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The Pharmacotherapy of Low Back Pain

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The Pharmacotherapy of Low Back Pain South African Family Practice 2018; 60(1):30-34 S Afr Fam Pract Open Access article distributed under the terms of the ISSN 2078-6190 EISSN 2078-6204 Creative Commons License [CC BY-NC-ND 4.0] © 2018 The Author(s) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 REVIEW The pharmacotherapy of low back pain Oppel BW Greeff Department of Pharmacology, University of Pretoria, South Africa Introduction 8. Is associated with pain or throbbing in the abdomen About 60–80% of patients visiting a physician have at some stage 9. Is accompanied by unexplained weight loss. in their lives suffered from low back pain. The annual incidence This will ensure that serious causes of lower back pain are not in adults aged 35–55 years in developed countries is up to overseen. 45%.1 The differential diagnosis is broad and includes muscular strain, primary spine disease like disc herniation or degenerative Management of lower back pain arthritis, systemic diseases like metastatic cancer and regional The State of Oregon in the USA recently published guidelines for diseases like aortic aneurisms. In the majority of cases, a specific the evaluation and management of low back pain. Table I gives a diagnosis cannot be made. good summary of the current medical practice.2 Most patients will improve in 1–4 weeks and will only need From this table it is apparent that self-care, nonpharmacologic treatment for the acute symptoms after the initial history and therapy and interdisciplinary therapy are important in the total physical examination. If, however, the pain recurs or worsens, the intervention programme. We will focus on the pharmacologic patient must be thoroughly examined and a specific diagnosis can become a challenge. therapy of lower back pain. Causes of lower back pain Pharmacotherapy of lower back pain There are multiple causes of lower back pain and the physician The most commonly used medicines in the treatment of lower will always attempt to get to the correct cause in order to ensure back pain are the analgesics. Therapy will be discussed as follows: that the most effective treatment is recommended. Modern 1. Non-opioid analgesics imaging techniques have contributed significantly to getting 2. Opioids to the correct diagnosis. The following conditions may cause 3. Skeletal muscle relaxants lower back pain: cancer, cauda equina syndrome, herniated intervertebral disc, severe or progressive neurological deficits, 4. Other central nervous system (CNS) drugs spinal stenosis, vertebral compression fracture or vertebral 1. The non-opioid analgesics infection. • Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is the most commonly used When communicating with the patient, the physician must and prescribed analgesic for lower back pain. It has equivalent practice immediate medical care if the patient complains of analgesic efficacy to aspirin with no useful anti-inflammatory severe back pain that: action. Paracetamol has a central anti-nociceptive effect 1. Followed a fall, blow to the back or other injury through selective inhibition of prostaglandin H2 synthetase. 2. Is constant or severe It serves as a reducing co-substrate for the peroxidase-active site of the enzyme (= a –POX inhibitor).3 It is conjugated in the 3. Worsens during rest or at night liver as the inactive glucoronate and sulphate.4 Adverse effects 4. Spreads down one or both legs are rare in therapeutic usage – occasional rash and allergy. 5. Causes weakness, numbness or tingling in one or both legs Dosage orally should not exceed 4g/day and intravenously a 6. Is associated with new bowel or bladder problems loading dose of 2g is administered, followed by 1g 4-hourly to 7. Is accompanied by fever a maximum of 4g/day. www.tandfonline.com/oemd 30 The page number in the footer is not for bibliographic referencing 32 S Afr Fam Pract 2018;60(1):30-34 Table I: Interventions Intervention category Intervention Acute < 4 weeks Subacute and chronic > 4 weeks Self-care Advice to remain active ● ● Books, handouts ● ● THE RANGE Application of superficial heat ● Nonpharmacologic therapy Spinal manipulation ● ● Exercise therapy ● Massage ● SOUTH AFRICA’S # PRESCRIBED BRAND TO RELIEVE Acupuncture ● , Yoga ● EVERYDAY PAINFUL MUSCULOSKELETAL SPASM Cognitive-behavioural therapy ● Progressive relaxation ● Pharamacologic therapy Acetaminophen ● ● (Carefully consider risks/harms) NSAIDs ● ▲ ● ▲ rica h Af ’s Skeletal muscle relaxants e.g. ● ut orphenadrine, methocarbamol and o S cyclobenzaprine #1 Antidepressants (TCA) ● Benzodiazepines ● ▲ ● ▲ d PRESCRIBEDn M ra Tramadol, opioids ● ▲ ● ▲ u b sc ant Interdisciplinary therapy Intensive interdisciplinary rehabilitation ● le relax ● Interventions supported by grade “B” evidence (at least fair-quality evidence of moderate benefit, or small benefit but no significant harms, costs, or burdens). No intervention was supported by grade “A” evidence (good-quality evidence of substantial benefit). ▲ Carries greater risk of harms than other agents in table. LOOK OUT • Aspirin is the oldest and most well-known and widely used 2. The opioids analgesic. It has analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory FOR OUR There are four types of G-protein-coupled opioid receptors, each actions and causes respiratory stimulation. It can cause having a different pharmacological effect – mu, kappa, delta and respiratory alkalosis, renal loss of electrolytes with dehydration NEW the ORL-1 receptors. The affinity for these receptors parallels plus a disturbance of glucose metabolism. Aspirin has a their analgesic potency. Morphine is the prototype opioid uricosuric effect in dosages between 5–8g/day. It reduces and has the following effects: analgesia, euphoria, respiratory PACKAGING platelet adhesion and causes hypothrombonaemia in dosages depression, depression of the cough reflex, nausea and vomiting NEW 5 > 5g/day. The normal dosage of aspirin is 325–650 mg every and pupillary constriction. It also has significant effects on the 4–6 hours for pain and fever. gastointestinal tract (GIT) – increased tone, decreased motility, ’s PACK • The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) constriction of the biliary sphincter and delayed absorption of other drugs. Morphine is used for severe or overwhelming The NSAIDs inhibit cyclo-oxygenase (prostaglandin synthase) pain.7 Oral dosage is 30 mg every 3–4 hours and 10 mg q3–4h that is responsible for conversion of arachidonic acid to cyclic parenterally. endoperoxidases. There are two iso-forms – COX-1 and 2, which led to the sub-group of COX-2 selective inhibitors. Their 3. The skeletal muscle relaxants main actions are analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic The term is commonly used to refer to a heterogeneous group and antiplatelet (prevent thromboxane production). Topical of pharmacologically unrelated medications approved to treat NSAIDs (eg diclofenac) can be used in combination with oral two distinct conditions: spasticity from upper motor neuron therapy. Diclofenac has both COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitor syndromes and pain or spasms from musculoskeletal conditions activity and in combination with misoprostol 200mcg protects such as non-specific low back pain. These include carisoprodol, the gastric mucosa in patients on long term therapy. The chlorzoxazone, cyclobenzaprine, metaxalone, methocarbamol side-effects include gastric and intestinal mucosal damage, and orphenadrine.8 disturbances of fluid and electrolyte balance and they can • Orphenadrine is a nonselective mACh receptor antagonist and cause analgesic nephropathy.6 Dosages vary in the different an H1 receptor antagonist which is used to treat muscle pain References: 1. Waldman HJ. J Pain Symptom Manage 1994; 9(7):434-441. 2. Impact Rx. Script Data – October 2017. Scheduling status: S2 Proprietary name (and dosage form): NORFLEX CO Tablets. Composition: Each tablet contains 35 mg Orphenadrine citrate and 450 mg Paracetamol. Pharmacological classification: A.2.9 (Other analgesics). Reference number: B 1098 [Act 101/1965]; Scheduling status: S2 Proprietary name (and dosage form): NORFLEX Tablets. Composition: Each tablet contains 100 mg Orphenadrine citrate. Pharmacological classification: Category: A.2.10 (Centrally active sub-classes. and with motor control in Parkinson’s disease. It also has a NMDA muscle relaxants). Reference number: H 1612. [Act 101/1965]. Name and business address of applicant: iNova Pharmaceuticals (Pty) Ltd. Reg. No.: 1952/001640/07. 15E Riley Road, Bedfordview. Tel. No.: 011 087 0000 www.inovapharma.co.za. For full prescribing information, refer to the package insert as approved by the MCC (Medicines Control Council). Further information is available on request from iNova Pharmaceuticals. IN2524/18. www.tandfonline.com/oemd 32 The page number in the footer is not for bibliographic referencing 8537T NOR Strip Advert A4.indd 1 2018/02/21 08:16 34 S Afr Fam Pract 2018;60(1):30-34 receptor antagonist activity which may contribute to its muscle 2. Livingston C, King V, Little A, Pettinari C, Thielke A, Gordon C. [Internet]. State of relaxing activity. The dosage is 100 mg two–three times daily. Oregon Evidence-based Clinical Guidelines Project. Evaluation and management of low back pain: A clinical practice guideline based on the joint practice • Cyclobenzaprine is the best studied drug for relief of skeletal guideline of the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society muscle spasms and has also shown effectiveness in the (Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain). Salem: Office for Oregon Health treatment of fibromyalgia. It is a centrally acting skeletal
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