility.

Consortia, like the geometric patterns of snowflakes. are hy their \erv nature unique. Each situation may hold documentable and verifiable secrets to the success or failure of an almost endless array oi innovative

15 sharing arrangements. It is only through the systematic study of these institutional entanglements that workable ideology can be formulated and implemented for the overall betterment of the American system of higher education.

16 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Content and Focus of Consortial-Related Literature This chapter is intended to shed light on the contention that the very existence of consortial collaboration and cooperation in American higher education has proWded an anomaly with an almost endless array of research opportunities. The entire consortial movement is a microcosm ot academic alliances and coalitions offering the means for shared windows of opportunity. Consortia have their roots in the midst of the typically parallel existences of the American system of higher education. Additionally, consortial activity in this country has historically acted as a barometer for the normal political, economic, and even religious upheaval characteristic of a true democratic environment.

Even the most cursory review of the extant body of consortium-related literature provides the researcher with a number of inescapable conclusions concerning the contextual elements of institutional linkages. A distillation of the myriad of attempts to define and evaluate this academic version of communal and socialistic coexistence lends credence to Xeal's (1988) hypothesis:

There is no typical consortium. Consortia differ from one another because they have different types of members; because they are large or small; because they sei'\'e different communities: because they range from local to regional to national in scope: because they are organized in different ways; because they have matured at different rates: and because they have different histories, leadership, and program emphases. Some consortia are best equipped to concentrate on one or two activities, whereas others are able to address a wide range of areas. Each is a unique response to a set of conditions, (p. 2) The available literature on interinstitutional cooperation primarily focuses on such distinguishing characteristics as (1) voluntarv or statutory arrangements, (2) formal or informal collaborative agreements, (3) homogeneous or heterogeneous compositions, (4) restrictions on cooperation including autonomy-related concerns, (5) proximity, (6) classification by individual membership, (7) methodology', and (8) history of the phenomenon.

Chronology of Consortial Research Beginnings The first doctoral dissertation on statutorily-mandated interinstitutional cooperation in the United States was completed in 1939. Franklin (1939) investigated cooperative efforts of state-supported colleges and universities linked by legislative mandate while a doctoral candidate at Ohio State University. A study by Boyce (1943) concentrated on an informal cooperative grouping of Southern institutions of higher learning which developed collaborative undergraduate offerings and in some instances, shared library facilities. Findings from this research focused primarily on cooperative efforts already established rather than problems or obstacles encountered by member institutions. Prior to the 1950s, only a few colleges and universities were involved in institutional cooperation (Moore, 1968). The post-World War II era was a time of phenomenal growth in higher education. Cooperative arrangements during this unprecedented period of expansion took the form of interstate and regional compacts. As the 1960s approached, demographic evidence indicated a need to prepare for the so-called "baby

18 boom" generation and the anticipated flood of former military personnel wanting to take advantage of the GI Bill. Every indicator pointed to a perceived need for augmentation and enhancement of both physical plants and academic offerings. Neal (1988) has noted that during the 1960s:

Both private and public financial support for the concept of consortia led to a rapid increase in their number. Foundations, and the federal government in particular, helped to foster and underwrite consortia in many parts of the country. This development stemmed partly from an intellectual commitment to the notion that collaboration is a good idea, but it also reflected the realization that if colleges and universities were to meet the new demands being placed upon them they needed to find ways of sharing their energies and resources, (p. 2) Through such legislation as the Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963, the Higher Education Act of 1965, and the International Education Act of 1966, federal dollars were infused into the existing system as an integral part of expansion programs such as the Title III procedures for developing institutions. The anticipated need had proven to be more than a mere aberration. Graduate enrollments rose from 630,000 to 1,086,000 between 1966 and 1975 with comparable increases in undergraduate enrollment figures (Moore, 1968). Moore (1968) spoke to the problem of the individual institution of higher learning with limited resources and ever-increasing demands by stating: Individual institutions with limited resources are thus finding it more and more difficult to maintain academic standards while expanding their capacity and keeping the cost of education within the means of their students. These institutions can no longer rely on traditional methods to meet current and future demands. Recognizing the inadequacy of traditional methods in organizing and administering the

19 complex organism that is the modern college or university, they have begun to apply administrative principles long since proved requisite in business and industry. One such principle is that of cooperation, and many leading educators believe that this principle is one of the most promising approaches to solving many of higher education's problems, (p. 21)

Along with encouragement came predictions of success and longevity. Keeton (1968) made the following conjecture regarding interinstitutional cooperation. "The thriving college a decade hence will be engaged in an intricate and active network to provide learning opportunities for its students and faculty beyond its old campus boundaries There is no doubt that interinstitutional cooperation in higher education will increase" (p. 54). The first doctoral dissertation concluded in the area of voluntary interinstitutional cooperation was written by Sister M. Delores Salerno in 1966. This study included a national survey of cooperation in American Catholic higher education. A review of consortial-related literature generated during the almost thirty years since the Salerno study revealed such far-reaching and recurring topics as: philosophical and theoretical formulas, fund raising, faculty and staff development, information systems, cross-registration, networking, telecommunication applications, case studies and historical accounts, resource sharing, faculty sharing, experimental learning, failure of collaborative attempts, collaborative research, industrial and corporate cooperation, collaborative nursing programs, merger of library systems, and foreign study collaborations.

Autonomy-Related Concerns Certainly one of the earliest areas of concern and concentration for both the consortial researcher and the objects of their research was the 20 matter of individual institutional autonomy. The fear of compromising or even losing this autonomy has been a source of resistance and scholarly contributions from the very beginning of the cooperative movement. As early as 1934, Sanford addressed this frequently voiced concern:

Agreements would seem to be desirable where retention of the individual character of separate institutions is demanded. The continuance of the small college, the denominational college, the experimental college, the college free from the evils of bureaucracy, the institution with a tradition of long ser\ice and good will may be achieved through the agreement, (p. 106) The apprehension of autonomy loss was eventually tempered by the demand for quality instruction for an expanding clientele. The "expansion of knowledge with which higher education was expected to deal was so great and exponential that cooperative relationships seemed necessary for instruction across the range of possibilities to be adequate in quality and variety" (Patterson, 1974, p.2). Glenny (1959), confronted this sensitive and pivotal issue in his book entitled Autonomy of Public Colleges: The Challenge of Coordination. Among the findings of the Glenny study are the following relewant conclusions: (1) the greatest problem of coordination is how to achieve objectives member institutions hold in common without destroying institutional initiative, diversity, and flexibility; (2) coordinating agencies are deficient in overall and long-range planning; (3) voluntary coordinating agencies allow maximum institutional freedom: and (4) reports that central agencies standardize in negative ways are exaggerated.

Perkins (1967) believed that the combination of industrialization and resulting technologies have created powerful influences capable of altering

21 not only the character of individual institutions, but their ability to relate and cooperate with other educational systems. He stated:

The idea of university autonomy-of the sanctity of academic pursuits—is as old as the idea of the university itself ... It has been the conceptual guardian of academic freedom. the moat around the city of intellect whose drawbridge will lower only in response to internal signals, (p. 8)

Bradley (1971) maintained that the time had come for institutional linkages based upon the following perception:

The significant growth of voluntary academic consortia in the decade of the 1960s seems to give credence to Eldon Johnson's 1967 observation: "We have entered a reverse historical phase which seems to embrace interinstitutional coordination and cooperation as a necessary step for completeness . . . ." (p. 22) A review of consortial-related literature provides a preponderance of case studies and research material articulating the positive aspects of interinstitutional cooperation and consortial agreements. Perhaps it is because of this persuasive evidence that the concern and consternation long expressed by many institutions entering into collaborative arrangements has been tempered by the prospect of sharing a generally positive and beneficial experience.

Key Consortial Literature and Research in the 1960s

The primary thrust of the consortial-related literature generated during the decade of the 1960s was principally restricted to case studies. theoretical models, and the philosophy and feasibility of institutional cooperation. A representative sample of articles is as follows:

Farber (1962) advocated a need for institutions to cooperate; Bowman (1965) wrote about cooperation among religious institutions; Blocker (1966) wrote about collaboration between two and four-year institutions of higher learning; 22 Trendler (1967) conducted a study of twelve small church- related liberal arts colleges engaged in interinstitutional cooperation; and Acres (1969) examined the role of the consortium administrator. (Swerdlow. 1972. pp. 16-17)

Moore (1968) defined a consortium as:

... an arrangement whereby two or more institutions—at least one of which is an institution of higher education—agree to pursue between, or among, them a program for strengthenin CT academic programs, improving administration, or providing for other special needs, (p. 4) By this rather broad definition, ^loore was able to identify 1.017 existing consortia involving more than 1,500 institutions. Included were 637 bilateral arrangements, 596 consortia without a separate budget, and an undisclosed number of single-purpose agreements. In 1969, several important works on voluntarv interinstitutional arrangements were published. Two of the works were introspective in nature. The San Francisco Consortium, made up of the City College of San Francisco, Golden Gate College, San Francisco State College, the University of California-San Francisco Medical Center, and the University of San Francisco published its first report. Established in the fall of 1967. the consortium was to be "the instrument through which the resources of the major local universities are brought to bear on the problems of the urban environment" (San Francisco Consortium, 1969, p. 1). This report, not unlike the majority of consortial reports during their first years, was limited to autonomy and funding problems.

Another publication in 1969 pertaining to academic consortia in higher education was not a self assessment but rather a long-range plan for collaborative efforts among five institutions of higher learning in Xew England. In 1968, the presidents of the University of Massachusetts. Mount

23 Holyoke, Amherst, Hampshire, and Smith colleges elected members to a

Five College Long-Range Planning Committee (LRPC) to:

. . . review cooperative arrangements among the five institutions, assess their strengths and weaknesses, propose long-range goals for cooperation, and establish priorities among actions required to reach those goals. (Five Colleges Inc., 1969, p. 2)

Key Consortial Literature and Research in the 1970s According to the literature, the legitimate beginnings of widespread analytical examinations and interpretations of interinstitutional cooperation came during the 1970s. It predictably followed a period of unprecedented growth in collaborative activities and opportunities. Correspondingly, it was not until efforts were made to compile recurrent directories of consortia that longitudinal studies of the phenomenon became feasible. The first such compilation was produced in 1968 by Lewis D. Patterson while he was a member of the Kansas City Regional Council for Higher Education (Patterson, 1968). Shortages of qualified faculty and inadequate physical plants wc^re often cited as valid reasons for entering into cooperative agreements during the decade of the 1960s. However, during the 1970s, "As in Alice in Wonderland. 'It's the same problem, only backward'" (Grupe, 1975. p. 2). America's colleges and universities were suddenly faced with declining budgets and resources while anticipating falling enrollments of the traditional student of the period. This reversal of academic fortunes led the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education to suggest in its 1972 report that, "Significant economies can be achieved through consortium agreements and other forms of institutional cooperation, particularly in

24 graduate and specialized education. The consortium movement has expanded rapidly during the 1960s, and its further expansion is to be encouraged" (Mayhew, 1974, p. 45).

Although at least thirty dissertations and dozens of articles were completed during the 1970s on some aspect of interinstitutional cooperation, three of the more prolific contributors of the period dominated the literature with their scholarly and provocative presentations. These formulators of consortial thought emerged during the first half of the 1970s and continued to influence the literature well into the following decade. Fritz H. Grupe, Franklin Patterson, and Lewis D. Patterson are three names synonymous with the research and commentary of early collaborative efforts in American higher education. Franklin Patterson's (1974) Colleges in Consort is one of the most widely read studies of academic consortia in the United States. Findings from the study, funded in part by the Ford Foundation, led Patterson to conclude that "the principal impediment to effective interinstitutional cooperation is the traditional commitment of colleges and universities to institutional autonomy" (p. 119). Patterson (1974) called the development of consortia a notable phenomenon in American higher education:

It flies directly in the face of the historic pattern of institutional isolationism and independence which has dominated higher education until the present time. This movement constitutes something new in education: at the v(>ry least, a rhetorical and nominal commitment to cooperation, where before had existed a kind of friendly anarchy among colleges and universities, (p. 4)

25 Patterson (1974) concluded that the collective accomplishments of consortia up to 1974 were less than impressive and that the reality ot interinstitutional cooperation had failed to reach its full potential:

In the consortium movement it is as though we have had all along the blueprint for a cathedral but have thus far built only a tool shed. This is not to denigrate the present accomplishments of individual consortia but to underline the gulf between idea and achievement, between rhetoric and reahty. (p. 90) In addition, Patterson (1974) compiled a list of seven princijDles that. in his opinion, should be agreed upon and assumed before an institution enters into a cooperative agreement:

1. That the new consortium should improve the quality and range of education available to students in each of its constituent institutions.

2. That, within the consortium, each institution should preserve its identity and maintain as much autonomy as the constraints of serious cooperation permit.

3. That the consortium should minimize duplication of education programs and redundancy of facilities and should aim at complementarity of academic programs and facilities among its constituent institutions.

4. That the consortium should seek to reduce or control institutional operating costs by collective means wherever possible.

5. That the consortium should give central assistance in financial development of member institutions and have a fund- raising capacity for collective needs.

6. That the consortium should provide planning, development, and coordination for new collective educational programs responsive to changing needs and new clientele in the area.

7. That the governance and executive part of the consortium should have authority equivalent to its responsibility for leadership, (pp. 108-109)

26 Lewis D. Patterson (1970) began a study of consortia in 1967 while a member of the Kansas City Regional Council for Higher Education. Based upon the findings of his study, Patterson classified interinstitutional arrangements as formal consortia when they had exhibited five specific criteria: "'1) a voluntar}' organization; (2) three or more member institutions; (3) multiacademic programs; (4) at least one full-time professional to administer the programs of the consortium; and i5i a required annual contribution or other evidence of a long-term commitment by member institutions " (p. 3).

Two additional ERIC listings relating to the research of Patterson include his Survival through Interdependence: Assessing the Cost and Benefits of Interinstitutional Cooperation, and Costing Collegiate Cooperation: A Report on the Cost and Benefits of Interinstitutional Programs with Consortium Case Studies and Guidelines; both coiri|3leted in 1979. Fritz Grupe, another of the acknowledged authorities on the establishment and operation of academic consortia in the United States. published no fewer than ten articles on the subject between 1969 and 1975. One of the most significant examples of the Grupe listings appeared after an address he made at Loyola University in Chicago. During the presentation of his paper. Grupe (1970, March 1) outlined six areas of possible difficulty encountered by some beginning consortia:

1. There is often a significant difference between cooperation as an abstraction and "cooperation" as a reality.

2. Institutional autonomy remains an over-riding concern within all consortia.

27 3. Unrealistic and idealistic expectation for the cooperative effort can lead to frustration.

4. The search for an identity can lead to difficulty.

5. There is a tendency for member institutions to expect the consortium's central office to develop rational long-range plans and suitable programs.

6. The establishment of a consortium does not automatically lead to financial support. In another significant work by Grupe, the practical aspects of cooperation were outlined in his Managing Interinstitutional Change: Consortia in Higher Education. Grupe (1975) obser\'ed that:

Colleges do not work together to cooperate. They cooperate to compete. Cooperative planning and programming in higher education receives impetus from individuals who believe that by combining their efforts, they will achieve goals of importance to them, to their students, to their university, to the educational system, or to society. Cooperation is not altruism. It is congenial, but it must be directed at objectives that have relevance to the improvement of the educational process within the institution responsible for it. (p. 32) With the rapid proliferation of interinstitutional cooperation it is not surprising that certain cooperative arrangements have been hastily constructed, ill-planned, inadequately financed, and poorly administered. Grupe (n.d.) provides a list often particularly significant features that distinguish the quality of some consortium operations:

1. They are creative. To many persons the idea of interinstitutional cooperation itself is a new, creative idea, and so it may be for a new consortium. To be truly creative, however, implies something beyond mere newness and originality. It also connotes an ability to establish a new direction and orientation to a situation.

2. They are programmatic. A program has year to year continuity and represents an accepted mode of operation. Successful consortium arrangements are often bolstered by smooth, informal, supportive environments with transient elements that are helpful but not sufficient conditions for 28 continuing productivity. The consortium's activities must tie directly into the disciplines faculty are teaching, or into the techniques researchers are using to stay on the forefront of knowledge in their discipline. The activities should have a comfortable place in the ongoing affairs of the college.

3. They are expert. To design an appropriate and coherent system of any type whether it be social or technological, requires a persistent effort and a commitment of expertise. Whenever a program necessitates the involvement of specialized talents, absence of talent cannot be offset hv cooperation.

4. They are academic in orientation. College and university personnel are generally more interested in seeing their primary goals, education and research being dealt with than they are with purely economic goals. Programs which offer new educational experiences to students or that expose good faculty to interested students in creative environments take precedence over purely administrative concerns.

5. They are high risk. Peter Drucker had characterized innovation as risk-taking. In short, general operating support has slowly been replaced with categorical grants. Consequently, the ideas that are being solicited are not now necessarily those which are proven to be possible, but rather those which might be possible if threshold support from all sources can be assembled.

6. The}' are of importance to the institutions. There must always be a generic distinction between the goals of a consortium and the goals of member colleges. The purpose can never be to do something that the colleges cannot do. Tliat a project should be of vital importance to the colleges themselves is of paramount importance.

7. They are open-ended. In large measure consortia and the programs they institute are most productive when they begin with objectives which are relatively unrestricted. Once the programs have sufficientl}' specific objectives to warrant implementation, there should be room for expansion and further growth; expansion with implications of significance for the entire effort.

8. They have tangible impact. Financial commitments of substance carry with them a demand for noticeable results in some form. No summation on a score sheet will be satisfactory as an evaluation of a consortiums productivity, but there is

29 little doubt that tangible improvements must be demonstrated if consortia are to remain serious elements in their institutions' planning.

9. They permit broad access by faculty and students .-\gain. institutional impact is the key. \Miile there are numerous exceptions to this generalization, the majority of choices a consortium decides to make among the range available should involve as wide a spectrum of participants as possible; not in the planning necessarily, but in the operation.

10. They reinforce and strengthen existing programs. Clearly, there must always be a first step that may not 'reinforce" anything, but existing institutional programs .\nv viable consortium will have many such activities. A growing consortium must capitalize on both (short and long range" types of reinforcement, (pp. 17-21) The decade of the 1970s was also a time of assessment and reevaluation for academic consortial endeavor. Much of the remaining literature of the period is a reflection of the positive and negative aspects of interinstitutional cooperation. Notable excerpts from this compendium of research includes a well- researched history' of factors leading to the founding of the Claremont Colleges Consortium. Clan,' (1970) wrote The Claremont Colleges: .A Historv of the Development of the Claremont Group Plan to document the programs and activities since 1925 of what is considered to be the first consortium in American higher education. Berdahl (1971), in his Statewide Coordination of Higher Education. examines the issues pertaining to coordination and cooperation among public institutions of higher learning. In 1971. Bradley produced a doctoral dissertation titled Academic Consortium Effectiveness: An Investigation of Criteria. The Bradley study is both an investigation and application of factors that tend to encourage consortial effectiveness.

30 Kreplin and Bolce (1973) examine the benefits and drawbacks of cooperative endeavors in their Interinstitutional Cooperation in Higher Education: An Analysis and Critioue. Patrick (1972) gave legitimacy to library consortia in her Guidelines for Library Cooperation: Development of Academic Library Consortia.

McKeefery (1978) documents interinstitutional cooperation and agreements between the public and private institution of higher learning in his Cooperative Arrangements Between Private and Public Colleges. Scott (1977) warns potential consortial members that formal interinstitutional cooperation may not be the solution to all of their problems. Consortia in Higher Education: A Sober Reflection recommends a careful and complete evaluation of cooperative activities before engaging in them.

Key Consortial Literature and Research in the 1980s Just as the trio of Frankhn Patterson, Fritz Grupe. and Lewis D. Patterson greatly influenced the consortial-related literature of the 1970s, Donn C. Neal became a primary source of astute observations and prophecy for interinstitutional cooperation during the 1980s. In 1983 (Summer), Neal describes telecommunication programs consortia could undertake; he suggested in 1984 (Winter) that consortia, through "imaginative cooperative relationships," can provide college and university leaders with flexibility, resources, and efficiency in a time of retrenchment; and also in 1984 (February), he promoted his concept of a consortium serving its membership while displaying sensitivity to professed needs and desires. In 1985 (Spring), Neal elaborates on interinstitutional cooperation in continuing education and three years later

31 in an edited work titled. Consortia and Interinstitutional Cooperation. Xeal (1988) and thirteen of his fellow collaboration experts "identifies the ways in which such interinstitutional cooperation can be vital and effective and help campus leaders and consortium directors to find new ways in which thev can work together" (d. j.). Other significant contributions to the literature of the period includes an assessment by Zift (1980) of the cooperative arrangement in Massachusetts known formally as Five Colleges, Inc. Dolce (1981) addresses the perennial concerns of institutional autonomy; James (1979, June) takes a look at consortia from the perspective of a business officer; Lick (1981) offers concrete and practical proposals to enhance cooperation among colleges and universities; Wagner (1981) evaluates the efforts of the State of Illinois to move in the direction of institutional collaborations. Glazer (1982) discusses graduate level consortia and offers guidelines for their design and management. A monograph by Elkin (1982) details a description and history of the Great Lakes Colleges Association. Wareham (1984) critiques the value and progress of interinstitutional cooperation and linkage among university library systems.

Key Consortial Literature and Research in the 1990s Fiscal Concerns and Realities The literature amassed over the years on interinstitutional cooperation, although rich in topic diversity, basically stems from:

... an intellectual commitment to the notion that collaboration is a good idea, but it also reflects on the realization that if colleges and universities are to meet the new demands being placed upon them they need to find ways of sharing their energies and resources. (Neal, 1988, p. 2)

32 A review of the most current articles pertaining to contemporary issues in higher education reveal a universality of economically-related concerns and harsh fiscal realities for America's institutions of higher learning. The body of current research and writings is rife with examples of the kind of financial exigency and mission reevaluation that can often lead to interinstitutional collaboration. According to an article by Li\'ely (1993, January), the governors of Montana and Oregon submitted budget proposals calling for public institutions of higher learning to either merge or eliminate programs. An article by Penney (1993, May) documents the trials and tribulations incurred by the University of Massachusetts at Boston as a result of four years of intense financial stress and fiscal crisis.

According to Nickhn (1993, May):

Many Fortune 500 companies are putting less of their money into higher education and becoming more selective about how they allot the amounts they do give. Struggling with massive layoffs and weak profits, a number of companies no longer plan to give grants to colleges where they have stopped recruiting employees. Others are decreasing the amount they put into scholarships. A number with matching-gifts programs are reducing the amount they put up to match employee's charitable donations, (p. A25) Leatherman (1993, July) reports on findings from a survey sponsored by the American Council on Education. The survey is "based on responses from 406 administrators at all types of colleges. One-third of the respondents said they had been forced to cut their institutions' budget in 1992-93. At the same time, many were dealing with growing enrollments" (p. A16).

According to Lively (1993, February):

Pennsylvania State University may eliminate 17 degree programs, including entomology and linguistics, and reduce or restructure several others. The university also has

33 proposed several other efficiency measures, such as limiting the number of credits and reducing administrative costs from housekeeping to the provost's office, (p. A23) Haro (1993, April) chronicles the problems of the nation's most populous state and the resulting ramifications for California's vaunted higher education system.

Cutbacks in enrollments and course offerings at public colleges and universities are compelling many students to look elsewhere for their education. The sheer size of California's college-age population could spell problems for neighboring states, some of which are experiencing their own budget problems and enrollment pressures. What is happening in the West can happen in other parts of the nation when one state or region suffers particularly deep economic problems, (p. B3)

Nicklin (1994, May 4) enumerates the financial challenges of several colleges still embroiled in post-recession restructuring. A diverse array of public and private institutions ranging from Stanford University and the Massachusetts Institution of Technology- to Ferris State University and Xew England College are now considering ways to combine administrative departments, drop weak academic programs, and hire private companies to do jobs that once were performed by people on the payroll. College administrators are finding it necessary to concentrate on reducing costs through layoffs, attrition, buyouts, and early retirement. Pc^rsonnel are being targeted because the cost of salaries, health benefits, and retirement packages account for as much as 70 or 80 percent of operating budgets.

DeLoughry (1994, February) examines the problems inherent with Internet affiliation.

Officials on campuses that are not connected to the Internet say money is the main stumbling block. They are struggling to upgrade computers and extend campus networks before they can even contemplate off-campus links. Those at colleges that are connected say that more of their students and professors would be on line, were it not for the high cost of wiring facultv 34 offices, the difficulty of using the network, and the inadequacy of campus training programs, (p. A 19) Blumenstyk (1994, June) documents the financial crisis of Barber- Scotia College established in 1867. The historically black institution located in Concord, NC, has recently laid off 102 of its 159 employees while attempting to raise $1.5 million to pay for outstanding debts and back salaries. Magner (1993, June) reported on a plan released by officials of Bennington College to reduce the size of the current faculty by twenty positions. Before the current reduction plans were enacted, Bennington had about 78 full-time faculty members.

A recent collegiate financial report by Nicklin (1994. May 18. p. A31) reports that, "colleges received $11.2 billion in private donations in 1992-93, 4.7 percent more than they raised a year earlier. But adjusted for inflation, the increase was just 1.5 percent—in a year when colleges' spending for operations, also adjusted for inflation, increased by 3 percent." Recent literature clearly indicates that financial concerns are by no means limited to the small, private college or the far-flung campuses of a large state system. Even the nation's oldest and wealthiest universitv has announced its most ambitious fund-raising campaign ever. Harvard University plans to raise $2.1 billion by mid-1999. the largest campaign in the history of higher education. Even with a $6 billion endowment and an annual operating budget of more than $1.4 billion. Harvard's current goals are six times more ambitious than its last campaign which ran from 1979 to 1985 and raised $358 million for what was then selected areas of perceived need. According to Blumenstyk (1994. May), "the goal is more than half a billion dollars greater than the next largest campaign, Yale L'niversity's $1.5 billion drive." The Harvard campaign is significant for more than just 35 its scope and size. This marks the first university-wide campaign in modern times for Harvard, an institution known for the financial and academic independence of its various schools and colleges. Harvard and Yale join a list of six other major American universities trying to raise a billion dollars or more in protracted financial campaigns.

Innovative Collaborative Arrangements Other current consortial-related literature provides a collage of information reflecting innovative and ambitious sharing endeavors. In an emotionally-charged article. Dinneen (1988, June) suggests that a significant change is underway in the R&D process, but it mav be several years before anyone will know what has happened. "One imperative that private sector companies need to act on collectively in order to compete more forcefulh' individually is R & D consortia. The private sector must use R&D consortia more effectively if American business is to renew its competitive strength" (p. 63).

Stead, Roderer. and Zimmerman (1991. April, p. 196) outline the problems associated with "the promise that informatic and information technology hold for increasing the effectiveness of the biomedical community." Although this potential has been known about for more than a quarter century, "delivery on that promise has been disappointing." DeLoughry (1994. March) reports on a consortium of approximately 70 education and business organizations and their release of a "position paper" concerning the National Information Infrastructure (XII) proposed by the Clinton Administration. The paper, from the newly established Xational Coordinating Committee for Technology in Education and

36 Training, outlines "19 requirements" that "must be met" if the XII is to be of any benefit to American education. An international consortium that is presently in the formative stages has been named the Pacific Neighborhood Consortium (PXC). According to DeLoughry (1993, April), PNC's "goal is to link distant institutions in a way that would enable faculty members in the United States to share library materials, electronic data bases, and classroom instruction with their counterparts in China. Singapore, and Thailand, and other countries just as easily as they do with each other." Other members of the PNC include Australia, Canada, Fiji. Hong Kong, Japan, Korea. Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, and Taiwan.

Watkins (1994, June) describes a computer project that allows researchers from around the world to work together. "The scientists are experimenting with a prototype system called a 'Collaboratorv.' They are part of a multidisciplinary project, supported by the Xational Science Foundation, that is exploring ways in which researchers can use computer technology to work together on the same data" (p. A15).

Examples of Collaborative Longevitv Finally, a review of the literature indicates a lack of historically- based research on long-standing consortial undertakings. Only a handful of scholarly contributions focusing on successful collaborative longevity are listed in primary data bases. The author was also able to conclude from this search that no previously published study on the tri-university arrangement in Abilene, Texas, has been conducted to date.

37 Three cogent and timely examples of this kind of historical preservation and documentation were added to the literature in 1992. Hendrix (1992) bases his dissertation on the history of the thirteen-member Christian College Consortium organized in March of 1971 with nine charter members. This historical study concentrates on a twenty-vear period from 1971 to 1991. A dissertation compiled by Morris (1992). focuses on the history (1968-1991) of the Federation of North Texas Area Universities which includes North Texas State University, Texas Woman's University, and East Texas State University.

Finally, a book edited by Story (1992) provides separate histories of the five members of Five Colleges, Inc. This compilation was produced to celebrate the twenty-fifth anniversary of cooperation among Amherst. Hampshire, Mount Holyoke, and Smith colleges and the University of Massachusetts. Baus (1988) sees the academic consortium as a "third-party" agency capable of promoting many valuable forms of collaboration. While reflecting on the future of consortia and interinstitutional cooperation in American higher education, he offers the following principles to form a basis for an analytical prognostication:

1. Consortia are derivative organizations. Consortia have no independent missions but derive their missions from the individual and collective missions of the colleges and universities that they serve. Consortia are successful to the degree that they either enhance the programs and objectives of their constituent institutions or provide solutions to problems confronted by those institutions.

2. Each consortium has a unique character that reflects the organizational mix of institutional constituencies, the historical factors that created and sustain member institutions, and the styles of leadership and motivations for

38 cooperation that are operating in member institutions at any given time.

3. The basis for consortium activity is consensus formation. Although the immediate motivation for institutions to cooperate may be related to cost savings, program development objectives, or political factors, the essential ingredient in effective consortium activity is the establishment of a consensus among institutional leaders.

4. Consensus is reached in a consortium as an expression of institutional will. Cooperative activity, even within mandated co-operative, is voluntary: regardless of the legal, economic, or political pressures to cooperate, real cooperation will not happen if institutional partners do not want it.

5. The primary motivation for institutional cooperation is enlightened self-interest. Cooperation for the sake of cooperating provides insufficient justification for a consortium to be created or sustained. Cooperation must be developed out of a sense of strength and gain on the part of collaboratingig institutions.

6. The existence and effectiveness of any consortium is dependent on two conditions: each institution in the consortium must know and accept its limitations as an institution, and each must recognize the value of exceeding those limits by entering into a consensus-forming process with other institutions, if the possibility exists, real or perceived, that an institution acting alone can exceed or expand its limits to seize an opportunity or to resolve a problem, then the consortium alternative is not a "live" option, (p. 26)

39 CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF HISTORICAL LITERATURE

Historv of Consortia and Interinstitutional Cooperation A time-honored and necessary practice in any study of this nature centers on the researcher's responsibility to provide a broad overview or timeline of the subject matter to be investigated. Therefore this section provides a historical review of interinstitutional and consortial cooperation from its known beginnings in 600 A. D. to the present.

In his 1920 revision of world history titled The Outline of Historv. H. G. Wells (1949) observed that "Human history becomes more and more a race between education and catastrophe" (Rawson & Minor, 1988, p. 144). Whereas the philosophical pessimism of Wells clearly relates to mankind's chances of surviving a proven proclivity for self-destruction, the advent of interinstitutional cooperation between institutions of higher learning indicated a clear and present desire to perpetuate a much maligned and often misunderstood system of higher education.

International Beginnings The basic concept of interinstitutional cooperation was long ago woven into the tapestried fabric of both domestic and international education. The beginnings of this weapon against economic and procedural challenges to academe can be traced to the Universitv of Timbuktu in 600 A. D. In that year, an exchange of faculty with a Moorish university was noted by the ancients in their first attempt to expand the

40 offerings of what was then fledgling centers of learning (Patterson, 1971, p. 19).

Internationally, there was no comprehensive cooperative policy or system until the twentieth century. However, there have been isolated pockets of limited academic collaboration throughout the civilized world for centuries. A few examples of this early limited cooperation include exchanges of Chinese and Japanese students during the seventh and eighth centuries. During the European Middle Ages, the University of Bologna is known to have served as a model for institutions of higher learning in Spain and other Southern European countries. Conversely, the faculties of Central European universities were greath' influenced during the Renaissance while training to become classical scholars at various Italian Universities (Brickman, 1966).

According to Brickman (1966), the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 provided an opportunity for what many consider to be the earliest example of planned and deliberate cooperation between institutions of higher learning on an international basis. The president of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, William Smith Clark, traveled to Japan for eight months to help establish the Saoporo Agricultural College. The apparent success of this collaborative episode was soon followed by a request for American academic acumen from Keio University by its founder, Yukichi Fukuzawa. This call for needed expertise was answered by Charles W. Eliot, then president of Harvard University. Eliot sent three Har\^ard professors who initiated university level instruction at Fukuzawas fledgling institution of higher learning in Japan.

41 In 1894, the Alliance Universitaire Internationale was formed to foster international cooperation among the universities of Europe. The Geneva-based alliance consisted primarily of university faculty members and students from Holland, Belgium, Switzerland. France, and Italy. Since the institutions were not members and therefore not aligned, the organization eventually failed.

Early in the twentieth century, a number of successful international faculty exchanges between 1904 and 1914 was cut short by the hostilities signaling the beginning of World War I. After peace was restored, there soon followed a number of attempts at internationalization of academic collaboration. Much of the impetus for this movement emanated from the League of Nations. As an end result, the League was responsible for the creation of such organizations as the International Commission of Intellectual Cooperation in 1922 and the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation in 1925.

Although important, these post-belligerent experiments in academic collaboration and cooperation in all probability had limited influence on international interinstitutional cooperation that would follow in the ensuing years. Clearly, comprehensive cooperative academic programs of this nature was an idea whose time was yet to come (Brickland. 1966).

Domestic Beginnings In this country, self-imposed institutional isolationism and self- determinism inevitably resulted in inefficient duplication and exploitation of resources. This tendency toward autonomous existence was perhaps the most practical and prudent system of operation for what was then a

42 primarily agrarian and rural society. Academe seems to have evolved, however, from this concept of collegiate sovereignty.

The dual forces and consequences of technological advancements and a resulting industrialization forever changed an agrarian society to one dominated by both the benefits and the shortcomings of an industrialized nation. Widespread industrialization was not achieved in the United States until after the Civil War. This societal transformation soon led to the application of scientific methods to enhance productivity and increase profit margins. Management analysis, as it came to be known, was eventually used to evaluate and question the long-accepted techniques of industry and its management soon provided innovation and resourcefulness to the age-old problems inherent in the decision-making process.

Eventually the results of this thinking began to impact all levels of American education. Every imaginable form of bureaucracy began to collect and analyze data after the turn of the century for the purpose of assessment and evaluation of programs within institutions. Studied and evaluated as an industry, higher education was found to be inefficient due to proliferation and duplication. Such duplication existed not only from within, but among America's institutions of higher learning (Brubacher & Rudy, 1976).

Legislated Cooperation Early efficiency and accountability assessments of institutions of higher learning led educators inexorably down the pathway of interinstitutional cooperation. According to Brubacher and Rudy (1976),

43 North Dakota became the first state to institute legislated board control in 1889, This innovative approach to academic sharing was the precursor to the emergence of additional state boards and statewide systems after the turn of the century. By 1939, only fifteen states had agencies or boards for the coordination of higher education on a statewide basis. By 1969, forty-eight states were reporting the creation of boards active in the coordination and cooperation of public institutions of higher learning. These early attempts at institutional linkages were, by their very nature, the epitome of legislated cooperation and mandated consolidation. Financial considerations and regulatory demands were by and large responsible for this artificially created cooperative climate.

Voluntarv Cooperation Voluntary consortial behavior in Great Britain was first recorded in 1249 with the Oxford-Cambridge experiment (Johnson, 1967, p. 341). The success of the so-called Oxford-Cambridge model of interinstitutional cooperation eventually led other British institutions of higher learning to collaboration and cooperation by means established by such coordinating entities as the University Bureau of the British Empire, the Vice- Chancellor's Committee, an Annual Conference of Universities of Great Britain, and a Quinquennial Congress of the Universities of the Empire (Marsh, 1937). Those who pioneered the first common associations in the American higher education system of the 1920s had the long-established and successful British system to emulate while trying to establish the first voluntary cooperation efforts in this country.

44 It is generally conceded that the voluntary consortial concept first

experienced success in this country with the development of the Claremont Colleges in California. In 1923, James A. Blaisdell. then president of Pomona College, unveiled his innovative plan to emulate an academic sharing arrangement similar to the Oxford-Cambridge system. Blaisdell's recommendations called for a small number of independent liberal arts colleges to be constructed on adjacent campuses. The institutions would maintain limited enrollments and share specified physical and academic resources. A letter to Ellen Browning Scripps in 1923 clearly outlines his rather ambitious departure from the conventional and prevailing wisdom of the period:

I cannot but believe that we shall need here in the South a suburban educational institution in the range of Stanford. My own very deep hope is that instead of one great, undifferentiated university, we might have a group of institutions divided into small colleges—somewhat on the Oxford type—around a library and other utilities which they would use in common. In this way I should hope to preserve the inestimable personal values of the small college while securing the facilities of the great university. Such a development would be a new and wonderful contribution to American education. (Claremont Universitv Center, 1972. p. 12)

First Academic Consortium Constitution In 1925 Blaisdell wrote what could be considered the first constitution for an academic consortium in the United States. In his Preliminary Statement Submitted for Consideration by the Committee on Future Organization (1925), he wrote:

In all discussion which has taken place, an increasin (T distinction has been made between (1) academic centers. which are understood to be those points at which buildings having distinctly academic utilities are grouped, i.e.. 45 laboratories, libraries, recitation halls. g\'mnasia. etc.. and i2) colleges, which are understood to be residential accommodations, i.e., dormitories, dining halls, commons rooms, informal libraries, chapels.

It is conceived that several colleges' might be organized around a comparatively small number of academic centers ' These colleges should be constructed and equipped to allow the most cultural and stimulating influences to operate upon resident young people. They should be of differing types and form, and should gradually develop some distinct traditional qualities .... (pp. 7-8)

Claremont Colleges Corporation Blaisdell served as president of the Claremont Colleges Corporation for a ten-year period beginning in 1926. The corporation consisted of two private and one public undergraduate college. In addition, a college affihated with the Church of the Brethren located some six miles away in La Verne, CA, soon affiliated with its neighboring institutions in Claremont. Specializing in business, government, management, and law, Claremont Men's College was established in 1946. Ten years later, Harvey Mudd College was founded to offer course work in engineering and science. Wliile each member institution had its own board of trustees, a separate board of overseers was elected to coordinate all consortial endeavors (Ratcliffe, 1938).

Atlanta Universitv Center This example was followed by a similar educational consortium experiment in 1929. Atlanta University, Morehouse College for men. and Spelman College for women started the Atlanta University Center in Atlanta. GA. The consortial arrangement grew primarily out of a shared

46 financial crisis sufficient enough in intensity to threaten curtailment or even closure of one or more of the three traditionally black institutions. By 1936 Clark College, the Interdenominational Theological Center, and Morris Brown College joined the consortium. Only a few worthwhile consortial-related developments were forthcoming after the founding of the Claremont Colleges until the mid- 1960s. It is significant that just nineteen consortia were formulated during the forty years that elapsed between 1925 and 1965. Ten of these came into being after 1958. As is suggested by the aforementioned statistics, few institutions of higher learning were engaged in bonafide consortial efforts prior to the 1950s.

Consortial Activity of the 1930s

The normally staid and stable academic environment typically found on the American college campus of the 1920s was destined for a radical transformation in the 1930s and 1940s. Even the most venerable of America's institutions of higher learning could not ignore, much less escape the consequences of a world suddenly cast into a maelstrom of change. Catastrophic socioeconomic collapse followed closely by unprecedented geopolitical upheaval would in a few short years inexorably change the academic landscape on both the domestic and international fronts forever.

The Great Depression was particularly hard on many of America's small, church-related and fiscally challenged institutions of higher learning. Lack of both financial and physical resources soon led to several institutional closings and a number of mergers (Palmer. 1932. November).

47 According to Palmer (1932). a number of academic amalgamations had already transpired by 1932. One example of these crisis-mandated consolidations combined the resources of four Baptist affiliated colleges Des Moines University, LA; Grand Island College, XE; Parker College. MN: and Sioux Falls University, SD; all merged to form Sioux Falls College. A similar merger occurred among Methodist Colleges in Arkansas when Galloway, Henderson-Brown, and Hendrix Colleges all merged to form the Trinity System of Colleges.

By 1934, there were at least 115 voluntary cooperative agreements in place to address ever-growing needs in a time of dwindling resources. A significant portion of the academic largess of the period originated with long-established institutions of considerable means. Columbia L'niversity is known to have made the greatest number of cooperative agreements during this period. The range of the associations established by Columbia included various agreements with theological schools, a medical school, a college of pharmacy, a school of social work, Barnard College, Teachers College, and Bard College. Harvard University established collaborative agreements with four schools of theology, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Yale University by providing requested offerings in a number of shared disciplines (Ratcliffe, 1938. June).

The decade of the 1930s was a time for institutional and procedural reassessment and introspection. In 1937, Dr. H. Y. Benedict, then president of the University of Texas, delivered an address at the annual meeting of the Association of American Universities in Austin. Texas. The thrust of his talk centered around the concept of "voluntarv coordination." as opposed to cooperation mandated by either state or tederal government.

48 Benedict stated, "Cooperation can preserve a realm of desirable and genuine freedom without waste or loss better than governmental control. which has its dangers and weaknesses" (p. 106). In 1938, the American Council on Education published the results of a study under its sponsorship which suggested two overriding arguments for the establishment of interinstitutional cooperation-propinquity and duplication. The report suggested that an opportunity for cooperation existed when two or more colleges are located in a fifteen mile radius (American Council on Education, 1938).

Consortial Activity of the 1940s

Even with calls for interinstitutional cooperation coming from several quarters during the late 1930s, the literature of the period suggests that such collaboration practically came to a complete standstill in the earlv 1940s. When the United States of America formally declared war on the Empire of Japan, there were 1,708 functioning institutions of higher learning spread throughout the 48 states of the Union. As the war came to a close in 1945, there were only 1,660 still in operation. During the same period, enrollments dropped by an estimated 339.000 students. Conversely, monies made available to higher education for military training contracts and defense-related research grants rose from $38 million to $308 million in just three years (Butler, 1959, January).

In June of 1944, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the G I Bill of Rights, providing millions of returning veterans with a college education. In the years since, educators have hailed the result as nothing less than the democratization of American higher education. The laws promise to pay

49 full college tuition for World War II veterans made campus enrollments soar. More than 2.2 million veterans—many of whom were the first in their families to attend college—flooded the nation's campuses after the war, and 5.6 million more sought vocational training (Zook, 1994. p. A27).

Post-War Interstate and Regional Compacts This virtual flood of returning veterans turned matriculants were at least partially responsible for a renewed interest in regional coordinating agencies. This concept of regional cooperation was widely advocated in the 1930s but had been on hold since America's entry into World War II. The ideal of creating these regional agencies was resurrected mainly to address anticipated increase in enrollments, and residual financial problems. According to Eckert (1953), about 50 percent of all private institutions of higher learning were operating at a deficit long after the rest of the country was experiencing an economic upturn. These persistent fiscal problems were caused by "sky-rocketing costs, shrinking endowment returns, and increasing difficulties in raising money" (p. 218).

As an end result, many cooperative arrangements at this stage were developed in the form of interstate and regional compacts. The first interstate compact formed was the Southern Regional Education Board (SREB) in 1949. The membership consisted of 13 states with a governing board comprised of the governor of each participating state. The Western Interstate Commission on Higher Education (WICHE) was established in 1953, followed by the New England Board of Higher Education (NEBHE) in 1955 (Moore, 1968). According to Enarson (1958, April), there were three basic goals of these regional agencies:

50 1. The substitution of fruitful cooperation for harmful rivalry among institutions of the region.

2. The encouragement of planning.

3. Better utilization of teaching and physical resources within institutions, (p. 141)

Limited Association and Cooperation During the waning years of the 1940s, many cooperative relationships had no more than two members. Dual relationships such as these were often characterized by close proximity and the sharing of facilities, faculty and staff members, and course offerings. These limited relationships were often preferred over multiple memberships due to an all too common reticence to jeopardize institutional autonomy with a more complex system of cooperation. The association of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Lowell Textile Institute in 1949 is considered to be a typical example of this kind of limited institutional association and cooperation (M.I.T. and Lowell cooperate, 1949, October). It was also during this same period that Harvard University and Radcliffe College moved to create a permanent cooperative relationship from the remnants of their wartime association. The new arrangement was formalized in 1947 by action of the Harvard Corporation and Board of Overseers and the Radcliffe Board of Trustees ("Radcliffe and Harvard Formalize Cooperation," 1947, November 15).

Multipurpose Cooperation It was not until 1958 that both a large university group and a college group began to set the pattern for multipurpose cooperation among widely 51 scattered institutions. The Committee on Institutional Cooperation and the Associated Colleges of the Midwest banded together to develop cooperative instructional and research programs beyond the capacities of any single institution (Johnson, 1971. p. 426).

Planned and Integrated Activity of the 1960s

By the early 1960s, planned and integrated activity began to win favor over the disjointed, laissez-faire enterprise and policy of many American institutions of higher learning (Moore, 1968). In 1962, the College Center of the Finger Lakes sponsored a conference at Princeton University on interinstitutional cooperation that set forth 32 areas of possible cooperation (Patterson, 1974, p. 6). At a second conference in 1969, the number of consortia had doubled since the 1962 conference. The focus of the second conference was primarily on organizational concerns and administrative problems.

External Influences on Consortial Development The growth of interinstitutional cooperation appeared to parallel the development of conglomerates in American business. Alderman (1972) put forth the following theory:

The raison d'etre of the conglomerate concept of organization is two-fold: stability and independence. Stability is achieved through greater central financing gained by the banding together of many companies. But the conglomerate can be structurally very different from a highly centralized organization, in that each member, as a separate profit center, is relatively free to manage itself (p. 14)

52 Another parallel suggested by Alderman (1972) is the development of

interinstitutional cooperation and interconnected municipalities

Just as the country's great cities must increasingly function as immense centers of interconnected municipalities, so universities are finding it productive to band together as constellations to accomplish cooperatively what is not feasible to attempt individually because of prohibitive costs and the dearth of scholars in certain areas, (p. 4)

Other research suggests that the rapid growth in the 1960s of American interinstitutional cooperation and consortia can trace at least a portion of its impetus to the close of World War II. The post war era witnessed a phenomenal growth in post-secondary education, particularly in the public sector. Certainly, this growth and expansion in higher education was fueled by the juxtaposition of a war and then bringing that conflict to a successful close some four years later.

Higher education enrollments in the years immediately following the end of World War II were first bolstered by the G I Bill and later by what might be termed a Sputnik-triggered rededication to basic research. A cornucopia of federal programs were legislated to offer financial support for scientific research and the construction of facilities. And for the first time, these same federal programs encouraged cooperative arrangements among institutions of higher education. The first major legislation for assistance to cooperative arrangements was the Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963. The Higher Education Act of 1965 provided for grants

... to pay part of the cost of planning, developing, and carrying out cooperative arrangements which show promise as effective measures for strengthening the academic programs and the administration of developing institutions. (Moore, 1968, p. 2i

53 The International Education Act of 1966 enhanced the prevailing atmosphere of interinstitutional cooperation with authorizing the Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare to . . . arrange through grants to institutions of higher education, or combinations of such institutions, for the establishment, strengthening, and operation by them of graduate centers which will be national and international resources for research and training in international studies. (Moore, 1968, p. 4)

Both undergraduate and graduate enrollments continued to expand during the 1960s as an indirect result of rising procreation levels followin (T the close of World War II. This large segment of the population, popularly known as the "baby boomer" generation, tested the ability of American higher education to provide a quality and meaningful experience to a virtual tidal wave of young men and women seeking a college education. Graduate enrollment rose from 630,000 to 1.086,000 between 1966 and 1976 with undergraduate enrollment expanding comparably (Moore. 1968).

Reassessment and Justification of Purpose of the 1970s All too soon this transitory atmosphere of healthv enrollments, modernization and expansion of physical plants, and adequate funding soon gave way to economic and academic stagnation. The consortium concept and those academicians who supported it were being asked to provide fiscal justification for their budgetary needs. All of academe was under attack by those whose primary function is to balance the financial ledgers of higher education. This inevitable turn of events was perhaps hastened by the combination of a domestic economic downturn and the conclusion of the

54 Vietnam War. By the mid to late 1970s, fiscal realities and cries for responsibility had decimated the "halcyon days" of American higher education and the then provincial concept of interinstitutional cooperation. Neal (1987, Spring) concludes that "greater congeniality and productive exchanges of information did not in themselves strengthen the assets side of an institution's ledger, nor did they enroll more students" (p.44). Consortia were suddenly expected to justify their existence just like anv other campus program. Accountability and standards of performance became the order of the day and as an end result, many consortia experienced major funding alterations or were forced out of existence primarily by an inability to make a transition from expansionism to retrenchment.

Revival. Renewal, and Redirection

The 1980s and 1990s have been a time for revival, renewal, and redirection for American interinstitutional cooperation and consortia. The 1991 Consortium Directory (Love & Barnett) lists over 120 examples of consortial arrangements spread out over 41 states and involving some 1.000 institutions of higher learning under 62 taxonomically arranged categories. Total budget allocations for 90 of the reporting consortia was in excess of $100 million. Individual budget allotments ranged from a low of $8,000 to a high of $20 million. The Directory also indicated that consortia of the 1990s contain as few as two members and as many as 600. However, available figures do not suggest a correlation between the size of a consortial budget and the number of participating members in that consortium. And as previously stated, many examples of interinstitutional

55 cooperation and consortial arrangements are not found in this compilation of statistics. The subject of this study is a case in point. In the 1994 edition of A Classification of Institutions of Higher Education (The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 1994), demographers have concluded that the current total of institutions of higher education to be 3,595. This is up from the 3.072 reported in 1976 and 3,389 in 1987. Student enrollments have also shown increases from previous reporting periods. The combined enrollments of institutions of higher learning in 1994 was 15.263,000. This is a marked increase from the 11.165,000 reported in 1976 and 12,301,000 reported in 1987.

Current Consortial Trends The consortium concept is no longer looked upon as "wildly innovative," but rather as a logical and feasible mainstay in an ever- shrinking arsenal of administrative weapons used to combat rising costs, reduced revenues, vacillating student enrollments, and the ever-present need to keep pace with constantly changing technologies. This is not to suggest that innovation and contemporary consortial endeavor have not found a mutually beneficial coexistence in the decade of the 1990s. Predictably and perhaps appropriately, the computer, on the eve of the fiftieth anniversary of the development of the ENIAC, continues to play a significant role in many of the cooperative and consortial endeavors currently found in the literature. Toda3^ much of what can be described as an innovative use of basic consortial philosophy involves the establishment or use of computer networks. This symbiotic relationship is currently

56 facilitating intriguing opportunities and directions for the pursuit of contemporary collaboration in American higher education. According to Blumenstyk (1995, May 12), Tennessee State L^niversity has developed a computer network linking 29 schools, colleges, and community institutions. Known by its acronym, DIAX'E. the Diversified Information and Assistance Network was developed in 1992 for economic development and community outreach. The network includes connections with such organizations as the Cumberland Science Museum, Fisk University, Nashville Area Chamber of Commerce, NationsBank, Meharry Medical College, and the Tennessee State Archives. A concept of DIANE that sets it apart from other academic computer networks is the special emphasis placed on inner-city neighborhoods and institutions.

Tennessee State University is a historically black institution with limited financial resources and a mission to focus on the needs oi minority neighborhoods and communities. The DIANE system is no more sophisticated than what is currently found at most major corporations. The difference is in how the technology is used and by whom. DLAME is financed with a patchwork of corporate, state, and federal funds. In return, it allows its users to share data, see and hear colleagues, and integrate information from other media, such as laserdisks and videotapes. While the DIANE system continues to focus on the poor and disadvantaged of Nashville and the surrounding area, it is currently being hailed as a microcosm of what the so-called "information highway" will resemble in five to ten years hence.

According to Jacobson (1995, April 21), a collaborative project is currently underway to develop a better system of indexing for the Internet.

01 Librarians trained in electronic searching from Columbia University. Xew York University, Rutgers University, and the Xew York Public Library are starting to explore, categorize, and evaluate the ever-changing resources ot the Internet. Their goal is to organize pertinent information into eight fields of inquiry: art and architecture, business, history, literature, music and performing arts, science, and social science.

Collection developers at the four participating institutions are trying to augment the research tools and guides created by computer experts with those familiar to subject librarians. Combining existing technology such as "hypertext links" with authoritative "subject access" will greatly enhance the Internet as a broad-based data bank for serious scholarly research. From an academic standpoint, the typical Internet search takes too long to be practical for many students and faculty members even with the help of powerful computers.

The case for a standardized system of indexing for the Internet has been further strengthened by the recent application of hypertext links on the portion of the network known as the World-Wide Web. The Web offers thousands of "home pages" which allows for the integration of text, video. and sound. Hypertext offers Web users the opportunity to (examine resources on thousands of other computers by clicking on an imagc^ or underlined text.

Concurrently, additional organizations such as the Research Libraries Group (RLG), the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), and the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) have also started to develop on­ line catalogs and other services to improve academic use of the Internet and its resources. The Research Libraries Group is working to develop and

58 incorporate from its own network which currently offers a bibliographic data base and electronic searching tools. The OCLC. with the aid of a federal grant, is in the preliminary stages of building a "Catalog of Internet Resources." Finally, the 119-member ARL is seeking funding to set up a World-Wide Web site where librarians can put reviews of other Web services. Additional funding is also being sought to support a Web home page that will eventually link users to journals provided over the Internet.

In an effort to promote cooperation between university presses and institutions of higher learning, the Association of American L^niversity Presses and the Coalition for Networked Information are jointly promoting the publishing of scholarly endeavor by way of cybernetics. Examples of these electronic publishing projects include plans by the University of Texas at Austin to put three scholarly journals on-line, a Shakespearean archive from the University of Illinois, and a digital library of New England to be developed by the University Press of New England. Additional electronic printing projects are anticipated from the Committee on Institutional Cooperation, New York University, Miami University, the University of Arizona, the University of South Carolina, the University of North Carolina, and the University of Virginia (DeLoughry, 1995, April 21).

McLuhan and Fiore (1967, p. 8) contend that "societies have always been shaped more by the nature of the media by which men communicate than by the content of the communication." This observation may perhaps be partially substantiated by the additional dimension of electronic presentation and collaboration that is currently finding acceptance on an experimental basis in a profession long known for presenting an intangible commodity in a tangible format of ink and newsprint. In an era when their

59 professional counterparts are warily studying the ramifications of electronic presentation, a number of college newspapers are already offering daily electronic editions on the World-Wide Web.

According to Wanat (1994, November, 30), on-line innovation and collaboration now includes an estimated three dozen members of the collegiate press. California State University at Long Beach, Kansas State University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the L'niversity of Arizona, and the University of Texas at Austin are but a few of a growing number of college campuses offering daily electronic editions of their respective student newspapers.

In addition to offering electronic versions of what has traditionally and ostensibly been available in a paper format with limited circulation and distribution, members have now formed an electronic mail system similar to professional wire services such as the Associated Press. Members of this informational vanguard share their top stories and features in a conscious effort to expand and attract readership from around the world. Other contemporary examples of collaborative endeavor fall outside the realm of cybernetic enhancement. For example, the State of \"irginia has recently inaugurated a plan to develop "public-private partnerships" as a practical alternative to the financing of new, four-year colleges as the State Council for Higher Education prepares for a projected enrollment increase estimated at 65,000 full-time students over an eight-year period. The plan also attempts to address the need for more conveniently located and affordable institutions of higher learning.

The State of Virginia paid 100 community college graduates to attend one of three in-state private institutions of higher learning for the th'st time

60 in September of 1995. Each student in the program received approximately $3,500 for one academic year which is roughly equivalent to the current public-college subsidy of $3,405 for each full-time student. Of the 14 private colleges that responded to an appeal for institutional participation, the council selected three to test their strategy that might prove to be a partial answer to the nationwide problem of overcrowding. Averett College, Bluefield College, and Saint Paul's College were all selected because of theii- previously established agreements with area community colleges. The three pilot campuses are expected to both market and evaluate the program to help ensure a continuous flow of essential financial support from the General Assembly (Healy, 1991, April 14).

According to Heller (1995, March 17), an interfaith collaboration in Massachusetts between Hebrew College and Andover Newton Theological School will result in a common campus with shared facilities. Hebrew College was founded in 1921 to educate teachers for Jewish schools and is presently located in Brookline, MA, a Boston suburb near the Andover Newton campus. Housed in a former mansion in a residential neighborhood, Hebrew College is suffering from burgeoning enrollments and a lack of parking space. In contrast, Andover Newton is ecumenical, but it retains ties to the United Church of Christ and the American Baptist Churches. Unlike Hebrew College, the Andover Newton campus has a number of underused facilities spread over 84 acres.

These two distinct and disparate institutions of higher learning will need an estimated three years to complete their proposed merger. A current three-year plan provides for a single library of more than 350.000 volumes, joint course offerings, and an institute of Jewish-Christian

61 studies. A decision has yet to be reached as to whether or not Hebrew College will lease or purchase a portion of the Andover Xewton physical plant.

Contemporary literature is also rife with articles outlining a variety of concerns and potential problems relating to the amalgamation of cybernetics and collaborative ventures in higher education. According to DeLoughry (1994, November 2), "attending the right graduate school and being published in prestigious places are still important, but establishing a name for oneself on-line has become the newest way to win recognition" (p. A25). The Internet has allowed for the creation of more than 2.000 discussion groups or academic lists on subject matter ranging from "abnormal psychology to Yiddish literature." This unprecedented opportunity for global collegiality and collaboration has spawned a number of philosophical debates concerning the role of the electronic forum in the academy of the 1990s and beyond.

Whereas there is general agreement that the Internet and mailing lists provide researchers the opportunity to obtain the latest data scmie six months ahead of most scholarly journals conferences and books, there is less agreement as to the legitimacy and scholarly importance of such a system. A number of questions remain concerning what effect, if any, such participation will eventually have on matters of publishing, tenure, promotional decisions, and even the future of colleges and universities.

According to DeLoughry (1995, January 27), concerns are currently being expressed by academicians regarding the so-called "information highway" and the extent to which it may alter or even supplant the currently accepted system of higher education. On-line learning systems,

62 currently referred to in the literature as "virtual universities.'" are being credited with the potential to erode the status quo. In the DeLoughry article, Stanley Chodorow, provost of the University of Pennsylvania, suggested that computer networks will redefine the role of libraries, blur the boundaries between campuses, and promote the splintering of higher education along disciplinary lines, but will not replace colleges" (p. A22). Another view included in the DeLoughry article was contributed by Edward Barrett, senior lecturer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He envisions an on-line system of recognized authorities or "electronic gurus" for each discipline. This would then be followed by the replacement of full- time professors with adjunct personnel who would then interpret the lectures and answer student-generated questions. Barrett advocates finding the definitive definition for "the virtuous university" before serious contemplation of "the virtual university" ensues (p. A22).

Another potentially troublesome trend being closely monitored is the imminent collapse of the non-profit system of regional network consortiums currently providing service on the Internet to the higher education arena. Many of these systems got their start on college campuses in the 1980s and are now being acquired by private companies. These purchases are being encouraged by a plan to reduce the role of the National Science Foundation in the Internet.

According to DeLoughry (1995, January 20), concerns have been raised regarding emerging purchasing patterns by for-profit communication companies. The gradual withdrawal of government funding is leaving a void currently being filled with smaller computer networking companies eager to complete with larger long-distance

63 telephone providers and other competitors currently offering sen'ices on the Internet. Perhaps some consortiums such as EDUCOM have found the middle ground by establishing partnerships with for-profit companies. EDUCOM is a consortium of 600 colleges and 100 companies that promote the use of technology in higher education. It was founded in 1964 by five medical school deans and is based in Washington, DC. EDUCOM has carried out its mission with collaborative efforts such as EDUNET. MAILNET, and HEDS. EDUNET shares the resources of 18 computer centers while MAILNET is an international network linking electronic mail systems. HEDS is a data sharing service for interinstitutional comparison and analysis.

Another source of controversy is a result of the almost limitless access provided by the Internet. Cybernetics have opened vast new vistas to researchers particularly in the scientific disciplines. Networking has made it possible for scientists from around the world to collaborate simultaneously on a particular problem and then publish their collective findings in a single paper. The problem inherent in such collaboration is the unwieldy number of co-authors attributed to these scholarly findings.

According to McDonald (1995, April 28), an analysis of 4,000 scientific journals conducted by the Institute for Scientific Information reported that:

It found the number of papers with more than 50 authors grew from 49 in 1981 to 407 in 1994. Articles with more than 100 authors grew from 1 to 182 over the same period, while those with more than 200 authors rose from 1 in 1988 to 98 in 1994. Papers with more than 500 authors, nonexistent until 1989, exhibited the same trend, rising from 1 in 1989 to 18 in 1994. (p.A35)

Whereas this controversy centers on the question of what constitutes an author, the answer appears to be dependent upon the field or discipline

64 where the research originates. This answer still prompts some scientists to "complain that long lists of authors, which often include technicians as well as scientists, distant the relative contributions of researchers and make it more difficult for tenure and promotion committees to evaluate their work" (McDonald, 1995, April 28, p. A36). The profile of the consortial trend that continues to emerge from the literature of the 1990s tends to lend support to the obser\^ation made by Bcxut (1988) at the close of the 1980s:

The truth is that higher education has not been fundamentally changed by efforts to improve its efficiency or its academic character through voluntary institutional cooperation—academic consortia. In responding to the challenges of an increasingly information-based society, however, higher education is well-serv'^ed by third-party agencies that promote collaboration—collaboration that involves flexible mixes of colleges, universities, and other nonprofit and for-profit organizations.

Successfully managing complex relationships among large numbers of desperate institutions calls for a strictly maintained attitude of neutrality, a continuity of effort that rises above the many changes that occur in the constituency, and a high degree of professionalism. It is these attributes of consortia as third-party agencies—not their predetermined roles in accomplishing certain programmatic ends--that point to the future success of the form. (pp. 23-24)

According to the literature, the intent and purpose of American academic cooperation fostered by typical consortial arrangements has run the gamut from government mandated collaboration to interinstitutional altruism. Certainly one fundamental and continuing precept of this now common educational amalgamation is the basic fiscal and philosophical realities and resulting constraints which have inevitably led to their sometimes cautious, yet deliberate metamorphosis. As a member of a consortial arrangement, each member institution is assumed to be better

65 able to plan for and cope with the invariable and predictable change inherent with the operation of a modern institution of higher learning rather than if it were acting as a unilateral agent.

This study used the aforementioned assumption as a basis for a historical investigation and analysis of formal and informal examples of interinstitutional cooperation and consortial collaboration of the three, church-related institutions of higher learning located in Abilene, Texas.

66 CHAPTER IV METHODOLOGY

A chronology of events and factors which ultimately led to the establishment of both interinstitutional cooperation and consortial agreements among three private, church-related institutions of higher learning in Abilene, Texas, was formulated utilizing established and accepted precepts of historical and interviewing research methodology. It was assumed that knowledge derived from the formulation of such a timeline may contribute to a better understanding of the true potential and limitations of interinstitutional cooperation and consortia in denominational higher education.

Definitions and Evolution of Historv According to Nevins (1962), "history is actually a bridge connecting the past with the present, and pointing the road to the future" (p. 14). British historian Edward Carr (1967) defined history as "... a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the past" (p. 36). Virginia Woolf, the English novelist and essayist, once declared that "nothing has really happened until it has been recorded" (Rawson & Miner, 1986, p. 144). "All learners, all inquiring minds of every order," wrote the Scottish writer Thomas Carlyle of history, "are gathered round her footstool, and reverently pondering her lessons as the true basis of wisdom" (Nevins, 1962.

67 p. 19). The Greek historian Polybius professed the notion that "in a world unified in both space and time, a study of human affairs must be comprehensive if it is to be effective" (Toynbee, 1972, p. 47).

According to Startt and Sloan (1989), "the essence of historv lies in present thought about particular things in the past"" (p. 1). It is generally conceded that the Hebrews were the first to think of history in this manner. Hebrew scholars perceived the necessity to present the passage of time as linear rather than a repetitive cycle. However, it is the ancient Greeks, despite their inclination to adhere to a cyclical concept, who are credited with developing the study of what is now known as history.

The rise of Christianity led to the demise of the so-called Cyclical School. A resulting philosophy of history came to be known as the Providential School. As suggested by their name, the Providentialists held that the course of history is determined by God and by God alone. After the eighteenth century, a more secular approach emerged which characterized history not by ceaseless repetition but by direction and purpose. Finally, in the current age of scientific inquiry and material advancement there arose the Progressive School. Progressive historiography advances the belief that human history illustrate not endless cycles but continual progress (Benjamin, 1979).

According to Marius (1989), the word history means "story"" in most languages. He goes on to conclude that "history is far from being an exact science, but it does involve data-evidence, facts, bits of information gathered from many, varied sources. The art lies in putting these facts together to tell a story accurate in detail and interesting in presentation" (p. 1).

68 According to Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996), research of a historical nature is primarily concerned with determining, evaluating, and interpreting the oral and written traditions of the past. Barzun and Graff (1977) contend that "even a study of the present is actually a description of the past-recent though it may be, but nonetheless a backward glance. Only events already gone by can disclose the prevailing state of things" (p. 5).

Historical Research Procedures A review of the literature revealed a number of paradigms designed for use in educational research in history. One example is V^anDalen's (1979) five-step outline which includes the following stages: (a) formulate the problem, (b) collect source material, (c) criticize source material, (d) formulate hypothesis to explain events or conditions, and (e) interpret and report the findings. Startt and Sloan (1989) compiled another research design containing seven "basic standards" of historical research which they believe describe the fundamental elements of good history. The elements are: (a) topic definition, (b) bibliographic soundness, (c) research, (d) accuracy, (e) explanation, (f) historical understanding, and (g) writing.

The primary research plan of this study follows the major steps and techniques of historical research as formulated by Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996). Their outline of suggested research procedures is as follows: (a) identifying a problem or topic, (b) searching for and recording relevant sources of historical evidence, (c) evaluating the evidence for authenticity and validity, and (d) synthesizing historical facts into meaningful chronological and thematic patterns.

69 Historical Research in Education

Historical research, in and of itself, generally involves a systematic search for all documentation relevant to finding suitable solutions for unanswered questions about the past. According to Gall. Borg, and Gall (1996):

Historical research in education differs from other types of educational research in that the historian discovers data through a search of historical sources such as diaries, official documents, and relics. In historical research, then, the evidence is available before the historian formulates a thesis, selects a topic, and designs a research plan. In contrast, most other types of educational research require the researcher to create data. (p. 645)

Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996) define historical research in education "as a process of systematically searching for data to answer questions about a past phenomenon for the purpose of gaining a better understanding of present institutions, practices, trends, and issues in education" (p. 644). In further support of historical research in education. Gall. Borg. and Gall (1996) maintain that research of this nature "helps educators understand the present condition of education by shedding light on the past. It also helps them imagine alternative future scenarios in education and judge their likelihood" (643).

According to Gall, Borg. and Gall (1996), historical research in education is distinguishable from other educational research classifications in that the historian/researcher discovers" instead of 'creates' empirical data through a systematic and logical search of all historically significant sources extant.

Neuman (1991, p. 380) defines data as "empirical evidence or information that have been carefully gathered according to a set of rules or

70 established procedures" (p. 6). Therefore, data can be quantitative (i.e.. expressed numerically) or qualitative (i.e., expressed as words, pictures, or objects). In addition, Neuman (1991) contends that "there are only three types of historical research: quantitative research, which uses data from the past; longitudinal research, which measures quantitative variables over time; and qualitative historical research" (p. 380). According to Judd, Smith, and Kidder (1991):

Statistical archives and written records are kept by all literate societies for a variety of purposes, of which research is by no means the most important. However, such archives can be used by imaginative researchers for purposes that were never envisioned by the originators of the archives or documents, often in a way that takes advantage of the strengths of archival data. These strengths are the potential for (1) spanning long periods of time; (2) covering large populations of people or other units of observation; and (3) quantifying reactions to momentous or catastrophic events which cannot be intentionally or artificially imposed for practical or ethical reasons, (p. 287)

This study, will primarily utilize qualitative research methodology. The controversy surrounding the well-delineated methodologies of quantitative and qualitative research led Schlesinger (December, 1962) to suggest the often repeated argument "that almost all the important questions tin historyl are important precisely because they are not susceptible to quantitative answers" (p. 770).

Conversely, Stephens (1974) suggests that historians can and should acknowledge both the value and limitations of quantification. "History is still basically a humanistic study and quantification is useful to historical research only insofar as it helps us to understand human beings and concepts of the past" (p. 109).

71 Sources and Classification of Documentation According to Startt and Sloan (1989), "it is possible to find historical materials almost an>^vhere. Although some mav be held privately, the researcher will find materials of this sort most often in a library or some other institution that involves itself in storing, organizing, and preserving sources of history" (p. 85). Borg and Meredith (1989) would tend to support this notion with their statement, "primary sources of historical information are often contained in institutional repositories or archives. This is especially true of primary sources relating to historical events in which the principal witnesses are deceased or otherwise inaccessible (p. 817).

Startt and Sloan (1989) provide further insight into efforts to find the best available historical data when they stated that, "primary sources are the raw materials of history. They are contemporaneous records, or records in close proximity to some past occurrence. Whereas secondary sources rest on primary sources and are not contemporaneous with the subject under study" (p. 114). These primary sources for historical research were then divided into eight basic categories by Startt and Sloan (1989): (a) original written records, (b) published personal records, (c) published official documents, (d) secondary written sources, (e) statistical sources, (f) oral sources, (g) pictorial sources, (h) physical remains. Secondary sources are those based upon primarv sources and removed in time from the subjects they describe. They compose a varied category of sources, including: (a) pamphlet and periodical literature, (b) major historical studies and monographs, (c) biographies, (d) current affairs literature, (e) official histories, and (f) imaginative literature.

72 According to Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996), virtually any object or written record can be a primary source of information about the past. This thesis led them to develop a four-step classification system of potential historical sources. The system includes categories for written documents or records, quantitative records, relics, and oral records. This system defines and subdivides the documents category into the following subcategories: handwritten or printed, published or unpublished, material prepared for the public record, and material intended for private use

A further distinction drawn by the Gall, Borg, and Gall system is whether a given document was intentionally prepared as a historical record or whether its eventual use and value as a historical source was unpremeditated. A second classification entails all aspects of quantitative records. This category should be considered as a separate type of historical source or as a subtype of document. A third classification area is one entitled relics. The relic category would include any object whose physical or visual properties provide information about the past. The fourth and final category centers on information obtained by oral face-to-face communication.

Oral Tradition and Interviewing Harris (1985) describes the process and concept of oral tradition as an attempt to map that area of historical endeavor "where memory, myth, ideology, language and historical cognition interact in a dialectical transformation of the word into a historical artifact" (pp. 6-7).

Most forms of the oral tradition can be used to convey a record of events for posterity. The spoken word or oral history can be obtained by

73 conducting interviews of those who have witnessed and participated in potential events of historical significance. According to Gall. Borg, and Gall (1996). "ballads, tales, sagas, and other forms of spoken language preserve a record of events for posterity. Also, some historians conduct oral interviews of individuals who witnessed or participated in events of potential historical significance"" (p. 654).

Questions of memory, consciousness, and meaning in the oral history- interview, of necessity, focus on two interrelated methodological issues: the role of the historian/interviewer in the creation of the document he or she is then called upon to interpret, and the creation of that document within a particular historical and social space and within a particular historical tradition (Grele. 1994). "The oral history interview ma}' more precisely be viewed as a dialogue between interviewer and narrator—a mutual construction of reality in which participants exchange messages, negotiate meanings, and try to achieve a degree of agreement on the investigatory process" (Futrell & Willard, 1994, p. 85). According to Portelli (1981). "the historian is mainly interested in reconstructing the past: the speaker seeks to project an image" (pp. 165-166).

The oral history inter\'iew is one of the many methods available for conducting a research-based survey. "An oral sur\'ey is a data collection technique in which information is gathered from individuals called respondents" (Monette. Sullivan. & De Jong. 1994, p. 154). Sun^evs of this nature involve presenting selected respondents with a series of closed- ended or open-ended questions. Closed-ended questions should be used when all the possible, theoretically relevant responses to a question can be determined in advance and the number of possible responses is limited. Open-ended questions, on the other hand, would be appropriate in an exploratory study in which the lack of theoretical development suggests that few restrictions should be placed on anticipated answers < Monette. Sullivan, & De Jong, 1994).

Chadwick, Bahr, and Albrecht (1984) place various types of interviews along a continuum according to the amount of structure that researcher imposes on the respondent:

Between these two extremes are a variety of other ways ot conducting interview studies. Near the more structured pole of the continuum might be an interview that includes specific questions but asks them in a largely open-ended format. That is, questions but not response categories are predetermined. The respondents are all asked the same questions but are given their freedom in answering them in any manner they choose. Nearer the other pole is the situation where the researcher has some rather specific topics that are to be covered, and these are included in an interview guide. The guide is used to make sure that all of the issues of concern receive attention during the course of the encounter but the interview itself remains unstructured, (p. 104)

Basic Background Parameters of the Abilene Studv The three institutions of higher learning selected for this study are all private, church-related universities bound by geographic proximity and to some extent, a comparable purpose and mandate. These three educational institutions share elements of commonality while simultaneously manifesting a number of divergent characteristics. At the heart of this institutional heterogeneousness are three hierarchical and autonomous systems of governance.

An in-depth discussion to further delineate the uniqueness of the three subject institutions will be presented in a subsequent chapter. 75 Therefore, this discussion will be limited to an impartial system of institutional classification as provided for by exclusive charter. Over the years, the Carnegie Classification of Higher Education has gained credibility and has served as a useful guide for scholars and researchers.

Since the Carnegie Classification system was developed by Clark Kerr in 1970, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching has periodically grouped American colleges and universities according to their stated mission. Whereas the Carnegie Classification is not intended to establish a hierarchy among institutions of higher learning, it does provide scholars and researchers a useful categorization of all domestic institutions with similar programs and purposes.

The 1994 Carnegie Classification clusters all 3,595 American institutions of higher learning according to the highest level of degree conferred—from associate of arts to doctoral degrees. Under this system, Hardin-Simmons University and Abilene Christian University are classified as Master's (Comprehensive) Colleges and Universities I. There are ten other private institutions in the State of Texas so designated. McMurry University is categorized with 16 other Texas-based private colleges as Baccalaureate Colleges II (The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1994).

This study is predicated on historical research. As such, it adhered to recognized and accepted tenets of historical research and interpretation previously discussed in this chapter. Following long-established procedures and protocols, a site search revealed that no previously published study on interinstitutional cooperation in Abilene has been conducted to date. Therefore, this study broke new ground in terms of

76 compiling the thematic and chronological information necessary for a valid holistic exploration of the past. In reference to holism. Borg and Gall (1989) stated that "the researcher must attempt to perceive the big picture or the total situation rather than focusing upon a few elements within a complex situation as is usually done in quantitative research" (p. 389).

Historical methodology is recommended by Yin (1981) to more accurately examine a phenomenon from an intrinsic perspective. Patton (1980) advocates the use of such studies when seeking comprehensive and systematic information. According to Becker (1968), the typical historical study provides a "comprehensive understanding of the group under study" which "forces [the researcher] to consider, however crudely, the multiple interrelations of a particular phenomena "rather than making assumptions that may turn out to be incorrect about matters that are relevant" (p. 233). Wilson (1979) portrays the ideal historical study as particularistic, holistic, longitudinal, and qualitative. Additionally, Merriam (1984) suggests that historical studies should "result in an intensive, holistic description of the phenomenon or social unit being studied" (p. 6).

The Abilene study utilized both the qualitative and holistic approach throughout the process of collection, assimilation, and interpretation of data necessary to achieve the stated objectives of this historical investigation. The time parameter of this study is from 1906 to the present. The long period of time slated for investigation (91 years) dictated a need to divide the study into two indicative segments. The segmentation was accomplished by distinguishing between instances of interinstitutional cooperation (informal), consortial arrangements (formal), and a

77 combination of simultaneous endeavors involving three private, church- related institutions of higher learning in Abilene. Texas.

The first segment is from 1906 to 1972 and contains a chronology and analysis of instances of interinstitutional cooperation (informal cooperation) which could be located for those 66 years. A subsequent section continues the chronology with pertinent examples of both interinstitutional cooperation (informal cooperation) and consortial arrangements (formal cooperation) among the three aforementioned institutions of higher learning from 1972 to the present. The first time period was chosen to coincide with the founding of Childers Classical Institute (Abilene Christian University) by members of the Churches of Christ in 1906. The establishment of the second institution of higher learning in Abilene provided the first opportunity for interinstitutional cooperation to evolve with Simmons College (Hardin- Simmons University), which had been founded in 1891 by the Sweetwater Baptist Association. The second such opportunity occurred in 1923 when Methodists in West Texas and New Mexico selected Abilene as the site for McMurry College (McMurry University), the third private, church-related institution of higher learning to be located in the West Texas community.

The second parameter of time was selected for study because the first formal consortial agreement was signed by the three subject institutions on September 30, 1972. This agreement included the original articles of incorporation and was filed in the Office of the Secretary of State in Austin. Texas, on May 24, 1973. This resulted in the formation of the University Consortium of Abilene, Inc., and officially started a formal consortial relationship among three private, church-related institutions of higher

78 learning in Abilene. The consortium was the primarv focus of the second segment of this investigation.

Appropriate data from the two specified time periods was accumulated from all available primary and secondary sources. Anticipating that primary sources of relevant information were being housed in the repositories and archives of the three subject institutions, a preliminary search was begun to locate and verify all promising documentation. This phase of the research took place in the Rupert and Pauline Richardson Library at Hardin-Simmons University; the Margaret and Herman Brown Library at Abilene Christian University; and the Jay- Rollins Library at McMurry University.

After collecting documentation from available primary and secondary sources, data was subjected to both internal and external examination and evaluation to determine validity and relevance. Oral documentation, garnered from key participants in the process leading to formalized consortial development, was subjected to a qualitative or naturalistic paradigm. This paradigm offered a method to conduct an unobtrusive study which was designed to capture individual and collective recollections and interpretations regarding complex realities (Guba & Lincoln, 1982).

Primary sources included witnesses and other principal participants that were connected with the creation and development of formal consortial relationships shared by the three subject institutions of higher learning. The members of the final interview schedule were identified and selected by reading institutional records and memorandum. This exercise led the

79 staging of formal interviews with both current and former members of the administrations, faculties, and staffs of the three partnered institutions.

Thirty-five interviews were conducted in an effort to glean the information necessary to recreate the past, inventory the present, and assess the future of the formal consortial relationship currently shared by the three subject institutions of higher learning. A set of questions were developed to assist in answering the "Questions for Study" as listed on page 5 (see Appendix A for a complete list of structured interview questions). A few of the interviews resulted in the identification of additional participants whose accounts were beneficial to the development of an accurate cooperative history of the three subject institutions.

To transcend the mere descriptive study, the researcher must carefully analyze source materials while formulating assumptions and suggestions consistent with an historical investigation of merit. A study of this nature required cognizance of and attention to those convolutions hiding both concurrence and dissension resulting in the reticulations and interrelations of stated goals, objectives, and philosophies. Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996) admonished against the tendency to recite facts without a consistent and cohesive effort to integrate the facts into meaningful conceptualizations.

Therefore, this historical investigation was intended to generate more than a mere chronology of specific events. It was designed to provide a contextual presentation of success and failure of both formal and informal examples of institutional cooperation in Abilene, Texas. These findings may be studied and perhaps used by other private, church-related

80 institutions of higher learning that might wish to duplicate the successe.- or avoid the pitfalls of a similar cooperative effort.

81 CHAPTER V

CHRONOLOGY OF INTERINSTITUTIONAL COOPERATION IN ABILENE, TEXAS

Introduction After its establishment in 1891, Abilene Baptist College (Hardin- Simmons University) was the only institution of higher learning in Abilene, Texas, for a period of 15 years. This singular status, albeit temporary, ruled out any form of interinstitutional cooperation until the establishment of the Childers Classical Institute (Abilene Christian University) in 1906 and McMurry College (McMurry University) in 1923. Using standard historical research and interviewing methodology, a profile of all significant instances of interinstitutional consortial endeavor of this academic triumvirate were determined in order to generate a chronology of their cooperative successes and/or failures.

Description of Hardin-Simmons Universitv Hardin-Simmons University (HSU) is a church-related institution affiliated with the Baptist General Convention of Texas since 1941. This coeducational institution has an approximate enrollment of 2,300 students and is classified in the 1994 edition of A Classification of Institutions of Higher Education as a Master's (Comprehensive) University I (The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1994). According to the Hardin-Simmons Universitv Undergraduate Bulletin (1996-97). Hardin-Simmons is a "comprehensive university with a College of Arts and Sciences, Schools of Business, Education, Music, Nursing, and Theology,

82 and a Graduate School, is fully accredited and holds membership in good standing in the appropriate agencies . . ." (p. 7). The HSU Bulletin (1996- 97) provided a statement of purpose for the institution:

Hardin-Simmons University, a church-related institution affiliated with the Baptist General Convention of Texas:

Fosters the intellectual development of students by providing an academically challenging education in selected arts and sciences, professional and pre-professional programs based upon a liberal arts foundation.

Affirms the relevance and importance of the Christian faith for life in the contemporary world by maintaining a clear identification with and loyalty to the Christian faith and functioning within the context of historic Baptist values and principles.

Encourages individuals to lead lives of service through active involvement in intellectual, cultural and religious life. both on the campus and in the larger communities of Abilene and the world, (p. 8)

Description of Abilene Christian Universitv Abilene Christian University (ACU) is associated with the Churches of Christ and was categorized in the 1994 edition of A Classification of Institutions of Higher Education as a Master's (comprehensive) University I (The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1994). According to the Abilene Christian Universitv Undergraduate Catalog (1996- 97), "ACU has about 4,400 students enrolled in three undergraduate colleges (the College of Arts and Sciences, the College of Biblical and Family Studies, and the College of Business Administration) plus the Graduate School and the Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing" (p. 5). The ACU Catalog (1996-97) offered the following description of the institution and its mission:

83 Abilene Christian University is an independent, comprehensive university. Founded in 1906 in Abilene, Texas, by members of the Churches of Christ, the school maintains a strong relationship with the church. It is a residential university which encourages individual interaction among its 5,000 students, teachers, administrators, and staff members. The university is a community of learners dedicated to scholarship and committed to Christ. Its educational programs, its faculty and staff, its administration, and its campus environment—all exist to educate its students for Christian service and leadership throughout the world, (p. 2)

Description of McMurrv Universitv McMurry University, the last denominational college to be located in Abilene, was established under the auspices of the Northwest Texas Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In the 1994 edition of A Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. McMurry University is classified as a Baccalaureate College II (The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1994). It is a four-year liberal-arts coeducational institution with an enrollment of approximately 1,500 students. The McMurry University Catalog (1995-96) provided the following as a description of the institution's philosophy and purposes:

Service to the Community. McMurry University senses as an institution of higher learning and a center of intellectual inquiry and civic interaction in Abilene and the surrounding area, through its faculty and staff, its students, its library and other learning facilities contributing to the educational and intellectual growth of that larger community.

Service to the Church. McMurry University serves the Christian fellowship in general and the United Methodist Church in particular as a center for Christian-oriented higher education, with a particular focus on Christian education in the Wesleyan tradition, providing training in ministry for those called to Christian vocations, both lay and clergy.

84 Service to the Academic World. McMurry University fosters research, inquiry, and performance in order that its faculty, staff, and students, both present and past, can make significant contributions to the scholarly community, serving as a center for continued educational and professional growth for its faculty and staff as they are enriched by the intellectual exchange inherent in the liberal-arts tradition.

Service to Students. In accordance with its charter and within the heritage of liberal-arts education implied in the above responsibilities, McMurry University commits itself to the tasks of recognizing diversity of aspirations while seeking to encourage students in the following ways: intellectually, professionally, spiritually, morally, individuallv. and sociallv. (pp. 10-11)

Other Post-Secondarv Institutions Represented in this Studv Two additional post-secondary institutions currently located in Abilene, Texas, have limited representation in this case study as both played pivotal roles during the formative period of the formal consortial relationships addressed in this historical investigation. Currently, both Cisco Junior College and Texas State Technical College Sweetwater maintain branch campuses in Abilene, Texas. The origination and placement of these facilities was, at least in part, a response to a perceived inadequacy of certain post-secondary educational and vocational opportunities in a community with three long-established senior colleges.

Description of Cisco Junior College Cisco Junior College (CJC) is a member of the Texas system of publicly supported institutions of higher education and serves its constituency with a main campus at Cisco and an educational center in Abilene. The Abilene branch of CJC, known as the Abilene Educational Center, officially opened in the fall of 1991. The extension facility in Abilene 85 has an average enrollment of approximately 1.800 students (Cisco Junior College General Catalog, 1996-1998).

Description of Texas State Technical College Sweetwater In January of 1985, the Abilene Center of Texas State Technical College Sweetwater (TSTCS) was established through the efforts of the governor of Texas and the Abilene Chamber of Commerce Industrial Foundation. The Abilene Center has an average enrollment of approximately 200 students. A portion of the redefined mission statement of TSTC as found in Senate BiU 1222 of the 72nd session of the Texas Legislature reads as follows, "The Texas State Technical College System is a coeducational two-year institution of higher education offering courses of study in technical-vocational education for which there is a demand within the State of Texas" (Texas State Technical College Catalog, 1995-96).

Chronology of Informal Cooperation

Introduction The earliest examples of interinstitutional cooperation in Abilene typically consisted of short-term sharing of facilities or academic personnel. Records of this interdenominational altruism are generally nonexistent as most took the form of a "gentlemen's agreement" where a handshake consummated an arrangement between institutions. It was characteristic of the period to render aid to those in need without viewing such actions as an event warranting the formality of written or legal instruments.

86 In an attempt to document as many examples of early cooperation as possible, a search was made of accessible archival materials such as catalogs, internal and external correspondence, newspapers, historical accounts, personal papers, and minutes from trustee meetings Administrative permission was also obtained to research the Hardin- Simmons University Board of Trustees Executive Committee minutes for the years 1902 to 1960. A limited timeline of informal cooperative efforts was formulated using the information obtained from these combined sources.

Interinstitutional Activity Before 1960 On April 6, 1917. war was formally declared between Germany and the United States. Because of this geopolitical action, one of the earliest examples of cooperation between Simmons College (Hardin-Simmons University) and Abilene Christian College (University) was mandated by the United States Government. By 1918, the War Department announced plans for a Student Army Training Corps (SATO. This was designed to establish a formal military presence on college and university campuses throughout the nation. According to Richardson (1976). "there were 167 men in the Simmons College SATC [Hardin-Simmons Universityl. 42 were enrolled at Abilene Christian College [University]" (p. 83). Historically, the primary purpose of both formal and informal interinstitutional cooperation among the Abilene colleges has been to ser\'e student needs. But by its very nature, interinstitutional cooperation often provides serv'ices to both students and professors. One such early cooperative arrangement was the

87 establishment of the first Abilene symphony orchestra in the 1920s.

According to Stackhouse (1991):

The [Simmons College] Cowboy Band was founded by Dewey O. Wiley, who was employed by the Simmons College [Hardin-Simmons Universityl Music Department in 1920 to teach violin. In 1921, he also took over the school band, adopted a cowboy motif for the group, and scheduled the band for the first time for appearances outside of Abilene. He became concertmaster as well of the first Abilene symphony group, a development which gave string players of the three colleges of the area a larger opportunity for performance, (p. 95)

By 1923, Abilene had a population of just over 10,000 citizens and three private colleges established by members and followers of three different Protestant denominations. In each case, community, civic, and interdenominational support played a major role in the establishment and overall success of these church-related and privately supported entities of higher learning. It should not be inferred from this fact that any attempt was made to exclude public-supported institutions of higher learning from being located in this city of "churches" and "church schools." According to Wade (1956), Abilene was one of 37 Texas communities to make a bid for Texas Technological College (Texas Tech University) in 1923. The Abilene Chamber of Commerce worked hard to convince the Locating Board that Abilene both wanted and needed a public institution of higher learning. In a show of solidarity, the presidents of the three private, church-related colleges all wrote letters in support of locating Texas Technological College in their community. In addition, Wade (1956) noted that, "Presidents [Dr. Jefferson Davis] Sandefer, of Simmons [College], and [Dr. James Winford] Hunt of McMurry [College], were on the Citizen's Committee and were speakers for Abilene when the Locating Board made its inspection, July 24, 1923" (p. 152). Even though Abilene was not selected by the Locating Board.

88 its leaders were prepared to offer the same level of support to public higher education as they had to private, church-supported institutions of higher learning.

In 1946, a cooperative plan was devised to solve the combined stadium needs of the three subject institutions and the City of Abilene. The plan called for a football stadium with a seating capacity of 12,000 to 18,000 to be built on the campus of Hardin-Simmons University. In return. Abilene Christian College (University), McMurry College (University), and Abilene High School would play all home games at the HSU stadium for a period of 10 years at 5 percent of the gross receipts. Each of the four entities were to share the initial cost of building the sporting facility (Hardin-Simmons University Executive Committee Minutes (HSUECM), 1946, September). For reasons lost with the passage of time, this cooperative project never progressed beyond the planning stages. In June of 1952, an Army ROTC (Reserve Officers Training Corps) program was established on the campus of Hardin-Simmons University. It was one of the first general Military Science units in the United States. Because of its long association with the military, HSU was one of only 19 colleges chosen from thousands of applications nationwide. According to Stackhouse (1991): Omar Burleson, a 1926 graduate and member of the U.S. House of Representatives, made the announcement that HSU was one of only nineteen schools chosen from thousands of applications. The Abilene community had worked hard to get Camp Dyess [Dyess Air Force Base] a decade before, Burleson cited the cooperative attitude of both the community and the college faculty, adequate school facilities, the type of student attending HSU, and its academic standing as reasons for HSU's selection. The students were able to be officers in any branch of the service. . . . during the program's first year, 276 male students enrolled for military training, (p. 166)

89 Eventually, students from Abilene Christian University, McMurry University, and Howard Payne University in Brownwood were allowed to participate under an ROTC Cross-Enrollment Agreement. Also in 1962, the libraries of the three subject colleges and the City of Abilene began to experiment with the concept of interinstitutional cooperation. A compilation of periodicals was collectively published under the title. Union List of Periodicals in the Libraries of Abilene Christian College. Hardin-Simmons University. McMurry College. Abilene Public Library. Subsequent editions were compiled and published in 1954. 1957, 1959, 1961, and 1964. The union list of periodicals expanded in 1967 to include the holdings of then TLA District III libraries. The 1967 edition was followed by updated versions in 1969, 1971, 1974, and 1978 under the title of Union List of Periodicals in the Libraries of West Central Texas (Specht, 1996). In 1957, Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian College (University), and McMurry College (University) entered into a joint agreement to increase attendance at collegiate athletic events held in the City of Abilene. The agreement led to the formation of Abilene Intercollegiate Sponsors, Inc. This was designed to help defray the cost of publicizing athletic events for the three Abilene colleges. This cooperative effort had both a limited effect and existence.

Cross-Registration Cross-registration is one of the most prevalent and enduring forms of interinstitutional cooperation found in American higher education today. After a search of relevant documentation related to this matter, it remains

90 a matter of conjecture as to when this practice first started in Abilene. However, based on their long-established propensity to react with caution to most interdenominational matters, it may be assumed that cross- registration between the three subject institutions first developed on a per need basis. The first written formalization of this practice was found in the Hardin-Simmons Universitv Bulletin of 1957-1958. Under the heading of "Inter-College Courses," a statement concerning cross-registration read as follows:

In accordance with an agreement of long standing a student registered at Hardin-Simmons may. with special permission, take a limited number of courses at Abilene Christian College [University] or McMurry College [University] when such courses are not otherwise available to him. (p. 36) Hardin-Simmons University was the first of the three Abilene colleges to include a policy statement on intercollege courses in its catalog. It may be assumed by the phrase, "In accordance with an agreement of long standing...," that the concept of intercollege course work had existed for a period of time prior to the 1957-1958 academic year. McMurrv University followed the example set by Hardin-Simmons with a similar statement in the McMurrv College Bulletin of 1965-1966. It stated that:

A student duly enrolled at McMurry College [Universityl may also enroll in courses at either Abilene Christian College [University] or Hardin-Simmons University. Courses taken through inter-college enrollment count towards degree requirements provided approval has been secured in advance from the student's McMurry adviser, the Dean of the Faculty. and the Registrar, (p. 10) Abilene Christian University was the last to publish a policy statement in its catalog on intercollege enrollment. It appeared for the first

91 time in the 1986-1987 Abilene Christian Universitv Undergraduate Catalog

and read as follows:

A student enrolled at Abilene Christian University may also enroll for courses at either Hardin-Simmons Universitv or McMurry College [University]. Courses taken through inter­ college enrollment count toward degree requirements provided approval has been secured in advance. It is the student s responsibility to make certain that courses taken through the arrangement will satisfy their individual degree requirements. Course work in a given major must be approved on an inter-college enrollment form by the ACU department chairman and the dean of the college. In such areas as ROTC, where ACU has no department, the inter­ college enrollment form should be approved by the ACU Registrar, (p. 16)

Cooperative Academic Programs

Cooperative academic programs are a subset of interinstitutional cooperation among the three subject colleges. Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, and McMurry University have generally entered into cooperative program agreements encompassing disciplines without comparable offerings on more than one of the Abilene campuses. Whereas some of these cooperative programs have been the result of curtailment or elimination of existing offerings by one or more of tlie Abilene campuses, the majority have originated from a desire to maintain or expand curricular offerings without a major outlay of capital for instructional personnel, equipment, or facilities. Cooperative arrangements of this nature continue to provide students of the three Abilene colleges opportunities to fulfill academic needs beyond those routinely offered by their primary institution. The first cooperative program of any duration in Abilene was the Reserve Officers Training Corps unit housed on the Hardin-Simmons

92 University campus in 1952. In the 1969-1970 Hardin-Simmons Universitv

Bulletin a statement concerning a cooperative arrangement with Abilene Christian College (University) was included for the first time. It reads as follows:

Hardin-Simmons University through a cooperative arrangement with Abilene Christian College [University] offers the Bachelor of Science (non-vocational) degree with a major in agriculture. All work in agriculture is to be taken at Abilene Christian College [University]. All other requirements are completed at Hardin-Simmons Universitv. (p. 58)

The 1970-1971 Hardin-Simmons Universitv Bulletin described a cooperative program in Home Economics Education with Abilene Christian College (University). This agreement was the result of a decision by the Hardin-Simmons University Board of Trustees to drop a similar program in Home Economics. The catalogue stated that:

Through a cooperative arrangement with Abilene Christian College [University], Hardin-Simmons University offers the Bachelor of Science in Home Economics Education (Vocational), Smith-Hughes Certification will be by Abilene Christian College [University], (p. 98) McMurry University included a statement on ROTC couisework in the 1970-1971 McMurrv College Bulletin. According to the McMurry policy on ROTC: It is the function of the Department of Military Science at Hardin-Simmons University to conduct the ROTC program in accordance with Department of the Army directives and University policy, (p. 17) In the 1972-1973 Abilene Christian College Bulletin, a statement on

"Cooperative Programs" stated that:

Abilene Christian College [Universityl also offers two cooperative programs—in geology and in law enforccment- with Hardin-Simmons University in Abilene. If you wish to

93 get a major in either of these two areas, you will enroll as a student in ACC [ACU] and take most of your courses here, but will take your major courses at HSU. The BS degree will be awarded by ACC [ACU].

ACC [ACU] men may also enroll in Reserv^e Officer Training Corps at HSU, attending classes and drills there. Upon graduation, they will be commissioned as second lieutenants in the U.S. Army. (p. 16)

Over the years, there have been a number of successful cooperative undergraduate agreements among the three Abilene colleges. As of the 1996-1997 academic year, there were cooperative programs available in Agriculture, Criminal Justice, Foreign Language (French, German. Spanish), Geology, Nursing, Philosophy, Special Education, and Teacher Certification in Journalism. There were no cooperative programs on the graduate level as of the 1996-1997 academic year.

Chronology of Formal Cooperation Introduction During the process of compiling data for this historical chronology, both primary and secondary sources were investigated and evaluated for relevance. According to Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996). a primary source is a record that was generated by those who personally witnessed or participated in the historical event under investigation. Of the four recognized types of primary sources in historical research, (1) written documentation, (2) quantitative records, (3) oral records, and (4) relics, this study primarily utilized written documentation and oral records. The various categories of written documentation are the most common form of source materials. This category of historical documentation includes handwritten and typed material, published and unpublished material,

94 material prepared for the public record, and material intended only for private use. Conversely, oral history is primarily generated from personal recollections from those individuals who witnessed or participated in events of potential historical significance. Information of this kind is usually the result of structured interviewing techniques followed by transcription (p. 653).

The written documentation and oral records used to compile this study were obtained from both primary and secondary sources. Once obtained, the information was then subjected to a process of examination, classification, and interpretation. Written documentation, according to Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996), generally falls into one of two categories: intentional and unpremeditated documents. Intentional documents are those that are intentionally written to serve as a record of past e\ents. Unpremeditated documents are prepared to serve an immediate j3urpose rather than as archival material. This study also makes use of secondarv source material which includes historical accounts of events at which the preparer was not a participant. Generally, the authors of secondary source documentation base their accounts on descriptions or records of historical events that were compiled by others (pp. 652-653).

During the process of compiling source material for this study, it was concluded that no consistent or concerted effort has been made to create or preserve archival records of interinstitutional cooperative endeavors in Abilene, Texas, with the possible exception of legal instruments and documentation. Therefore, much of the information used to create a workable chronology of the Abilene cooperation was obtained through interviews, personal papers, local newspaper accounts, memoranda,

95 published and unpublished historical accounts, university catalogues and

schedules, organizational minutes, legal documentation, and

questionnaires. Special permission was granted by the Executive Committee of the Hardin-Simmons University Board of Trustees allowing third-party access to their minutes for the years 1960-1973. A qualified and acceptable researcher was agreed upon by both the HSU Administration and the author of this dissertation. Only excerpts pertaining to the formation of interinstitutional cooperation were excised and made available for this research project. The year 1973 was selected as the extreme parameter by both the HSU Executive Committee and the author of this dissertation as it marked the establishment of the first formal consortial arrangement involving the three Abilene institutions of higher learning.

Access to legal documentation associated with the formation and operation of the various cooperative entities of the three private, church- related institutions of higher learning could not be granted without approval from the member presidents. Letters of expressed approval and support for this research activity were solicited and obtained from Dr. Lanny Hall, president of Hardin-Simmons University; Dr. Royce Money, president of Abilene Christian University; and Dr. Robert Shimp. president of McMurry University. All such documentation is housed by interinstitutional consent and degree in the offices of the Vice President for Legal Services and General Counsel at Abilene Christian University.

96 Interinstitutional Activity of the 1960s The years preceding the formal interinstitutional cooperation of the 1970s were marked by trial and error. A systematic search for the proper balance between institutional autonomy and interinstitutional symbiosis was conducted by the three Abilene colleges during much of the 1960s with only marginal success. It proved to be a time for bolder concepts and even harsher realities. Both internal and external forces of the late 1960s torged a more cooperative atmosphere that was soon followed by the formalization of interinstitutional cooperation by the early 1970s. According to .Veal (1988):

Much of the early development of the consortium as a vehicle for interinstitutional cooperation focused on the academic potential that these organizations could help realize. Through cooperation, a college or university seemed to have the best of both worlds: a stronger academic program without any loss in institutional autonomy. Other functions for consortia also excited the imagination, but it was the prospect of an expanded and enhanced academic program through consortial cooperation that captured the attention of most educational leaders, (p. 3)

The Neal concept of earl}' consortial development of the period is given additional credence by the contents of trustee minutes from a Executive Board meeting at Hardin-Simmons University on March 2. 1965. In response to the results from a site visit from the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS). Dr. James H. Landes, president of Hardin- Simmons University from 1963 to 1966. made an address to the HSL' Board of Trustees (HSUBT). According to Landes. the SACS Report commended all aspects of interinstitutional cooperation then in place with Abilene Christian College (University) and McMurry College (University). The report stated:

97 The university [Hardin-Simmons University) has a unique opportunity to strengthen its academic offerings through its intercollegiate enrollment plan with Abilene Christian College [Universityl and McMurrv College [Universityl. Few institutions have such advantages available.

The committee commends those who made this cooperation possible and believes that with careful planning and constructive leadership an experiment of national importance can be brought to fruition which will transcend the current exchange of students and become an instrument of planned specialized cooperative programs. (HSL'BTM, 1965. March 2, p. 3)

In an address to the Hardin-Simmons Board of Trustees on February 28, 1967, Dr. Elwin L. Skiles, president of Hardin-Simmons University from 1966 to 1977, gave a report on "Inter-Institutional Cooperation." Skiles concluded that:

For some years now the three Abilene schools, without formal organization, have been engaged in a limited cooperative effort. In certain areas students of one of the schools may take courses in one or both of the other schools. At the present time we have 152 McMurry and Abilene Christian students enrolled in our institution. Hardin-Simmons has the only ROTC program in the city Students from the other schools may get this training with us. Librarv facilities of the three schools are available to all students. These cooperative efforts are only the beginning of programs which may be developed to the advantage of each institution.

Among the many advantages of such programs of cooperation are enlarged curricula and the exchange of: students, faculty, library facilities, special pieces of equipment, foreign study programs, outstanding lectures and concerts, etc., at much smaller costs than would be required if we each did these things separately. Students thus have many advantages of a large university, but also the intimacy of a relatively small campus and close contact with their teachers.

One other inter-institutional project which is high on your administration's list of priorities is a well funded degree program for nurses in which Hendrick Memorial Hospital and Hardin-Simmons will be participants. (HSUBTM, 1967. February 28, p. 3)

98 In the minutes of a January, 1968, meeting of the Executive Committee of the Hardin-Simmons University Board of Trustees, a report was given by then President Skiles that addressed the work being done by the three local colleges toward joint coordination of activities. The minutes indicated that, "much work had been done with Dr. J. K. Williams. Commissioner of Higher Education in Austin. He [Dr. Elwin L. Skiles] also stated that the three colleges presidents were meeting together on a regular basis for discussions along this line" (HSUECM. 1968, January 18. p. 1).

In a report to the Hardin-Simmons University Board of Trustees on March 1, 1968, President Skiles gave an indication of the external forces that would eventually play a major role in a joint move toward formal interinstitutional cooperation among the three Abilene colleges. The minutes indicate that:

Throughout the state pressures are already building concerning the establishment of additional junior colleges, and no doubt we will soon see a veritable ring of such institutions around our own immediate area. In fact, I think it is reasonable to assume that our own school, along with the other two colleges of our city, will soon be forced by public opinion to indicate how we propose to take care of the total higher educational needs of our community. Thus, we dare not be content with the status quo, await the inevitable tightening of the noose, and be finally caught facing a crisis situation.

In keeping with this type of thinking the three schools of higher education have already inaugurated serious dialogue with the avowed purpose being that of exploring every possible avenue for cooperation such as exchange of certain facilities and educational programs and personnel whereby the total educational demands for higher education can be met in our immediate area. I [Dr. Elwin L. Skiles] shall keep the board informed of each and every development, and no doubt will have definite proposals to present for your consideration from time to time. (HSUBTM, 1968, March 1, p. 3)

99 On April 28, 1969, the Tri-College Computer Committee (TCCC) had an organizational meeting on the campus of Hardin-Simmons Uni\'ersity. Membership included representatives from each of the three Abilene colleges. According to the minutes of that initial meeting, it was decided that:

. . . the committee could not reasonably expect to achieve meaningful goals without having the full support of their respective schools. Therefore, the committee decided to ask the presidents of each institution to call an executive board meeting. These meetings should result in a decision by each school to cooperate—perhaps through the founding of a corporation for the purpose of establishing a cooperative computer center. (TCCC Minutes, April 28)

The necessary approvals were given in a timely fashion as evidenced by the minutes of May 20, 1969, in which there is a reference to a motion passed during an Executive Committee meeting of the Hardin-Simmons University Board of Trustees indicating that:

. . . authorization was given to proceed with plans for the development and organization of a Tri-College Corporation consisting of Hardin-Simmons University, McMurry College [Universityl and Abilene Christian College [University] to study problems common to all three with the possibility of establishing a computer facility for the three schools. (HSUECM, 1969, May 20, p. 2)

A project proposal entitled the Cooperative Project Proposal: Tri-

College Computer, indicated that:

Abilene Christian College [University], Hardin-Simmons University, and McMurry College [University] have jointly considered a consolidated computer facility for an extended period of time. Joint discussions began as early as June of 1968. Progress has been made during this period of time, but several difficulties have prevented the accomplishment of a unification program:

(1.) Each school depends to some extent upon the limited computer activities that have been separately established. In other words, the schools cannot stop and begin again. 100 (2.) The computer operations of each school are large budget items. It is impossible to budget and expend still further amounts which are necessary to the initiation of a unification program. Thus, despite a strong desire to cooperate, each school has been forced to maintain separate, inadequate, and inefficient computer facilities. As a corollary result, each school has also faced difficulties developing an academic, computer science instruction program. (ACC, HSU. & McMC. n. d., p. 2)

The Tri-College Computer Project did not progress much further than the planning stage. A proposed copy of the articles of incorporation indicated that it was to be called Educational Computer, Inc. and had the stated purpose:

To acquire and operate data processing equipment and other equipment and facilities necessary or incidental to the use, operation, maintenance and repair of data processing equipment, or funds therefor, by gift, grant, lease, purchase, devise, bequest or otherwise, to be used by public or other institutions or organizations or political subdivisions, exclusively for religious, charitable, scientific, literary, educational or other public purposes by providing instructional training and administrative facilities for their officers, faculties, staff, and students in the field of data processing and by providing such facilities for research projects of every kind and nature in the public interest.

To establish or provide scholarships and fellowships for study in the field of data processing sciences for worthy and qualified students of the universities and colleges without regard to race, color or creed.

To make contributions to tax-exempt charitable organizations in furtherance of the advancement of data processing sciences. In the project proposal entitled Cooperative Project Proposal: Tri- College Computer a section under the heading "Program Abstract" addressed the issue of grant obtainment. The statement proclaimed that:

One result of the three school's historic work on a unified computer facility is an existing corporate organization. This three-school corporation would provide a plausible vehicle

101 through which a program grant application could be submitted-an existing system of cooperative organization as well as a demonstratable example of the dedicated efforts of the past.

The grant program proposal should be constructed in several phases, e.g. a feasibility phase, a planning phase, and an implementation phase. Successive phases would permit points-in-time for program re-evaluation by the three schools, as well as the funding organization. If possible, each program phase should provide the necessary prerequisites for favorable evaluation and for the progressive achievement of each additional phase. (ACC, HSU, & McMC. n.d., pp. 3-4) The lack of an external funding source and unresolved logistical problems prevented the cooperative computer project from achieving fruition. Despite the positive tone of the aforementioned "Program Abstract," the articles of incorporation for the proposed computer consortium were never signed or registered with the Office of the Secretary of State of Texas The statement does suggest, however, that by the late 1960s, the leadership of the Abilene colleges perceived the need for a formal cooperative approach to addressing certain complex problems common to all three institutions. Therefore, one positive result of this failed effort was the joint development of a seminal matrix and protocol which was eventually utilized by Hardin- Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, and McMurry University to establish a number of successful interinstitutional corporations under the Texas Non-Profit Corporation Act.

Interinstitutional Activity of the 1970s The 1970s marked a period of external challenges to the sanctity and stability of the three Abilene providers of private, and decidedly denominational higher education. In 1968, a citizens group was formed known as the Abilene Council for the Study of Higher Education. The 102 committee obtained the services of a consultant in higher education to coordinate and direct a long-range study of the higher education needs of Abilene and Taylor County. Dr. J. R. Woolf, professor of engineering and higher education and president emeritus of the University of Texas at Arlington, was chosen as the consultant. The cost of the study was shared equally by Abilene Christian College [University], Hardin-Simmons University. McMurry College [University], the Abilene Public Schools, and the Abilene Chamber of Commerce.

According to Watson (1970, May 28), the results of the Woolf study concluded that Abilene was one of only 23 standard metropolitan statistical areas of Texas without a public college, either junior or senior, and was therefore in need of a junior college facility. The report suggested that:

1. There was a need for expanded and strengthened higher education programs in Abilene and Taylor County which could best be met by the establishment of a public junior college district.

2. By contracts with the three private colleges, the public junior college district should make maximum use of the resources of the three private senior colleges Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian College [Universityl, and McMurry College [Universityl.

3. The public junior college district should sponsor and be responsible for comprehensive junior college program. The comprehensive program should include all of the following elements: open door admission policy, counseling and remedial assistance for slow learners, college transfer programs, technical programs, adult education, and continuing education.

4. The public junior college district should provide for remedial, vocational, and technical programs through a separate campus or by contract with one or more of the three private senior colleges in Abilene. As such, there should be no social distinction between students enrolled in any one program as compared to those enrolled in any other program.

103 5. The public junior college district should have sufficient administrative and professional staff, including a president, to handle the administrative affairs of the district under the policy direction of its selected board of trustees, (p. lA) According to Watson (1970. May 28). the response from the administrations of the three private senior colleges to the possible addition of a junior college in Abilene was both "favorable" and "cooperative.'" According to the Watson account:

1. Abilene's three college presidents all had favorable comments to make concerning the recommendation for the establishment of a public junior college district in Abilene with contractual services with the three institutions of higher education.

2. Commenting on the recommendations were Dr. John Stevens, president of Abilene Christian College [Universityl. Dr. Elwin Skiles, president of Hardin-Simmons University. Dr. Gordon Bennett, president of McMurry College University. [Dr. Thomas Kim became president of McMurr\^ L^niversitv on June 1. 1970.1 By July of 1970, the Abilene Chamber of Commerce had asked the administration of Cisco Junior College (CJC) to present a "detailed proposal" concerning the establishment of a branch campus in the City of Abilene. Such a facility was intended to "take the place of" the proposed Taylor County Junior College ("CJC Extension," 1970, July 16, p. 1 B).

According to "CJC Extension," (1970, July 16):

On July 8, [1970] President Leland Willis of CJC [Cisco Junior College] had proposed in a letter to the chamber that his school could "establish a comprehensive division of academic and vocational-technical programs in Abilene without a tax issue." He proposed a contractual arrangement with ACC, McM, and HSU for the academic program, (p. IB)

In September of 1970, a special called meeting of the Hardin- Simmons University Board of Trustees was held to discuss the proposed establishment of a junior college in Abilene to be known as Taylor County

104 Junior College. According to the September 1, 1970, minutes of Hardin- Simmons University Board of Trustees, a movement to obtain a junior college for Taylor County originated in 1968 when citizens from Abilene and the surrounding area began to voice a need for alternative educational opportunities. The result of this expressed concern was the formation of an informal task force known as the Abilene Council for the Study of Higher Education (ACSHE). The HSU Board of Trustee minutes indicate that ACSHE membership consisted of:

. . . local businessmen, the superintendent of the public schools, the presidents of the three colleges, and other representatives from each of the colleges including local trustees. The Abilene Chamber of Commerce sponsored the group and gave assistance to the study. The Council engaged the services of Dr. J. R. Woolf, Professor of Engineering and President Emeritus of the University of Texas at Ai'lington. as consultant; and he made a thorough study over a period of a year and a half. Upon completion of his study a report of his findings was presented as well as a plan for a public junior college district utilizing resources of private colleges by contractual arrangement. The Chamber of Commerce then appointed a Junior College Task Force with Judge Raleigh Brown on the 42nd District Court as Chairman to implement the plan.

. . . He [Judge Raleigh Brown] indicated his appreciation for the three private institutions of higher learning in Abilene and said it was not the desire of the Task Force to duplicate educational opportunities already available in the city. Rather, it is the desire of the committee to establish a junior college which will major in vocational and technical training and contract with the existing colleges for services in the academic area for instruction and facilities. The proposal calls for the matter to be presented to the people of Abilene in a called election to name seven members of the Board of Directors and to present a bond issue of $2,750,000. He [Judge Raleigh Brown] explained that the usual bond issue for a junior college would be eight to nine million dollars, but because of the plan to utilize the facilities of the local institutions the smaller issue would be adequate.

105 Judge Brown said that a proposed contract had been prepared for each of the three colleges but that further attention would need to be given to these, in order that all the terms would be agreeable. He [Judge Raleigh Brown] further stated that the Coordinating Board of the Texas College and University System has recommended that a junior college be established in every metropolitan area of the State and had suggested that one be located in the four-county area of Taylor. Jones, Nolan, and Fisher Counties. It seems apparent, he [Judge Raleigh Brown] said, that a junior college would be established by the Coordinating Board within the next ten years if no action is taken by the county at this time, and it is the desire of the local committee to establish a school in Taylor County and retain control of the junior college through its board members and the contractual arrangements. Judge Brown further stated that it is the opinion of the Task Force that if this proposal fails, Cisco Junior College and/or possibly other already established schools will attempt to establish a branch here [Abilene], which, of course, would leave the people of Taylor County without any voice in the governing of the school. (HSUBTM, 1970, September 1, pp. 1-2)

A motion to endorse in principle the proposed affiliation of Hardin- Simmons University with Taylor County Junior College and that the Executive Committee be authorized to implement this resolution by the proper contractual arrangements was formally passed by the HSL^ Board of Trustees on September 1, 1970. In a companion motion it was suggested that: . . . the Board of Trustees suggest to the Executive committee and the administration that in the negotiations of Hardin- Simmons University with the proposed junior college in a contractual agreement every effort be made to preserve our distinctive character as an institution, that every effort be made to keep the junior college a junior college and not allow it to become a four-year institution, and that the eventual contract be consistent with the action of the Baptist General Convention of Texas in 1966 relative to church-state relationships. (HSUBTM, 1970, September 1, p. 3)

In September of 1970, the Sweetwater facility of the Texas State Technical Institute (TSTI) was officially dedicated in Nolan County The

106 new vocational-technical facility was the result of passage and implementation of the 1969 State Technical-Vocational Act. The establishment of this branch of TSTI (Texas State Technical College Sweetwater) would eventually play a role in the long-range vocational- technical needs of Taylor County.

According to Krino (1970, November 6). a meeting was called to question the validity of a tentative teaching and facilities use contract between the three private senior colleges and the proposed Taylor County Junior College. It was suggested that the contract "may violate a state constitutional prohibition against channeling state funds to activities involving combination state and religious activities" (p. lA). A constitutional ruling was requested from the Attorney General of the State of Texas, Crawford Martin.

In January of 1972, the Attorney General of the State of Texas ruled the proposed Taylor County Junior College plan unconstitutional.

According to Pezel (1972. January 6):

In the opinion delivered to the Coordinating Board, Texas College and University System, the attorney general ruled that the proposed is "violative of the First Amendment of the L^S. constitution and Article 1, Section 7 of the Texas Constitution in that such contracts would require excessive entanglements between church and state." (p. 1 A)

In an editorial in the Abilene Reporter-News, new study parameters were outlined pursuant to the "Chamber's commitment to investigating expanded higher education" in Abilene. A new task force was formed and a new directive was mandated by the Abilene Chamber of Commerce. According to Wishcamper (1972, January 1), the new task force was to explore the following needs:

107 1. How academic courses offered by the existing colleges can be made more available to more Abilene citizens.

2. All legislation and regulations pertinent to providing education at the post-high school level.

3. Possible expansion beyond the high school of vocational technical training in the Abilene Independent School System.

4. Programs offered by Texas State Technical Institute. Texas Education Agency, and the Coordinating Board of Texas Colleges and University System.

5. Possible establishment of a branch or independent two-vear college level institution which will be supported by the state and/or a college district.

The new Chamber of Commerce task force was called the Education Beyond High School Task Force (EBHSTF). According to Near (1972. April 4). the Task Force came to the conclusion that the establishment of a junior college was probably not in the best interest of the City of Abilene and that two other avenues should be investigated:

1. Contact the Abilene School Board to determine if the high schools could provide a 13th and 14th year vocational trainin cr facility program.

2. Investigate the possibility of the Texas State Technical Institute at Sweetwater providing vocational education courses in Abilene. According to Pezel (1972, July 31), the EBHSTF recommended that a community college district to provide a state supported \'ocational training college be established in Abilene. The recommendation was presented to the Education Committee of the Abilene Chamber of Commerce. In August of 1972, the EBHSTF formally recommended that "a community college district to provide a state-supported vocational training college be established" (p. lA).

108 In August of 1972. the EBHSTF concluded that a community college with a curriculum limited to vocational-technical courses would meet community needs. The task force further concluded that such a move would allow the community to exercise control over the institution which would not be the case if a junior college or TSTI branch were established in Abilene ("Vocational Training," 1972, August 1, p. lA). On August 2. 1972. a joint statement was issued by the presidents of the three senior colleges regarding vocational-technical training in Abilene. According to Pezel (1972, August 2):

Dr. Thomas Kim, president of McMurry College [University], Dr. John Stevens, president of Abilene Christian College [University], Dr. Elwin Skiles, president of Hardin- Simmons University, said they would prefer that vocational- technical training in the city be undertaken by extending existing public school education to a 13th and 14th year of school, (p. IB) The Abilene Higher Education Authority, Inc. (AHEA) was incorporated as a Texas municipal corporation on September 11, 1972. According to Wright (1993, July 19):

The purpose of the Authority is to provide funds for the acquisition of loans to students attending an eligible educational institution [Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, and McMurry Universityl in the service area of the AHEA and to provide procedures for the servicing of such loans as required for continued participation in the Federally Guaranteed Student Loan Program under the Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended. The Authority transacted no business until September 1, 1976, when Series A Bonds in the amount of $5,000,000 were issued. According to the original bylaws of the AHEA, its affairs were to be managed by a seven-member board of directors appointed by the Abilene City Council. The initial directors of the Authority were Dr. Thomas K. Kim, president of McMurry College (University); Dr. Elwin L. Skiles.

109 president of Hardin-Simmons University; and Dr. John Stevens, president of Abilene Christian College (University). The officers of the corporation were also to be members of the board of directors with the exception of the office of treasurer. Dr. Stevens also served as the first president of the AHEA (Bylaws of AHEA, 1976, November, 10). The office of the Abilene Higher Education Authority is managed by an executive director. According to Executive Director John Wright (1997), the AHEA has purchased and serviced over $126,646,000 of student loans and issued $228,100,000 in bonds. The purpose of the Abilene Higher Education Authority, Inc. (September 11, 1972) as stated in its articles of incorporation is as follows:

To aid and assist corporations, organizations, and institutions engaged in educational undertakings at the college or university level located in the vicinity of the City of Abilene, Texas, by funding or financing or arranging for the funding and financing of loans to students for a college education and owning, constructing, operating and maintaining housing facilities for students attending or enrolled at said educational institutions, (p. 1)

In 1972, the Tri-College Library Cooperative was formed to study the feasibility of funding and creating a computerized union catalog for Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian College (University), McMurry College (University), and the City of Abilene Public Library (Specht, 1996). This action was followed in 1973 by a $25,000 grant given to each of the four member libraries from the Dodge Jones Foundation of Abilene for the purchase of library materials not already available in Abilene. This marked the beginning of interinstitutional grantmanship and the active support of this cooperative endeavor by the Dodge Jones Foundation.

110 According to Boyett (1973, March 22), State Senator Grant Jones of Abilene introduced a bill on March 21, 1973, to allow counties with a population in excess of 97,500 that do not have a tax-supported institution of higher education to hold an election on creating a junior college district to offer only vocational-technical courses. According to Fulton (1975. October 6), Senate Bill 505 was unanimously passed by the Texas Senate on March 29, 1973. On May 9, 1973. the House Education Committee sent the bill to a subcommittee where the bill eventually died.

In May of 1973, Cisco Junior College (CJC) was given limited authority by the Coordinating Board, Texas College and University System to provide vocational-technical education in Abilene and at Dyess Air Force Base. According to Conley (1973, May 15):

Regarding courses already authorized for CJC to conduct in the Abilene area. Hawkins [Dr. Ray Hawkins. Director of Community College Programs for the Coordinating Board, Texas College and University System] said the only approvals given so far are for licensed vocational nursing courses (which begin in June [1973] at West Texas Medical Center. Abilene State School, and the Dyess Hospital); a (Texas Education Agency) state-funded law enforcement program at Dyess Air Force Base (four law enforcement courses and two supporting courses for the coming year beginning in June [1973], all open to the public as well as the military; plus a federally funded college preparatorv program at Dyess to help prepare military men for further education, (pp. lA, 8A)

On May 24, 1973, articles of incorporation were officially filed in the Office of the Secretary of the State of Texas creating the University Consortium of Abilene, Inc. (UCAI). The members of the corporation included Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian College (University), and McMurry College (University). According to the Articles of Incorporation of the UCAI, the primary purpose of the corporation was "for the conduct of programs in advancing education by the cooperative 111 effort of institutions of higher learning in the Abilene area" (ACU, HSU,

McMU, 1973, May 24, p. 1). The original bylaws of the University Consortium of Abilene stated that the corporation was to be governed by a board of trustees with a membership of no fewer than seven and no more than 12. The four permanent members of the board of trustees were to be the presidents of Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian College (University), McMurry College (University), and Citizens National Bank of Abilene. Texas. The board was to also include the chairpersons of the boards of trustees of the three member institutions. The four permanent board members were also to serve in rotation for a term of one year in the offices of president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer. Later, the permanent membership of the board was amended to just the three college presidents (Bylaws of UCAI, 1972, September 30).

A motion made during a meeting of the Executive Committee of the Hardin-Simmons University Board of Trustees suggests that the University Consortium of Abilene, Inc., was a result of the failed Educational Computer, Inc. An excerpt from the minutes of a HSU Executive Committee meeting in 1972 reads as follows:

After some discussion concerning an organization made up of Abilene Christian College [University], McMurry College [University], and Hardin-Simmons University for the purpose of computerizing information, a motion was made and seconded, that the transaction of May 20, 1969 [original motion approving the Educational Computer, Inc. concept], be amended to read as follows: That we authorize the administration to proceed with plans for the development and organization of a Tri-College Consortium consisting of Hardin- Simmons University, McMurry College [University], and Abilene Christian College [Universityl for the purpose of coordinating any educational venture. The motion carried. (HSUECM, 1972, June 29, p. 1) 112 The successful formation of the University Consortium of Abilene. Inc., marked the beginning of formal cooperation between the three private, church-related institutions of higher learning in Abilene. The primary purpose of the UCAI was to embellish existing interdenominational and interinstitutional cooperation and to promote additional collaborative projects. This more harmonious atmosphere generated a number of cooperative proposals for joint feasibility studies. Most of these initial recommendations were unrealized due to limited institutional interest. insufficient funding, and/or the complexities of accreditation. The Abilene Institute of Social Welfare/ Tri-College Consortium in Social Services, the Graduate Consortium, and the Tri-College Distinguished Artist Series, all failed to achieve permanence despite the best efforts of one or more of the three educational partners. Other collaborative ideas that failed to materialize were a Tri-Colloge visiting professor program, a cooperative January Term, a Tri-College geologic studies program, a Tri-College Black Studies program, and a cooperative audiology and speech therap}' program and clinic. In a memorandum dated October 26, 1971, from Dr. Calvin C. Turpin, Director of the Hardin-Simmons University Library, to Dr. William O. Beazley, Executive Vice President, a precursor of future cooperative involvement was proffered for administrative consideration and edification. The memorandum concerned library services and the need for increased intercollege cooperation among the three academic libraries. According to the Turpin (1971) memorandum:

The era of library self-sufficiency, if it has really ever existed, is a thing of the past. It is impossible, even in the largest academic libraries, to acquire all the necessary titles to assure an excellent educational program. It is becoming 113 necessary, especially for smaller libraries, that new and innovative programs of cooperation be developed. Cooperation between libraries is not new. For years academic libraries have assisted one another through inter-library loan programs. The Abilene colleges have demonstrated a great spirit by making their collections available to almost anyone who needed them.

The above programs have helped in the past; however, they no longer meet the needs of our academic communities. It is impossible for the three libraries to acquire all of the basic tools that are needed. There has been an explosion of knowledge which is increasing yearly. The volume of new works will constant]}' increase. With the increase of knowledge there has come an increase in the price of books. Funds are not available to purchase the needed tools. With this in mind I propose that consideration be given to requesting grants from foundations for the following programs:

1. Greater cooperation in the use of present holdings. 2. Cooperative acquisitions. 3. A study to determine the need and feasibility of a large cooperative media center. Despite such persuasive eloquence, the inceptive entity under the umbrella of the University Consortium of Abilene. Inc.. was instead a cooperative program called Tri-College Continuing Education. According to Near (1973, October 4), the program was:

... a cooperative community service project, offering non- credit learning experiences for persons desiring knowledge related to their work or personal enrichment, growth and development.

114 A HSU faculty member was selected as the director of the Tri-College Continuing Education program which was formally endorsed by the Education Committee of the Abilene Chamber of Commerce on October 3, 1973.

The Tri-College program held membership in the Texas Association for Community Service and Continuing Education and was primarily designed to quell some of the unrest that had centered on the lack of vocational/technical opportunities in the Abilene area. Thus, in the fall of 1973, Tri-College Continuing Education opened as the first cooperative program of the newly incorporated University Consortium of Abilene. It was started in response to a perceived community need for non-credit, continuing adult education and opened with eight course offerings and 40 students. According to Near (1973, October 4): The cost of the courses will be $1 per instructional hour with some of the courses meeting for 20 hours and others for 10 hours. Potential students may enroll regardless of their past educational experience and background. Eight courses are scheduled initially in the pilot program with others planned for the future, (p. lA)

In 1975, the Sid Richardson Foundation of Fort Worth. Texas, gave each of the three academic libraries a $75,000 grant to underwrite the initial start up costs relative to catalog automation and interlibrary loan activities. The Abilene Public Library automated its facilities using a local funding source. That same year, the Tri-College Courier Service was established to provide pick up and delivery of library materials to all four libraries three times a week (Specht, 1996).

In February of 1975, a renewed effort to bring a "college-level technical and vocational training school" to Abilene was reinstituted by

115 Abilene Chamber of Commerce. The twenty-member Education Beyond the High School Task Force considered four possible solutions to the problem of vocational and technical training. According to Shook (1975. February 27), the plans that were under consideration included:

. . . the establishment of a junior college district; the extension to Abilene of Texas State Technical Institute (TSTI) classes from Sweetwater, Texas; an adult education program through the Abilene Independent School District, or a vocational- technical program in conjunction with Cisco Junior College (CJC). (p. lA)

In May of 1975, State Senator Grant Jones of Abilene authored a bill permitting junior colleges to offer a branch course in a county where a senior college or university is located. According to Dacy (1975, May 13) SB 1017 also stated:

. . . that courses offered by the junior college be those which the senior college or university is unwilling or unable to offer, (p. lA) On May 10, 1975, the Education Beyond the High School Task Force recommended that the Coordinating Board of the Texas College and University System approve nine vocational-technical programs submitted by Cisco Junior College. This approval was contingent upon the formation of a community steering committee under the auspices of the Abilene Chamber of Commerce ("Cisco Courses," 1975, May 10, p. IB). This action was followed by the approval of a request from Cisco Junior College to offer limited vocational-technical programs in Abilene and Taylor County ("State Board," 1975, May 15, p. lA). By July of 1975, a nine-member liaison committee was established by the Abilene Chamber of Commerce to bring vocational-technical programs to the City of Abilene (Shook, 1975, July 26, p.

116 4B). The committee was formally known as the Liaison Committee for Vocational-Technical Education. The forth annual Tri-College Faculty Meeting was held at Abilene Christian College [University] in October of 1975. These joint meetings were funded by the Sid Richardson Foundation of Fort Worth, and were designed to promote interdenominational and interinstitutional cooperation. According to Perry (1975, October 3). various cooperative efforts as outlined by Dr. Elwin L. Skiles, president of Hardin-Simmons University, were:

... a tri-college consortium, movement into departmental meetings by faculty members of all three colleges, increased intercollege enrollment, joint faculty appointments enabling faculty members to teach at all three campuses, joint purchase of supplies, the Tri-College Continuing Education Program, and shared donations to the college libraries. "We will group by working together, without losing our individuality, by accepting cooperation on matters which we cannot accomplish separately." (p. lA)

The Liaison Committee for Vocational-Technical Education selected the name "Community College of Abilene" for all related programs offered in Abilene under the sponsorship of Cisco Junior College (Shook. 1975, November 11, p. lA). In an Abilene Chamber of Commerce meeting in January of 1976, a statement was made by Dr. John Stevens, president of Abilene Christian College (University) and president of the University Consortium of Abilene "that the three senior colleges may go in together to offer vocational-technical studies in Abilene." (Campbell, 1976, January 14, p. lA). The tentative plan included the offering of an Associate of Arts degree through the Tri-College Continuing Education Program.

In a public announcement on January 30, 1976, Dr. John C. Stevens, president of Abilene Christian College (University) and president of the

117 University Consortium of Abilene, Inc., officially named Dr. James A. (Jack) Turman executive director of the UCAI. The announcement also included a tentative list of plans for expanding library and computer services, extending opportunities for continuing education, expanding offerings in health service education. Plans also called for additional post- secondary education, apprenticeship training, and upgrading and refresher skill courses ("Vo-tech top priority," 1976. January 30, p. lA). According to a corresponding article in the Abilene Reporter-News, Dr. Norman Wallace, president of Cisco Junior College, responded to the announcement with the following statement:

I have said from the beginning, and the position of my board is, that we are glad to cooperate with the Abilene institutions in helping meet community needs, because I know of the great need for vocational and technical programs in Abilene. ("Vo-tech top priority," January 30, p. 14A)

The Wallace response was sought as it represented the viewpoint of an institution already in the process of offering certain vocational and technical courses in Abilene. A guest editorial in The Abilene Reporter-News on October 31, 1976, reiterated the purpose of the University Consortium of Abilene, Inc.:

The Consortium brings together the strengths of the three institutions of learning, and enhances each of them, while preserving the desirable and necessary distinctive identities of their church-related constituencies. The Consortium is designed, especially, to be sensitive to the changing demands of our complex society. (Turman, 1976, October 31, p. lOA)

Also included in the editorial, written by Dr. James A. (Jack) Turman, executive director of the University Consortium of Abilene. Inc., was a personal assessment of consortial activity as of the calendar year of 1976. According to Turman (1976, October 31):

118 The Consortium, on an at-cost contract basis, had made available to the citizens of the Abilene area approximately forty vocational-technical courses during the calendar year 1976.

These are vocational-technical courses that were not previously available in Abilene and the Consortium has supported these courses financially, over and above the actual cost of tuition and fees charged to students.

Vocational-technical education is expensive due to the high cost of equipment and expendable instructional supplies required, but the Consortium has brought such courses to Abilene and they are available, including those for the educationally and economically disadvantaged.

There are always money problems connected with educational programs—especially expensive vocational- technical programs-but these needs will be met with private funds and with the same dedication of purpose demonstrated by McMurry, Hardin-Simmons, and Abilene Christian in other educational programs.

Dr. Turman left his position as executive director of the UCAI in 1977 to become director of alumni at Abilene Christian College (University). The executive director position was not filled after the departure of Dr. Turman. In November of 1976, a challenge was lodged against courses offered in Abilene under the auspices of Cisco Junior College. The challenge originated with the members of the University Consortium of Abilene. Inc. It was formally submitted to the Northwest Texas Higher Education Council. According to Fulton (1976, November 12), the challenged courses included the following:

. . . mid-management, maintenance mechanics, child care development, real estate, fire prevention technology, licensed vocational nursing, and office occupations, (p. lA) The University Consortium of Abilene, Inc. requested that approval given to the Cisco Junior College extension courses by the Texas College and University Coordinating Board be withdrawn. A decision made by the

119 Community Junior College Committee of the Texas College and University Coordinating Board on November 15. 1976, stated that "Cisco Junior College cannot teach academic courses in Abilene but can teach vocational- technical courses which do not duplicate those being taught by local colleges" (Fulton. 1976. November 15, p. 8A). This decision confirmed the permanence of branch campus junior college education in Abilene and Taylor County. In response to the action of the Coordinating Board, the UCAI dropped all plans to offer vocational-technical programs for college credit.

By 1979, the Tri-College Program consisted of 65 non-credit courses with an average enrollment of 500 students. Tri-College Continuing Education had become Tri-College Continuing Education and Vocational Technical Training and offered such courses as: Aerobic Dancing, Air Conditioning & Heating Service Repair, Astronomy, Bonsai (Instant), Carpentry, Ceramics. Drafting, Drawing, French (conversational). Genealogy, Hot-Air Ballooning, Industrial Psychology, Interior Decoration, Medical Terminology, Photography, Rapid Reading, Scuba, Shorthand, Stained Glass, Typing, Wallpapering, and Wills & Estate Planning (Tri- College, 1979).

According to Downing (1979, February 2), interinstitutional "cooperation starts at the classroom and goes all the way up to the board of directors." He further stated:

While not directly funded by the colleges, the local schools cooperate with Tri-College by allowing it use of their facilities. Tri-College also gets many of its instructors from the active and retired ranks of local college professors as well as from graduate students. At the top, Tri-Colleges Board of Directois consists of the three college presidents, three college board chairmen, and a treasurer, (p. lA)

120 In an address to the forth annual Tri-College Faculty Meeting in October of 1975, Dr. Thomas K. Kim, president of McMurrv- College (University), outlined a number of possible joint endeavors being explored for future implementation. The establishment of a bachelor of science degree in nursing headed his list of tentative cooperative projects (Perrv. 1975, October 3).

This particular cooperative goal was officially realized in 1979, when a free-standing corporate entity was formed by the institutional members of the University Consortium of Abilene for the purpose of establishing a cooperative school of nursing under the provisions of the Texas X'on-Profit Corporation Act. On December 10, 1979. articles of incorporation were filed in the Office of the Secretary of the State of Texas for the Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing, Inc. (AISN). According to the terms of this document, the purpose of the corporation was:

To establish and maintain an interinstitutional school of nursing for the advancement of professional nursing education at Hardin-Simmons University, McMurry College [University], and Abilene Christian University, which shall be managed and controlled by a three member Board of Trustees, being the presidents of Hardin-Simmons University, McMurry College [University], and Abilene Christian University. (AISN, 1979, December 10, p. 1)

According to the bylaws of the Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing (1979, December 21), the officers of the corporation shall be a president, a vice president, a secretary, and a treasurer. The office of president and vice president must be held by a member of the board of trustees and any two or more offices may be held by the same person, except that of president and secretary. The office of president must rotate annually among the members of the board of trustees. The Abilene

121 Intercollegiate School of Nursing is also to be under the immediate guidance and leadership of a qualified dean. Hardin-Simmons University was designated as the coordinating institution to serve as the administrative and servicing agent for certain designated activities of the AISN. Each of the three participating schools offer the lower division component on their respective campuses with the upper division component offered only at the Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing. The cooperative agreement includes an association with the Baptist affiliated Hendrick Health System which was known as Hendrick Medical Center until January of 1997.

Hendrick Health System began as West Texas Baptist Sanitarium in September, 1924. The hospital was renamed Hendrick Memorial Hospital after receiving a benefaction from the T. G. Hendrick family in 1936. The establishment of the area's first school of nursing began in 1924. All training took place at the West Texas Baptist Sanitarium until 1931 when the Simmons University (Hardin-Simmons University) Board of Trustees made an agreement with the hospital that nursing students would take classes at the University and then finish their clinical training at the Hospital. According to Stackhouse (1991), "the name of the nursing school followed the hospital's name until 1971, when it was renamed following a gift from Abilene philanthropists Malcolm and Mary Meek" (p. 284).

In 1979, the results of a two-year needs for the City of Abilene was released by a task force formed and funded by the City of Abilene and the Abilene Chamber of Commerce. One of the 39 stated needs was the establishment of a Taylor County Junior College. According to Conley (1979, September 6):

122 The presidents of Abilene's three private colleges support vocational-technical education, but said that their schools offered academic subjects and financial aid which make their costs affordable. They do not favor a local state-supported college offering academic subjects, (p. lA)

Conley (1979, September 6) cited the following excerpts from the Century II Task Force Report:

If Abilene is to grow as an industrial community, then an immediate referendum must be asked for the establishment of a Taylor County Junior College.

The college would be set in motion as the State Legislature allows, and would offer comprehensive vocational-technical training.

If the referendum for the Junior college is not successful. then permanent facilities must be provided for the Community College Center of Abilene, a branch of Cisco Junior College, (p. lA) The Coordinating Board of the Texas College and University System indicated that a junior college district in Taylor County could not be established to teach only vocational-technical training. According to Conley (1979, September 8), the Director of Community College Programs with the Coordinating Board of the Texas College and University System stated that:

Such a college must offer a comprehensive education, offering not only a core curriculum of freshman-sophomore courses in arts and sciences but also several other programs. A junior college district could not be established to teach only vocational-technical training. In Abilene no one can consider the establishment of a junior college district without also considering the fact that Taylor County already has three independent senior colleges and universities. Their history and their service to the Abilene area and what impact a junior college district would have on them must be considered, (pp. lA, 8A)

In an attempt to maintain the delicate balance between the needs of the local senior colleges, the needs of area junior colleges, and the needs of the citizens of Taylor County, a positive recommendation was not 123 forthcoming. Abilene continued to have the distinction of being the largest metropolitan area in Texas without a public-supported institution of higher learning.

Interinstitutional Activity of the 1980s In 1980, a Tri-College Review Committee was formed to study and formulate recommendations regarding the Tri-College Continuing Education Vocational Training Program. The Committee had three members, one from each of the three member institutions. A report and subsequent recommendations were finalized and submitted to the Board of Trustees of the University Consortium of Abilene. Inc., on December 23, 1980. The recommendations primarily centered on two concerns. First, it was recommended that the Tri-College Program have a full-time director rather than one serving in the dual capacity of full-time faculty member at HSU and part-time director of the Tri-College Program. It was therefore recommended that if the current director could not devote full time to Tri- College Continuing Education and Vocational Technical Training, a new director should be secured as soon as was feasible. Secondly, it was recommended that the Tri-College Program continue to offer courses that are needed in the community which do not duplicate other offerings being offered by the three schools, the Adult Education Program of the public schools, Cisco Junior College, and the City of Abilene Recreation Department (Tri-College Review Committee Memorandum. 1980, December 23).

The Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing replaced the Mary Meek School of Nursing in 1981. The AISN was housed on the grounds of

124 Hendrick Memorial Hospital (Hendrick Health System) in Parker Hall, formerly used by the hospital school of nursing. Parker Hall was leased by the consortium and converted into classrooms and administrative offices for the AISN. Dr. Elaine Forrest had been appointed the first dean of the School in 1980. In March, 1981, the AISN was accredited by the Board of Nurse Examiners for the State of Texas. This action was followed bv the opening of a bachelor of science in nursing program shortly thereafter. According to Stackhouse (1991), "prior to 1981 there was no baccalaureate nursing education available in the Abilene area" (p. 284).

In February of 1981, Dr. G. Norman Weaver, Executive Director of the Tri-College Continuing Education and Vocational Technical Training Program, resigned to devote more time to expanding the Religious Education Program and his full-time teaching duties at Hardin-Simmons University. The enrollment of the program had increased from 43 in tlie fall of 1973 to more than 1.000 in the spring of 1981. Dr. William O. Beazley, Special Assistant to the President, Hardin-Simmons University, was appointed interim director by the presidents of Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, and McMurrv College (University) ("Tri-College Director," 1981, February 28).

In March of 1981, the Interim Director of the Tri-College Continuing Education and Vocational Technical Training Program submitted a report outlining a number of concerns. Again, the most urgent was the selection of a full-time director for the Tri-College Center. All concerns were acted upon with the exception of securing a full-time director for the program. By August of 1981, Dr. John Stevens had announced his intention to step down as president of Abilene Christian University. Dr. William J. Teague was

125 named to replace Dr. Stevens as president and chief executive office of ACL' as of August 27, 1981. This was the second of the original consortial presidents to leave office. Dr. Elwin L. Skiles had been the first to leave office at which time Dr. Jesse C. Fletcher became the twelfth president of Hardin-Simmons University in the fall of 1977. A memorandum from Dr. William O. Beazley to Dr. Jesse C. Fletcher on October 21, 1981, recommended that the leadership of University Consortium of Abilene, "consider either officially dissolving the Tri-College Program immediately or transfer the legal and book responsibilities to some individual or office" (Beazley, 1981, October 21). A gradual phase-out of the program followed with a formal decision to dissolve Tri-College Continuing Education coming on June 6, 1983. At that time, all physical and fiscal assets were divided equally among the three member colleges.

With changes in administrations came new perspectives and directions. It was the collective opinion of the consortial leadership that the Tri-College Continuing Education Program was in many respects a duplication of the educational opportunities being offered by the Adult Education Program of the Abilene Public Schools, Cisco Junior College, and the City of Abilene Recreation Department. The decision to close the Tri-College Program ended active cooperative endeavors by the University Consortium of Abilene.

In 1981, the Dodge Jones Foundation of Abilene underwrote a $100,000 project to purchase periodicals on microfilm for the four Abilene libraries. Abilene Library Consortium (ALC) was chosen in 1982 as the name the four libraries of Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian

126 University, McMurry College lUniversity], and the City of Abilene would use for all future joint projects. A 1983 Texas State Library LSCA Title III Grant Program provided the ALC $15,000 for automation of a serial control system. This action resulted in the publishing of the ALC Union List of Serials followed by annual updates.

The first 13 students from the three participating colleges graduated in 1983 with a Bachelor of Science in Nursing. Two years later, the first student graduated from the Registered Nurse (RN)-Bachelor of Science in Nursing Program. In response to a perceived community need, an Associate of Science in Nursing Degree was implemented by the Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing in 1985. In April, 1984, the articles of incorporation for the Abilene Higher Education Facilities Corporation (AHEFC) was filed in the Office of the Secretary of State of Texas. The AHEFC was created as a parallel authority to the Abilene Higher Education Authority. On March 8, 1984, the Abilene City Council adopted an ordinance ordering the creation of the AHEFC. The AHEFC was created to issue tax-exempt bonds to be used for construction projects on the campuses of Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, and McMurry University. According to the articles of incorporation of the AHEFC (1984, April 2) it was:

. . . organized solely and exclusively for the purpose of aiding nonprofit institutions of higher education in providing educational facilities and housing facilities which are incidental, subordinate, or related thereto or appropriate in connection therewith in accordance with and subject to the provisions of Section 53.35 (b) of the Texas Education Code, all to be done on the behalf of the City lof Abilene] and as its duly constituted authority and instrumentality, (p. 1)

127 The Bylaws of the AHEFC call for the approval of the City of Abilene before the issuance of bonds, notes, or other obligations which are guaranteed under the provisions of the Higher Education Act of 1965. The Corporation is to have a board of directors with no less than seven nor more than eleven members. Directors are to have two-year terms and are to be appointed by the Abilene City Council. The officers of the Corporation are a president, a vice president, a secretary, and a treasurer. The president and vice president must also be members of the Board of Directors. The presidents of the three senior colleges in Abilene have traditionally held membership on the AHEFC Board of Directors (AHEFC Bylaws, 1984, April 2).

In December of 1984, variable rate bonds in the amount of $9,700,000 were issued on the behalf of Hardin-Simmons University. Including the 1984 bonds, there have been $65,565,000 of variable and fixed rate bonds issued by the AHEFC for university-related physical plant projects (Wright. 1997). On February 27, 1985, the Abilene extension of Texas State Technical Institute (College) was opened in a former manufacturing facility leased from the Abilene Industrial Foundation. According to Lawrence (1985, February 24), the branch opened offering courses leading to certification or associate degrees in machine operation, basic electricity and electronics, automated office technician, emergency medical technician, and medical record clerk transcriptionist. The Lawrence account further indicated:

The construction currently under way should accommodate about 200 students in the five technical programs. The curriculum is designed to provide schooling in areas of technical training not being covered by other local technical training facilities, (p. lA)

128 In 1986. the Abilene Library Consortium was officially established as a 501 (c) (3) nonprofit organization. Bylaws were approved, officers elected, and a committee structure was organized. Membership of the committee were key librarians from the member institutions. The ALC Intercollegiate Lending/Borrowing Agreement was also officially adopted by the ALC membership in 1986 (Specht, 1996).

In 1987, Dr. Corine Bonnet was selected to serve as the second dean of the Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing upon the resignation of Dr. Forrest. In December of 1987, the first five students received their associate nursing degrees and a community challenge grant of $1,000,000 was made by the publisher of The Abilene Reporter-News toward the establishment of a $6,000,000 endowment for the AISN. According to Stackhouse (1991), "In December, 1987, Abilene Reporter-News publisher, A. B. 'Stormy' Shelton issued a $1 million challenge grant to initiate the 'Touch of Life' Campaign to raise $6 million which would permanently endow the consortium's school of nursing" (p. 285).

The Tri-College Courier Service shared by the libraries in Abilene became the Abilene Library Consortium Courier Service and was expanded to five days a week during 1988. The three university libraries also adopted a cooperative billing agreement to debit student accounts and reimburse the respective library for fines or lost materials (Specht, 1996).

The number of nursing school graduates rose to 27 in 1989. 36 in 1990, and 52 in 1991. As the enrollment of the AISN increased, so too did the need for more classroom space in Parker Hall. A $340,000 grant from the Meadows Foundation in Dallas was received in November of 1989. The Meadows' grant was added to a gift of $283,000 from the Parker Estate to

129 finance an addition to the AISN facilities which was completed in the

spring of 1991.

Interinstitutional Activity of the 1990s The Abilene Chamber of Commerce formed a task force in February. 1990, to study the possibility of locating a public college in the City of Abilene. According to Bruce (1990, February 1), the study was supported by a joint motion by the presidents of the three senior colleges in Abilene:

Action backing the study was urged in a joint motion by Abilene's three university Presidents: Dr. Jesse Fletcher of Hardin-Simmons, Dr. William Teague of Abilene Cliristian. and Dr. Thomas Kim of McMurry. (pp. lA) The task force was mandated to do research, hire consultants, check political channels, and conduct town hall meetings in an effort to "research and develop a broad view approach to all opportunities available to the Abilene community as it relates to public higher education" (Bruce. 1990, February 1, p. lA, lOA).

In March, 1990, the House Higher Education Committee of the Texas House of Representatives passed a bill allowing academic classes to be offered by a public community college in Taylor County. House Bill 60 repealed the prohibition of public community colleges from offering in any county of at least 97,000 population that has no public senior or junior college, any academic courses offered by private colleges or universities within that county" (Reed, 1990, February 21, pp. lA, 8A). Following a similar action by the Texas Senate and the approval from the Texas Higher

Education Board, the Abilene Branch of Cisco Junior College was allowed to offer basic academic offerings to residents of Taylor County and the surrounding area. 130 At a community meeting and lecture sponsored by the Abilene Committee for the Humanities on February 22, 1990. the chairman of the House Higher Education Committee revealed that Abilene and Taylor County were not likely to receive funding for a new, public supported, two- year or four-year institution of higher learning. It was the assessment of State Representative Wilhelmina Delco that:

. . . the chances the state will create another four-year college in these days of tight budgets are "slim to none." Supporters oi the state's 37 existing public four-year colleges and 49 two-year colleges would vigorously fight a proposed new school. (Reed. 1990, February 23, p. lA)

State Representative Delco recommended that the City of Abilene work witli branch campuses such as Cisco Junior College and Texas State Technical Institute (College) to meet current educational needs and a lower tuition rate. According to Reed (1990, February 2), the chairman of the Abilene Chamber of Commerce held a news conference in response to the official word that money did not exist to create a new college in Abilene or Taylor County. A statement by Chairman William P. Wright indicated that Abilene would continue its quest for "accessible" and "affordable" higher education. He further stated that:

With enrollment limits in Austin [University of Texas 1 and at College Station [Texas A & M University], students are going to have to be pushed out into the state which will create more of a demand for state-operated campuses in the major population centers. What Abilene must do is to position ourselves so that when the time is right, we will be readv. (p. lA) In June of 1990, the Abilene Chamber of Commerce secured the services of an educational consultant. With the resources provided by a local foundation. Dr. Joe B. Rushing, Chancellor Emeritus of the Tarrant 131 County Junior College District, agreed to act as a resource consultant to a task force mandated to study the needs for public higher education in Abilene beyond the turn of the century. According to Reed (1990. June 28):

Rushing was the founding chief executive of both the Broward Community College in Fort Lauderdale. Florida, in 1960, and the Tarrant County system, which began in 1965. (p. 4A) It was the qualified opinion of Dr. Rushing from the outset that a junior college might be more difficult to obtain than a public senior college. Opposition from other two-year colleges and local aversion to the levying of a tax to support an Abilene-based community or junior college were considered to be major obstacles to locating a public higher educational facility in Taylor County. The task force was instructed to consult Hardin- Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, and McMurry College (University) as well as the branch campuses of Cisco Junior College and Texas State Technical Institute (College) before formulating its final recommendations (Reed, 1990, June 28, p. 4A). In October of 1990, the Abilene Chamber of Commerce made the formation of the University Research Consortium a project for its educational task force. The project was then selected by Leadership Abilene as a civic project. According to Kirk (1990, October 28), the purpose of the consortium was to: 1. Solve problems of existing businesses. 2. Attract new businesses, professional researchers, and students. 3. Improve the environmental consequences for local economic activity. 4. Create better jobs and a better economy by acquiring federal and state grants to support most of the research, (pp. IF, 4F).

132 The plan was to involve the three member institutions of the University Consortium of Abilene, the Abilene Chamber of Commerce, the City of Abilene, and any local individuals or organizations related to research and development of scientific and technical resources. The first phase was to include a scientific and technical inventory of Abilene and the surrounding area. According to Kirk (1990, October 28):

The inventory is the first part of the program. Within three to five years, the goals are to study the feasibility of the consortium, appoint a board, and acquire funding until it becomes self-supporting, (p. IF)

According to Reed (1990, December 9), the inventory was to include. "personnel, facilities, materials, and capabilities. Reed further indicated that a temporary board had been named that included the academic vice presidents of Hardin-Simmons, Abilene Christian, and McMurry. plus members of the Abilene Chamber of Commerce. The automation of the four Abilene libraries was estimated to cost $1 million. In 1990, the Dodge Jones Foundation made a $700,000 grant to the Abilene Library Consortium to assist with the automation project. Abilene Library Consortium, Inc. (ALC) was then formally established and its articles of incorporation were filed in the Office of the Secretary of the State of Texas on December 7, 1990. According to its articles of incorporation, the ALC was formed to:

. . . enhance informational, educational, and cultural resources in Abilene and the Big Country by strengthening library holdings and services and by providing library and related data processing services to libraries, institutions, organizations, and individuals in Abilene, the Big Country area, and West Texas. (ALC, 1990, December 7. p. 1)

According to the ALC Bylaws (1990, December 13), it is a nonprofit corporation with a board of trustees comprised of the three chief academic

133 officers of Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian College, and McMurry University, and the Community Services Director of the City of Abilene. These four board members also serve as officers of the Corporation. The offices of president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer rotate on an annual basis (ALC Bylaws. 1990. December 13. pp. 1-2).

In 1991. the Abilene Education Council (AEC) became an affiliate of the Abilene Chamber of Commerce. Following this amalgamation, a manager was hired for the organization. According to Reed (1991. March 2), the purpose of the council was to, ". . . foster greater business support to enhance education at all levels, pre-kindergarten through the university" (p. lA). The AEC was created as an outgrowth of the ACT-Now Community needs assessment of 1989. At that time, there was a recommendation made to create a clearinghouse where information could be obtained regarding the various educational opportunities available in Abilene. A three-year anonymous grant was then secured for the formation of the AEC (Smith, 1992, August 23, p. 2A).

The Abilene Education Council replaced the Education Committee with an enhanced mission. A board of 15 businessmen/businesswomen plus ex officio representation by the Abilene Independent School System, the three senior colleges, and the Abilene branches of CJC and TSTC constituted the appointed council. According to Reed (1991. March 2), the specific goals included, "lowering the student dropout rate, raising test scores, and seeking affordable higher education for Abilene and Taylor County" (p. lA).

134 The Economic Development Corporation of Abilene acquired and renovated a former hospital facility for use by the Abilene Center of Texas State Technical College. TSTC Abilene opened its new quarters in 1991 with an enrollment of approximately 200 students. This facility is now the main location for the eight programs being offered by TSTC in Abilene and Taylor County (TSTC Catalog, 1995-96, p. 8).

The Abilene Library Consortium member libraries signed a reciprocal borrowing agreement clearing the way for university students and Abilene residents to check materials out of all four libraries with one card and at no charge. This action was followed by a Joint ALC agreement calling for Abilene Christian University to provide telecommunications and networking support for the automated system. The ALC then hired a systems manager to oversee the regular operations of the automated system.

Abilene Library Consortium Online (ALCON) was available for limited patron use on June 1, 1991 (Specht. 1996). According to Percival (1991, August 6):

Library officials say the computerized system should revolutionize library services in Abilene. Patrons of each library now will have access to more than half a million book titles from four different libraries, and they will be able to find out which books are available at which location, with a flick of a computer switch.

Besides searching for materials under the traditional subject, title, and author headings, the computer will tell library patrons whether a book is checked out and which library has the book. It also has a special key word searching feature which should be of particular interest to serious students and researchers, (pp. lA, 8A)

In July of 1991, the Abilene Library Consortium received a $116,635

Title III grant from the Texas State Library and Archives Commission. 135 The grant money was used by the ALC to help underwrite the cost of automation ("Abilene library." 1991. July 26. p. lA). A Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) 4300 computer was purchased and Data Research Associates (DRA) selected as the software vendor for the ALC automated system. DEC was picked because of its ability to make available community grants whereby computer equipment can be purchased at 50 percent of its normal cost (Specht. 1996).

Cisco Junior College formally opened its new extension facility in Abilene in October. 1991. with increased academic and vocational-technical offerings. The Abilene Educational Center had a Fall. 1991. enrollment increase from 528 to 1,651 or 47 percent.

In 1992. the Abilene branch of Cisco Junior College signed a contract with the Abilene Library Consortium to provide non-automated library services to its students. The ALC also hired a systems operator to assist the systems manager with the operations of the automated system (ALCOX) (Specht, 1996). The Texas Legislature established the Centers for Professional Development and Technology (CPDT) in 1991. This legislation enabled the State Board of Education (SBOE) and the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board to jointly establish competitive procedures for one or more institutions of higher education, with an approved teacher education program, to establish such a center. These centers must include members from public schools, regional education service centers, and other entities or businesses. Eight centers were approved by the SBOE in 1992. six in 1993, three in 1994, four in 1995, and six in 1996.

136 The Big Country Center for Professional Development & Technolog}' (BCCPD) was formally approved in August of 1993. The general mandate for such centers was to integrate technology and innovative teaching practices in teacher preparation and staff development programs. Five primary areas of concentration or components for each of the centers include: collaboration, restructuring, educator preparation, staff development, technology, and multicultural education. A major thrust at the BCCPD is computer technology, integrated hardware, and networking.

The BCCPD and its director are housed on the campus of McMurry University and has the following collaborative partners: Abilene Christian University, Hardin-Simmons University, McMurry University, Abilene ISD, and Region 14 Educational Service Center. Although the BCCPD operates autonomously and is the result of a "gentleman's agreement'" of its membership, a state director at the Texas Education Agency (TEA) helps to facilitate resources for all of the centers (Lemmond, 1996). In September, 1992, the articles of incorporation for the University Consortium of Abilene was restated to reflect changes in that entity. By the fall of 1992, Dr. Jesse Fletcher and Dr. William Teague had ended their respective presidencies. Only Dr. Thomas Kim of McMurry University had signed the original articles of incorporation in 1973. Dr. Lanny Hall had become president of Hardin-Simmons University in September of 1991 and Dr. Royce Money was named president of Abilene Christian University in February of 1992. Dr. Robert E. Shimp was named to replace Dr. Kim as president of McMurry in June of 1993. A Master of Science in Nursing program was started by the AISN in the summer of 1993 with nine students graduating with a MSN the

137 following year. In 1994, the three academic libraries of the ALC joined the Llano Estacado Information Access Network (LEIAN). LEIAX is an organization of libraries in West Texas and Eastern New Mexico dedicated to providing its members with more online access to information at a lower cost. A DEC Alpha Server 2100 system was purchased which increased the system capacity to 600 concurrent users. Two additional DRA software modules, journal citation and enhanced holdings, were added to the existing ALC system. Infoserver was added to give the ALC system users local access to information stored on compact discs (Specht. 1996). In 1995, Howard Payne University in Brownwood, Texas, became the first full-service customer of the Abilene Library Consortium. The ALC home page was also made available on the World Wide Web for the first time. That same year, the Abilene Library Consortium contracted with AMIGOS Bibliographic Council for technology consultant sei'\'ices to review all aspects of the ALC operations and update a strategic plan which was formulated to carry the ALC into the twenty-first century (Specht. 1996). On August 11, 1995, articles of incorporation were filed in the Office of the Secretary of the State of Texas for the Abilene Higher Education Support Corporation, Inc. (AHESC Articles of Incorporation. 1995, August 11). The AHESC was established to act as an agent for the Abilene Higher Education Authority, Inc. The AHESC was authorized to sub-contract certain responsibilities and obligations of its support functions. One such arrangement is with Abilene Christian University for specified business office and human resource services. The AHEA also has an agreement with Eduserv Technologies, Inc., for the servicing and collection of student loans (AHESC, 1995, November 28, Operations Agency Agreement).

138 According to its bylaws, the Abilene Higher Education Support Corporation, Inc., is to be governed by a three-member board of directors. The bylaws specify that at least a majority of the directors shall also be officers of Abilene Christian University. The bylaws also provide for the election of a president, a vice president, a secretary, and a treasurer. The office of president must be held by a member of the Board of Directors (AHESC, 1995, August 11, Bylaws).

The ROTC program housed on the campus of Hardin-Simmons University was designated for deactivation by the Secretary of the Army on May 8, 1997. According to Major General James M. Lyle, Commander of the U.S. Army Cadet Command, the decision was "driven by severely constrained resources coupled with the decreased requirement for new officers" (Jones, 1996, May 29, p. 9A). The ROTC program produced over 800 officers during its 45 years of service to the nation.

Also in 1997, the Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing announced the phasing out of the Associate Degree in Nursing Program that was implemented in 1985. Whereas the program was created in response to perceived community needs, it is now viewed as a duplication of other area providers of health care instruction. Over 200 students have received their associate nursing degrees since they were first granted in 1987 (Bonnet, 1997).

As of 1997, there are no active cooperative endeavors under the corporate entity known as the University Consortium of Abilene. Inc., and no plans for such activity in the near future. A separate consortium project known as the University Research Consortium (URC) started in October of 1990 has yet to reach a stage of viability. The membership of this

139 cooperative endeavor was to include Hardin-Simmons University. Abilene Christian University, McMurry University, the City of Abilene, and members of the business community at large. The purpose of the research consortium was to enhance the research and development capability of the City of Abilene and the surrounding area. The impetus for this collaborative project originated externally from the three member universities and become a goal of the Abilene Education Council which has been an affiliate of the Abilene Chamber of Commerce since 1991. The mechanism for such an entity remains in place and awaits external capitalization from the Development Corporation of Abilene (DCOA> or some like funding source.

Summary The following tables provide the status of interinstitutional and consortial activity among the three private, church-related institutions of higher learning chosen as subjects for this case study: Table 1 highlights the current status of four informal arrangements shared by the subject institutions. With the exception of the ROTC program, all are currently active. The decision to discontinue the ROTC program was made by the Department of the Army and not by the subject institutions. Table 2 provides a listing of all current formal consortial activity as of May, 1997. The University Consortium of Abilene. Inc., has been inactive since June, 1983, when the Tri-College Continuing Education Program was dissolved by joint decree by the three member institutions. Currently, this

140 incorporated entity remains in good standing for possible future collaborative projects.

The Abilene Higher Education Authority and the Abilene Higher Education Facilities Corporation remain in place to provide funding for student loans and for campus expansion and/or improvement projects. The Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing (AISN) continues to provide health care educational opportunities with the exception of the Associate Degree in Nursing which is currently being phased out. Area health care needs are regularly evaluated to determine what services should be provided by the AISN. A joint decision to phase out the program was based on these routine evaluations and is consistent with a long-standing policy not to duplicate services being offered in the City of Abilene or the immediate Taylor County area.

The Abilene Library Consortium (ALC) continues to expand its services to the students and personnel of the three member institutions and to the combined patrons of the City of Abilene and the surrounding area. According to Specht (1997), a $500,000 grant was received by the ALC from a local foundation to help with the purchase of additional software for the updating and expansion of current and anticipated library services.

Table 1: List of Informal Cooperative Projects and Their Current Status

PROJECTS CURRENT STATUS

Cross Registration Active Cooperative Academic Programs Active ROTC Deactivated Big Country Center for Professional Development and Technology Active

141 Table 2: List of Formal Cooperative Projects and Their Current Status

PROJECTS CURRENT STATUS

University Consortium of Abilene, Inc. Inactive Abilene Higher Education Authority, Inc. Active Abilene Higher Education Facilities Corporation Active Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing, Inc. Active Abilene Library Consortium, Inc. Active University Research Consortium Proposed

142 CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY, MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS. RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary Introduction

The purpose of this case study was to determine and describe the historical development of both formal and informal interinstitutional cooperation of three private, church-related institutions of higher learning in Abilene, Texas. This information was then presented in a format that profiled the long-term cooperative activities of the Abilene experience. It was assumed that information of this nature may prove valuable to other private, church-related institutions of higher learning who might wish to duplicate certain collaborative aspects in a similar cooperative effort.

Abilene was selected as the site for this research endeavor because of the close proximity and long-standing interinstitutional and interdenominational relationships of the three private, church-related institutions of higher learning located there. The similarities of purpose and combined longevity of Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, and McMurry University made Abilene an ideal site for a limited case study of interinstitutional and interdenominational cooperation of church-related and privately supported entities of higher learning. According to Baus (1988):

It is not particularly fruitful to investigate the idiosyncratic roles of consortia. These roles are too varied and too complex to provide useful information outside of the individual consortium context. However, one should not dismiss consortium activity as defying analysis. There are conditional roles for consortia that tend

143 toward the generic and the prescriptive, and away from the idiosyncratic. The conditional roles of consortia are those activities that a consortium ought to attempt because there are conditions higher education faces that logically call for institutional cooperation as a response. These conditions may be transient, but they do exist and can be defined—and, therefore, systematically studied, (p. 27) The historical methods used in this dissertation were those outlined by Gall, Borg. and Gall (1996). These methods included (a) identifying a problem or topic, (b) searching for and recording relevant sources of historical evidence, (c) evaluating the evidence for authenticity and validity, and (d) synthesizing historical facts into meaningful chronological and thematic patterns.

Research Questions and Findings In addition to the previously recorded sources of relevant historical evidence used in this case study, a structured questionnaire was formulated to generate both objective and subjective perspectives and observations from a number of active and past participants. Thirty-five participants were asked to provide experiential knowledge and/or personal comment to six analytically-based questions and subquestions (see Appendix A). Although none of the 35 respondents were able to respond to all of the research questions, the process eventually produced a sufficient body of material on which to base a number of assumptions, suggestions, and observations. Of the participants answering one or more of the primary research questions, 29 provided information used in this study. Research Question 1 Based on the historv of the establishment of three autonomous. private, and church-related institutions of higher learning in 144 Abilene, Texas, what events led to the formation of formal interinstitutional cooperation?

Historically, the intent and purpose of American academic cooperation fostered by typical consortial arrangements has run the gamut from government mandated collaboration to interinstitutional altruism. A fundamental precept of this now basic and often necessary educational amalgamation is the fiscal realities and subsequent constraints which can sometimes culminate in a cautious, yet deliberate metamorphosis. As a member of a consortial arrangement, institutions are predisposed to be better able to plan for and cope with the demands inherent with the operation of a modern institution of higher learning rather than acting as unilateral agents. According to Baus (1988):

Consortia are derivative organizations. Consortia have no independent missions but derive their missions from the individual and collective missions of the colleges and universities that they serve. Consortia are successful to the degree that they either enhance the programs and objectives of their constituent institutions or provide solutions to problems confronted by those institutions, (p. 26)

In the case of the three subject institutions, an assessment of both past and present cooperative endeavors revealed the common characteristic of having evolved as a shared solution to a common problem. Interinstitutional or informal cooperation existed for 66 years prior to its formalization in the 1970s. A number of evaluative reports from major accrediting agencies and foundations praised these existing forms of institutional collaboration while strongly recommending the avoidance of costly duplication.

Secondly, the prospect of state or community supported higher education in Abilene acted as an additional catalyst in those years leading

145 to formalized cooperation among the three subject institutions. Therefore. the impetus for the formalization of interinstitutional cooperation in Abilene was a joint response to internal needs and external challenges. According to Neal (1988):

By cooperating with other similar or dissimilar colleges and universities, an institution can achieve more, do something better, or reduce the cost of an activity. These are the three principal objectives that the consortium can help its members achieve. Every member institution sees the consortium in somewhat different terms, since each college or university has somewhat different needs. Each, however, expects to get something of value out of the time, energv, and financial resources that it invests in consortial membership and participation, (p. 3)

In the latter years of the 1960s, the three Abilene colleges began in earnest to move toward formalizing interinstitutional cooperation with an unsuccessful attempt at developing a cost and facility sharing arrangement for a centralized computer center. This failed cooperative effort e\'entually led to the establishment of the University Consortium of Abilene, Inc. (UCAI) in 1973. During this same period, a citizens task force was formed to conduct a comprehensive study of the higher education needs of Abilene and Taylor County. A consultant was hired to help coordinate the project for what became known as the Abilene Council for the Study of Higher Education. The cost was shared equally by Abilene Christian University. Hardin- Simmons University, and McMurry University, the Abilene Public Schools, and the Abilene Chamber of Commerce. The findings indicated a need for the establishment of a public junior college district, vocational-technical programs, a contractual blending of junior and senior college offerings and facilities, and more affordable educational opportunities beyond the twelfth

146 grade. After this cooperative plan was ruled unconstitutional by the Attorney General of Texas, the three Abilene senior colleges were less enthusiastic about the addition of a junior or communitv college in the City of Abilene or Taylor County.

From its inception in 1973, a stated long-term goal of the L'niversity Consortium of Abilene, Inc., was to facilitate greater cooperation among the three colleges particularly in those areas of educational endeavor where budget constraints had formed real boundaries to meeting certain internal and external needs. Although two early areas of concentration would eventually lead to the establishment of a comprehensive school of nursing and joint automation of library holdings, the UCAI began by addressing the more modest problem of vocational and technical training needs voiced by a number of community action committees. The formation of the L'CAI and subsequently the Tri-College Continuing Education program was seen by their sponsors as tangible and appropriate responses to the perception that Abilene and Taylor County lacked affordable educational opportunities beyond the twelfth grade. The University Consortium of Abilene. Inc.. was also used by its members as a staging ground for unified responses to external challenges mounted by local factions advocating a public- supported higher education presence in Taylor County. Research Question 2

Who was/were responsible for such a bold step and how was it achieved? The chronology (see Chapter V) generated by this case study suggests that formal interinstitutional cooperation among the three subject colleges started as a tangible manifestation of a logical and enlightened progression

147 away from long-term policies of limited and sporadic informal cooperation. These findings also support the assumption that institutional proximity, similarity of purpose, and the combined longevity of the three private, church-related institutions of higher learning were significant elements leading to the establishment of formal interinstitutional cooperation in 1973. The leadership of the three subject institutions also played a significant role in the establishment of a formal consortial relationship. The challenges and opportunities that were inherent with the 1960s and 1970s were juxtaposed with administrative changes made by the three subject institutions. Dr. Elwin L. Skiles became president of Hardin- Simmons University in 1966. In 1969, Dr. John C. Stevens was named to serve as president of Abilene Christian College (University) and Dr. Thomas K. Kim was selected as president of McMurry College (University) in 1970.

These three administrative officers quickly developed both a working and social relationship through regular and positive interaction. In an atmosphere of trust and cooperation, problems and needs common to all three institutions were soon jointly and routinely discussed. With the approval of their respective boards of trustees, the presidents of Hardin- Simmons, Abilene Christian, and McMurry enlisted the support of their faculties, constituencies, and the community at large before establishing a formal cooperation without the loss of institutional autonomy or distinctiveness. According to Baus (1988):

The basis for consortium activity is consensus formation. Although the immediate motivation for institutions to cooperate may be related to cost savings, program development objectives, or political factors, the essential ingredient in 148 effective consortium activity is the establishment of a consensus among institutional leaders, (p. 26) Research Question 3 Does this long standing relationship have anv unique features or characteristics related to its organization, administration, leadership, funding, governance structure, project development. legal arrangements, staffing, strategic planning activities, and procedures? An extensive search of the literature followed by a historical investigation indicated both an operational and organizational uniqueness inherent with the Abilene experience. Neal (1988) contended that:

There is no typical consortium. Consortia differ from one another because they have different types of members; because they are large or small; because they serve different communities; because they range from local to regional to national in scope; because they are organized in different ways; because they have matured at different rates; and because they have had different histories, leadership, and program emphases, (p. 2) With the exceptions of certain cooperative undergraduate programs and inter-college enrollment, all consortial activity among the three subject universities of this study are freestanding incorporated entities with tax exempt status. The University Consortium of Abilene, Inc., the Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing, Inc., the Abilene Library Consortium, Inc., the Abilene Higher Education Authority, Inc., and the Abilene Higher Education Facilities Corporation, Inc., are all separate cooperative modules designed to operate independently. The University Consortium of Abilene. Inc., is not currently active. It was, however, reincorporated in 1993 and remains a possible vehicle for future consortial activity. According to Baus (1988):

149 The primary motivation for institutional cooperation is enlightened self-interest. Cooperation for the sake of cooperating provides insufficient justification for a consortium to be created or sustained. Cooperation must be developed out of a sense of strength and gain on the part of collaborating institutions, (p. 26)

The presidents of the three universities serve as the governing board of the Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing (AISN) with the chairmanship rotating annually. The chief academic officers of the three universities serve as an administrative council to conduct the normal operations of the school. The general day-to-day administration of the AISN is the responsibility of its dean. The dean of the AISN is responsible for hiring its faculty and staff and keeping it appropriate for the number of students enrolled. Funding for the AISN and its various programs is generated by the member institutions, foundation grants, and gifts. Project development and planning for the AISN is typically generated by the dean with final approval coming from the Administrative Council and its Board of Trustees.

The chief academic officers of the three universities and a designated counterpart from the City of Abilene serve as a board of trustees for the Abilene Library Consortium Online (ALCON) with the chairmanship rotating annually. The head librarians of the three universities and the City of Abilene serve as an administrative council for ALCON. The day-to­ day administration of the library consortium is the responsibility of its Systems Manager. Funding for ALCON is generated by the member institutions, grants from foundations and gifts, and participating libraries such as Cisco Junior College and Howard Payne University who pay for ALCON generated services. Planning and projects for ALCON is typically generated by the Systems Manager or the Administrative Council. 150 Approval must then be obtained from the Administrative Council and the Board of Trustees. Staffing for ALCON is limited to a systems manager and a systems operator. Both the Abilene Higher Education Authority (AHEA) and the Abilene Higher Education Facilities Corporation (AHEFC) have boards of trustees on which each of the three university presidents serve. One director and a small clerical staff is shared by both the AHEA and the AHEFC. The director makes all staffing decisions while the respective boards select the position of director. Since their inception, the AHEA and the AHEFC have had only one director. These consortial entities issue bonds with the approval and support of the City of Abilene and the financial community at large. The AHEA was established to provide money for student-related loans while the AHEFC generates capital for physical plant expansion and/or improvement.

The existence of several unexampled consortial characteristics emerged during the course of this case study. Perhaps the most basic of these was the close proximity of three cooperating Protestant institutions of higher learning in a city with a population range of 100,000 citizens. Two other examples of singular consortial patterns were the freestanding and autonomous nature of the four active consortial modules and their voluntary inclusion of non-academic partners (i.e. City of Abilene, Hendrick Health System). Research Question 4

Are there anv short or long-range plans to curtail, alter, or embellish the existing cooperative arrangement?

151 This case study revealed no immediate or future plans for major alterations of the Abilene tri-university consortiums. According to Grupe (n.d.):

. . . consortia and the programs they institute are most productive when they begin with objectives which are relatively unrestricted. Once the programs have sufficiently specific objectives to warrant implementation, there should be room for expansion and further growth; expansion with implications of significance for the entire effort, (pp. 17-21)

The members of the Abilene Library Consortium Online (ALCOX) plan to continue a policy of providing its patrons as much access to data banks and services as funding and opportunity will allow. Additional memberships may be sought in organizations similar in purpose to the Llano Estacado Information Access Network (LEIAN) which the ALC has been a member since joining the organization in 1994. LEIAN is a group of libraries in West Texas and Eastern New Mexico dedicated to providing its members with more online access to information at lower costs. Areas of potential interinstitutional cooperation include the joint offering of domestic and foreign study programs. There are also plans for additional cooperation in select disciplines. The Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing (AISN) is currently phasing out its associate degree in nursing program after judging it to be a duplication of similar educational opportunities in the Taylor Countv area. The joint Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) program, which was utilized by cadets from Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, McMurry University, and Howard Payne University has been deactivated due to the downsizing of military budgets and programs by the United States Congress. The University Consortium of Abilene, Inc., has

152 officially been inactive since 1983, but remains in place for possible future collaborative projects. The mechanism for a separate consortial endeavor known as the University Research Consortium (URC) remains in place but unfunded. The stated purpose of the URC was to enhance the research and development capability of the business and industrial sector of the City of Abilene and the surrounding area. Membership of this as yet unrealized collaboration includes the three senior colleges, the City of Abilene, and members of the business community at large. The impetus for the I'RC remains with the Abilene Educational Council (AEC) which became an affiliate of the Abilene Chamber of Commerce in 1991. Research Question 5 Based on the findings of this studv. what are indications of the need for improvement or expansion of the existing tri-universitv arrangement? The existing consortial relationships of the senior colleges in Abilene are the result of three autonomous but cooperative universities with realistic expectations and aspirations. There was ample evidence to suggest that at the heart of this long-standing cooperative relationship was a carefully calculated process of trial and error which ultimately produced a workable formula for limited consortial endeavor. According to Baus (1988), success or failure of consortial arrangements has always been judged to one degree or another by their ability to "either enhance the programs and objectives of their constituent institutions or provide solutions to problems confronted by those institutions" (p. 26). The existing consortial relationships have been

153 mutually beneficial to all three universities and in turn provide both form and substance to the contemporary concept of a workable, but self-limiting interinstitutional symbiosis. Pritzen (1988) contended that:

. . . for most institutions something less than the full spectrum of cooperation opportunities is available, and barriers of one kind or another may discourage initiatives that attempt to take advantage of those opportunities that do exist. Xot surprisingly, some of the most formidable barriers to cooperation come from within the institutions themselves, (pp. 40-41)

The current level and degree of interinstitutional involvement is by design and mutual agreement. The major problems of these consortial relationships generally involve funding and the tendency to place institutional self-interest above consortial interests. According to Baus (1988):

Each consortium has a unique character that reflects the organizational mix of institutional constituencies, the historical factors that created and sustain member institutions, and the styles of leadership and motivations for cooperation that are operating in member institutions at any given time. (p. 26) Research Question 6 What criteria, standards, and methods, if anv. have been used to evaluate the impact and success of this tri-universitv arrangement? Evaluation procedures utilized by the three member universities are of both an internal and external nature. These evaluations generally take the form of a practical and pragmatic assessment of successes and/or failures of all aspects of consortial activity. Whereas assessment and evaluation procedures are fundamental to the operation of all consortial arrangements of the three subject institutions, there are no formal internal procedures or criteria to follow during evaluation periods.

154 Joint internal consortial evaluations generally take the form of informal discussions during regularly scheduled meetings of the various governing councils and boards. These ongoing consortial evaluations are conducted by the active membership of the respective council and board of trustees.

Institutional self-studies and annual reporting procedures provide additional avenues of internal evaluation for the three consortial partners. Individual institutional appraisal of consortial relationships are routinely addressed as a part of the decennial self-studies and by regular annual reporting and assessment procedures. External evaluations are conducted on a prescribed basis by accrediting agencies such as the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, the National League for Nursing, and the Board of Nurse Examiners for the State of Texas. In addition, consultants such as the AMIGOS Bibliographic Council are contracted to provide technology consultant services and to review the operations of the Abilene Library Consortium. In 1995, the AMIGOS Bibliographic Council produced a long- range strategic plan for the ALC which assessed its needs and services well beyond the turn of the century. The plan was approved by tlie Abilene Library Consortium Board of Trustees in 1996.

There are no current plans to significantly alter any of the established methods of consortial endeavor now in force. Grupe (n. d.) contended that to be successful, consortia should:

. . . have tangible impact. Financial commitments of substance carry with them a demand for noticeable results in some form. No summation on a score sheet will be satisfactory as an evaluation of a consortium's productivity, but here is little doubt that tangible improvements must be demonstrated if

155 consortia are to remain serious elements in their institutions' planning, (pp. 17-21)

Observ^ations and Recommendations for Future Policies. Practices, and Projects in Abilene. Texas A major production objective of this case study was to produce a chronological assemblage of pivotal interinstitutional and consortial activity among the three subject institutions (see Chapter V). By using the process of analytic induction, cooperative strengths and weaknesses were inferred during the process of data collection, validation, and interpretation. During the extrapolation process of this data, a number of observations and recommendations were formulated based on the Abilene experience.

Strengths A number of strengths and weaknesses of the current cooperative endeavor as well as suggestions for possible future collaboration were generated during the research and interpolation phases of this case study. Major strengths of the Abilene experience were found to be:

1. the freestanding nature of the five formal consortial modules. 2. the simplicity of consortial governance and structure.

3. the overall cost effectiveness of the combined cooperative projects. 4. the similarity of purpose and mission of the three subject institutions. 5. the close proximity of the participating institutions. 6. the longevity of the cooperating institutions. 7. the longevity of the cooperative relationships. 156 8. the inclusion of non-academic partners in all formal interinstitutional cooperative arrangements (e.g. a municipality, a major health care system).

Weaknesses A list of possible weaknesses of the current cooperative involvement was also compiled during the investigatory process of this case study. Included were the following:

1. a lack of formal or consistent internal/external systems for evaluation. 2. a need for unbiased perspectives during all periods of planning and assessment. 3. limited internal/external funding. 4. an imbalance of resources and corresponding needs of the three member institutions. 5. institutional reluctance to expand beyond current parameters of cooperation. 6. a lack of cooperation on the graduate level (Note: McMurrv University does not presently offer graduate studies). 7. limitations inspired by denominational influences, differences, and policies.

Suggestions for Future Cooperation This case history was designed to document the clustering of interinstitutional and consortial activity among three private, church- related institutions of higher learning in Abilene, Texas. The study

157 revealed that the Abilene cooperative phenomenon primarily exists to provide a measured and cooperative response to specified needs deemed unattainable by unilateral action. Based on this concept, a list of suggestions for possible future collaborative activity was compiled. Included were the following:

1. additional cooperative undergraduate programs. 2. the addition of cooperative graduate programs. 3. expansion of cooperative foreign studies programs. 4. expansion of current health care offerings. 5. joint purchasing of products and/or services. 6. establishment of joint professional development and enrichment programs. 7. establishment of a joint lectureship and/or cultural series. 8. establishment of a centralized printing and binding facilitv. 9. coordination of a marketing plan with the Abilene Chamber of Commerce for the promotion of Abilene, Texas, as a center for private, church-related higher education.

Observations and Recommendations for Future Cooperative Policv and Practice Among Similar Institutions of Higher Learning Consortial related research and literature has long suggested that interinstitutional and consortial activity is a measured response to an infinite number of variables. Need combined with circumstance often provides the impetus and incentive for much of what can properly be identified as contemporary consortial endeavor. According to Baus (1988):

The existence and effectiveness of any consortium is dependent on two conditions: each institution in the

158 consortium must know and accept its limitations as an institution, and each must recognize the value of exceeding those limits by entering into a consensus-forming process with other institutions, if the possibility exists, real or perceived, that an institution acting alone can exceed its limits to seize an opportunity or to resolve a problem, then the consortium alternative is not a "live" option, (p. 26)

Allowing that consortial activity should be "tailor made"' for a specific set of circumstances rather than ascribing to a "one size fits all" concept. the Abilene cooperative experience has some defining qualities that when applied under similar circumstances could prove beneficial. Included were the following: 1. a simplicity of governance and structure. 2. cultivation of external funding sources (e.g. foundations, community support, and denominational/interdenominational support). 3. establishment of a permanent endowment (s).

4. establishment of freestanding cooperative components with individualized governance.

5. inclusion of non-academic partners (e.g. municipalities, liealth care centers).

6. establishment of a cross-registration system linked by a simple and cost effective tuition and fee fulfillment system.

7. establishment of investment quality bond generating entities in cooperation with a host city/cities and representatives of the financial community.

Recommendations for Further Research The scope of this study did not allow for the investigation of all aspects of private, church-related interinstitutional cooperation. But in

159 keeping with the never ending quest for knowledge and understanding, research should hypothetically generate as many questions as it answers. Therefore, the results of this study has provided certain avenues for possible future research. Included were the following:

1. Replicate this study at other institutions where there is interinstitutional cooperation within a library system, a school of nursing, or a host community. The results could then be compared to those from tlie Abilene study.

2. Compare the results of this study with other consortially-linked institutions where the denominational affiliation is the same. 3. Building upon the foundation provided by this study, institute a companion statistical study of such factors as enrollment and funding levels before and after specific examples of interinstitutional cooperation and involvement. 4. Compare the results of this study to other consortia where the element of interdenominationalism is not a factor and then compare the findings with the Abilene study. 5. compare the policies and services of other consortial library systems with those of the Abilene Library Consortium Online (ALGOL) to determine viability and uniqueness.

6. Methods of governance and evaluation of other consortial endeavors could be compared in terms of structure, cost, practicality, and success.

7. Conduct longitudinal research to evaluate suggestions made here in a new or existing consortial project.

160 Conclusions The findings generated by this study suggested that interinstitutional and consortial relationships of Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene Christian University, and McMurry University were jointly based on the precept of the sum being greater than its parts. The resulting collaborative alignment reflected an eclectic convolution of institutional constituencies, styles of leadership, and motivations for cooperative affiliation.

Whereas interinstitutional cooperation and consortial arrangements have made positive impacts on all three campuses, there are still natural and healthy competitive undercurrents running through the width and breath of all tri-university arrangements. Additionally, inherent differences in denominational affiliation and institutional mission cannot be ruled out as a significant and consistent polarizing agent in all matters of interinstitutional cooperation among the three institutions of higher learning addressed by this case study.

A shared desire for the preservation of institutional distinctiveness and autonomy has long influenced the establishment, scope, and direction of all interinstitutional and interdenominational relationships of the three subject institutions. Fear of losing or even compromising institutional autonomy has been a source of concern for and resistance to certain cooperative relationships and actions from the very beginning. This behavioral pattern coincides with the admonition from Patterson (1974) which advocated that, "each institution should preserve its identity and maintain as much autonomy as the constraints of serious cooperation permit" (pp. 108-109).

161 The difference between success and failure of the various consortial projects of the three subject institutions has primarily been a matter of planned conservatism of both involvement and commitment. Tlie Abilene experience is characterized by the creation of cooperative ventures only as a measured and joint response to a common goal that has been deemed unattainable by unilateral action alone. The inference here is that such activity has been more a result of pragmatism than innovation, a collaborative means to a specified and mutually beneficial end.

The respective leadership of Hardin-Simmons, Abilene Christian, and McMurry have a documented history of entering into formal consortial agreements only after a long and careful assessment of each collaborative proposal. Striking a balance between institutional expectations and limitations has ultimately produced a manageable number of successful cooperative projects thereby strengthening the member institutions both jointly and individually.

Interinstitutional and consortial relationships of the Abilene experience will predictably continue as long as there is a measurable and shared return from their existence. Tangible benefits for students, faculty, and the community as a whole will continue to be a major factor when determining consortial policy for the three private, church-related institutions of higher learning in Abilene, Texas.

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177 APPENDDC A: QUESTIONS FOR INTERVIEWEES

178 Dissertation Questionnaire Summer, 1996

Dear Participant/Contributor:

I am currently in pursuit of my doctorate at Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas. The subject matter under investigation is interinstitutional cooperation and consortial endeavors as it pertains to private, church-related institutions of higher learning. Therefore, the close proximity of the three universities located in Abilene, Texas, their similarity of purpose, and their combined longevity make this community an ideal site for a study of this phenomenon.

This packet of materials constitutes an integral part of the research necessary to complete the required dissertation titled A Case Study of Interinstitutional Cooperation of Three Private Institutions of Higher Learning in Abilene, Texas. Six primary questions for study were formulated to obtain information pertinent to the formation, history, and future of the University Consortium of Abilene, Inc. (UCAI). Even though a complete set of questions and subquestions will be included in every packet, no one participant/contributor will be expected to respond to all aspects of the stated topic since the period under investigation covers approximately thirty years of collective cooperative endeavor by the three subject institutions.

Thank you for your willingness to participate in this final and most crucial stage of my research process. Efforts to collect both the primary and secondary data that will be needed for the closing chapters of my dissertation will be greatly enhanced by your knowledge of and experience with the subject under study. Your participation and insight will be of inestimable value to the completion and overall success of this project.

Randy L. Armstrong Assistant Professor of Communication Box 16022 915-670-1436 Hardin-Simmons University Abilene, Texas 79698

179 Questions for Study

1. What event/events led to the formation of the Universitv Consortium of Abilene, Inc. in 1973?

1.1 Where and when did the first call for substantive dialog originate?

1.2 Who was responsible for such a bold step and how was it achieved 9

1.3 Who were the key participants involved with the planning process and their individual contributions?

1.4 Did community leaders play a role in the formation of the UCAI?

1.5 "What major obstacles, if any, were cited as possible impediments to formal interinstitutional linkage?

1.6 How were these problems addressed?

1.7 Were any comparable consortial arrangements used as a model for the UCAI?

1.8 If so, how were they selected and why?

1.9 Were consultants employed at any time during the formulation process of the UCAI?

1.10 Approximately how long was the organizational stage of the UCAI formation process?

1.11 What was the plan of action developed relative to the formation of the UCAI?

1.12 How many areas of formal cooperation were originally considered by the three Abilene universities?

180 2. "What have been the most significant developments in the mission, purpose, and philosophy of the UCAI?

2.1 "What was the original mission, purpose, and philosophy of the LXAF

2.2 How has the mission, purpose, and philosophy changed, if anv, since creation of the UCAI in 1973?

2.3 Why and when were these changes made?

2,4 How has the organizational structure, administrative philosophy, and key policies of the UCAI developed?

2.5 How has the organizational structure, administrative philosophy, and key policies of the UCAI changed since its inception in 1973?

2.6 Who is responsible for the administration of the UCAI budget?

2.7 What are the primary sources of financial support of the UCAI'

2.8 What kind of financial support, if any. originates from external sources?

2.9 "What was the original operational budget for the L^CAL

2.10 What is the current operational budget for all UCAI cooperative endeavors?

181 3. Do the consortial relationships of the three Abilene universities have any unique features related to any of the following aspects of their formal interinstitutional linkage?

3.1 Organizational structure?

3.2 Administration/leadership?

3.3 Funding?

3.4 Governance structure?

3.5 Project development?

3.6 Legal arrangements?

3.7 Staffing?

3.8 Strategic planning activities/procedures?

3.9 Other?

182 4. "What have been the most significant developments in the historv of the UCAI?

4.1 "What have been the most successful cooperative programs and services offered by the UCAI?

4.2 "What, if any, are the significant failures of the UCAI?

4.3 What have been its most significant problems'?*

4.4 In what way has the UCAI attempted to assist its member institutions?

4.5 What are the positive aspects of being a UCAI member?7

4.6 "What, if any, are negative aspects of being a UCAI member?

4.7 How many areas of formal cooperation are currently in force?

4.8 Has loss of institutional autonomy been a concern for members of the UCAI?

4.9 Has the ecumenical nature of the UCAI membership presented any unique opportunities/challenges since its inception in 1973?

4.10 What are the opportunities/challenges?

4.11 Has the distinctive denominational character of the three UCAI member institutions presented any unique opportunities/challenges since its inception in 1973?

4.12 What do you see as the major strengths or benefits of the current cooperative ventures of the UCAI? "Why?

4.13 What do you see as possible weaknesses or drawbacks of the current cooperative ventures of the UCAI? "Why?

183 5. Are there any short or long range plans to curtail, alter, or embellish existing cooperative arrangements?

5.1 Abilene Intercollegiate School of Nursing?

5.2 Abilene Library Consortium?

5.3 Abilene Higher Education Authority?

5.4 Abilene Higher Education Facilities Corporation?

5.5 Intercollege enrollment?

5.6 Joint curricular programs/foreign studies?

5.7 Faculty exchanges/sharing?

5.8 Joint purchasing of products or services?

5.9 Internal/external funding procedures?

5.10 Information processing/retrieval/storage?

5.11 Internet informational services?

5.12 Professional development services?

5.13 External relationships or memberships with other consortia?

5.14 Other?

184 6. What criteria, standards, and methods have been used to evaluate the impact and success of this interinstitutional relationship?

6.1 Collective mission fulfillment?

6.2 Internal/external evaluation?

6.3 Independent evaluation?

6.4 Joint evaluation?

6.5 Resource enhancement?

6.6 Curriculum and instructional support enhancement?

6.7 Constituency satisfaction?

6.8 Community satisfaction?

6.9 Other?

185 Suggestions of Additional Resources

I would welcome your suggestions concerning other potential resources during the research phase of my dissertation process:

186 APPENDDC B: LIST OF KEY INTERVIEWEES

187 LIST OF KEY INTERVIEWEES

Presidents Hardin-Simmons University Dr. Elwin L. Skiles 1966-1977

Dr. Jesse C. Fletcher 1977-1991 Dr. Lanny Hall 1991-

Abilene Christian University Dr. John C. Stevens 1969-1981

Dr. William J. Teague 1981-1992 Dr. Royce L. Money 1992-

McMurry University Dr. Thomas K. Kim 1970-1993 Dr. Robert E. Shimp 1993-

188