Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus Fuscus), Carolinian Population, in Canada

PROPOSED Species at Risk Act Recovery Strategy Series Adopted under Section 44 of SARA

Recovery Strategy for the Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus), Carolinian population, in Canada

Northern Dusky Salamander

2021

1 Recommended citation: 2 3 Environment and Climate Change Canada. 2021. Recovery Strategy for the Northern 4 Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus), Carolinian population, in Canada 5 [Proposed]. Species at Risk Act Recovery Strategy Series. Environment and Climate 6 Change Canada, Ottawa. 3 parts, 28 pp. + vi + 30 pp. + 5 pp. 7 8 9 10 Official version 11 The official version of the recovery documents is the one published in PDF. All 12 hyperlinks were valid as of date of publication. 13 14 Non-official version 15 The non-official version of the recovery documents is published in HTML format and all 16 hyperlinks were valid as of date of publication. 17 18 19 20 For copies of the recovery strategy, or for additional information on species at risk, 21 including the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) 22 Status Reports, residence descriptions, action plans, and other related recovery 23 documents, please visit the Species at Risk (SAR) Public Registry1. 24 25 26 27 Cover illustration: © Joe Crowley 28 29 Également disponible en français sous le titre 30 « Programme de rétablissement de la salamandre sombre du Nord (Desmognathus 31 fuscus), population carolinienne, au Canada [Proposition] » 32 33 34 © Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, represented by the Minister of 35 Environment and Climate Change, 2021. All rights reserved. 36 ISBN 37 Catalogue no. 38 39 40 41 Content (excluding the illustrations) may be used without permission, with appropriate 42 credit to the source.

1 www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry.html

43 RECOVERY STRATEGY FOR THE NORTHERN DUSKY 44 SALAMANDER (Desmognathus fuscus), CAROLINIAN 45 POPULATION, IN CANADA 46 47 2021 48 49 Under the Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk (1996), the federal, provincial, 50 and territorial governments agreed to work together on legislation, programs, and 51 policies to protect wildlife species at risk throughout Canada. 52 53 In the spirit of cooperation of the Accord, the Government of Ontario has given 54 permission to the Government of Canada to adopt the Recovery Strategy for the 55 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the 56 Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario (Part 2) and the 57 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander – Ontario 58 Government Response Statement (Part 3) under Section 44 of the Species at Risk Act 59 (SARA). Environment and Climate Change Canada has included a federal addition 60 (Part 1) which completes the SARA requirements for this recovery strategy. 61 62 63 The federal recovery strategy for the Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian 64 population, in Canada consists of three parts: 65 66 Part 1 – Federal Addition to the Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain 67 Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the Northern Dusky 68 Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario, prepared by Environment and 69 Climate Change Canada.

70 Part 2 – Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander 71 (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the Northern Dusky Salamander 72 (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario, prepared by Tricia Markle, Anne Yagi and 73 David Green for the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources2.

74 Part 3 – Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander – 75 Ontario Government Response Statement, prepared by the Ontario Ministry of Natural 76 Resources.

2 On June 26, 2014, the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources became the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry.

77 Table of contents 78 79 Part 1 – Federal Addition to the Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky 80 Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the Northern Dusky Salamander 81 (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario, prepared by Environment and Climate Change 82 Canada. 83 84 85 Preface ...... 0 86 Acknowledgements ...... 2 87 Additions and Modifications to the Adopted Document ...... 3 88 Recovery Feasibility Summary ...... 3 89 1. COSEWIC Species Assessment Information ...... 7 90 2. Species Status Information ...... 7 91 3. Threats ...... 8 92 4. Population and Distribution Objectives ...... 9 93 5. Broad Strategies and General Approaches to Meet Objectives ...... 10 94 6. Critical Habitat...... 10 95 6.1 Identification of the Species’ Critical Habitat ...... 10 96 6.2 Activities Likely to Result in Destruction of Critical Habitat ...... 15 97 7. Measuring Progress ...... 17 98 8. Statement on Action Plans ...... 17 99 9. References ...... 18 100 Appendix A: Historical Context for Northern Dusky Salamander ...... 20 101 Appendix B: Conservation Status Ranks of Northern Dusky Salamander 102 (Desmognathus fuscus) in Canada and the United States ...... 25 103 Appendix C: Effects on the Environment and Other Species ...... 26 104 105 106 Part 2 – Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander 107 (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus 108 fuscus) in Ontario, prepared by Tricia Markle, Anne Yagi and David Green for the 109 Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources 110 111 112 Part 3 – Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander – 113 Ontario Government Response Statement, prepared by the Ontario Ministry of Natural 114 Resources 115

Recovery Strategy for the Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian population 2021 Part 1: Federal Addition

116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 Part 1 – Federal Addition to the Recovery Strategy for the 130 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus 131 ochrophaeus) and the Northern Dusky Salamander 132 (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario, prepared by Environment 133 and Climate Change Canada 134

Recovery Strategy for the Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian population 2021 Part 1: Federal Addition

135 Preface 136 137 The federal, provincial, and territorial government signatories under the Accord for the 138 Protection of Species at Risk (1996)3 agreed to establish complementary legislation and 139 programs that provide for effective protection of species at risk throughout Canada. 140 Under the Species at Risk Act (S.C. 2002, c.29) (SARA), the federal competent 141 ministers are responsible for the preparation of recovery strategies for listed Extirpated, 142 Endangered, and Threatened species and are required to report on progress within 143 five years after the publication of the final document on the SAR Public Registry. 144 145 The Minister of Environment and Climate Change is the competent minister under 146 SARA for the Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian population, and has prepared the 147 federal component of this recovery strategy (Part 1), as per section 37 of SARA. To the 148 extent possible, it has been prepared in cooperation with the Province of Ontario as per 149 section 39(1) of SARA. SARA section 44 allows the Minister to adopt all or part of an 150 existing plan for the species if it meets the requirements under SARA for content 151 (sub-sections 41(1) or (2)). The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (now the Ontario 152 Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry) led the development of the attached 153 multi-species recovery strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the 154 Northern Dusky Salamander (Part 2) in cooperation with Environment and Climate 155 Change Canada. The Province of Ontario also led the development of the attached 156 Government Response Statement (Part 3), which is the Ontario Government’s policy 157 response to its provincial recovery strategy and summarizes the prioritized actions that 158 the Ontario government intends to take and support. 159 160 Success in the recovery of this species depends on the commitment and cooperation of 161 many different constituencies that will be involved in implementing the directions set out 162 in this strategy and will not be achieved by Environment and Climate Change, or any 163 other jurisdiction alone. All Canadians are invited to join in supporting and implementing 164 this strategy for the benefit of the Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian population, 165 and Canadian society as a whole. 166 167 This recovery strategy will be followed by one or more action plans that will provide 168 information on recovery measures to be taken by Environment and Climate Change 169 Canada and other jurisdictions and/or organizations involved in the conservation of the 170 species. Implementation of this strategy is subject to appropriations, priorities, and 171 budgetary constraints of the participating jurisdictions and organizations. 172 173 The recovery strategy sets the strategic direction to arrest or reverse the decline of the 174 species, including identification of critical habitat to the extent possible. It provides all 175 Canadians with information to help take action on species conservation. When critical 176 habitat is identified, either in a recovery strategy or an action plan, SARA requires that 177 critical habitat then be protected.

3 www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-act-accord-funding.html#2

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178 In the case of critical habitat identified for terrestrial species including migratory birds 179 SARA requires that critical habitat identified in a federally protected area4 be described 180 in the Canada Gazette within 90 days after the recovery strategy or action plan that 181 identified the critical habitat is included in the public registry. A prohibition against 182 destruction of critical habitat under ss. 58(1) of SARA will apply 90 days after the 183 description of the critical habitat is published in the Canada Gazette. 184 185 For critical habitat located on other federal lands, the competent minister must either 186 make a statement on existing legal protection or make an order so that the prohibition 187 against destruction of critical habitat applies. 188 189 If the critical habitat for a migratory bird is not within a federally protected area and is 190 not on federal land, within the exclusive economic zone or on the continental shelf of 191 Canada, the prohibition against destruction can only apply to those portions of the 192 critical habitat that are habitat to which the Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1994 applies 193 as per ss. 58(5.1) and ss. 58(5.2) of SARA. 194 195 For any part of critical habitat located on non-federal lands, if the competent minister 196 forms the opinion that any portion of critical habitat is not protected by provisions in or 197 measures under SARA or other Acts of Parliament, or the laws of the province or 198 territory, SARA requires that the Minister recommend that the Governor in Council make 199 an order to prohibit destruction of critical habitat. The discretion to protect critical habitat 200 on non-federal lands that is not otherwise protected rests with the Governor in Council.

4 These federally protected areas are: a national park of Canada named and described in Schedule 1 to the Canada National Parks Act, The Rouge National Park established by the Rouge National Urban Park Act, a marine protected area under the Oceans Act, a migratory bird sanctuary under the Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1994 or a national wildlife area under the Canada Wildlife Act see ss. 58(2) of SARA.

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201 Acknowledgements 202 203 The Federal Addition to the Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky 204 Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the Northern Dusky Salamander 205 (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario (Part 1) was prepared by Karolyne Pickett, 206 Christina Rohe (Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service – 207 Ontario) and Marie-Claude Archambault (formerly with Environment and Climate 208 Change Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service – Ontario). 209 210 The Federal Addition benefited from review and input from the following individuals and 211 organizations: John Brett, Angela Darwin, Krista Holmes, and Elizabeth Rezek 212 (Environment and Climate Change Canada); Joe Crowley, Megan McAndrew, Lucy 213 Ellis, Mark Hulsman, Fiona McGuiness, Glenn Desy (Ontario Ministry of Natural 214 Resources and Forestry) and Don Sutherland (Natural Heritage Information Centre). 215 216 Acknowledgement and thanks is given to all other parties that provided advice and input 217 used to help inform the development of this recovery strategy. 218

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219 Additions and Modifications to the Adopted Document 220 221 The following sections (Part 1) have been included to address specific requirements of 222 the federal Species at Risk Act (SARA) that are not addressed in the Recovery Strategy 223 for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the 224 Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario (Part 2 of this 225 document, referred to henceforth as “the provincial recovery strategy”) and to provide 226 updated or additional information. 227 228 Environment and Climate Change Canada is adopting the Ontario recovery strategy 229 (Part 2) with the exception of section 2.0, Recovery. In place of section 2.0, 230 Environment and Climate Change Canada has established a population and distribution 231 objective and performance indicators, and is adopting the Government of Ontario’s 232 government-led and government-supported actions of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky 233 Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander – Ontario Government Response 234 Statement (Part 3) as the broad strategies and general approaches to meet the 235 population and distribution objective. 236 237 Under SARA, there are specific requirements and processes set out regarding the 238 protection of critical habitat. Therefore, statements in the provincial recovery strategy 239 referring to protection of the species’ habitat may not directly correspond to federal 240 requirements with respect to critical habitat. Recovery measures dealing with the 241 protection of habitat are adopted; however, whether these measures will result in 242 protection of critical habitat under SARA will be assessed following publication of the 243 final federal recovery strategy. 244 245 Only those portions of the Ontario recovery strategy pertaining to the Northern Dusky 246 Salamander are being adopted in this recovery strategy. 247 248 The Canadian range of the Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) is 249 disjunct, representing two designatable units: the Carolinian population in Ontario and 250 the ‘Quebec/New Brunswick’ population in Quebec and New Brunswick (COSEWIC 251 2012). This recovery strategy is specific to the Carolinian population in Ontario, and the 252 Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian population, will hereafter be referred to as the 253 Northern Dusky Salamander unless otherwise referenced. 254 255 Recovery Feasibility Summary 256 257 The Government of Canada published the proposed “Species at Risk Act Policies - 258 Policy on Survival and Recovery5” (2016) to guide consistent interpretation of major 259 concepts applicable under the federal Species at Risk Act (SARA). Recovery feasibility 260 for the Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian population, was assessed following this

5 www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/species-risk-public-registry/policies- guidelines/survival-recovery-2016.html

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261 guidance. If new information becomes available or if required due to amendments to the 262 Policy on Survival and Recovery, recovery feasibility may be re-assessed in an 263 amendment to this recovery strategy. 264 265 Based on the best available information, the Northern Dusky Salamander was probably 266 never particularly widespread or abundant within Canada and is considered to be 267 historically precarious6 in Canada (see Appendix A for details). The dusky salamander 268 genus was first reported in Ontario (unspecified location) in 1908 with a subsequent 269 report that mentions its occurrence in ‘Ontario opposite Buffalo, New York’ (Markle et al. 270 2013). It wasn’t until 1989 when the Northern Dusky Salamander (identified to species 271 level) was confirmed in Ontario, within the Niagara Gorge (Markle et al. 2013). Despite 272 targeted surveys in proximate suitable habitats, it is only known from this one extant 273 location within the Niagara Gorge (COSEWIC 2012). The nearest known population is 274 over 30 km away in New York State and is more than 420 km from the Quebec / New 275 Brunswick population (COSEWIC 2012). 276 277 For a species that is determined to be historically precarious, recovery will be 278 considered feasible if the extent of irreversible change7 is such that under the best 279 achievable scenario8 the condition of the species can be improved to a point that it is 280 approaching the historical condition9. The main instance of irreversible change that 281 must be considered for this population is the urbanization of the adjacent up-gradient 282 habitat that supports the species’ aquatic habitat through the provision of groundwater 283 flows. The species is also highly susceptible to ecological, demographic and genetic 284 stochasticity (chance events) due to the very small size and isolation of its single known 285 population (See Appendix A for further details). 286 287 There are unknowns regarding the feasibility of recovery for the Northern Dusky 288 Salamander. In keeping with the precautionary principle, a recovery strategy has been 289 prepared as per section 41(1) of SARA, as would be done when recovery is determined 290 to be feasible. This recovery strategy attempts to address the unknowns surrounding 291 the feasibility of recovery. A more thorough discussion of the recovery feasibility 292 assessment for Northern Dusky Salamander can be found in Appendix A. 293

6 A species that, prior to significant effects from human activity, was below the survival threshold or was dependent on demographic connectivity with outside populations for the long-term presence in Canada according to the best available information on the species population in Canada. Such a species may be recovered by achieving a condition that approximates its historical state (GOC 2016). 7 A change that results in the establishment of a new set of ecological or biological conditions that constrain the ability of the species to return to its historic condition and which cannot reasonably be changed in a way that improves those conditions for the species within a biologically relevant time frame (e.g., loss of genetic diversity, loss of food/host species, effects of permanent infrastructure) (GOC 2016). 8 The biologically and technically achievable scenario with the lowest possible risk of extinction to the species that can be achieved, taking into account irreversible change (GOC 2016). 9 An estimate of the historic level of redundancy, resilience, representation, population and distribution, trend, threats, ecological role and any other factors that together determine the risk of extinction or extirpation of the species in Canada prior to significant effects of human activity, based on best available information (GOC 2016).

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294 Assessing Recovery Feasibility 295 296 To determine whether recovery is technically and biologically feasible for a historically 297 precarious species, such as the Northern Dusky Salamander, any information that is 298 known or estimated about the historical condition of the species should be used to 299 understand the appropriate context of each fundamental species characteristic in 300 question (Table 1) (GOC 2016; Appendix A). 301 302 Table 1. Determination of Recovery Feasibility for Historically Precarious Species 303

Fundamental Recovery Threshold Technically and Species Biologically Feasible to Characteristic Achieve Recovery Threshold Quickly Enough to Help the Species? (Y/N/Unknown)

Population Trend Unknown Approximating historical condition

Resilience Unknown Approximating historical condition (Population size) Redundancy Unknown (Population # / Approximating historical condition

Distribution) Population Unknown Approximating historical condition Connectivity Mitigation of Human- Significant threats avoided or mitigated to Unknown caused Threats the extent that they no longer threaten the

species Species Condition10 Improved over when first assessed as at Unknown risk Representation (Species presence in Approximating historical condition at a Yes appropriate ecological coarse scale communities) Independent of Connectivity with Yes Connectivity okay if necessary populations outside of Canada Independent of Yes Yes Species Interventions 304

10 The condition of the species refers to the combination of the level of redundancy, resilience, representation, population and distribution, trend, threats, ecological role and any other factors that together determine the risk of extinction or extirpation of the species in Canada The condition of the species refers to the combination of its population size, distribution, trend, threats, ecological roles and any factors that together determine the risk of extinction or extirpation of the species (GOC 2016).

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305 Summary of Recovery Feasibility 306 307 Northern Dusky Salamanders are restricted to a narrow range of habitat conditions and 308 access to cool, highly oxygenated, first-order forested streams or seeps (Markle et al. 309 2013; COSEWIC 2012). The extant distribution of the population is highly localized and 310 may never have existed well beyond the Niagara Gorge. In addition, with the nearest 311 known U.S. population being over 30km away, it is unlikely that the Ontario population 312 of the Northern Dusky Salamander was historically reliant on populations outside of 313 Canada (COSEWIC 2012). Though it is not known if there was historical connectivity to 314 additional populations in the more immediate vicinity, it is possible that other local 315 populations exist and have not yet been discovered. As such, it is unknown whether 316 unsuccessful search effort is due to the species having more specific requirements than 317 is currently understood (COSEWIC 2012). There is a rough estimate of 7 to 35 mature 318 individuals in the extant Northern Dusky Salamander population (COSEWIC 2012); 319 however, it is unknown if this population size approximates historical condition. 320 321 Changes in the supply and quality of water threaten the persistence of this population. 322 The species is dependent on the source water that sustains the streams and seeps 323 where it is found in the Niagara Gorge. Trampling of the streams and seeps by people 324 during recreational activities are also a threat (Markle et al. 2013). It is unknown if 325 significant threats can be avoided or mitigated to the extent that they no longer threaten 326 the species. The Ontario population of Northern Dusky Salamander appears to be 327 self-sustaining but a standardized survey and monitoring program is needed to monitor 328 the genetic health and trends in the population (Markle et al. 2013; Part 3). In addition, 329 periodic habitat management will likely be required to help maintain habitat suitability 330 (e.g., invasive species removal, planting native trees). 331 332 The minimum viable population size11 for the Northern Dusky Salamander has not been 333 determined; however, establishing this would provide a better understanding of the 334 number of individuals needed to maintain a self-sustaining population that is resilient 335 against chance random events (e.g., erosion, slope failure, mudslides). 336 337 Based on the assessment of recovery feasibility above (i.e., a large number of 338 unknowns, but the absence of any answers to suggest that recovery is not technically or 339 biologically feasible), the recovery feasibility of the Northern Dusky Salamander is 340 considered unknown. It is likely that the species was never widespread in the region, 341 and it will likely always be vulnerable to human-caused stressors and natural, random 342 events. The population will likely continue to be considered rare in Canada despite 343 research to fill knowledge gaps and recovery actions to mitigate threats. 344

11 An estimate of the number of individuals required for a high probability of survival of a population over a given period of time.

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345 1. COSEWIC* Species Assessment Information 346 Date of Assessment: May 2012

Common Name (population): Northern Dusky Salamander (Carolinian population)

Scientific Name: Desmognathus fuscus

COSEWIC Status: Endangered

Reason for Designation: This species is restricted to one small creek sustained by groundwater seepage on the steep slope of a gorge vulnerable to erosion, atmospheric deposition of pollutants and habitat acidification. The population is small and susceptible to ecological, demographic and genetic stochasticity.

Canadian Occurrence: Ontario

COSEWIC Status History: The species was considered a single unit and designated Not at Risk in April 1999. Split into two populations in May 2012. The Carolinian population was designated Endangered in May 2012.

347 * COSEWIC: Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada 348 349 2. Species Status Information 350 351 The Northern Dusky Salamander12 is a lungless salamander that occurs in three 352 Canadian provinces (Ontario, Quebec and New Brunswick) and throughout the 353 north-eastern United Sates (Appendix B). The species comprises two designatable units 354 (DUs) within Canada: the Carolinian population (occurring in Ontario), and the 355 Quebec/New Brunswick population (occurring in Quebec and New Brunswick). This 356 recovery strategy is specific to the population occurring in Ontario and represents the 357 Northern Dusky Salamander - Carolinian population. 358 359 The global conservation status rank for Northern Dusky Salamander13, last reviewed on 360 May 10, 2016, is Secure (G5) (NatureServe 2017). In Canada, the species is ranked 361 Vulnerable-Apparently Secure (N3N4), a numeric range rank (i.e., Vulnerable (N3) - 362 Apparently Secure (N4)) is used to indicate uncertainty about the exact status of the 363 taxon (Master et al. 2012), At the subnational scale in Canada, the species is ranked 364 Vulnerable in Quebec and New Brunswick (S3), and Critically Imperiled in Ontario (S1). 365 Definitions of Global (G), National (N) and Subnational (S) ranks, as well as the national 366 and subnational ranks of Northern Dusky Salamander in the United States, are provided 367 in Appendix B.

12 This reference to the Northern Dusky Salamander is not specific to the Carolinian population. 13 This assessment of the species is on a global scale and is not limited to the Carolinian population.

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368 In Ontario, the Northern Dusky Salamander is known from only one location in the 369 Niagara Gorge and was listed as Endangered14 on Schedule 1 of the federal Species at 370 Risk Act (SARA) in June 2017. The Northern Dusky Salamander is listed as 371 Endangered15 under the provincial Endangered Species Act, 2007 (ESA). 372 373 The Canadian distribution (i.e., both DUs) accounts for about 5% of the global range 374 and of this, Ontario only represents a small proportion of this percentage in the Niagara 375 Gorge (Carolinian population), with the remaining larger proportion being in Quebec and 376 scattered areas in southern New Brunswick (Quebec / New Brunswick population) 377 (COSEWIC 2012). 378 379 3. Threats 380 381 The provincial Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander 382 (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus 383 fuscus) in Ontario (Part 2) describes the threats to survival and recovery of the Northern 384 Dusky Salamander in Ontario. Environment and Climate Change Canada is adding a 385 recently discovered threat, which is described below. 386 387 Disease from alien pathogens 388 389 The Northern Dusky Salamander could be highly vulnerable in the face of pathogen 390 introduction due to its small population size and geographic isolation. Pathogens like 391 ranaviruses and chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and Batrachochytrium 392 salamandrivorans are introduced through regional and international trade of animals, 393 and have caused important declines in amphibians and other ectotherms around the 394 world (Duffus et al. 2015; Yap et al. 2015). Mortalities caused by Ranaviruses and 395 B. dendrobatidis have been documented in various amphibian species of Canada 396 (Hughey et al. 2014; Duffus et al. 2015). B. salamandrivorans, a pathogen specific to 397 salamanders, has not yet been recorded in North America, but introduction is 398 considered likely given considerable salamander imports from Asia where the disease 399 originates (Yap et al. 2015). A number of mitigation measures have been proposed for 400 at-risk species, including treatments of infected populations and application of 401 prevention protocols in animal trade (Scheele et al. 2014; Yap et al. 2015). Considering 402 the limited and evolving understanding of these diseases, as well as the enforcement 403 challenges associated with identifying different salamander species at Canada’s 404 numerous ports of entry, the Government of Canada implemented a precautionary, 405 one-year import restriction prohibiting the import of all species of the order Caudata 406 (such as salamanders, newts and mudpuppies) into Canada (unless authorized by a 407 permit issued by Environment and Climate Change Canada). The restriction, 408 implemented through an amendment to the federal Wild Animal and Plant Trade 409 Regulations was approved by the Governor in Council and was published in the Canada 410 Gazette, Part II, on May 31, 2017. As these pathogens continue to pose a significant

14 Under SARA, an endangered species means a wildlife species that is facing imminent extirpation or extinction. 15 Under the ESA, a species shall be classified as an endangered species if it lives in the wild in Ontario but is facing imminent extinction or extirpation.

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411 conservation threat to Canadian salamanders, the current restriction came into effect on 412 May 12, 2018 to replace the one-year temporary import restriction on salamanders. 413 414 4. Population and Distribution Objectives 415 416 Under subsection 41 (1) (d) of SARA, a population and distribution objective must be 417 established for listed endangered, threatened and extirpated species when recovery is 418 deemed feasible. The population and distribution objective established by Environment 419 and Climate Change Canada for the Northern Dusky Salamander is to: 420 421  Maintain the one known local population in Ontario and promote natural 422 population expansion in the general area occupied by the species. 423 424 Based on the provincial record, only a single population of the Northern Dusky 425 Salamander has ever been confirmed in Ontario. Due to the small, isolated range the 426 species inhabits, it is highly susceptible to habitat change (e.g., in quality or availability) 427 and continued degradation could compromise the long-term survival of the Carolinian 428 population. The Northern Dusky Salamander is primarily found in seepages, small 429 streams and surrounding forested areas with an abundance of refuges (e.g. woody 430 debris, rocks) to carry out its life processes (breeding, egg-laying, overwintering, larval 431 development, foraging, daytime retreats and dispersal) (Markle et al. 2013). The 432 suitable habitat required by the Northern Dusky Salamander is considered highly 433 specific and naturally rare in southwestern Ontario (Markle et al. 2013). Maintaining the 434 current distribution in Ontario will in part, depend on maintaining the suitable habitat 435 conditions, particularly groundwater quantity and quality. Recovery actions that protect 436 and manage the surface water and groundwater system that sustains the seep and 437 stream habitat of the Northern Dusky Salamander will be a key priority. Improving 438 knowledge of the population demographics and specific habitat requirements in Ontario, 439 encouraging the implementation of beneficial management practices that minimize 440 impacts on groundwater recharge areas and seeps, and supporting education and 441 awareness that inspire collaboration in the protection and recovery of the species (Part 442 3) will promote the feasibility of natural population expansion and likely contribute to the 443 success of the population and distribution objective overall. 444 445 The objective focuses on the continued persistence of the one extant population rather 446 than a quantitative target (e.g., effective population size), based on the best available 447 information at the time of posting this recovery strategy. The current population 448 abundance is estimated to be between 7-35 mature individuals (COSEWIC 2012). All 449 life stages have been observed, and based on information to date, it appears that the 450 local population is reproducing and is considered to be self-sustaining16 (Markle et al. 451 2013). However, stochastic events (e.g. mudslides) pose a threat to this population as it 452 is small in size and restricted to a single known general location in Ontario. Supporting 453 the development and implementation of a standardized survey and monitoring program 454 will benefit the extant known population and enable the possibility of discovering new

16 A population that on average demonstrates stable or positive population growth and is large enough to withstand random events and persist in the long term without the need for permanent active management intervention.

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455 ones (Part 3). Although a larger population size does not protect against all threats, it is 456 a strong predictor of resilience against rates of decline due to inbreeding or chance 457 events. Because the species is a poor overland disperser, opportunity for the population 458 to naturally increase will in part be dependent on stream network connectivity 459 (COSEWIC 2012). As such, due to limitations of site accessibility, temporary waterways 460 formed during heavy rainfall may provide dispersal access between otherwise 461 terrestrially isolated streams/seeps (COSEWIC 2012). For these reasons, the support of 462 a natural increase in its extant distribution is warranted and where possible, promoting 463 natural increases should be supported (Part 3). 464 465 This objective is consistent with the province of Ontario’s Government Response 466 Statement developed under the provincial Endangered Species Act, which outlines the 467 provincial government’s goal for the recovery of the species and summarizes the 468 prioritized actions the government intends to take and support (see Part 3 for more 469 information). The Government Response Statement for the province of Ontario lists the 470 following recovery goal for the recovery of the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario: 471 472  The government’s goal for the recovery of the Northern Dusky Salamander is to 473 maintain suitable habitat conditions in the Niagara Gorge in order to retain 474 existing known populations in a self-sustaining state and promote natural 475 increases. 476 477 5. Broad Strategies and General Approaches to Meet 478 Objectives 479 480 The government-led and government-supported actions identified in the Allegheny 481 Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander – Ontario 482 Government Response Statement (Part 3) as they pertain to the Northern Dusky 483 Salamander, are adopted as the broad strategies and general approaches to meet the 484 population and distribution objectives. In addition to the actions identified in Ontario’s 485 Government Response Statement, Environment and Climate Change Canada is 486 modifying the Government-led Actions, for the purpose of this recovery strategy, to read 487 as follows: 488 489  Support actions that continue to address the limited and evolving understanding 490 of disease from alien pathogens and Northern Dusky Salamander recovery. 491 492 6. Critical Habitat 493 494 6.1 Identification of the Species’ Critical Habitat 495 496 Section 41(1)(c) of SARA requires that recovery strategies include an identification of 497 the species’ critical habitat, to the extent possible, as well as examples of activities that 498 are likely to result in its destruction. Under section 2(1) of SARA, critical habitat is “the 499 habitat that is necessary for the survival or recovery of a listed wildlife species and that

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500 is identified as the species’ critical habitat in the recovery strategy or in an action plan 501 for the species”. 502 503 Identification of critical habitat is not a component of provincial recovery strategies 504 developed under the Province of Ontario's ESA. Under the ESA, when a species 505 becomes listed as endangered or threatened on the Species at Risk in Ontario List, it 506 automatically receives general habitat protection. The Northern Dusky Salamander 507 currently receives general habitat protection under the ESA. In some cases, a habitat 508 regulation may be developed that replaces the general habitat protection. A habitat 509 regulation is a legal instrument that prescribes an area that will be protected17 as the 510 habitat of the species by the Province of Ontario. A habitat regulation has not been 511 developed for the Northern Dusky Salamander; however, the provincial recovery 512 strategy includes a recommendation on the area that should be considered in 513 developing a habitat regulation for the species (see Part 2, section 2.5). 514 515 Critical habitat for the Northern Dusky Salamander in Canada occurs within the 516 1 km x 1 km standardized UTM grid squares where the critical habitat criteria and extent 517 of biophysical attributes described in this section are met (Figure 1). Detailed critical 518 habitat mapping is not presented in the document owing to identified threat of trampling 519 of the streams and seeps by hikers and curiosity-seekers (such as naturalists) 520 searching for the species and disturbing the habitat the Northern Dusky Salamander 521 depends upon. 522 523 Critical habitat for the Northern Dusky Salamander in Canada is identified in this federal 524 recovery strategy for the one extant population. The identified area containing critical 525 habitat is considered insufficient to achieve the population and distribution objectives, as 526 there is a need to better understand the groundwater hydrology that maintains suitable 527 habitat for the species. Therefore a Schedule of Studies has been included (Table 3). If 528 new or additional information becomes available, refinements to, or additional critical 529 habitat may be identified in an amendment to this recovery strategy. For more 530 information on critical habitat identification, contact Environment and Climate Change 531 Canada – Canadian Wildlife Service at ec.planificationduretablissement- 532 [email protected]. 533 534 6.1.1 Areas Containing Critical Habitat 535 536 In Canada, the presence and persistence of the Northern Dusky Salamander depends 537 on an area greater than that occupied by individuals of the species. It requires 538 landscape features that promote and maintain suitable habitat18 for the salamanders

17 Under the federal Species at Risk Act (SARA), there are specific requirements and processes set out regarding the protection of critical habitat. Protection of critical habitat under SARA will be assessed following publication of the final federal recovery strategy. 18 Suitable habitat is composed of the biophysical attributes (e.g. soil and moisture conditions, light penetration, species composition and species interactions) that provide individuals of the species the necessary conditions to carry out essential life processes.

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539 and allow for natural processes related to healthy population dynamics and reproduction 540 to occur. The area containing critical habitat for the Northern Dusky Salamander is the 541 landscape feature (i.e., the deciduous forest embankment of the Niagara Gorge) where 542 the Northern Dusky Salamander is known to occur19. 543 544 6.1.2 Biophysical Attributes of Critical Habitat 545 546 Northern Dusky Salamanders depend upon the groundwater discharge that feeds the 547 streams and seeps in which they dwell, and are typically found along the edges of small 548 high quality woodland streams, and in damp seepage areas where there is an 549 abundance of logs, stones and leaf litter. Terrestrial habitat provides necessary 550 protection against high temperatures and maintains humidity, as well as cover objects 551 for shelter and protection from predators. Adult salamanders will forage along seepage 552 areas and streams and the forest floor. The biophysical attributes of the critical habitat 553 for the Northern Dusky Salamander include: 554 555 Aquatic habitat 556  Seepages, portions of streams or wet cavities from intermittent (permanent and 557 semi-permanent) seeps or streams that are of sufficient quality20 to support 558 Northern Dusky Salamander (from groundwater discharge to Niagara River 559 edge); AND 560 561 Terrestrial habitat 562  Shaded and moist forested habitat with available leaf litter, woody debris, rocks 563 and naturally vegetated habitat within 75 metres21 on either side of intermittent 564 (permanent and semi-permanent) seeps or streams. 565 566

19 Based on data available to Environment and Climate Change Canada as of July 2017; the landscape feature is included up to 75 m from the seeps and streams where the Northern Dusky Salamander is known to occur. 20 Salamanders are important indicators of ecosystem health, requiring relatively high water quality (e.g. clear and low turbidity) and are highly sensitive to stream pollution and siltation (COSEWIC 2012). Physiochemical and biological changes to habitat caused by urbanization (e.g., impacts from runoff, salting, or pollution) can vary, but the detrimental impacts of these changes on salamander populations are consistent (Barrett and Price 2014). However, should the aquatic habitat become impacted (e.g., by a severe rain or pollution event), thus compromising its quality, it is still considered as meeting the biophysical attributes until it is determined to no longer support the salamander. 21 Home ranges for Northern Dusky Salamanders are estimated to be within 15 m of a stream or seep (Hom 1987). Maximum dispersal limit within suitable habitat has been estimated as 30 m on either side of a stream (COSSARO 2012), but it is possible that travelled distances may increase during cool and wet periods (Markle et al. 2013). Due to the dynamic nature of the seeps within the area containing critical habitat, a 75 m distance extending from either side of all permanent and semi-permanent seeps or streams where the Northern Dusky Salamander is known to occur defines the terrestrial portion of critical habitat to ensure that all suitable habitat for Northern Dusky Salamander is included.

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567 Table 2: Grid squares that contain critical habitat for the Northern Dusky 568 Salamander, Carolinian population, in Canada. Critical habitat for the Northern 569 Dusky Salamander may occur within these 1 x 1 km standardized UTM grid squares 570 where the description of critical habitat is met. 571 UTM Grid Square

1 x 1 km Coordinatesb Standardized UTM Province/Territory Land Tenurec grid square IDa Easting Northing

17TPH5766 656000 4776000 Ontario Non-federal Land 17TPH5776 657000 4776000

572 a Based on the standard UTM Military Grid Reference System (see http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth- 573 sciences/geography/topographic-information/maps/9789), where the first 2 digits represent the UTM 574 Zone, followed by a letter representing the UTM Band, the following 2 letters indicate the 100 x 100 km 575 standardized UTM grid, followed by 2 digits to represent the 10 x 10 km standardized UTM, and the last 576 2 digits indicate the 1 x 1 km standardized UTM grid containing the geographic location of the area 577 containing critical habitat. This unique alphanumeric code is based on the methodology produced from 578 the Breeding Bird Atlases of Canada (See http://www.bsc-eoc.org for more information on breeding bird 579 atlases). 580 b The listed coordinates are a cartographic representation of where the geographic location of the area 581 containing critical habitat can be found, presented as the southwest corner of the 1 x 1 km standardized 582 UTM grid square. The coordinates are provided as a general location only. 583 c Land tenure is provided as an approximation of the types of land ownership that exist at the geographic 584 location of the area containing critical habitat and should be used for guidance purposes only. Accurate 585 land tenure will require cross referencing geographic location boundaries with surveyed land parcel 586 information. 587

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588 589 Figure 1. Critical habitat for the Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian population, 590 occurs within the 1 x 1 km standardized UTM grid squares indicated (red outline) where 591 the criteria and biophysical attributes set out in section 6.1 are met. This standardized 592 national grid system indicates the general geographic area within which critical habitat is 593 found; detailed critical habitat mapping is not shown.

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594 6.2 Schedule of Studies to Identify Critical Habitat 595 596 Table 3. Schedule of Studies to Identify Critical Habitat

Description of Activity Rationale Timeline Identify the extent of the groundwater recharge As the local population is associated area necessary to sustain the seep and stream to intermittent groundwater discharge 2024 habitat supporting the species. stream(s), there is a need to better understand the groundwater hydrology that maintains suitable habitat for the species in order to determine the specific biophysical attributes and how much habitat is required to meet the population and distribution objective. 597 598 6.3 Activities Likely to Result in Destruction of Critical Habitat 599 600 Understanding what constitutes destruction of critical habitat is necessary for the 601 protection and management of critical habitat. Destruction is determined on a case by 602 case basis. Destruction would result if part or all of the critical habitat was degraded, 603 either permanently or temporarily, such that it would not serve its function when needed 604 by the species. Destruction may result from a single activity or multiple activities at one 605 point in time or from the cumulative effects of one or more activities over time. It should 606 be noted that not all activities that occur in or near critical habitat are likely to cause its 607 destruction. Activities described in Table 4 are examples of those likely to cause 608 destruction of critical habitat for the species; however, destructive activities are not 609 necessarily limited to those listed. 610 611 Currently, the greatest threat to Northern Dusky Salamander habitat is any activity that 612 changes the hydrology (quantity or quality) of its habitat. Detrimental changes may 613 include increased or decreased peak flows and discharge volumes, increased turbidity 614 or sedimentation, increased water temperature, and altered water chemistry through 615 contaminated surface water. The groundwater recharge area outside the Niagara Gorge 616 is heavily developed for urban and industrial uses. Development activities that reduce, 617 redirect, or stop the groundwater flow that feeds the inhabited seeps and streams would 618 threaten this population. Further research is required to accurately measure, forecast, 619 and detect changes in the quantity and quality of water supporting the species’ habitat 620 (Part 3). This information is required to identify the type of activities likely to cause harm, 621 their geographic extent, and the level of each activity likely to cause harm (i.e. 622 thresholds). 623 624

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625 Table 4. Activities Likely to Result in the Destruction of Critical Habitat 626 Description of Description of effect in relation to function loss Details of effect Activity Activities that result in Hydrological changes may destroy or degrade When conducted within or the removal, suitable habitat by modifying or disrupting water flow, outside the boundaries of redirection or reduction water balance or soil moisture. The Northern Dusky critical habitat, such activities of groundwater and Salamander is lungless and relies on its moist skin may result in the destruction surface water levels for respiration, and as a result, any deterioration or of this habitat if the water (e.g., water extraction interruption of the groundwater and surface water level and flow that contribute for urban that supports the species could potentially have to the maintenance of critical development, water catastrophic effects. habitat are altered. management, golf courses). Activities that increase Storm water management and increases in If this activity occurs within or the quantity of surface impervious surface area may result in landslides or adjacent to critical habitat, at water runoff (e.g. mudslides (which have the potential to re-direct or any time of year, the effects storm water runoff even completely remove the stream that is inhabited will be direct and cumulative from residential by the species). This could alter water quality in and are likely to destroy or development and seeps and streams by increasing turbidity and impair critical habitat. roads). sedimentation and result in the net removal, disturbance or destruction of cover objects (e.g., rocks, logs or woody debris) and/or canopy cover (e.g., displacement of trees). Activities that release Pollutants entering the groundwater recharge area If this activity occurs within or pollutants in the and/or directly to the surface water that supports the outside of the critical habitat groundwater recharge species could potentially reduce water quality, (groundwater recharge area or directly into degrade habitat and expose the Northern Dusky largely occurs outside of surface water where Salamander to environmental toxicity. critical habitat bounds), at the species occurs any time of year, the effects (e.g. pesticides, may be direct and cumulative atmospheric and could destroy or impair deposition, industrial critical habitat. chemicals, road salt). Development activities Tree harvesting, site clearing (e.g., infrastructure for If this activity occurs within that result in the net tourism) and other activities that result in the net critical habitat at any time of removal of habitat removal of habitat would result in the direct loss of year, the effects will be direct (e.g., tree harvesting, habitat which the species relies on (e.g., foraging, and will destroy or impair site clearing) loss of canopy, overwintering). critical habitat.

Introduction of exotic European Common Reed may be eliminating If this activity occurs within and invasive plant shoreline habitat where it is able to form thick stands, critical habitat, at any time of species such as thus reducing the access and availability of shoreline year, the effects will be direct European Common habitat for the species (e.g., foraging habitat, daytime and most likely result in the Reed (Phragmites retreat along the banks, dispersal corridor). destruction or damage of australis) critical habitat. Once introduced, any activities that result in the loss of native vegetation (e.g., off-trail hiking) favours the spread of exotic and invasive plant species.

Exotic and invasive plant species have strong dispersal capabilities, thus may spread to critical habitat over time and cause destruction.

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Off-trail hiking and Off-trail hiking and bouldering activities can displace If this activity occurs within other recreational objects used for cover by the species, increase water critical habitat at any time of activities (e.g., turbidity, and erode the stream bed and its banks year, the effects will be direct bouldering22) through direct trampling, trampling of vegetation. and most likely result in the destruction or damage of critical habitat. 627 628 629 7. Measuring Progress 630 631 The performance indicators presented below provide a way to define and measure 632 progress toward achieving the population and distribution objectives. Every five years, 633 success of recovery strategy implementation will be measured against the following 634 performance indicators: 635 636 1. The presence of the one known local population in Ontario has been maintained. 637 2. Natural population expansion in the general area occupied by the species has 638 been promoted. 639 640 8. Statement on Action Plans 641 642 One or more action plans will be completed for Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian 643 population, and posted on the Species at Risk Public Registry by 2026. 644 645

22 Bouldering is the activity (sport) of climbing on large boulders.

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646 9. References 647 648 Barrett, K., S.J. Price. 2014. Urbanization and stream salamanders: a review, 649 conservation options, and research needs. Freshwater Science 33(3): 927-940. 650 651 COSEWIC. 2012. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Northern Dusky 652 Salamander Desmognathus fuscus in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered 653 Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. xiii + 56 pp. (www.registrelep- 654 sararegistry.gc.ca/default_e.cfm). 655 656 COSSARO. 2012. COSSARO Candidate Species at Risk Evaluation for Northern Dusky 657 Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus). Committee on the Status of Species at Risk in 658 Ontario. Peterborough. 11 pp. 659 660 Duffus, A.L.J., T.B. Waltzek, A.C. Stöhr, M.C. Allender, M. Gotesman, R.J. Whittington, 661 P. Hick, M.K. Hines, and R.E. Marschang. 2015. Distribution and host range of 662 ranaviruses. Pp. 9-57. In M.J. Gray and V.G. Chinchar (eds.). Ranaviruses: Lethal 663 pathogens of ectothermic vertebrates. Springer International Publishing. 664 665 Elphick, C.S., J.M. Reed and J.M. Bonta. 2001. Correlates of population recovery goals 666 in endangered birds. Conservation Biology 15(5): 1285-1291. 667 668 Government of Canada (GOC). 2016. Policy on survival and recovery [Proposed]. 669 Species at Risk Act: Policies and Guidelines Series. Government of Canada, Ottawa. 670 8pp. Website: http://registrelep- 671 sararegistry.gc.ca/virtual_sara/files/policies/Survival_and_Recovery_EN1.pdf [Accessed 672 July 2018]. 673 674 Grover, M.C. and H.M. Wilbur. 2002. Ecology of ecotones: interactions between 675 salamanders on a complex environmental gradient. Ecology 83(8): 2112-2123. 676 677 Hom, C.L. 1987. Reproductive ecology of female dusky salamanders, Desmognathus 678 fuscus (Plethodontidae), in the southern Appalachians. Copeia 1987: 768-777. 679 680 Hughey, M.C., M.H. Becker, J.B. Walke, M.C. Swartwout, and L.K. Belden. 2014. 681 Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Virginia amphibians: Within and among site variation 682 in infection. Herpetological Review 45(3):428-438. 683 684 Kamstra, J. 1991. Rediscovery of the Northern Dusky Salamander, Desmognathus 685 fuscus, in Ontario. Canadian Field-Naturalist 105: 561-563. 686 687 Markle, T.M., A.R. Yagi and D.M. Green. 2013. Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny 688 Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the Northern Dusky 689 Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario. Recovery Strategy Series. Prepared for 690 the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Peterborough, Ontario. vi + 30 pp. 691

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692 Master, L. L., D. Faber-Langendoen, R. Bittman, G.A. Hammerson, B. Heidel, 693 L. Ramsay, K. Snow, A. Teucher, and A. Tomaino. 2012. NatureServe Conservation 694 Status Assessments: Factors for Evaluating Species and Ecosystem Risk. NatureServe, 695 Arlington, VA. Web site: 696 http://www.natureserve.org/sites/default/files/publications/files/natureserveconservations 697 tatusfactors_apr12.pdf [accessed January 2017]. 698 699 McGowan, C.P., D.H. Catlin, T.L. Shaffer, C.L. Gratto-Trevor and C. Aron. 2014. 700 Establishing endangered species recovery criteria using predictive simulation modeling. 701 Biological Conservation 177(2014): 220-229. 702 703 NatureServe. 2017. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web 704 application]. Arlington, Virginia. Web site: http://www.natureserve.org/explorer 705 [accessed: November 2017]. 706 707 Price, S.J., E.A. Eskew, K.K. Cecala, R.A. Browne, and M.E. Dorcas. 2012. Estimating 708 survival of a streamside salamander: importance of temporary emigration, capture 709 response, and location. Hydrobiologia 679: 205–215. 710 711 Scheele, B.C., D.A. Hunter, L.F. Grogan, L. Berger, J.E. Kolby, M.S. McFadden, 712 G. Marantelli, L.F. Skerratt, and. D.A. Driscoll. 2014. Interventions for reducing 713 extinction risk in chytridiomycosis-threatened amphibians. Conservation Biology 714 28(5):1195-1205. 715 716 Yap, T.A., M.S. Koo, R.F. Ambrose, D.B. Wake, and V.T. Vredenburg. 2015. Averting a 717 North American biodiversity crisis. Science 349(6247):481-482. 718

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719 Appendix A: Historical Context for Northern Dusky 720 Salamander 721 722 Historical Context 723 724 The first step in determining the recovery feasibility of the Northern Dusky Salamander 725 is to establish the historical context (whether the species’ existence in Canada was 726 historically precarious or not precarious). To make this determination, Environment and 727 Climate Change Canada uses the four criteria outlined below. A species is considered 728 to have been historically precarious if any of the following are known or likely to have 729 been true in Canada, prior to significant effects from human activity: 730 731 1. The species was undergoing a long-term natural decline; 732  Unknown. The number of mature individuals observed in the Niagara Gorge 733 location is very low, but there is no available long-term data on trends 734 (COSEWIC 2012). 735 2. The species consisted of fewer than 1,000 mature individuals; 736  Unknown. Presumed Yes. The exact number of mature individuals is 737 unknown. Since 2005, a total of 79 individuals have been observed at the one 738 known location in the Niagara Gorge (Markle et al. 2013). It is unknown if the 739 species historically existed in much higher numbers. 740 3. The species existed at five or fewer locations or less than 20 km2 index of area of 741 occupancy (IAO); 742  Unknown. Presumed Yes. The Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian 743 population, is known from only one location despite targeted survey effort in 744 nearby areas of suitable sites. The species has an index of area of occupancy 745 (IAO)23 of 4 km2 (COSEWIC 2012). 746 4. The species was dependent on connectivity with populations outside Canada for its 747 long term presence in Canada. 748  No. Due to the species’ limited dispersal ability, specific habitat needs, and 749 the vast geographic separation of >30 km between the nearest extant 750 population in New York State, as well as the barrier created by the large and 751 fast flowing Niagara River, there is no evidence to suggest that historic (or 752 current) Northern Dusky Salamanders were connected to populations in the 753 United States (COSEWIC 2012). 754 755 Based on this assessment, the Northern Dusky Salamander was never particularly 756 widespread or abundant and is therefore presumed to have been historically precarious. 757

23 A biologically defensible estimate of the occupied habitat within a wildlife species' range. Measured by an estimate of the number of grid squares occupied by extant populations (https://cosewic.ca/index.php/en-ca/reports/preparing- status-reports/guidelines-index-area-occupancy.html).

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758 Extent of Irreversible Change 759 The Northern Dusky Salamander is confirmed from only a single location on a steep 760 forested talus slope within the Niagara Gorge (in the area of the ‘Whirlpool’ of the 761 Niagara River) (COSEWIC 2012; Markle et al. 2013). At this location, the entire 762 population is confined between the urbanized up-gradient tableland at the top of the 763 Niagara Gorge and the fast flowing Niagara River along the bottom. The population is 764 further limited within the Niagara Gorge by suitable habitat availability, dispersal 765 opportunity and the unlikely chance of a rescue effect24 (COSEWIC 2012; Markle et al. 766 2013). 767 768 The primary threats to the survival and recovery of this population include changes in 769 water flow or water quality that degrade or destroy suitable habitat. The Niagara region 770 of Ontario has undergone significant urban and agricultural development since 771 European settlement, resulting in a loss of high quality groundwater habitat. The 772 Northern Dusky Salamander was first documented in Ontario in 1989, well after much of 773 this change had already taken place. However, the species requires cool, highly 774 oxygenated, first-order streams and nearby forested habitat but a continued decline in 775 quality of habitat, specifically through run-off and erosion on hillsides in the species 776 habitat is a concern. The effect of trampling by humans has also accelerated erosion 777 and siltation. 778 779 Due to the isolation and small population size, continued persistence of this population 780 is highly dependent upon a naturally functioning deciduous forest ecosystem that 781 supports the species needs within the Niagara Gorge and requires reducing threats 782 within the adjacent urbanized landscape (COSEWIC 2012; Markle et al. 2013). 783 784 Narrative to Support Recovery Feasibility 785 786 Population Trend 787 788 For the purposes of determining recovery feasibility, the population trend refers to 789 whether a species’ population can become stable or increase over a biologically 790 relevant timeline. 791 792 The minimum recovery threshold for historically precarious species allows for a 793 population trend to be evaluated over a period of ten years or three generations, 794 whichever is longer (up to 100 years). The generation time of the Northern Dusky 795 Salamander is approximately six years (COSEWIC 2012) therefore, a period of 796 eighteen years is the appropriate timeframe to provide information on the species’ 797 population trends. 798 799 In 1989, two local populations of dusky salamanders were recorded within the 800 Niagara Gorge and until recently, both populations were presumed to be Northern 801 Dusky Salamanders. It wasn’t until 2004 when genetic tests confirmed one of the

24 Genetic or demographic immigration into a population to reduce extinction pressures.

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802 two populations to be Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders (Desmognathus 803 ochrophaeus) (Markle et al. 2013). 804 Rough estimates suggest the abundance of Northern Dusky Salamanders in the 805 Niagara Gorge to be between 7 to 35 mature individuals (COSEWIC 2012). Adults, 806 juveniles, larvae and eggs belonging to the species have been found at this location and 807 the population appears to be self-sustaining, but may be few in number and have low 808 levels of genetic variation (Markle et al. 2013). 809 810 Although Northern Dusky Salamanders were confirmed inhabiting the Niagara Gorge in 811 1989, there isn’t sufficient information to determine with confidence whether this 812 population is stable or increasing. 813 814 Resilience (Population size) 815 Resilience is the species’ ability to recover after a disturbance and is critical to the 816 survival of a species that is considered historically precarious. Although a larger 817 population size does not protect against all threats, it is a strong predictor of resilience 818 against increasing rates of decline due to inbreeding or chance events (Elphick et al. 819 2001; McGowan et al. 2014). 820 821 There is a rough estimate of 7 to 35 mature individuals in this extant Northern Dusky 822 Salamander population (COSEWIC 2012); however, it is unknown if this population size 823 approximates historical condition. The minimum viable population size for the Northern 824 Dusky Salamander has not been determined; however, establishing this would provide 825 a better understanding of the number of individuals needed to maintain a self-sustaining 826 population that is resilient against chance stochastic events (e.g., erosion, slope failure, 827 mudslides). 828 829 Redundancy (Population size and distribution) 830 Redundancy refers to the number of local populations and their distribution. If one local 831 population is damaged or destroyed, others can act as a source to restore this missing 832 local population. Despite survey effort, the Northern Dusky Salamander is only known to 833 occur at one isolated location in the Niagara Gorge, making it particularly susceptible to 834 chance events and extirpation in Canada. 835 836 Though the Northern Dusky Salamander is presumed to be historically precarious in 837 Canada and may never have existed well beyond its current extant location, it is 838 possible that other local populations may be occurring in the immediate vicinity and 839 have not yet been discovered. There are eight to nine seeps (each ranging in 840 approximate length between 65 and 200 metres) within the vicinity of the extant 841 population where the habitat is theoretically large enough to support 970 individuals, 842 assuming 1-metre wide seeps (based on a density of 1.42 metamorphosed25 843 individuals/m2 (documented in streams of the Piedmont region in North Carolina, USA; 844 Spight 1967 in Price et al. 2012)). It is not known whether unsuccessful search effort is 845 due to the species having more specific requirements than is currently understood

25 Metamorphosis: (in an insect or amphibian) the process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages.

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846 (e.g., stream chemistry, temperature or some other factor) or whether the species’ 847 absence is due to historical extirpations and/or lack of successful colonization attempts, 848 or if there are detection issues due to limitations of site accessibility (i.e., surveyor 849 access to areas of suitable habitat within the Niagara Gorge are somewhat limited by 850 steep, dangerous topography (COSEWIC 2012). 851 852 Population Connectivity 853 854 Connectivity among local populations can be important in naturally restoring depleted 855 populations. If connectivity between habitat patches is decreased (e.g. through habitat 856 loss or population declines), remaining local populations may be too small to be viable 857 on their own, or may become inbred due to a lack of gene dispersal. In determining the 858 appropriate level of population connectivity required to ensure the survival or recovery 859 of the species in Canada, it is important to consider the historical level of connectivity to 860 which the species is adapted. 861 862 Though it is not known if there was historical connectivity to additional populations of the 863 Northern Dusky Salamander in this region (only record is of the one extant population in 864 the Niagara Gorge), the population is currently isolated by the large, fast flowing 865 Niagara River and the nearest U.S. population is over 30 km away across the gorge and 866 extensive urban areas (COSEWIC 2010). The population will likely continue to occur as 867 a highly isolated population. 868 869 Mitigation of Human-caused Threats 870 871 This criterion refers specifically to those threats, as a result of human activity, that 872 significantly increase risk to the species. Due to the limited range within the Niagara 873 Gorge, the Northern Dusky Salamander is highly susceptible to habitat change. 874 Changes in water supply and quality due to human activities are the main threat to the 875 Northern Dusky Salamander. Decreased groundwater supply could be catastrophic to 876 this population as this is the source water that sustains the streams and seeps the 877 species depends upon. Runoff water from urban, industrial and agricultural areas can 878 contaminate groundwater and surface water but can also cause slope instabilities 879 leaving salamanders vulnerable to mudslides and rock falls. Although levels of 880 pollutants from atmospheric deposition are unknown, it should be regarded as a serious 881 threat to the species throughout its global range (COSEWIC 2012). For example, 882 atmospheric deposition is the primary source of mercury in surface waters in the 883 Northern U.S. and the toxic exposure is considered to be a significant factor in the 884 dramatic decline of the species in Acadia National Park, Maine (COSEWIC 2012). 885 Trampling of the streams and seeps by hikers venturing off trails, individuals involved in 886 bouldering and curiosity-seekers (such as naturalists) also threaten the species (Markle 887 et al. 2013). 888 889 Threat mitigation could help reduce the risks associated with these threats, however, 890 given its small population size and isolated location the species will likely remain highly 891 susceptible to chance events especially those resulting in habitat change and any

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892 degradation could compromise the long-term survival of the species in Ontario (Markle 893 et al. 2013). It is unknown if significant threats can be avoided or mitigated to the extent 894 that they no longer threaten the species. A standardized survey and monitoring program 895 is needed to monitor the genetic health and trends in the population and habitat threats. 896 A better understanding of the quantity and quality of water supporting the species’ 897 habitat (e.g., through water budget modeling) could help to forecast and identify 898 potential impacts caused by changing land and water uses (Markle et al. 2013; Part 3). 899 Management and stewardship actions exist and may be sufficient to conserve the 900 terrestrial habitat upon which the species depends. For example, stewardship activities 901 such as planting native trees reduce slope erosion, maintaining a natural vegetation 902 buffer on the tableland at the top-of-slope could help reduce runoff and harmful 903 pollutants from entering the site and outreach activities to raise awareness of the 904 species may reduce habitat degradation (Part 3). And if necessary, additional habitat 905 could be made available through alternate habitat management, as the species can 906 colonize artificial seeps (Grover and Wilbur 2002 in COSEWIC 2012). 907 908 Representation in Appropriate Ecological Communities 909 910 Northern Dusky Salamanders are restricted to a narrow range of habitat conditions 911 (i.e., semiaquatic forested habitat with available cover objects (e.g., logs, leaf litter, 912 moss and rocks). Access to cool, highly oxygenated, first-order forested streams or 913 seeps is essential for the persistence of the species (Markle et al. 2013; COSEWIC 914 2012). Though the extant distribution of the population is highly localized, it likely 915 approximates the historic condition. 916 917 Independent of Connectivity with Populations Outside of Canada 918 919 It is unlikely that the Ontario population of the Northern Dusky Salamander was 920 historically reliant on populations outside of Canada for survival, as the Niagara Gorge, 921 Niagara River, and expanses of land without suitable habitat present large barriers 922 between Canadian and American populations of this species. 923 924 Independent of Species Interventions 925 926 The Ontario population of Northern Dusky Salamander appears to be self-sustaining 927 and it is expected that the persistence of the species would be independent of 928 continuous human interventions following mitigation of human-caused threats, which 929 are likely threatening the viability of this population. However, habitat management will 930 likely be required periodically to help maintain habitat suitability (e.g., invasive species 931 removal, planting native trees). 932 933 934 935 936

Recovery Strategy for the Northern Dusky Salamander, Carolinian Population 2021 Part 1: Federal Addition

937 938 Appendix B: Conservation Status Ranks of the Northern 939 Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) in Canada and 940 the United States 941 Country (N Rank) State or Province (S Rank) Canada (N3N4) New Brunswick (S3), Ontario (S1), Quebec (S3) Connecticut (S4), Delaware (S5), District of Columbia (S5), Georgia (S5), Indiana (S4), Kentucky (S5), Maine (S5), Maryland (S5), Massachusetts (S4S5), New Hampshire (S5), New Jersey (SNR), United States (N5) New York (S5), North Carolina (S5), Ohio (SNR), Pennsylvania (S5), Rhode Island (S4), South Carolina (SNR), Tennessee (S5), Vermont (S5), Virginia (S5), West Virginia (S5) 942 Source: NatureServe 2017 943 944 Definitions of Global (G), National (N) and Subnational (S) Conservation Status Ranks 945 (Master et al. 2012) 946 Rank Definition Critically Imperiled—At very high risk of extinction or elimination (G1), or at very G1 high risk of extirpation in the jurisdiction (N1, S1), due to very restricted range, very N1 few populations or occurrences, very steep declines, severe threats, or other S1 factors. G2 Imperiled—At high risk of extinction or elimination (G2), or at high risk of extirpation N2 in the jurisdiction (N2, S2), due to restricted range, few populations or occurrences, S2 steep declines, severe threats, or other factors. G3 Vulnerable—At moderate risk of extinction or elimination (G3), or extirpation in the N3 jurisdiction (N3, S3), due to a fairly restricted range, relatively few populations or S3 occurrences, recent and widespread declines, threats, or other factors. Apparently Secure—At a fairly low risk of extinction or elimination (G4), or G4 extirpation in the jurisdiction (N4, S4), due to an extensive range and/or many N4 populations or occurrences, but with possible cause for some concern as a result of S4 local recent declines, threats, or other factors. G5 Secure—At very low risk of extinction or elimination (G5), or at very low or no risk of N5 extirpation in the jurisdiction due to a very extensive range, abundant populations or S5 occurrences, with little to no concern from declines or threats. Range Rank—A numeric range rank (e.g., S2S3 or S1S3) is used to indicate any N#N# range of uncertainty about the status of the species or ecosystem. Ranges cannot S#S# skip more than two ranks (e.g., SU is used rather than S1S4).

SNR Unranked—State/province conservation status not yet assessed. 947 948

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949 Appendix C: Effects on the Environment and Other Species 950 951 A strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is conducted on all SARA recovery 952 planning documents, in accordance with the Cabinet Directive on the Environmental 953 Assessment of Policy, Plan and Program Proposals26. The purpose of a SEA is to 954 incorporate environmental considerations into the development of public policies, plans, 955 and program proposals to support environmentally sound decision-making and to 956 evaluate whether the outcomes of a recovery planning document could affect any 957 component of the environment or any of the Federal Sustainable Development 958 Strategy’s27 (FSDS) goals and targets. 959 960 Recovery planning is intended to benefit species at risk and biodiversity in general. 961 However, it is recognized that strategies may also inadvertently lead to environmental 962 effects beyond the intended benefits. The planning process based on national 963 guidelines directly incorporates consideration of all environmental effects, with a 964 particular focus on possible impacts upon non-target species or habitats. The results of 965 the SEA are incorporated directly into the strategy itself, but are also summarized below 966 in this statement. 967 968 Protecting the habitat of this species will benefit other native plant and animal species 969 within the Niagara Gorge, including species at risk such as the Allegheny Mountain 970 Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus), Deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum), 971 and Red Mulberry (Morus rubra). Measures recommended in the Government 972 Response Statement for the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario and adopted by 973 Environment and Climate Change Canada will benefit species in the Niagara Gorge and 974 those that depend on the water of the Niagara River through the development of 975 programs focused on water quality and quantity and best management practices for 976 activities impacting water in the area, habitat management, and education of visitors to 977 the area. 978 979 The potential for the strategy to inadvertently lead to adverse effects on other species 980 was considered. None of the management activities proposed includes activities that 981 would negatively affect other species. The SEA concluded that this strategy will clearly 982 benefit the environment and will not entail significant adverse effects.

26 www.canada.ca/en/environmental-assessment-agency/programs/strategic-environmental- assessment/cabinet-directive-environmental-assessment-policy-plan-program-proposals.html 27 www.fsds-sfdd.ca/index.html#/en/goals/

Part 2 – Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario, prepared by Tricia Markle, Anne Yagi and David Green for the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources

970

971

Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

972 RECOMMENDED CITATION 973 974 Markle, T.M., A.R. Yagi and D.M. Green. 2013. Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny 975 Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the Northern Dusky 976 Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario. Recovery Strategy Series. Prepared for 977 the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Peterborough, Ontario. vi + 30 pp. 978 979 980 981 982 983 Cover illustration: Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (top), Northern Dusky 984 Salamander (bottom). Photo credit: Rob Tervo 985 986 987 988 989 © Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 2013 990 ISBN 978-1-4435-9433-2 (PDF) 991 992 993 Content (excluding the cover illustration) may be used without permission, with 994 appropriate credit to the source. 995 996 Cette publication hautement spécialisée Recovery strategies prepared under the 997 Endangered Species Act, 2007, n’est disponible qu’en Anglais en vertu du Règlement 998 411/97 qui en exempte l’application de la Loi sur les services en français. Pour obtenir 999 de l’aide en français, veuillez communiquer avec Cathy Darevic au ministère des 1000 Richesses naturelles au 705-755-5580. 1001 1002 1003 1004

i Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1005 AUTHORS 1006 1007 Tricia M. Markle – Conservation Biology Graduate Program, University of Minnesota, St. 1008 Paul, Minnesota, United States. 1009 Anne R. Yagi – Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Vineland, Ontario. 1010 David M. Green – Redpath Museum, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec. 1011 1012 1013 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 1014 1015 The authors thank the members of the Ontario Dusky Salamander Recovery Team, 1016 including Wayne F. Weller, Bob Johnson, Rob Ritchie, Amy Brant, Devin Mills and the 1017 late Rob Tervo, as well as the National Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander 1018 Recovery Team, especially Anaïs Boutin, for their assistance in the preparation of this 1019 report. In addition we thank Benjamin Lowe for insight during revisions. We also thank 1020 the Toronto Zoo, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR), Niagara Parks 1021 Commission (NPC), Ontario Power Generation (OPG) and Land Care Niagara (LCN) for 1022 financial support in the preparation of earlier drafts of this recovery strategy. 1023 1024 1025

ii Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1026 DECLARATION 1027 1028 The recovery strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern 1029 Dusky Salamander was developed in accordance with the requirements of the 1030 Endangered Species Act, 2007 (ESA). This recovery strategy has been prepared as 1031 advice to the Government of Ontario, other responsible jurisdictions and the many 1032 different constituencies that may be involved in recovering the species. 1033 1034 The recovery strategy does not necessarily represent the views of all of the individuals 1035 who provided advice or contributed to its preparation, or the official positions of the 1036 organizations with which the individuals are associated. 1037 1038 The goals, objectives and recovery approaches identified in the strategy are based on 1039 the best available knowledge and are subject to revision as new information becomes 1040 available. Implementation of this strategy is subject to appropriations, priorities and 1041 budgetary constraints of the participating jurisdictions and organizations. 1042 1043 Success in the recovery of this species depends on the commitment and cooperation of 1044 many different constituencies that will be involved in implementing the directions set out 1045 in this strategy. 1046 1047 1048 RESPONSIBLE JURISDICTIONS 1049 1050 Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources 1051 Environment Canada – Canadian Wildlife Service, Ontario 1052 1053 1054

iii Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1055 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1056 1057 Both the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and the 1058 Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) are listed as endangered in 1059 Ontario under the Endangered Species Act, 2007. The Allegheny Mountain Dusky 1060 Salamander is a federally endangered species listed on Schedule 1 of the Species at 1061 Risk Act. The Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario is yet to be assessed at the 1062 federal level. 1063 1064 Like all plethodontid salamanders, these species are lungless and rely on their moist 1065 skin for respiration. They are thus restricted to moist environments and avoid conditions 1066 that risk their dehydration. Both species are typically found along the edges of small 1067 woodland streams and in damp seepage areas where there is an abundance of logs, 1068 stones and leaf litter. 1069 1070 Dusky salamanders have a characteristic light line that runs from the corner of the 1071 mouth to the eye. The two species can best be distinguished from each other by the 1072 cross-sectional shape of the tail, the colour of the dorsal stripe and the colour of the 1073 underside. The Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander has a tail that is rounded in 1074 cross-section, an evident yellow- to red-coloured dorsal stripe with chevron shaped 1075 darker patches running along it, and a typically dark brown or black underside. The 1076 Northern Dusky Salamander has a keeled tail that is laterally compressed and triangular 1077 in cross-section, a uniformly tan or brown dorsal stripe, and a cream-coloured 1078 underside. 1079 1080 The principle limiting factor for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the 1081 Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario is their extremely restricted range. In Ontario, 1082 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders have now been identified from two localities in 1083 the Niagara Gorge, while Northern Dusky Salamanders are known only from a single 1084 site. As both species occupy very similar habitats, and share many characteristics, the 1085 threats to their survival and recovery are virtually identical. The current habitat is so 1086 limited that any degradation is likely to compromise the long-term survival of these 1087 salamanders in Ontario. 1088 1089 The Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario 1090 utterly depend upon the groundwater discharge that feeds the streams and seeps in 1091 which they dwell. Any decrease, curtailment or interruption of the groundwater is 1092 considered a serious threat to the continuing existence of these salamanders. 1093 Landslides or mudslides in the Niagara Gorge that in any way affect the salamanders’ 1094 streams and stream-side habitats pose severe threats. Further, degradation of habitat 1095 may occur when hikers venture off the maintained trail and inadvertently stir up the 1096 stream bed, trample vegetation and increase erosion. Clearing of the habitats used by 1097 these salamanders would also constitute a serious threat. 1098 1099 The recovery goal is to safeguard the existing known populations of Allegheny Mountain 1100 Dusky and Northern Dusky Salamander species, and if feasible, introduce each species

iv Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1101 to unoccupied habitat within the Niagara Gorge that is either created or found to be 1102 suitable, with the aim of increasing known population sizes by 50 percent. The four 1103 recovery objectives are to: 1104  protect and enhance existing significant habitat for Allegheny Mountain Dusky 1105 Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario; 1106  conduct a thorough population study, and if necessary maintain the genetic 1107 health of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky 1108 Salamander populations in Ontario; 1109  locate additional populations, and expand the current ranges of Allegheny 1110 Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders through 1111 introductions where appropriate; and 1112  elicit public support and collaboration in the protection and recovery of Allegheny 1113 Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario. 1114 1115 The areas to be considered for habitat regulation include the streams and seeps 1116 inhabited by the salamanders, plus the surrounding forested habitat up to 75 m away 1117 from the edges of seeps and streams. In addition, the area between the two Allegheny 1118 Mountain Dusky Salamander populations should be protected as a dispersal corridor. 1119 Also to be considered are the catchment basins supplying the groundwater that feeds 1120 the springs from which the streams and seeps originate. 1121 1122

v Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1123 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1124 1125 RECOMMENDED CITATION ...... i 1126 AUTHORS ...... ii 1127 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii 1128 DECLARATION ...... iii 1129 RESPONSIBLE JURISDICTIONS ...... iii 1130 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... iv 1131 1.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ...... 1 1132 1.1 Species Assessment and Classification ...... 1 1133 1.2 Species Description and Biology ...... 1 1134 1.3 Distribution, Abundance and Population Trends ...... 2 1135 1.4 Habitat Needs ...... 4 1136 1.5 Limiting Factors ...... 5 1137 1.6 Threats to Survival and Recovery ...... 6 1138 1.7 Knowledge Gaps ...... 8 1139 1.8 Recovery Actions Completed or Underway...... 9 1140 2.0 RECOVERY ...... 10 1141 2.1 Recovery Goal ...... 10 1142 2.2 Protection and Recovery Objectives ...... 10 1143 2.3 Approaches to Recovery ...... 11 1144 2.4 Performance Measures ...... 18 1145 2.5 Area for Consideration in Developing a Habitat Regulation ...... 19 1146 GLOSSARY ...... 23 1147 REFERENCES ...... 25 1148 RECOVERY STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT TEAM MEMBERS ...... 30 1149 1150 LIST OF FIGURES 1151 Figure 1. Distributions of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern 1152 Dusky Salamander in Ontario...... 3 1153 1154 LIST OF TABLES 1155 Table 1. Protection and recovery objectives ...... 10 1156 Table 2. Approaches to recovery of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky and Northern Dusky 1157 Salamanders in Ontario ...... 11 1158 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164

vi Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1165 1.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1166 1167 1.1 Species Assessment and Classification 1168 1169 COMMON NAME: Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander 1170 1171 SCIENTIFIC NAME: Desmognathus ochrophaeus 1172 1173 SARO List Classification: Endangered 1174 1175 SARO List History: Endangered (2008) 1176 1177 COSEWIC Assessment History: 1178 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Carolinian population) – Endangered (2007) 1179 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander – Threatened (2001), Special Concern (1998) 1180 1181 SARA Schedule 1: Endangered (March 5, 2009) 1182 1183 RANKINGS: GRANK: G5 NRANK: N2 SRANK: S1 1184 1185 COMMON NAME: Northern Dusky Salamander 1186 1187 SCIENTIFIC NAME: Desmognathus fuscus 1188 1189 SARO List Classification: Endangered 1190 1191 SARO List History: Endangered (2004) 1192 1193 COSEWIC Assessment History: Endangered (2012), Not at Risk (1999) 1194 1195 SARA Schedule 1: No Schedule, No Status 1196 1197 RANKINGS: GRANK: G5 NRANK: N3N4 SRANK: S1 1198 1199 The glossary provides definitions for technical terms, including the abbreviations above.

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1200 1.2 Species Description and Biology 1201 1202 Species Descriptions 1203 Dusky salamanders have a characteristic light line that runs from the corner of the 1204 mouth to the eye. The hind legs are substantially larger than the front legs (Petranka 1205 1998). These features serve to distinguish both species from any other salamanders 1206 that may be present in the Niagara Gorge. 1207 1208 The Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander ranges in size from 70 to 110 mm total 1209 length, with males roughly six to twenty percent longer than females (Bruce 1993, Orr 1210 1989, Pauly and Watson 2005). Northern Dusky Salamanders range from 60 to 140 1211 mm total length, with males about seven percent larger than females (Means 2005). 1212 Colour and pattern are variable in each species, although the Allegheny Mountain 1213 Dusky Salamander is typically more brightly coloured, and the Northern Dusky 1214 Salamander usually has black specks or spots present along the sides. Allegheny 1215 Mountain Dusky Salamander larvae are 13 to 18 mm long and have dark dorsolateral 1216 stripes, often with spots (Petranka 1998). Northern Dusky Salamander larvae are 12 to 1217 20 mm total length with paired blotches or spots along the back. Both species have 14 1218 costal grooves. 1219 1220 The two species can best be told apart by the colour of the dorsal stripe, the cross- 1221 sectional shape of the tail and the colour of the underside (Tilley 1969, Petranka 1998). 1222 The Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander has a tail that is rounded in cross-section, 1223 an obvious yellow to red-coloured dorsal stripe with chevron shaped darker patches 1224 running along it and a typically dark brown or black underside. In contrast the Northern 1225 Dusky Salamander has a keeled tail that is laterally compressed and triangular in cross- 1226 section, a uniformly tan or brown dorsal stripe and a cream-coloured underside. 1227 1228 Species Biology 1229 Like all plethodontid salamanders, these species are lungless and rely on their moist 1230 skin for respiration. They are thus restricted to moist environments and avoid conditions 1231 that risk their dehydration (Spotila 1972, Alvo and Bonin 2003). Dry conditions restrict 1232 activity and the animals’ low metabolic rates, large energy stores, and resistance to 1233 starvation enable them to survive extended periods of time without food (Feder 1983, 1234 Feder and Londos 1984). 1235 1236 Both species are typically found along the edge of small woodland streams and in damp 1237 seepage areas where there is an abundance of logs, stones and leaf litter (Means 2005, 1238 Pauly and Watson 2005). They are nocturnal and remain under cover objects at the 1239 edges of streams and seeps during the day. Peak surface activity occurs an hour after 1240 sunset on warm, wet nights (Keen 1979, Holomuzki 1980). Adults and juveniles likely 1241 move short distances along stream channels where there is continual moisture. 1242 However, the Mountain Dusky Salamander is more terrestrial than the Northern Dusky 1243 Salamander and is known to venture 75 m away from streams (Organ 1961). 1244

1 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1245 In the northern part of their ranges including New York (and likely Ontario), Allegheny 1246 Mountain Dusky and Northern Dusky Salamanders mate during both autumn and spring 1247 (Bishop 1941, Petranka 1998). Courtship is lengthy and intricate, involving a 1248 spermatophore laid by the male that the female picks up for internal fertilization of the 1249 eggs. Grape-like egg clusters are attached to the undersides of logs or rocks, or 1250 deposited amid moss, clumps of leaf litter or organic debris, usually within a meter of a 1251 stream or seep (Bishop 1941, Krzysik 1980, Hom 1987). The Allegheny Mountain 1252 Dusky Salamander lays clutches of one to two dozen eggs; the Northern Dusky 1253 Salamander lays clutches of two to three dozen eggs (Hall 1977, Petranka 1998, Means 1254 2005, Pauly and Watson 2005). Females guard their eggs for the duration of the 1255 incubation period (Houck et al. 1985, Forester 1979). Eggs hatch in 6 to 10 weeks 1256 (Bishop 1941). Eggs laid in early spring hatch in early fall; eggs laid in the fall hatch the 1257 following spring (Bishop 1941, Keen and Orr 1980, Orr 1989). 1258 1259 Larvae inhabit slow moving streams and seeps, and shelter underneath rocks or other 1260 debris. Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander larvae may metamorphose into adult 1261 form in as little as a few weeks or may take up to eight months (Keen and Orr 1980). 1262 Northern Dusky Salamanders will remain larvae for eight months to a year (Means 1263 2005). Sexual maturity in Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders is attained when 1264 they are about three years old (Hall 1977) and in Northern Dusky Salamanders at two 1265 years (Bishop 1941). 1266 1267 Adults and larvae of both species feed upon aquatic and terrestrial insects such as 1268 spiders, beetles, earthworms, snails, mites, aphids and insect larvae (Fitzpatrick 1973, 1269 Keen 1979, Petranka 1998). All life stages of dusky salamanders are preyed upon, 1270 principally by snakes, crayfish, aquatic insects, small mammals and birds (Bishop 1941, 1271 Hom 1988, Orr 1989, Whiteman and Wissinger 1991, Petranka 1998). Northern Dusky 1272 Salamanders are also known to prey upon smaller salamanders (Means 2005). 1273 1274 1275 1.3 Distribution, Abundance and Population Trends 1276 1277 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders extend from eastern Tennessee through the 1278 Appalachian Mountains and along the southern shores of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario to 1279 extreme southern Quebec. Northern Dusky Salamanders follow a similar, yet wider, 1280 distribution and range from South Carolina through much of the Northeast United States 1281 into southern Quebec. In Ontario, Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders are now 1282 known to occur at two localities in the Niagara Gorge, while Northern Dusky 1283 Salamanders are known only from a single population. All sites are located along the 1284 Niagara River, downstream from Niagara Falls, near Queenston (Figure 1). The closest 1285 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander populations 1286 are separated by approximately four kilometres of Niagara River shoreline. 1287 1288 Dusky salamanders were first reported from Ontario in 1908 (Nash 1908), although a 1289 general area was not mentioned until Bishop (1941, 1943) reported dusky salamanders 1290 occurring in “Ontario opposite Buffalo, New York”. In 1989, dusky salamanders were

2 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1291 discovered in two localities in the Niagara Gorge: the first locality was a stream in the 1292 Whirlpool area and the second was a stream just south of Queenston (Kamstra 1991). 1293 These sites were the first specific localities identified for dusky salamanders in Ontario 1294 and one specimen from each locality was collected for museum records (Kamstra 1295 1991). Originally specimens from both localities were identified as Northern Dusky 1296 Salamanders. However, in 2004, local MNR staff suspected that the Queenston dusky 1297 salamanders were actually Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders based on physical 1298 appearance. Genetic analysis confirmed the salamander population to be Allegheny 1299 Mountain Dusky (Markle and Green 2005, 2006, Markle et al. 2006). 1300

1301 1302 1303 Figure 1. Distributions of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky 1304 Salamanders in Ontario. (Note that the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander 1305 populations are represented by two closely overlapping circles on the map.) 1306 1307 In the fall of 2010, partnership between staff of Ontario Power Generation (OPG), along 1308 with the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources’ Niagara Area office, led to the discovery 1309 of a second site for Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders in the Niagara Gorge 1310 (Weller 2010, 2011) bringing the total to two known populations of Allegheny Mountain

3 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1311 Dusky Salamanders in Ontario. The two populations are found half a kilometre apart 1312 southeast of the town of Queenston. 1313 1314 The single population of Northern Dusky Salamanders inhabits a steep bank in the 1315 vicinity of the Whirlpool, and is watered by eight or nine seeps that flow into the Niagara 1316 River. Surveys along the escarpment have failed to uncover any additional populations 1317 of Northern Dusky Salamanders, and the nearest known population is over 30 km away 1318 in New York State (Bonin 1999, Markle and Green 2005). 1319 1320 While there are no precise data on abundance or trends for either species in Ontario, as 1321 of 2012, 38 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders have been observed in the 1322 Queenston population (COSEWIC 2007, A. R. Yagi, pers. comm. 2012, W. F. Weller, 1323 pers. comm. 2012) and a total of 17 individuals have been observed from the Smeaton 1324 Creek population (Weller 2010, 2011, W. F. Weller, pers. comm. 2012). For Northern 1325 Dusky Salamanders, a total of 79 individuals have been observed in the Whirlpool site 1326 since 2005 (A. R. Yagi, pers. comm. 2012). For both species, and in each population, 1327 three age-classes (including larvae, juveniles, and adults) have been found, along with 1328 eggs. Based on the information to date, it appears that all three populations are viable 1329 and self-sustaining. 1330 1331 1332 1.4 Habitat Needs 1333 1334 Terrestrial Habitat 1335 Throughout their ranges, Allegheny Mountain Dusky and Northern Dusky Salamanders 1336 occur in a variety of aquatic or semiaquatic forested habitat, and are often found to be 1337 abundant in or about seeps, as well as along the margins of small streams (Petranka 1338 1998, Means 2005, Pauly and Watson 2005). The forest canopy is critical in 1339 maintaining shady conditions, which protects against high temperatures and maintains 1340 humidity. Leaf litter, woody debris, rocks and naturally vegetated habitat between and 1341 adjacent to individual seeps and small streams are important for dispersal for both 1342 species. Cover objects such as logs, leaf litter, moss and rocks in these areas provide 1343 shelter and protection from predators and inclement weather. Adults of both species 1344 will actively defend space under cover objects from other salamanders (Petranka 1998). 1345 Dusky salamanders are nocturnal and remain under cover objects during the day, 1346 coming out at night to forage along seepage areas and streams, and across the forest 1347 floor. Adult salamanders of both species feed predominantly on terrestrial or semi- 1348 terrestrial invertebrates (Petranka 1998). 1349 1350 Moist retreats also offer the ideal habitat to lay eggs, and nests are often found under 1351 rocks in seepage banks, or in mud crevices beneath logs or moss (Jones 1986, 1352 Petranka 1998). Females of both species are known to remain with their eggs to 1353 defend them and will greatly reduce foraging during this time (Fitzpatrick 1973, 1354 Montague and Poinski 1978). 1355

4 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1356 The average home range for an Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander is likely less 1357 than one square metre (Petranka 1998). Some individuals in the United States, 1358 however, are known to venture up to 75 m from water (Organ 1961), and during optimal 1359 conditions may venture much further. Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders in 1360 general are found to be more terrestrial than Northern Dusky Salamanders and are 1361 often found some distance from permanent seeps or streams (Organ 1961). For 1362 Northern Dusky Salamanders, home ranges are estimated to remain within 15 m of a 1363 stream, with a maximum home range recorded at 114 m2 (Hom 1987, Petranka 1998). 1364 However, during cool and wet periods dusky salamanders can likely travel large 1365 distances between seepage areas. 1366 1367 Aquatic Habitat 1368 Once larvae emerge from eggs they live in seepages, sluggish portions of streams, or in 1369 wet cavities along the stream edge until they transform into adults (Petranka 1998). 1370 During this time they feed on small invertebrates. Seasonal factors such as moisture, 1371 levels of seeps and time of year that the eggs are laid may influence the length of the 1372 larval period and whether or not they overwinter as larvae. 1373 1374 Winter Retreats 1375 These salamanders are active on the ground surface at all times of year except during 1376 the coldest winter months. During the colder months, salamanders overwinter in 1377 subsurface cavities, burrows, fissures and seepages, to depths of 90 cm or more, where 1378 they can avoid freezing temperatures and remain moist (Bishop 1941, Organ 1961). 1379 Often adults and juveniles are found to congregate together in these retreats (Petranka 1380 1998). Northern Dusky salamanders are found to move 12 to 25 cm below ground 1381 when temperatures drop below 7°C (Ashton 1975). 1382 1383 Indirect Habitat 1384 As both species require access to cool, highly oxygenated, first-order forested streams 1385 or seeps, they are thus highly dependent upon specific hydrological conditions that 1386 ensure a constant supply of groundwater to the source springs. As a result, indirect 1387 habitat includes the source water of streams and seeps that is so critical to their 1388 survival. 1389 1390 1391 1.5 Limiting Factors 1392 1393 The principle limiting factor for Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern 1394 Dusky Salamanders in Ontario is their extremely limited range. Each species is known 1395 only from one or two localities of very limited extent. They are constrained to these 1396 sites by highly specific requirements for a stream habitat that is rare within southern 1397 Ontario. The limited distribution of suitable sites in the Niagara region restricts the 1398 salamanders to the Niagara Gorge and curtails their capability for dispersal (Oldham 1399 2006). There is no possibility for a rescue effect via immigration from populations in 1400 New York because none are nearby and the Niagara River is an effective barrier to 1401 dispersal.

5 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1402 1403 Nevertheless, because the Ontario populations of Allegheny Mountain Dusky 1404 Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders are isolated from each other by 1405 inhospitable terrain, it is unlikely that hybridization or competition between the species 1406 will occur, such as has been documented where they co-occur on Covey Hill in Quebec 1407 (Sharbel et al. 1995, Boutin 2006). However, hybridization and competition between the 1408 species is likely to occur if the species are transplanted to, or invade, each other’s 1409 habitats. The larger, more aggressive Northern Dusky Salamander is an important 1410 competitor of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders where the species are found to 1411 occur together. Northern Dusky Salamanders are found to be capable of driving 1412 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders away from preferred habitat closer to the 1413 streamside (Krzysik 1979, Grover and Wilbur 2002, Boutin 2006). Thus, in the 1414 presence of Northern Dusky Salamanders, Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders 1415 preferentially occupy drier microhabitats on finer substrates farther from the water’s 1416 edge (Tilley 1997, Petranka and Smith 2005, Boutin 2006). At the same time, because 1417 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders have higher tolerances for a wider range of 1418 ecological conditions than do Northern Dusky Salamanders (Tilley 1970, Grover 2000), 1419 they are able to survive well in such habitats. 1420 1421 1422 1.6 Threats to Survival and Recovery 1423 1424 As both the Allegheny Mountain Dusky and Northern Dusky Salamanders have very 1425 similar biology, and because they occupy similar habitats and are separated by roughly 1426 four kilometres of river bank, the threats to their survival and recovery are virtually 1427 identical. Due to their extremely small range sizes in Ontario, both species are highly 1428 susceptible to habitat change. The current habitat is so limited that any degradation is 1429 likely to compromise the long-term survival of these salamanders in Ontario. 1430 1431 Disruption or Contamination of Groundwater 1432 Allegheny Mountain Dusky and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario utterly depend 1433 upon the groundwater discharge that feeds the streams and seeps in which they dwell. 1434 Any diminution, curtailment or interruption of the groundwater is a serious threat to the 1435 continuing existence of these salamanders. Lowering of groundwater and decreased 1436 dissolved oxygen concentrations have been linked to declines in other species of 1437 stream salamanders (Bowles and Arsuffi 1993, Turner 2004). Contamination of the 1438 surface water that maintains this hydrological system would likewise have potentially 1439 catastrophic effect upon the animals. Northern Dusky Salamander larvae have been 1440 shown to be sensitive to stream pollution and siltation, and densities are found to be 1441 inversely proportional to the degree of stream disturbance associated with urbanization 1442 (Petranka 1998). Population declines are generally attributed to siltation or loss of 1443 ground cover, although potential contaminants could include storm runoff from industrial 1444 and urban areas or herbicides and pesticides applied in the catchment areas of these 1445 streams. In addition, there is potential for groundwater feeding the seeps and streams 1446 to be redirected, decreased, or cut off as a result of large developments in the area and 1447 water flow should be monitored accordingly. 1448

6 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1449 Erosion 1450 Landslides or mudslides in the Niagara Gorge that in any way affect the salamanders’ 1451 seep and stream-side habitats would be considered severe threats. At the top of the 1452 slope, uncontrolled stormwater flows from roadways, parking lots or other cleared areas 1453 have been discharged over the bank and have been known to trigger mudslides within 1454 the Gorge and erode trails (MNR staff D. Mills and A. R. Yagi, pers. comm. 2012). 1455 1456 Deforestation 1457 Clearing of the forested canopy above the streams or seeps used by the salamanders 1458 would be a serious threat to these species by causing changes to the thermal regime 1459 and quality of subterranean refugia. Fortunately, the entire extent of significant habitat 1460 for these species is owned and managed by the Niagara Parks Commission (NPC), an 1461 important stakeholder in the overall recovery of these species. For that reason tree 1462 removal is unlikely, but remains a potential threat if it were to occur accidentally or 1463 through a natural event such as a mudslide. The newly discovered population of 1464 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders at Smeaton Creek occur on NPC land that is 1465 currently being leased to OPG. Communication between stakeholders regarding land 1466 use and potential impacts on salamanders and their habitat is therefore critical. 1467 1468 Habitat Degradation 1469 Although salamanders are located in steep and normally inaccessible areas within the 1470 Niagara Gorge, the streams and seeps where these salamanders live are often 1471 explored by hikers who venture off the maintained trail (A. R. Yagi, pers. comm. 2012). 1472 This can stir up the stream bed, trample vegetation and increase erosion. Litter 1473 originating from the maintained trail may also contaminate the area. 1474 1475 Further, the invasive strain of the European Common Reed (Phragmites australis) has 1476 moved into the more gently sloping sections of the stream beds and is eliminating some 1477 potential habitat used by the salamanders wherever it is able to grow into thick stands. 1478 Research needs to be done to examine the potential impact of this plant on dusky 1479 salamanders and habitat, and what the most effective methods of removal may be. 1480 1481 Inbreeding 1482 The genetic health of all three known populations of dusky salamanders in Ontario 1483 should be determined and monitored. As the Niagara River is considered a major 1484 barrier to dispersal for these salamanders, the Ontario populations are considered to be 1485 small population isolates that have no way of receiving gene flow from the nearest 1486 populations in New York State. Ontario Dusky Salamander populations are anticipated 1487 to be relatively small based on numbers detected to date and on the areas known to be 1488 occupied. Further, genetic studies across the northern range of Allegheny Mountain 1489 Dusky Salamanders have found that genetic variability is already very low, likely as a 1490 result of rapid population expansion since the last glacial cycle (Tilley and Mahoney 1491 1996). As very small populations may be vulnerable to detrimental effects of inbreeding 1492 such as genetic defects and lower reproductive success (Hedrick and Kalinowski 2000), 1493 it would be prudent to determine whether inbreeding appears to be a problem, and if so

7 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1494 to consider introductions of individuals from New York to maintain the long-term health 1495 of the populations. 1496 1497 Population Loss 1498 As the entire range of each species in Ontario is extremely limited, there is much 1499 concern that a single stochastic event (such as a landslide) could wipe out a whole 1500 population of either species at any given time. Further, groundwater levels and 1501 seepage outputs are susceptible to change as the result of human activity, especially 1502 near urban and industrial areas where these salamanders are found. A major spill of 1503 contaminants, which gets into the seepage surface water, would also likely be 1504 detrimental to these populations. For Northern Dusky Salamanders in particular, there 1505 may be little opportunity for dispersal to other suitable habitats. To safeguard against 1506 major losses to either of these species, measures should be taken to expand the known 1507 ranges of each species by locating new populations (if they exist) and creating or finding 1508 additional suitable habitat for introductions where appropriate. 1509 1510 Collection by People for the Pet Trade 1511 While unlikely, there is some concern that salamanders could be taken from the Niagara 1512 Gorge and used in the pet trade. As populations are believed to be very low in 1513 numbers, removal of any numbers and of any age classes could have large impacts. 1514 Public education materials may help to convince park visitors of the special 1515 circumstances, and regulations, surrounding these populations, and the importance of 1516 leaving the habitat and populations intact. 1517 1518 1519 1.7 Knowledge Gaps 1520 1521 The hydrology of the groundwater springs that feed the streams in which these 1522 salamanders live needs to be better understood. The extent of the groundwater 1523 recharge area is not fully known, and the results of a study investigating groundwater 1524 flows to the seeps and their relationship with surface water would be helpful. The 1525 salamanders are utterly dependent upon these sources of water, and the hydrology of 1526 the area needs to be thoroughly examined to ensure continued water quantity and 1527 quality. Aspects of water quality such as mineral content, pH, dissolved oxygen and 1528 contaminant load need to be ascertained so that changes that could affect the 1529 salamanders may be detected. While the extent of the groundwater recharge area, 1530 which contributes to the dusky streams, is not fully known, it likely includes the tableland 1531 area immediately west of the Niagara River Gorge and extending from the Niagara 1532 Escarpment south to the Whirlpool. 1533 1534 There is almost no demographic information on the populations of Allegheny Mountain 1535 Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario. Population sizes are 1536 not known, nor how much they fluctuate in size over time. Demographic characteristics 1537 such as mortality rates, growth rates and reproductive success are likewise unknown, 1538 as is information on dispersal potential and genetic diversity. This lack of information is 1539 in part because they have only recently been discovered and identified, and is also due

8 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1540 to the difficulty in safely accessing much of the habitat. However, considering the 1541 extremely limited extent of habitats they occupy, these salamanders are undoubtedly 1542 few in numbers and genetically impoverished. Since the significant threats to the 1543 welfare and recovery of these species are all related to habitat, gaps in the 1544 understanding of these species’ population ecologies should not limit the ability to 1545 adequately define recovery goals, objectives, or approaches for these species, nor to 1546 recommend the habitats that should be considered for regulation. 1547 1548 1549 1.8 Recovery Actions Completed or Underway 1550 1551 Following the discovery of populations of Allegheny Mountain Dusky and Northern 1552 Dusky Salamanders in Ontario, a provincial recovery team was established and 1553 identified the recovery goals detailed in this recovery strategy. The recovery team has 1554 produced educational and promotional materials on the salamanders, including stickers, 1555 magnets, shopping bags and a stewardship guide (Yagi et al. 2010). The Ontario 1556 Ministry of Natural Resources has completed some on-the-ground habitat enhancement 1557 work, particularly for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander population, including 1558 cedar planting, removal of European Common Reed and corridor planting. 1559 1560 Areas of significant habitat have been mapped and described in detail for the 1561 Queenston site (Yagi and Tervo 2008a) and for the Whirlpool site (Yagi and Tervo 1562 2008b). However, the Smeaton Creek site has not yet been mapped to reflect areas of 1563 significant habitat. Work is underway in conjunction with OPG to trace the origins of the 1564 groundwater springs (W. F. Weller, pers. comm. 2012). Some protection is afforded to 1565 the salamander populations because the Niagara Parks Commission manages all of the 1566 territory occupied at these sites. Further, both the Allegheny Mountain Dusky 1567 Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander are provincially listed in Ontario as 1568 endangered under the Endangered Species Act, 2007 (Ontario Regulation 230/08). In 1569 addition, the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander is a federally endangered species 1570 listed on Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act (SARA). The Northern Dusky 1571 Salamander is not listed under SARA, although a COSEWIC status report update is in 1572 preparation. 1573

9 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1574 2.0 RECOVERY 1575 1576 2.1 Recovery Goal 1577 1578 The recovery goal is to safeguard the existing known populations of Allegheny Mountain 1579 Dusky and Northern Dusky Salamander species, and if feasible, introduce each species 1580 to unoccupied habitat within the Niagara Gorge that is either created or found to be 1581 suitable with the aim of increasing known population sizes by 50 percent. 1582 1583 1584 2.2 Protection and Recovery Objectives 1585 1586 Table 1. Protection and recovery objectives 1587 No. Protection or Recovery Objective 1 Protect and enhance existing significant habitat for Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario. 2 Conduct a thorough population study, and if necessary maintain the genetic health of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander populations in Ontario. 3 Locate additional populations, and expand the current ranges of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders through introductions where appropriate. 4 Elicit public support and collaboration in the protection and recovery of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario. 1588

10 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1589 2.3 Approaches to Recovery 1590 1591 Table 2. Approaches to recovery of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario 1592 Threats or Relative Relative Recovery Approach to Recovery Knowledge Gaps Priority Timeframe Theme Addressed 1. Protect and enhance existing significant habitat for Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario.

Critical Short-Term Research – Potential 1.1 Identify extent of groundwater recharge  Disruption of groundwater Threats area.  Poor understanding of hydrology and groundwater recharge area

Critical Short-Term Research – Potential 1.2 Measure flows of seeps and streams  Disruption of groundwater Threats occupied by dusky salamanders to  Poor understanding of determine seasonal and yearly averages. hydrology and groundwater recharge area

Critical Long-Term Protection 1.3 Have source water protection (both surface  Disruption of groundwater and ground water) for land in the upgradient  Poor understanding of tableland areas. hydrology and groundwater recharge area

Necessary Long-term Management 1.4 Ensure that all development activities on  Disruption or contamination adjacent land that may involve of groundwater contaminating or lowering of the groundwater table are monitored for groundwater impacts.

11 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

Threats or Relative Relative Recovery Approach to Recovery Knowledge Gaps Priority Timeframe Theme Addressed

Necessary Long-Term Management and 1.5 Control quantity and quality of stormwater  Disruption or contamination Monitoring discharge from adjacent land including of groundwater industrial, recreational and urban areas:  Erosion  eliminate the application of herbicides and pesticides in the vicinity of seeps;  monitor stormwater quality for pollutants;  develop an emergency spills action plan for the area;  create wetland areas to capture and slow down stormwater run-off;  plant native trees to stabilize the slope.

Beneficial Ongoing Management and 1.6 Monitor erosion rates on the hillsides where  Erosion Monitoring salamanders are found for indications of slope instability.

Beneficial Ongoing Management and 1.7 Ensure that forest canopy remains intact.  Deforestation Monitoring

Beneficial Ongoing Research and 1.8 Discourage park visitors from off-trail hiking.  Habitat degradation Stewardship

Beneficial Ongoing Research and 1.9 Investigate and implement best  Habitat degradation Stewardship management practices for removal of European Common Reed. 2. Conduct a thorough population study, and if necessary maintain the genetic health of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander populations in Ontario.

Critical Short-term Research – 2.1 Conduct a thorough population study to  Inbreeding Populations determine more accurate population size  Lack of demographic and trends for each species in Ontario: information  may involve mark-recapture fieldwork and/or genetic analysis.

Necessary Long-term Monitoring and 2.2 Monitor genetic health of populations:  Inbreeding Assessment  check for inbreeding with genetic analysis every 25 years.

12 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

Threats or Relative Relative Recovery Approach to Recovery Knowledge Gaps Priority Timeframe Theme Addressed

Necessary Short-term Research and 2.3 If inbreeding appears to be a concern, look  Inbreeding Management into the feasibility of salamander introductions from New York State, which is the nearest population source. 3. Locate additional populations, and expand the current ranges of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders through introductions where appropriate.

Critical Short-term Research and 3.1 Search suitable/accessible habitat in  Population Loss Management Niagara Gorge for any additional  Lack of demographic populations of dusky salamanders. information

Necessary Short-term Research and 3.2 Research the probability of success if  Population Loss Management individuals are translocated from sites outside of Ontario to suitable unoccupied habitats:  determine likelihood of survival;  establish what numbers would be needed for a successful introduction and if they can be moved;  research other potential barriers to introductions;  identify areas with no obvious impediments to re-establishment;  investigate potential habitat along the Niagara Escarpment and Fonthill Kame Morraine.

Beneficial Long-term Management 3.3 If potential habitat is found (and successful  Population Loss introduction seems likely), pilot an introduction project.

13 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

Threats or Relative Relative Recovery Approach to Recovery Knowledge Gaps Priority Timeframe Theme Addressed 4. Elicit public support and collaboration in the protection and recovery of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario.

Beneficial Ongoing Education and 4.1 Prepare educational materials such as  Habitat degradation and Outreach pamphlets to inform park visitors about the salamander loss endangered status of these salamanders  Collection by people for pet and the need to not disturb them or their trade habitat.

14 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1593 Narrative to Support Recovery Objectives and Approaches 1594 The first objective for recovery is to protect, conserve and enhance the current habitats 1595 where Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders are 1596 found. Although habitat protection is already afforded through the Niagara Parks 1597 Commission, this does not guarantee that water feeding the streams and seeps 1598 inhabited by the salamanders will remain of high quality and quantity. For that reason 1599 the most critical approach to the recovery includes management of the supporting 1600 groundwater recharge and discharge areas to ensure that water quality and quantity are 1601 maintained. Monitoring and regulation of surface water is also needed to control 1602 potentially toxic discharges from industrial, recreational and urban areas in adjacent 1603 lands, as well as to mitigate high stormwater discharge that can lead to mudslides. 1604 1605 A second major objective for recovery is research to determine the actual size of each 1606 population in the Niagara Gorge and to better understand population trends for 1607 improved management. Maintaining the genetic health of the existing populations is 1608 also critical, as inbreeding depression can lead to reduced reproductive success. 1609 1610 The third objective is to locate new, potentially suitable habitat for the salamanders and 1611 determine the feasibility of expanding existing Ontario populations. Habitat along the 1612 Niagara Escarpment and the Fonthill Kame Moraine would have been connected to the 1613 Niagara Gorge in the past, and may offer potential habitat suitable for introductions. 1614 There is also some potential that additional populations of dusky salamanders may 1615 naturally occur at these locations. Suitable habitat may also be created in adjacent 1616 sites by adding cover objects, removing invasive plants and increasing moist areas 1617 where feasible. Because the known populations are so highly localized, a single 1618 catastrophic erosion event could wipe out an entire seepage area inhabited by these 1619 salamanders and thus extirpate the species in Ontario. 1620 1621 The fourth objective is public education and the engendering of good stewardship, 1622 which will be imperative for the long-term survival of these populations. The public 1623 needs to be aware that the Niagara Gorge is important habitat for these two species, 1624 and that activities such as off-trail hiking or collection of salamanders as pets may be 1625 detrimental to their continued survival. Consideration should be given to joining public 1626 education efforts toward dusky salamander conservation and protection with that of 1627 other wildlife species in the Niagara Gorge that share similar habitats and needs. 1628 1629 Supporting Narrative for Recovery Approaches 1.1 to 1.9: 1630 One of the major priorities for the long-term recovery of these species is to ensure that 1631 groundwater quantity and quality is maintained. Current groundwater levels are 1632 adequate for the survival of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern 1633 Dusky Salamanders in the Niagara Gorge. However, any development on adjacent 1634 land that could change the hydrology, either increasing or decreasing peak flows and 1635 discharge volumes, increasing turbidity or sedimentation, or increasing water 1636 temperature, could spell disaster for dusky salamander populations and should be 1637 subject to assessment and monitoring. The extent of the groundwater recharge area is 1638 not fully known and needs to be thoroughly examined to ensure water quantity and

15 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1639 quality. Contaminated surface water could potentially infiltrate into the groundwater 1640 table within the Lockport formation. Alteration of water chemistry by the application of 1641 fertilizers or herbicides, increasing turbidity or dissolved solids and changing the 1642 temperature or pH could disrupt levels of dissolved oxygen and nutrients critical to the 1643 maintenance of salamander habitat. While the full extent of source waters remain 1644 unknown, it likely includes the tableland area immediately west of the Niagara River 1645 Gorge and from the Niagara Escarpment south to the Whirlpool. 1646 1647 Stormwater discharges from adjacent lands can also have catastrophic impacts on the 1648 salamander populations, both in the quality and quantity of water. Increases in erosion 1649 rates along the slope due to stormwater discharges may increase the instability of the 1650 slope. Resulting mudslides have the potential to decimate entire populations. While 1651 habitat stewardship activities have focused on replanting the mudslide areas in the 1652 short-term, wetland creation to capture and slow down the storm run-off discharges in 1653 the tablelands would be a long-term solution. Furthermore, contaminants such as 1654 herbicides, pesticides, oil, dangerous goods, and other pollutants can kill salamanders 1655 directly or make them more susceptible to disease by weakening their immune systems. 1656 As these salamanders are restricted to moist environments, and their larvae live within 1657 the seepages, groundwater pollution can have a catastrophic impact. Finally, an 1658 emergency spills action plan for this area would be valuable. 1659 1660 Deforestation is a threat to all forest-dwelling salamanders. However, it is not likely a 1661 serious threat for the Ontario populations of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders 1662 and Northern Dusky Salamanders which reside in lands that are owned and managed 1663 by the Niagara Parks Commission (Yagi and Tervo 2008a,b). 1664 1665 The invasive strain of the European Common Reed now grows in thick stands at the 1666 base of the slope in the Niagara Gorge. It acts to further stabilize the slope but also 1667 eliminates habitat use by dusky salamanders (Yagi and Tervo 2008a). Mechanical 1668 removal is necessary to control its spread; however, the long-term benefit of this 1669 approach has not yet been assessed. The removal of trees and shrubs in an area can 1670 lead to soil erosion, increased sedimentation in streams, changes in light intensity and 1671 temperature, changes in prey availability and modification or loss of habitat. This being 1672 the case, it is important to investigate and implement the best management practices for 1673 removal of European Common Reed. 1674 1675 Supporting Narrative for Recovery Approaches 2.1 to 2.3: 1676 To better understand the management needs of these salamander populations, it is 1677 critical to determine current population sizes and trends for both species. Appropriate 1678 recovery actions may differ depending upon whether populations are increasing, 1679 decreasing or remaining constant. 1680 1681 Small populations are prone to inbreeding. This may become a concern with these 1682 populations over time, as natural migration across the Niagara River is virtually 1683 impossible, and dusky salamanders are not known to inhabit the opposite shore at this 1684 time. As inbreeding may result in decreased breeding success and other genetic

16 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1685 defects, it is recommended to check on the genetic health of Ontario dusky salamander 1686 populations at regular intervals. If found to be necessary, and introductions are deemed 1687 feasible, genetic rescue could be arranged. As genetically similar salamanders are 1688 known to inhabit adjacent New York State (Markle and Green 2005), there is potential 1689 that introduction of small numbers from New York into the Niagara Gorge populations 1690 could alleviate inbreeding effects. 1691 1692 Supporting Narrative for Recovery Approaches 3.1 to 3.3: 1693 Stochastic events, such as major mudslides, could wipe out entire salamander 1694 populations within the Niagara Gorge. Therefore, it is critical to determine whether 1695 there is suitable habitat available for dusky salamander on adjacent land that will 1696 support introductions. Dispersal by salamanders out of the Niagara Gorge is presently 1697 unlikely as they are hemmed in by the Niagara Parkway at the top and the Niagara 1698 River on the bottom, yet it is possible that there were migration corridors between the 1699 Niagara Gorge and the Niagara Escarpment in the past. Suitable habitat may still exist 1700 along the Niagara Escarpment or the Fonthill Kame Moraine. If potential habitat is 1701 found, the feasibility of introductions should be considered. 1702 1703 If feasible and realistic within the habitat available, the recovery goal is to increase 1704 known populations of each species by 50%. As a new population was recently 1705 discovered, and potentially suitable (yet very difficult to access) salamander habitat 1706 remains to be surveyed, there is a good possibility that additional populations of both 1707 species may occur in the Niagara Gorge. Within the gorge there is plenty of suitable 1708 forest habitat; however, the limiting factor appears to be an abundance of quality seeps. 1709 Some habitat might be modified slightly to be more appealing to dusky salamanders, 1710 thereby encouraging additional populations where suitable. For instance, niche quality 1711 can be improved through adding cover objects (a potential limiting factor for 1712 abundance), along with the removal of invasive plant species where they are affecting 1713 natural groundcover or forest canopy. In addition, there may be some potential to 1714 increase available seep habitat and moist areas in the talus slope by re-routing the 1715 portion of groundwater not currently being used by salamanders to suitable but 1716 unoccupied areas. This goal is ambitious, and while work would need to be done to 1717 examine the feasibility of creating/modifying habitat and introducing species, it could be 1718 an important step in safeguarding the populations of these species in Ontario. Finally, 1719 improving the habitat between the two Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander 1720 populations could aid in dispersal and gene flow between the two sites. 1721 1722 Supporting Narrative for Recovery Approaches 4.1 and 4.2: 1723 Although located in a steep and normally inaccessible area, streams and seeps in the 1724 Niagara Gorge are often explored by hikers who venture off the maintained trail. Litter 1725 from trail users is spread throughout the area. In addition, there may be potential for 1726 some salamanders to be collected by people for the pet trade. The human impact on 1727 these populations and how to mitigate this impact needs to be better understood, 1728 however, controlling human access to the habitats supporting dusky salamanders and 1729 educating trail users and visitors to the Niagara Gorge would likely help limit potential

17 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1730 damage. Discouraging human access off trail would not only be directly beneficial to 1731 the salamanders but could help to reduce erosion on the slopes as well. 1732 1733 1734 2.4 Performance Measures 1735 1736 As dusky salamanders are nocturnal, elusive and liable to occupy habitat that is very 1737 difficult to access, obtaining reasonable estimates of population size for Ontario is 1738 difficult. It is likely that population estimates will require long-term and consistent 1739 monitoring including consecutive years of monthly surveys. Salamanders are expected 1740 to recover fairly quickly where optimal habitat is made available. Successful recovery 1741 will require both an increase in suitable habitat and an increase in abundance for both 1742 Allegheny Mountain Dusky and Northern Dusky Salamanders. As information is added 1743 through research and monitoring, it is recommended that recovery approaches be 1744 adjusted to ensure effectiveness. 1745 1746 Performance measures for each objective include: 1747 1748 Protect and enhance existing significant habitat for Allegheny Mountain Dusky 1749 Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario. 1750  Extent of the groundwater recharge area identified. 1751  Flows of seeps and streams occupied by salamanders measured to determine 1752 seasonal and yearly averages. 1753  Major projects or developments on the tablelands that could impact groundwater 1754 quantity or quality at salamander sites monitored. 1755  Emergency spills action plan developed. 1756  Program in place to annually monitor water quality and detect pollutants at 1757 salamander sites. 1758  Program in place to monitor erosion rates at base of Niagara River Shoreline. 1759  Invasive plants within/near salamander habitat removed as appropriate. 1760 1761 Conduct a thorough population study, and if necessary maintain the genetic health of 1762 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander populations in 1763 Ontario. 1764  Population sizes, trends and demographics assessed for both species. 1765  Genetic health of each population quantified. 1766  Nearest source populations of each species identified in New York for potential 1767 introduction if inbreeding appears to be of concern. 1768 1769 Locate additional populations and expand the current ranges of Allegheny Mountain 1770 Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders through introductions where 1771 appropriate. 1772  All other accessible suitable habitat within the Niagara Gorge and Niagara 1773 Escarpment surveyed for additional populations of dusky salamanders. 1774  Potential habitat for introductions within Niagara Gorge or Niagara Escarpment 1775 identified.

18 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1776  Increased quality of adjacent suitable habitat so that populations of each species 1777 in Ontario have the potential to increase by a minimum of 50%. 1778 1779 Elicit public support and collaboration in the protection and recovery of Allegheny 1780 Mountain Dusky Salamanders and Northern Dusky Salamanders in Ontario. 1781  Education tools (pamphlets, magnets, etc.) developed and distributed to Niagara 1782 Gorge visitors to provide awareness of the impact of off-trail actions on 1783 salamander habitat. 1784  Outreach projects to encourage stewardship and involve stakeholders on 1785 adjacent lands above the Gorge initiated. 1786 1787 1788 2.5 Area for Consideration in Developing a Habitat Regulation 1789 1790 Under the ESA, a recovery strategy must include a recommendation to the Minister of 1791 Natural Resources on the area that should be considered in developing a habitat 1792 regulation. A habitat regulation is a legal instrument that prescribes an area that will be 1793 protected as the habitat of the species. The recommendation provided below by the 1794 author will be one of many sources considered by the Minister when developing the 1795 habitat regulation for this species. 1796 1797 All populations of Allegheny Mountain Dusky and Northern Dusky Salamanders in the 1798 Niagara Gorge occupy forested areas with groundwater discharges. While their habitat 1799 requirements are virtually the same, Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders are 1800 slightly more terrestrial and may inhabit semi-permanent streams or seeps, whereas 1801 Northern Dusky Salamanders are nearly always located in permanent streams or 1802 seeps. Preservation of these moist areas within a forested habitat is essential. 1803 1804 All three known populations of dusky salamanders in Ontario are completely dependent 1805 on the continuing existence of the seeps and streams emanating from rock layers on 1806 the sides of the Niagara Gorge. Any regulation concerning the areas presently 1807 occupied by the salamanders would become irrelevant if the springs and the ground 1808 water flow that feeds them were to become contaminated or disrupted. Thus the 1809 adjacent land above the Gorge that serves as the catchment basin for these springs 1810 should also be considered if the long-term survival of these salamander populations is 1811 to be ensured. 1812 1813 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander 1814 Direct Habitat 1815 The two localities inhabited by Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders are found on 1816 the west bank of the Niagara Gorge near Queenston. Each consists of a single, 1817 permanent groundwater discharge stream running down a very steep gradient through 1818 mixed deciduous forest (Yagi and Tervo 2008a, Weller 2010, 2011). The origin of both 1819 cascades is groundwater, which seeps out from rock layers at an elevation below the 1820 tableland. As all life stages of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander depend to

19 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1821 some extent on permanent streams or seeps and on rocky habitat, it is recommended 1822 that these stream areas be included in a habitat regulation. 1823 1824 Forested areas include the subterranean frost-free environment, soil, wet cavities along 1825 stream edges, vegetation, canopy cover, rocks, leaf litter and logs surrounding seep 1826 areas. This habitat provides shelter and food resources, and is critical to the survival 1827 and recovery of the species. Although the movements of Allegheny Mountain Dusky 1828 Salamanders in these populations are not well known, in other parts of its range 1829 individuals have been found up to 75 m from water (Organ 1961). For this reason, 1830 dispersal habitat for Ontario populations should include the forest floor extending to 75 1831 m from the edges of a stream or associated seep occupied by these salamanders. 1832 Consequently, it is recommended that the entire extent of the two groundwater 1833 discharge streams and a 75 metre zone of forested land on both sides of each stream 1834 be included in the habitat regulation. Therefore, total direct habitat recommended for 1835 regulation of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders at the Queenston site is 1.98 ha, 1836 and for the Smeaton Creek population, 2.54 ha. 1837 1838 Finally, as two populations of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders (roughly half a 1839 kilometre apart) are now known in the Niagara Gorge, it is recommended that the area 1840 between the two localities be included in the habitat regulation as a dispersal corridor. 1841 While direct dispersal is not expected to occur frequently, it may be possible for 1842 salamanders to cross such distances over time in ideal cool/moist conditions. Gene 1843 flow between the sites would help to mitigate potential impacts of inbreeding that could 1844 occur in small isolated populations. The corridor habitat makes up an additional 4.2 ha 1845 of direct habitat, providing a total of 8.72 ha (the two sites plus the corridor) 1846 recommended for direct habitat regulation for the species. 1847 1848 Indirect Habitat 1849 Populations of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamanders in the Niagara Gorge rely on 1850 the groundwater seepage streams during all life stages. Any decrease, curtailment or 1851 interruption of the ground water is likely to be detrimental to salamander recovery. 1852 Further, studies have demonstrated that siltation and urban impacts can decrease water 1853 quality and reduce dusky salamander populations. As a result, protection of 1854 groundwater quantity and quality needs to be considered in a habitat regulation for the 1855 long-term survival of this species in Ontario. 1856 1857 A study is in progress to determine the relationship between the water level in the Sir 1858 Adam Beck complex reservoir and stream flow at the Smeaton Creek site, Queenston 1859 site and Whirlpool site. The results of this study should be incorporated into follow-up 1860 documentation related to this recovery strategy. Although the full extent of the 1861 groundwater recharge area has yet to be determined with the appropriate hydrological 1862 studies, the Sir Adam Beck reservoir operates within the elevation of groundwater 1863 discharge areas and may play a role in maintaining a hydraulic gradient toward the 1864 seepage area of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander populations. In late 2011, 1865 OPG lowered water in the reservoir to zero as part of an initiative to investigate future 1866 re-lining the reservoir to prevent leakage. During this time, it was observed that flow to

20 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1867 Smeaton Creek was dramatically reduced (A. R. Yagi, pers. comm. 2012). While a 1868 detailed analysis is needed to explicitly make the connection between the reservoir and 1869 stream or seepage flow, there is potential for the reservoir to be contributing a large 1870 amount of the flow to Smeaton Creek, and perhaps some to the Queenston Allegheny 1871 Mountain Dusky Salamander population as well. 1872 1873 It is therefore recommended that indirect habitat regulation include the groundwater 1874 recharge area and surface water catchment that feeds the source springs of both 1875 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander populations. While detailed hydrological 1876 studies will provide a better sense of the extent of this area, a rough estimate includes 1877 some 700 ha of tableland and adjacent lands (Yagi and Tervo 2008a). 1878 1879 Northern Dusky Salamander 1880 Direct Habitat 1881 Although movements of Northern Dusky Salamanders in this population are not well 1882 understood, the average home range of individuals in USA populations is estimated to 1883 extend not further than 15 m from a stream or seep (Petranka 1998). Streams and 1884 seeps are critical habitat for larvae to develop and provide year-round essential 1885 moisture for adults. For this reason, it is recommended that all of the permanent or 1886 semi-permanent groundwater seeps within the currently occupied range of Northern 1887 Dusky Salamanders at the Whirlpool site be included in a habitat regulation. 1888 1889 Terrestrial forested habitat is important as a foraging area for adult salamanders. While 1890 under most conditions Northern Dusky Salamanders will remain near a permanent 1891 source of water, under ideal conditions (wet/cool nights) it is likely that they will disperse 1892 much further into the forest habitat to search for food or mates. Seepage areas 1893 occupied by Northern Dusky Salamanders at the Whirlpool site are quite dynamic in 1894 terms of flow, and can vary greatly from year to year depending on amounts of rainfall. 1895 Seasonality is also likely to influence seepage flow, although seasonal aspects of the 1896 Whirlpool seepage flows have not been determined. During periods of heavy rainfall 1897 seepage flow increases, saturating forest floor and increasing seepage areas. Such 1898 events can dramatically increase the available terrestrial habitat accessible to these 1899 salamanders. Because of the dynamic nature of the seeps at this site, a 75 m area 1900 extending from all permanent and semi-permanent seeps is proposed as a 1901 precautionary minimum for direct habitat protection. This will help to ensure that we 1902 capture all of the hydrologic function of this site and enable dispersal between the many 1903 seepage areas. Further, it provides enough habitat protection to allow for some 1904 changes to seepage flow over time. The total direct habitat recommended for regulation 1905 for the Northern Dusky Salamander is 3.36 ha. 1906 1907 Indirect Habitat 1908 While we still do not fully understand the extent of the groundwater recharge area, it is 1909 evident that shallow groundwater seeping into the gorge is the predominant source of 1910 essential moisture for these salamander populations. Therefore it is highly 1911 recommended that some level of source water protection (both surface and 1912 groundwater) be provided for land in the up-gradient tableland areas. The groundwater

21 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1913 source is believed to originate in the Lockport rock formation. While the full extent of 1914 this area has not yet been determined (Yagi and Tervo 2008b), approximately 550 ha of 1915 tableland and adjacent lands are likely involved. This includes lands immediately west 1916 of the Niagara River Gorge and extending from the Niagara Escarpment to the 1917 Whirlpool. The maintenance of the groundwater discharge is essential to the long-term 1918 survival of all dusky salamander populations in Ontario. As a result, major projects on 1919 the tableland that have the potential to affect groundwater quality and quantity need to 1920 be thoroughly assessed and monitored once initiated. 1921 1922 Other considerations 1923 The populations of both dusky salamander species in the Niagara Gorge are recent 1924 discoveries made as the result of intensive off-trail surveys in steep and treacherous 1925 terrain. It is quite possible that additional populations of both dusky salamanders may 1926 exist in the province. Areas of potential salamander habitat need to be searched 1927 extensively wherever possible and any new areas where dusky salamanders are found 1928 need to be quickly added to an area of habitat regulation. Further, where suitable 1929 habitats are available (or where available habitats can be made suitable), introductions 1930 should be considered and habitat regulation extended to include habitat at introduction 1931 sites. 1932

22 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1933 GLOSSARY 1934 1935 Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC): The 1936 committee responsible for assessing and classifying species at risk in Canada. 1937 1938 Committee on the Status of Species at Risk in Ontario (COSSARO): The committee 1939 established under section 3 of the Endangered Species Act, 2007 that is 1940 responsible for assessing and classifying species at risk in Ontario. 1941 1942 Conservation status rank: A rank assigned to a species or ecological community that 1943 primarily conveys the degree of rarity of the species or community at the global 1944 (G), national (N) or subnational (S) level. These ranks, termed G-rank, N-rank 1945 and S-rank, are not legal designations. The conservation status of a species or 1946 ecosystem is designated by a number from 1 to 5, preceded by the letter G, N or 1947 S reflecting the appropriate geographic scale of the assessment. The numbers 1948 mean the following: 1949 1 = critically imperilled 1950 2 = imperilled 1951 3 = vulnerable 1952 4 = apparently secure 1953 5 = secure 1954 1955 Costal grooves: A set of parallel, vertical grooves between the ribs on the sides of 1956 some salamanders, newts and their larvae. 1957 1958 Cross-section: A surface or shape that is or would be exposed by making a straight cut 1959 through something, especially at right angles to an axis. 1960 1961 Dorsal: Relating to the upper side or back of an animal. 1962 1963 Endangered Species Act, 2007 (ESA): The provincial legislation that provides 1964 protection to species at risk in Ontario. 1965 1966 First-order stream: A stream that has no permanent or semi-permanent tributaries 1967 feeding into it. 1968 1969 Hybridization: the act of mixing different species or varieties of animals or plants, thus 1970 producing hybrids. 1971 1972 Keeled: A flattened, ridge-like part. 1973 1974 Plethodontid: Lungless salamanders from the family Plethodontidae. 1975 1976 Refugia: An area in which organisms can survive through a period of unfavourable 1977 conditions. 1978

23 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1979 Seep: Flow or leak slowly through porous material or small holes. 1980 1981 Species at Risk Act (SARA): The federal legislation that provides protection to species 1982 at risk in Canada. This act establishes Schedule 1 as the legal list of wildlife 1983 species at risk to which the SARA provisions apply. Schedules 2 and 3 contain 1984 lists of species that at the time the Act came into force needed to be reassessed. 1985 After species on Schedule 2 and 3 are reassessed and found to be at risk, they 1986 undergo the SARA listing process to be included in Schedule 1. 1987 1988 Species at Risk in Ontario (SARO) List: The regulation made under section 7 of the 1989 Endangered Species Act, 2007 that provides the official status classification of 1990 species at risk in Ontario. This list was first published in 2004 as a policy and 1991 became a regulation in 2008. 1992 1993 Spermatophore: A cone-shaped jellylike mass topped with a sperm cap, deposited by 1994 male salamanders during courtship. 1995 1996

24 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

1997 REFERENCES 1998 1999 Alvo, R. and J. Bonin. 2003. Rapport sur la situation de la salamandre sombre des 2000 montagnes (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) au Québec. Société de la faune et des 2001 parcs du Québec. 2002 2003 Ashton, R.E. Jr. 1975. A study of movement, home range, and winter behaviour of 2004 Desmognathus fuscus (Rafinesque). Journal of Herpetology 9:85-91. 2005 2006 Bishop, S.C. 1941. The Salamanders of New York. New York State Museum Bulletin 2007 324: 329-359. 2008 2009 Bishop, S.C. 1943. Handbook of Salamanders. Comstock Publishing Company, Inc. 2010 Ithaca, New York. 535 pp. 2011 2012 Bonin, J. 1999. COSEWIC Status Report on the Northern Dusky Salamander 2013 (Desmognathus fuscus) in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered 2014 Wildlife in Canada. Environment Canada, Ottawa. 2015 2016 Boutin, A. 2006. Caractérisation de l’habitat d’une communauté de salamandres de 2017 ruisseaux comportant des hybrides. M.Sc. Thesis, Département de sciences 2018 biologiques, Université de Montréal. 91 pp. 2019 2020 Bowles, D.E. and T.L. Arsuffi. 1993. Karst aquatic ecosystems of the Edwards Plateau 2021 region of central Texas, USA: A consideration of their importance, threats to their 2022 existence, and efforts for their conservation. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and 2023 Freshwater Ecosystems 3:317-329. 2024 2025 Bruce, R.C. 1993. Sexual size dimorphism in Desmognathine salamanders. Copeia 2026 1993:313-318. 2027 2028 COSEWIC 2007. COSEWIC assessment and update status report on the Allegheny 2029 Mountain Dusky Salamander Desmognathus ochrophaeus (Great Lakes/St. 2030 Lawrence population and Carolinian population) in Canada. Committee on the 2031 Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. viii + 32 pp. 2032 2033 Feder, M.E. 1983. Integrating the ecology and physiology of plethodontid salamanders. 2034 Herpetologica 39:291-310. 2035 2036 Feder, M.E. and P.L. Londos. 1984. Hydric constraints upon foraging in a terrestrial 2037 salamander, Desmognathus ochrophaeus (Amphibia: Plethodontidae). Oecologia 2038 64:413-418. 2039 2040 Fitzpatrick, L.C. 1973. Energy allocation in the Allegheny Mountain Salamander 2041 Desmognathus ochrophaeus. Ecological Monographs 43:43-58. 2042

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2043 Forester, D.C. 1979. The adaptiveness of parental care in Desmognathus ochrophaeus 2044 (Urodela: Plethodontidae). Copeia 1979:332-341. 2045 2046 Grover, M.C. 2000. Determinants of salamander distribution along moisture gradients. 2047 Copeia 2000:156-168. 2048 2049 Grover, M.C. and H.M. Wilbur. 2002. Ecology of ecotones: Interactions between 2050 salamanders on a complex environmental gradient. Ecology 83:2112-2123. 2051 2052 Hall, R.J. 1977. A population analysis of two species of streamside salamanders, genus 2053 Desmognathus. Herpetologica 33:109-113. 2054 2055 Hedrick, P.W. and S.T. Kalinowski. 2000. Inbreeding Depression in Conservation 2056 Biology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31:139-162. 2057 2058 Holomuzki, J.R. 1980. Synchronous foraging and dietary overlap of three plethodontid 2059 salamanders. Herpetologica 36:109-115. 2060 2061 Hom, C.L. 1987. Reproductive ecology of female dusky salamanders, Desmognathus 2062 fuscus (Plethodontidae), in the southern Appalachians. Copeia 1987:768-777. 2063 2064 Hom, C.L. 1988. Optimal reproductive allocation in female dusky salamanders : A 2065 quantitative test. American Naturalist 131:71-90. 2066 2067 Houck, L.D., S.J. Arnold, and R.A. Thisted. 1985. A statistical study of mate choice: 2068 sexual selection in a Plethodontid salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus). 2069 Evolution 39:370-386. 2070 2071 Jones, R.L. 1986. Reproductive Biology of Desmognathus fuscus and Desmognathus 2072 santeetlah in the Unicoi Mountains. Herpetologica 42:323-334. 2073 2074 Kamstra, J. 1991. Rediscovery of the Northern Dusky Salamander, Desmognathus 2075 fuscus, in Ontario. Canadian Field-Naturalist 105:561-563. 2076 2077 Keen, W.H. 1979. Feeding and activity patterns in the salamander Desmognathus 2078 ochrophaeus (Amphibia, Urodela, Plethodontidae). Journal of Herpetology 13:461- 2079 467. 2080 2081 Keen, W.H. and L.P. Orr. 1980. Reproductive-cycle growth and maturation of northern 2082 female Desmognathus ochrophaeus. Journal of Herpetology 14:7-10. 2083 2084 Krzysik, A.J. 1980. Microhabitat selection and brooding phenology of Desmognathus 2085 fuscus fuscus in western Pennsylvania. Journal of Herpetology 14:291-292. 2086

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2087 Markle, T.M. and D.M. Green. 2005. Molecular Identification of Allegheny Mountain 2088 Dusky Salamanders, Desmognathus ochrophaeus, in Southern Ontario. Report for 2089 the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR), Niagara, Ontario. 8 pp. 2090 2091 Markle, T.M. and D.M. Green. 2006. Molecular comparison of Allegheny Mountain 2092 Dusky Salamanders, Desmognathus ochrophaeus, in Southern Ontario and New 2093 York State. Report for Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (OMNR), Niagara, 2094 Ontario. 7 pp. 2095 2096 Markle, T.M., D.M. Green, A. Yagi, and W.F. Weller. 2006. Desmognathus ochrophaeus 2097 (Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander) in Ontario. Herpetological Review 2098 37(4):482-483. 2099 2100 Means, D.B. 2005. Desmognathus fuscus (Green 1818) Northern Dusky Salamander. 2101 Pp. 708-710, In M. Lannoo (Ed.). Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status 2102 of United States Species. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 2103 2104 Montague, J.R. and J.W. Poinski. 1978. Note on the brooding behaviour in 2105 Desmognathus fuscus fuscus (Raf.) (Amphibia, Urodela, Plethodontidae) in 2106 Columbiana County, Ohio. Journal of Herpetology 12:104. 2107 2108 Nash, C.W. 1908. Check list of the Batrachians and Reptiles of Ontario in Manual of 2109 Vertebrates of Ontario. Department of Education, Toronto. Warwick Bros. & 2110 Rutter, Limited, Printers, Toronto. 32 pp. 2111 2112 Oldham, M.J. 2006. COSSARO Candidate Species at Risk Evaluation Form for 2113 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) prepared 2114 for the Committee on the Status of Species at Risk in Ontario (COSSARO), 11 pp. 2115 2116 Organ, J.A. 1961. Studies of the local distribution, life history, and population dynamics 2117 of the salamander genus Desmognathus in Virginia. Ecological Monographs 31: 2118 189-220. 2119 2120 Orr, L.P. 1989. Desmognathus ochrophaeus (Cope), Mountain dusky salamander. pp. 2121 181-189, in R. A. Pfingsten & F. L. Downs. Salamanders of Ohio. Bulletin of the 2122 Ohio Biological Survey 7(2). College of Biological Sciences, The Ohio State 2123 University. Columbus, Ohio. 2124 2125 Pauly, T.K., and M.B. Watson. 2005. Desmognathus ochrophaeus Cope, 1859 2126 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander. Pp. 716-719, In M. Lannoo (Ed.). 2127 Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species. 2128 University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 2129 2130 Petranka, J.W. 1998. Salamanders of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian 2131 Institution Press, Washington. 2132

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2133 Petranka, J.W. and C.K. Smith. 2005. A functional analysis of streamside habitat use by 2134 southern Appalachian salamanders: Implications for riparian forest management. 2135 Forest Ecology and Management 210:443-454. 2136 2137 Sharbel, T.F., J. Bonin, L.A. Lowcock, and D.M. Green. 1995. Partial genetic 2138 compatibility and unidirectional hybridization in syntopic populations of the 2139 salamanders Desmognathus fuscus and D. ochrophaeus. Copeia 1995:466-469. 2140 2141 Spotila, J.R. 1972. Role of temperature and water in the ecology of lungless 2142 salamanders. Ecological Monographs 42:95-125. 2143 2144 Tilley, S.G. 1969. Variation in the dorsal pattern of Desmognathus ochrophaeus at Mt. 2145 Mitchell, North Carolina, and elsewhere in the southern Appalachian Mountains. 2146 Copeia 1969:161-175. 2147 2148 Tilley, S.G. 1970. Aspects of the reproductive and population ecology of Desmognathus 2149 ochrophaeus in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Ph.D. Thesis. University of 2150 Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 2151 2152 Tilley, S.G. and M.J. Mahoney. 1996. Patterns of genetic differentiation in salamanders 2153 of the Desmognathus ochrophaeus complex (Amphibia: Plethodontidae). 2154 Herpetological Monographs 10:1-42. 2155 2156 Tilley, S.G. 1997. Patterns of genetic differentiation in Appalachian Desmognathine 2157 salamanders. Journal of Heredity 88: 305-315. 2158 2159 Turner, M.A. 2004. Some Water Quality Threats to the Barton Springs Salamander at 2160 Low Flows. Watershed Protection Development Review. Water Resource 2161 Evaluation Section, Environmental Resource Management Division. 11pp. 2162 2163 Weller, W.F. 2010. Results of Field Investigations for Dusky Salamanders 2164 (Desmognathus) in Smeaton Creek, R.M. Niagara in 2010. Report prepared by 2165 Environment Division, Hydro Business, Ontario Power Generation for Niagara 2166 Plant Group, Hydro Business, Ontario Power Generation. December, 2010. 2167 2168 Weller, W.F. 2011. Results of Field Investigations for Dusky Salamanders 2169 (Desmognathus) in Smeaton Creek, R.M. Niagara in 2011. Report prepared by 2170 Environment Division, Hydro Business, Ontario Power Generation for Niagara 2171 Plant Group, Hydro Business, Ontario Power Generation. December, 2011. 2172 2173 Weller, W.F., pers. comm. 2012. Email correspondence to T. Markle. 2012. Sr. 2174 Environmental Scientist, Hydro Business Unit, Ontario Power Generation, Niagara- 2175 on-the-Lake, Ontario. 2176

28 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

2177 Whiteman, H. H. and S. A. Wissinger. 1991. Differences in the antipredator behavior of 2178 three plethodontid salamanders to snake attack. Journal of Herpetology 25:352- 2179 355. 2180 2181 Yagi A.R and R. Tervo. 2008a. Species at risk habitat mapping for the Allegheny 2182 Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) -- A test of draft 2183 habitat mapping guidelines. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources 12 pp. 2184 2185 Yagi A.R and R. Tervo. 2008b. Species at risk habitat mapping for the Northern Dusky 2186 Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) -- A test of draft habitat mapping guidelines. 2187 Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources 12 pp. 2188 2189 Yagi, A.R., T. Markle, A. Brant, and R. Tervo. 2010. Québec and Ontario Stream 2190 Salamander Stewardship Guide: A Resource and Field Guide for Living with 2191 Stream Salamanders. Prepared for Environment Canada, Habitat Stewardship 2192 Program. iii + 37 pp. 2193 2194 Yagi, A.R., pers. comm. 2012. Email correspondence to T. Markle. February 2012. 2195 Management Biologist, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Vineland Station, 2196 Ontario. 2197 2198 2199

29 Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario

2200 RECOVERY STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT TEAM MEMBERS 2201 NAME AFFILIATION and OFFICE Recovery Team David M. Green (Chair) Redpath Museum McGill University Anne R. Yagi (Co-Chair) Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources Wayne F. Weller (Co-Chair) Ontario Power Generation Amy Brant Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (formerly) Bob Johnson Toronto Zoo Michael Oldham Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources Rob Ritchie Niagara Parks Commission (formerly) (the late) Rob Tervo Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (formerly) David Webster Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources

Part 3 – Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and the Northern Dusky Salamander –Ontario Government Response Statement, prepared by the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources

Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander

Ministry of Natural Resources

Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander Ontario Government

Response Statement Photos: Rob Tervo

PROTECTING AND RECOVERING SPECIES AT RISK IN ONTARIO Dusky salamanders Species at risk recovery is a key part of protecting Ontario’s biodiversity. Biodiversity – the are greyish-brown in variety of living organisms on Earth – provides us with clean air and water, food, fibre, colour and slender in medicine and other resources that we need to survive. shape with long tails The Endangered Species Act, 2007 (ESA) is the Government of Ontario’s legislative and hind legs that are commitment to protecting and recovering species at risk and their habitats. As soon as a larger than their front species is listed as extirpated, endangered or threatened under the ESA, it is automatically legs. The Allegheny protected from harm or harassment. Also, immediately upon listing, the habitats of endangered and threatened species are protected from damage or destruction. Mountain Dusky Salamander ranges from Under the ESA, the Ministry of Natural Resources (the Ministry) must ensure that a recovery 70 to 110 mm in length strategy is prepared for each species that is listed as endangered or threatened. A recovery strategy provides science-based advice to government on what is required to achieve with a bright yellow to recovery of a species. red-coloured dorsal stripe running along

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE STATEMENTS it, and a dark brown or black underside. Within nine months after a recovery strategy is prepared, the ESA requires the Ministry The Northern Dusky to publish a statement summarizing the government’s intended actions and priorities in Salamander ranges from response to the recovery strategy. The recovery strategy for Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus 60 to 140 mm in length fuscus) was completed on January 11, 2013 (http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/stdprodconsume/ with a uniformly tan or groups/lr/@mnr/@species/documents/document/stdprod_099152.pdf). brown dorsal stripe, The response statement is the government’s policy response to the scientific advice and a cream-coloured provided in the recovery strategy. All recommendations provided in the recovery strategy underside. were considered and this response statement identifies those that are considered to be appropriate and necessary for the protection and recovery of the species. In addition to the

Ontario Government Response Statement1 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander

strategy, the response statement is based on input from stakeholders, other jurisdictions, Aboriginal communities and members of the public. It reflects the best available traditional, local and scientific knowledge at this time and may be adapted if new information becomes available. In implementing the actions in the response statement, the ESA allows the Ministry to determine what is feasible, taking into account social and economic factors.

MOVING FORWARD TO PROTECT AND RECOVER ALLEGHENY MOUNTAIN DUSKY SALAMANDER AND NORTHERN DUSKY SALAMANDER

The Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander are listed as endangered species under the ESA, which protects both the animals and their habitat. The ESA prohibits harm or harassment of both species and damage or destruction of their habitat without authorization. Authorization would require that conditions established by the Ministry be met.

The Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander is known to occur at two locations in Ontario’s Niagara Gorge, southeast of the town of Queenston. Its range extends from eastern Tennessee through the Appalachian Mountains and along the shores of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario to southern Quebec. Located approximately four kilometres away, the Northern Dusky Salamander’s single known population in Ontario is found among seeps that flow into the Niagara River. The Northern Dusky Salamander’s range is similar to that of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander, extending from South Carolina through the Northeast United States into southern Quebec. Both species are considered globally secure.

The Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander are lungless and rely on their moist skin for respiration. These species inhabitat moist and shaded streams supported by groundwater discharge, which are rare within southern Ontario. As a result, any deterioration, interruption or contamination of the groundwater and surface water that supports the species could potentially have catastrophic effects. As well, loss of ground cover – such as leaf litter, woody debris, rocks and moss that provide shelter and protection from predators and harsh weather – may lead to population declines. Other threats include landslides causing erosion and siltation, the clearing of the forested canopy above the species’ habitat, disruption by hikers venturing off trail, the invasive European Common Reed (Phragmites australis ssp. australis), and inbreeding. Based on the information to date, all populations in Ontario are believed to be viable and self-sustaining.

The government’s goal for the recovery of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander is to maintain suitable habitat conditions in the Niagara Gorge in order to retain existing known populations in a self-sustaining state and promote natural increases.

Protecting and recovering species at risk is a shared responsibility. No single agency or organization has the knowledge, authority or financial resources to protect and recover all of Ontario’s species at risk. Successful recovery requires inter-governmental co-operation and the involvement of many individuals, organizations and communities.

In developing the government response statement, the Ministry considered what actions are feasible for the government to lead directly and what actions are feasible for the government to support its conservation partners to undertake.

2 Ontario Government Response Statement2 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander

GOVERNMENT-LED ACTIONS

To help protect and recover the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander the government will directly undertake the following actions: n Protect and manage the surface water and groundwater system that sustains the seep and stream habitat of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander through continued water budget assessments that determine the quantity and quality of the water moving within the local area of the Niagara Gorge and any natural or human activities that influence the system. n Educate other agencies and authorities involved in planning and environmental assessment processes on the protection requirements under the ESA. n Encourage the submission of Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander data to the Ministry’s central repository at the Natural Heritage Information Centre or the Ontario Reptile and Amphibian Atlas. n Undertake communications and outreach to increase public awareness of species at risk in Ontario. n Protect the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander and their habitat through the ESA. n Support conservation, agency, municipal and industry partners, and Aboriginal communities and organizations to undertake activities to protect and recover the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander. Support will be provided through funding, agreements, permits (including conditions) and/or advisory services. n Establish and communicate annual priority actions for government support in order to encourage collaboration and reduce duplication of efforts.

GOVERNMENT-SUPPORTED ACTIONS

The government endorses the following actions as being necessary for the protection and recovery of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander. Actions identified as “high” will be given priority consideration for funding or for authorizations under the ESA. The government will focus its support on these high-priority actions over the next five years.

Focus Area: Research and Monitoring Objective: Assess and improve knowledge of the species’ demographics and physical environment in Ontario. Actions: 1. (HIGH) Develop and implement a standardized survey and monitoring program for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander and their habitat to:

3 Ontario Government Response Statement3 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander

n conduct searches of suitable unoccupied habitat along the Niagara Escarpment and Fonthill Kame Moraine for undiscovered populations; n monitor changes in slope stability and erosion rates on hillsides in the species’ habitat; n monitor population levels and trends; and n monitor genetic health of the populations to detect potential inbreeding. 2. (HIGH) Develop an integrated program to measure, forecast, and detect changes in the quantity and quality of water supporting the species’ habitat. This includes: n developing a water budget model; n characterizing and simulating the surface water and groundwater system and contaminant transport; n assessing water use and land use scenarios; n measuring seasonal and yearly averages of the flows of seeps and streams; and n integrating the monitoring of climate, surface and groundwater within the local area of the Niagara Gorge.

Focus Area: Protection and Management Objective: Maintain suitable habitat, particularly groundwater quantity and quality, and minimize threats from adjacent land uses. Actions: 3. (HIGH) Work with stakeholders, engineers, and contractors to implement beneficial management practices that minimize impacts on groundwater recharge areas and seeps. Water budget modelling can help to forecast and identify potential impacts caused by changing land and water uses. 4. Plant native trees to reduce hillside erosion and deforestation and create stormwater management ponds to capture and slow down runoff of herbicides, pesticides and other pollutants. 5. Investigate whether the removal of European Common Reed will improve or negatively impact the quality of the habitat. The European Common Reed eliminates habitat use by the salamanders, but also helps to stabilize the slope and prevent soil erosion. If appropriate, implement the Ministry’s protocol for the control of European Common Reed.

Focus Area: Awareness Objective: Raise awareness and promote collaboration in the protection and recovery of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander in Ontario. Actions: 6. Prepare educational materials such as pamphlets to inform park visitors about the endangered status of these salamanders and the need to not disturb them or their habitat, and to discourage off-trail hiking.

4 Ontario Government Response Statement4 Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander

IMPLEMENTING ACTIONS

Financial support for the implementation of actions may be available through the Species at Risk Stewardship Fund, Species at Risk Research Fund for Ontario, or the Species at Risk Farm Incentive Program. Conservation partners are encouraged to discuss project proposals related to the actions in this response statement with the Ministry. The Ministry can also advise if any authorizations under the ESA or other legislation may be required to undertake the project.

Implementation of the actions may be subject to changing priorities across the multitude of species at risk, available resources and the capacity of partners to undertake recovery activities. Where appropriate, the implementation of actions for multiple species will be co-ordinated across government response statements.

REVIEWING PROGRESS

The ESA requires the Ministry to conduct a review of progress towards protecting and recovering a species not later than five years from the publication of this response statement. The review will help identify if adjustments are needed to achieve the protection and recovery of the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander and Northern Dusky Salamander.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank all those who participated in the development of the “Recovery Strategy for the Allegheny Mountain Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus ochrophaeus) and Northern Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus fuscus) in Ontario” for their dedication to protecting and recovering species at risk.

For additional information: Visit the species at risk website at ontario.ca/speciesatrisk Contact your MNR district office Contact the Natural Resources Information Centre 1-800-667-1940 TTY 1-866-686-6072 [email protected] ontario.ca/mnr

5 Ontario Government Response Statement5