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A Mathematical Derivation of the General Relativistic Schwarzschild
A Mathematical Derivation of the General Relativistic Schwarzschild Metric An Honors thesis presented to the faculty of the Departments of Physics and Mathematics East Tennessee State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Honors Scholar and Honors-in-Discipline Programs for a Bachelor of Science in Physics and Mathematics by David Simpson April 2007 Robert Gardner, Ph.D. Mark Giroux, Ph.D. Keywords: differential geometry, general relativity, Schwarzschild metric, black holes ABSTRACT The Mathematical Derivation of the General Relativistic Schwarzschild Metric by David Simpson We briefly discuss some underlying principles of special and general relativity with the focus on a more geometric interpretation. We outline Einstein’s Equations which describes the geometry of spacetime due to the influence of mass, and from there derive the Schwarzschild metric. The metric relies on the curvature of spacetime to provide a means of measuring invariant spacetime intervals around an isolated, static, and spherically symmetric mass M, which could represent a star or a black hole. In the derivation, we suggest a concise mathematical line of reasoning to evaluate the large number of cumbersome equations involved which was not found elsewhere in our survey of the literature. 2 CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................. 2 1 Introduction to Relativity ...................... 4 1.1 Minkowski Space ....................... 6 1.2 What is a black hole? ..................... 11 1.3 Geodesics and Christoffel Symbols ............. 14 2 Einstein’s Field Equations and Requirements for a Solution .17 2.1 Einstein’s Field Equations .................. 20 3 Derivation of the Schwarzschild Metric .............. 21 3.1 Evaluation of the Christoffel Symbols .......... 25 3.2 Ricci Tensor Components ................. -
Geometrical Tools for Embedding Fields, Submanifolds, and Foliations Arxiv
Geometrical tools for embedding fields, submanifolds, and foliations Antony J. Speranza∗ Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, 31 Caroline St. N, Waterloo, ON N2L 2Y5, Canada Abstract Embedding fields provide a way of coupling a background structure to a theory while preserving diffeomorphism-invariance. Examples of such background structures include embedded submani- folds, such as branes; boundaries of local subregions, such as the Ryu-Takayanagi surface in holog- raphy; and foliations, which appear in fluid dynamics and force-free electrodynamics. This work presents a systematic framework for computing geometric properties of these background structures in the embedding field description. An overview of the local geometric quantities associated with a foliation is given, including a review of the Gauss, Codazzi, and Ricci-Voss equations, which relate the geometry of the foliation to the ambient curvature. Generalizations of these equations for cur- vature in the nonintegrable normal directions are derived. Particular care is given to the question of which objects are well-defined for single submanifolds, and which depend on the structure of the foliation away from a submanifold. Variational formulas are provided for the geometric quantities, which involve contributions both from the variation of the embedding map as well as variations of the ambient metric. As an application of these variational formulas, a derivation is given of the Jacobi equation, describing perturbations of extremal area surfaces of arbitrary codimension. The embedding field formalism is also applied to the problem of classifying boundary conditions for general relativity in a finite subregion that lead to integrable Hamiltonians. The framework developed in this paper will provide a useful set of tools for future analyses of brane dynamics, fluid arXiv:1904.08012v2 [gr-qc] 26 Apr 2019 mechanics, and edge modes for finite subregions of diffeomorphism-invariant theories. -
Laplacians in Geometric Analysis
LAPLACIANS IN GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS Syafiq Johar syafi[email protected] Contents 1 Trace Laplacian 1 1.1 Connections on Vector Bundles . .1 1.2 Local and Explicit Expressions . .2 1.3 Second Covariant Derivative . .3 1.4 Curvatures on Vector Bundles . .4 1.5 Trace Laplacian . .5 2 Harmonic Functions 6 2.1 Gradient and Divergence Operators . .7 2.2 Laplace-Beltrami Operator . .7 2.3 Harmonic Functions . .8 2.4 Harmonic Maps . .8 3 Hodge Laplacian 9 3.1 Exterior Derivatives . .9 3.2 Hodge Duals . 10 3.3 Hodge Laplacian . 12 4 Hodge Decomposition 13 4.1 De Rham Cohomology . 13 4.2 Hodge Decomposition Theorem . 14 5 Weitzenb¨ock and B¨ochner Formulas 15 5.1 Weitzenb¨ock Formula . 15 5.1.1 0-forms . 15 5.1.2 k-forms . 15 5.2 B¨ochner Formula . 17 1 Trace Laplacian In this section, we are going to present a notion of Laplacian that is regularly used in differential geometry, namely the trace Laplacian (also called the rough Laplacian or connection Laplacian). We recall the definition of connection on vector bundles which allows us to take the directional derivative of vector bundles. 1.1 Connections on Vector Bundles Definition 1.1 (Connection). Let M be a differentiable manifold and E a vector bundle over M. A connection or covariant derivative at a point p 2 M is a map D : Γ(E) ! Γ(T ∗M ⊗ E) 1 with the properties for any V; W 2 TpM; σ; τ 2 Γ(E) and f 2 C (M), we have that DV σ 2 Ep with the following properties: 1. -
Kähler Manifolds, Ricci Curvature, and Hyperkähler Metrics
K¨ahlermanifolds, Ricci curvature, and hyperk¨ahler metrics Jeff A. Viaclovsky June 25-29, 2018 Contents 1 Lecture 1 3 1.1 The operators @ and @ ..........................4 1.2 Hermitian and K¨ahlermetrics . .5 2 Lecture 2 7 2.1 Complex tensor notation . .7 2.2 The musical isomorphisms . .8 2.3 Trace . 10 2.4 Determinant . 11 3 Lecture 3 11 3.1 Christoffel symbols of a K¨ahler metric . 11 3.2 Curvature of a Riemannian metric . 12 3.3 Curvature of a K¨ahlermetric . 14 3.4 The Ricci form . 15 4 Lecture 4 17 4.1 Line bundles and divisors . 17 4.2 Hermitian metrics on line bundles . 18 5 Lecture 5 21 5.1 Positivity of a line bundle . 21 5.2 The Laplacian on a K¨ahlermanifold . 22 5.3 Vanishing theorems . 25 6 Lecture 6 25 6.1 K¨ahlerclass and @@-Lemma . 25 6.2 Yau's Theorem . 27 6.3 The @ operator on holomorphic vector bundles . 29 1 7 Lecture 7 30 7.1 Holomorphic vector fields . 30 7.2 Serre duality . 32 8 Lecture 8 34 8.1 Kodaira vanishing theorem . 34 8.2 Complex projective space . 36 8.3 Line bundles on complex projective space . 37 8.4 Adjunction formula . 38 8.5 del Pezzo surfaces . 38 9 Lecture 9 40 9.1 Hirzebruch Signature Theorem . 40 9.2 Representations of U(2) . 42 9.3 Examples . 44 2 1 Lecture 1 We will assume a basic familiarity with complex manifolds, and only do a brief review today. Let M be a manifold of real dimension 2n, and an endomorphism J : TM ! TM satisfying J 2 = −Id. -
HARMONIC MAPS Contents 1. Introduction 2 1.1. Notational
HARMONIC MAPS ANDREW SANDERS Contents 1. Introduction 2 1.1. Notational conventions 2 2. Calculus on vector bundles 2 3. Basic properties of harmonic maps 7 3.1. First variation formula 7 References 10 1 2 ANDREW SANDERS 1. Introduction 1.1. Notational conventions. By a smooth manifold M we mean a second- countable Hausdorff topological space with a smooth maximal atlas. We denote the tangent bundle of M by TM and the cotangent bundle of M by T ∗M: 2. Calculus on vector bundles Given a pair of manifolds M; N and a smooth map f : M ! N; it is advantageous to consider the differential df : TM ! TN as a section df 2 Ω0(M; T ∗M ⊗ f ∗TN) ' Ω1(M; f ∗TN): There is a general for- malism for studying the calculus of differential forms with values in vector bundles equipped with a connection. This formalism allows a fairly efficient, and more coordinate-free, treatment of many calculations in the theory of harmonic maps. While this approach is somewhat abstract and obfuscates the analytic content of many expressions, it takes full advantage of the algebraic symmetries available and therefore simplifies many expressions. We will develop some of this theory now and use it freely throughout the text. The following exposition will closely fol- low [Xin96]. Let M be a smooth manifold and π : E ! M a real vector bundle on M or rank r: Throughout, we denote the space of smooth sections of E by Ω0(M; E): More generally, the space of differential p-forms with values in E is given by Ωp(M; E) := Ω0(M; ΛpT ∗M ⊗ E): Definition 2.1. -
General Relativity Fall 2019 Lecture 11: the Riemann Tensor
General Relativity Fall 2019 Lecture 11: The Riemann tensor Yacine Ali-Ha¨ımoud October 8th 2019 The Riemann tensor quantifies the curvature of spacetime, as we will see in this lecture and the next. RIEMANN TENSOR: BASIC PROPERTIES α γ Definition { Given any vector field V , r[αrβ]V is a tensor field. Let us compute its components in some coordinate system: σ σ λ σ σ λ r[µrν]V = @[µ(rν]V ) − Γ[µν]rλV + Γλ[µrν]V σ σ λ σ λ λ ρ = @[µ(@ν]V + Γν]λV ) + Γλ[µ @ν]V + Γν]ρV 1 = @ Γσ + Γσ Γρ V λ ≡ Rσ V λ; (1) [µ ν]λ ρ[µ ν]λ 2 λµν where all partial derivatives of V µ cancel out after antisymmetrization. σ Since the left-hand side is a tensor field and V is a vector field, we conclude that R λµν is a tensor field as well { this is the tensor division theorem, which I encourage you to think about on your own. You can also check that explicitly from the transformation law of Christoffel symbols. This is the Riemann tensor, which measures the non-commutation of second derivatives of vector fields { remember that second derivatives of scalar fields do commute, by assumption. It is completely determined by the metric, and is linear in its second derivatives. Expression in LICS { In a LICS the Christoffel symbols vanish but not their derivatives. Let us compute the latter: 1 1 @ Γσ = @ gσδ (@ g + @ g − @ g ) = ησδ (@ @ g + @ @ g − @ @ g ) ; (2) µ νλ 2 µ ν λδ λ νδ δ νλ 2 µ ν λδ µ λ νδ µ δ νλ since the first derivatives of the metric components (thus of its inverse as well) vanish in a LICS. -
Solving the Geodesic Equation
Solving the Geodesic Equation Jeremy Atkins December 12, 2018 Abstract We find the general form of the geodesic equation and discuss the closed form relation to find Christoffel symbols. We then show how to use metric independence to find Killing vector fields, which allow us to solve the geodesic equation when there are helpful symmetries. We also discuss a more general way to find Killing vector fields, and some of their properties as a Lie algebra. 1 The Variational Method We will exploit the following variational principle to characterize motion in general relativity: The world line of a free test particle between two timelike separated points extremizes the proper time between them. where a test particle is one that is not a significant source of spacetime cur- vature, and a free particles is one that is only under the influence of curved spacetime. Similarly to classical Lagrangian mechanics, we can use this to de- duce the equations of motion for a metric. The proper time along a timeline worldline between point A and point B for the metric gµν is given by Z B Z B µ ν 1=2 τAB = dτ = (−gµν (x)dx dx ) (1) A A using the Einstein summation notation, and µ, ν = 0; 1; 2; 3. We can parame- terize the four coordinates with the parameter σ where σ = 0 at A and σ = 1 at B. This gives us the following equation for the proper time: Z 1 dxµ dxν 1=2 τAB = dσ −gµν (x) (2) 0 dσ dσ We can treat the integrand as a Lagrangian, dxµ dxν 1=2 L = −gµν (x) (3) dσ dσ and it's clear that the world lines extremizing proper time are those that satisfy the Euler-Lagrange equation: @L d @L − = 0 (4) @xµ dσ @(dxµ/dσ) 1 These four equations together give the equation for the worldline extremizing the proper time. -
Multilinear Algebra
Appendix A Multilinear Algebra This chapter presents concepts from multilinear algebra based on the basic properties of finite dimensional vector spaces and linear maps. The primary aim of the chapter is to give a concise introduction to alternating tensors which are necessary to define differential forms on manifolds. Many of the stated definitions and propositions can be found in Lee [1], Chaps. 11, 12 and 14. Some definitions and propositions are complemented by short and simple examples. First, in Sect. A.1 dual and bidual vector spaces are discussed. Subsequently, in Sects. A.2–A.4, tensors and alternating tensors together with operations such as the tensor and wedge product are introduced. Lastly, in Sect. A.5, the concepts which are necessary to introduce the wedge product are summarized in eight steps. A.1 The Dual Space Let V be a real vector space of finite dimension dim V = n.Let(e1,...,en) be a basis of V . Then every v ∈ V can be uniquely represented as a linear combination i v = v ei , (A.1) where summation convention over repeated indices is applied. The coefficients vi ∈ R arereferredtoascomponents of the vector v. Throughout the whole chapter, only finite dimensional real vector spaces, typically denoted by V , are treated. When not stated differently, summation convention is applied. Definition A.1 (Dual Space)Thedual space of V is the set of real-valued linear functionals ∗ V := {ω : V → R : ω linear} . (A.2) The elements of the dual space V ∗ are called linear forms on V . © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 123 S.R. -
C:\Book\Booktex\C1s2.DVI
35 1.2 TENSOR CONCEPTS AND TRANSFORMATIONS § ~ For e1, e2, e3 independent orthogonal unit vectors (base vectors), we may write any vector A as ~ b b b A = A1 e1 + A2 e2 + A3 e3 ~ where (A1,A2,A3) are the coordinates of A relativeb to theb baseb vectors chosen. These components are the projection of A~ onto the base vectors and A~ =(A~ e ) e +(A~ e ) e +(A~ e ) e . · 1 1 · 2 2 · 3 3 ~ ~ ~ Select any three independent orthogonal vectors,b b (E1, Eb 2, bE3), not necessarilyb b of unit length, we can then write ~ ~ ~ E1 E2 E3 e1 = , e2 = , e3 = , E~ E~ E~ | 1| | 2| | 3| and consequently, the vector A~ canb be expressedb as b A~ E~ A~ E~ A~ E~ A~ = · 1 E~ + · 2 E~ + · 3 E~ . ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ 2 ~ ~ 3 E1 E1 ! E2 E2 ! E3 E3 ! · · · Here we say that A~ E~ · (i) ,i=1, 2, 3 E~ E~ (i) · (i) ~ ~ ~ ~ are the components of A relative to the chosen base vectors E1, E2, E3. Recall that the parenthesis about the subscript i denotes that there is no summation on this subscript. It is then treated as a free subscript which can have any of the values 1, 2or3. Reciprocal Basis ~ ~ ~ Consider a set of any three independent vectors (E1, E2, E3) which are not necessarily orthogonal, nor of unit length. In order to represent the vector A~ in terms of these vectors we must find components (A1,A2,A3) such that ~ 1 ~ 2 ~ 3 ~ A = A E1 + A E2 + A E3. This can be done by taking appropriate projections and obtaining three equations and three unknowns from which the components are determined. -
3. Introducing Riemannian Geometry
3. Introducing Riemannian Geometry We have yet to meet the star of the show. There is one object that we can place on a manifold whose importance dwarfs all others, at least when it comes to understanding gravity. This is the metric. The existence of a metric brings a whole host of new concepts to the table which, collectively, are called Riemannian geometry.Infact,strictlyspeakingwewillneeda slightly di↵erent kind of metric for our study of gravity, one which, like the Minkowski metric, has some strange minus signs. This is referred to as Lorentzian Geometry and a slightly better name for this section would be “Introducing Riemannian and Lorentzian Geometry”. However, for our immediate purposes the di↵erences are minor. The novelties of Lorentzian geometry will become more pronounced later in the course when we explore some of the physical consequences such as horizons. 3.1 The Metric In Section 1, we informally introduced the metric as a way to measure distances between points. It does, indeed, provide this service but it is not its initial purpose. Instead, the metric is an inner product on each vector space Tp(M). Definition:Ametric g is a (0, 2) tensor field that is: Symmetric: g(X, Y )=g(Y,X). • Non-Degenerate: If, for any p M, g(X, Y ) =0forallY T (M)thenX =0. • 2 p 2 p p With a choice of coordinates, we can write the metric as g = g (x) dxµ dx⌫ µ⌫ ⌦ The object g is often written as a line element ds2 and this expression is abbreviated as 2 µ ⌫ ds = gµ⌫(x) dx dx This is the form that we saw previously in (1.4). -
The Riemann Curvature Tensor
The Riemann Curvature Tensor Jennifer Cox May 6, 2019 Project Advisor: Dr. Jonathan Walters Abstract A tensor is a mathematical object that has applications in areas including physics, psychology, and artificial intelligence. The Riemann curvature tensor is a tool used to describe the curvature of n-dimensional spaces such as Riemannian manifolds in the field of differential geometry. The Riemann tensor plays an important role in the theories of general relativity and gravity as well as the curvature of spacetime. This paper will provide an overview of tensors and tensor operations. In particular, properties of the Riemann tensor will be examined. Calculations of the Riemann tensor for several two and three dimensional surfaces such as that of the sphere and torus will be demonstrated. The relationship between the Riemann tensor for the 2-sphere and 3-sphere will be studied, and it will be shown that these tensors satisfy the general equation of the Riemann tensor for an n-dimensional sphere. The connection between the Gaussian curvature and the Riemann curvature tensor will also be shown using Gauss's Theorem Egregium. Keywords: tensor, tensors, Riemann tensor, Riemann curvature tensor, curvature 1 Introduction Coordinate systems are the basis of analytic geometry and are necessary to solve geomet- ric problems using algebraic methods. The introduction of coordinate systems allowed for the blending of algebraic and geometric methods that eventually led to the development of calculus. Reliance on coordinate systems, however, can result in a loss of geometric insight and an unnecessary increase in the complexity of relevant expressions. Tensor calculus is an effective framework that will avoid the cons of relying on coordinate systems. -
Derivation of the Geodesic Equation and Defining the Christoffel Symbols
Derivation of the Geodesic Equation and De¯ning the Christo®el Symbols Dr. Russell L. Herman March 13, 2008 We begin with the line element 2 ® ¯ ds = g®¯dx dx (1) where g®¯ is the metric with ®; ¯ = 0; 1; 2; 3. Also, we are using the Einstein summation convention in which we sum over repeated indices which occur as a subscript and superscript pair. In order to ¯nd the geodesic equation, we use the variational principle which states that freely falling test particles follow a path between two ¯xed points in spacetime which extremizes the proper time, ¿. The proper time is de¯ned by d¿ 2 = ¡ds2: (We are assuming that c = 1.) So, formally, we have Z B p Z B q 2 ® ¯ ¿AB = ¡ds = ¡g®¯dx dx : A A In order to write this as an integral that we can compute, we consider a parametrized worldline, x® = x®(σ); where the parameter σ = 0 at point A and σ = 1 at point B. Then, we write Z 1 · ® ¯ ¸1=2 Z 1 · ® ¸ dx dx dx ® ¿AB = ¡g®¯ dσ ´ L ; x dσ: (2) 0 dσ dσ 0 dσ £ ¤ dx® ® Here we have introduced the Lagrangian, L dσ ; x : We note also that d¿ L = : dσ Therefore, for functions f = f(¿(σ)), we have df df d¿ df = = L : dσ d¿ dσ d¿ We will use this later to change derivatives with respect to our arbitrary pa- rameter σ to derivatives with respect to the proper time, ¿: 1 Using variational methods as seen in classical dynamics, we obtain the Euler- Lagrange equations in the form µ ¶ d @L @L ¡ + = 0: (3) dσ @(dxγ /dσ) @xγ We carefully compute these derivatives for the general metric.