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Clay Neomineralization and the Timing, Thermal Conditions and Geofluid History of Upper Crustal Deformation Zones

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Clay Neomineralization and the Timing, Thermal Conditions and Geofluid History of Upper Crustal Deformation Zones Clay Neomineralization and the Timing, Thermal Conditions and Geofluid History of Upper Crustal Deformation Zones by Austin Harold Boles A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Earth and Environmental Sciences) in The University of Michigan 2017 Doctoral Committee: Professor Ben van der Pluijm, Chair Professor Jeffrey C. Alt Professor Richard B. Rood Emeritus Professor Rob Van Der Voo Corrigendum 4/20/2018 After publication of this dissertation, an equipment malfunction was discovered that affects the dataset included in Chapter VI, “Triassic, Surface-Fluid Derived Clay Diagenesis in the Appalachian Plateau, Northern U.S. Midcontinent.” Reanalysis and corrections are currently being applied, but until that dataset has been published in peer-reviewed literature, the 40Ar/39Ar geochronology reported herein and its interpretation SHOULD NOT BE USED, either for citation or as a basis for further research. The dissertation committee of Austin Boles, listed below, approves this corrigendum and its insertion into the dissertation: Ben van der Pluijm, Chair Richard B. Rood Jeffrey Alt Rob Van Der Voo Satur venter non studet libenter A view of the Southern Alpine Orogen, South Island, New Zealand. Field photo (2014). Austin Harold Boles [email protected]; [email protected] ORCID iD: 0000-0003-3072-3309 Copyright © Austin Harold Boles 2017 All Rights Reserved Dedication I dedicate this volume to my two sons, Oliver and Calum. May they be ever curious and never lose their wonder. ii Acknowledgments I thank the many collaborators, colleagues, mentors, committee members and friends who have supported, encouraged, and taught me along the way: Anja Schleicher, Eliza Fitz-Diaz, Samantha Nemkin, Erin Lynch, Brice Lacroix, Jasmaria Wojtschke, Bernhard Schuck, Semih Can Ülgen, Celal Şengör, Halim Mutlu, I. Tonguç Uysal, Laurence Warr, Virginia Toy, Rupert Sutherland, John Townend, Timothy Little, the DFDP science team, Chris Hall, Nathan Niemi, Andreas Mulch, Zhongrui Li, Gordon Moore, Anne Hudon, Rob Van der Voo, Jeff Alt, Ricky Rood and many, many others. I thank my mentors at Shell Oil Co. for their insight, advice, and friendship: Kamran Zahid, Bill Lyons, Gina Gonzalez, and Ed Perry. I am grateful to Eugene Clark, Thomas Morris, and Ron Harris who inspired me to study geology and pursue a postgraduate degree. I am grateful to Ben van der Pluijm as an adviser, mentor, editor, and friend and for his unflagging patience, humor, and encouragement. I am grateful for the funding that has supported my research during my tenure at the University of Michigan, including several Graduate Turner Awards and the Russell C. Hussey Scholarship from the UM Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, several Research and Conference travel grants from the UM Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies, Clay Minerals Society conference travel grants and the Robert C. Reynolds, Jr. Research Award, the Sedimentary Geology and Structural Geology and Tectonics Divisions of the Geological Society of America Stephen E. Laubach Research in Structural Diagenesis Award, and the International Continental Drilling Program’s Training Course on Active Fault Zone Drilling support. I am grateful to the students of structural geology and field camp that were unfortunate enough to have me as your teacher. I learned more than you did. I thank my parents for a lifetime of teaching and sacrifice to engender in their children a love of learning. Finally, I thank my wife, Camilla, whose enduring love sustains me and whose spirit of adventure inspires me and ensures that we never bore. iii Table of Contents Dedication ................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. x List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... xvii List of Appendices ................................................................................................................. xviii Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... xx Chapter I. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 I.I Applied Clay Science in Structural Geology ......................................................................... 1 I.I.I. General Structure ............................................................................................................ 2 I.I.II. Polytypism ..................................................................................................................... 3 I.I.III. Geochronology ............................................................................................................. 5 I.I.IV. Geothermometry .......................................................................................................... 5 I.I.V. Stable Isotopic Systematics ........................................................................................... 7 I.I.VI. Fabric Analysis ............................................................................................................ 9 I.I.VII. Physical Properties...................................................................................................... 9 I.II. Outline of Dissertation ....................................................................................................... 10 I.II.I Chapter II. Quantitative X-ray Diffraction and the Illite Polytype Analysis Method: A Comparison of Analytical Techniques.................................................................................. 10 I.II.II. Chapter III. Clays in the Exhumed Alpine Fault Zone (New Zealand) are Late Surface Alteration .............................................................................................................................. 10 I.II.III. Chapter IV. Response of Natural Smectite to Seismogenic Heating and Potential Implications for the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake in the Japan Trench ..................................... 11 I.II.IV. Chapter V. Hydrogen and 40Ar/39Ar Isotope Evidence for Multiple and Protracted Paleofluid Flow Events within the Long-Lived North Anatolian Keirogen (Turkey).......... 11 iv I.II.V. Chapter VI. Triassic, Surface-Fluid Derived Clay Diagenesis in the Appalachian Plateau, Northern U.S. Midcontinent .................................................................................... 11 I.II.VI. Chapter VII. Conclusions ........................................................................................ 12 I.II.VII. Appendix I. Timing of Crustal Accretion and Eastern Black Sea Rotation from Fault Dating of Thrusts within the Istanbul Zone, Western Turkey .............................................. 12 I.II.VIII. Appendix II. Pseudotachylyte and Fault Gouge Dating of Mai’iu and Gwoira Faults Constrains the Late-Stage Exhumation Timing of the Dayman Gneiss Dome, Eastern Papua New Guinea .......................................................................................................................... 12 I.II.IX. Appendix III. Meteoric fluid Cycling Recorded by Authigenic Illite in Clay-rich Zones of the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) Borehole ........................ 13 Chapter II. Quantitative X-ray Powder Diffraction and the Illite Polytype Analysis Method: A Comparison of Analytical Techniques .................................................................................. 14 II.I. Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 14 II.II. Keywords .......................................................................................................................... 14 II.III. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 14 II.IV. Sample Description ......................................................................................................... 17 II.V. TEM Polytype Characterization and Grain Size Distribution Analysis ........................... 18 II.VI. X-ray Analysis ................................................................................................................ 20 II.VI.I. Sample Selection, Preparation, and Instrument Configuration ................................ 21 II.VI.II. Qualitative Phase Assessment ................................................................................. 23 II.VI.III. Q-XRPD ................................................................................................................. 24 II.VI.III.I. Library of WILDFIRE©-Generated Illite Polytype End-Members ................ 25 II.VI.III.II. End-Member Natural Standards ..................................................................... 27 II.VI.III.III. Rietveld Refinement by BGMN® ................................................................ 27 II.VI.III.IV. Q-XRPD Results and Comparison ............................................................... 30 II.VI.IV. Application of Illite Polytype
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