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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-89846-1 - Sexual Politics in Modern Iran Janet Afary Index More information

Index

abandoned wives 63 Al-e Ahmad, Jalal 237, 239–240 Abdolbaha 114 alimony 312–313 abortions Alizadeh, Muhammad 339–340, in Egypt 30 Amanat, Abbas 76 in Islamist Iran 341 Amin, Qasem 113 in Pahlavi Iran 215, 217 amrad (adolescent boy in same-sex in Qajar Iran 29–30, relationship) 86 Abrahamian, Ervand 145, Andrews, Walter 3 activism by women Anglo-American coup (1953) 175, 196–197 in Constitutional Revolution Anglo-Persian treaty (1919) 144 128–129, 132 Anis al-Dowleh 70, 74–75 encouraged by Khomeini 295–297 Anisi, Fariba 298 in Islamist Iran 274, 293–294, 297–298 anti-Semitism, of Hedayat 171 in Pahlavi Iran 165 Aqajani, Hossein 362 see also feminism Aqdas, Amineh 70 adulthood 4 ʿaqdi wives (formal wives) 6, 7, 69 advertising, portrayal of women in 220 ‘Aref Nameh (poem, Mirza) 163 Afary, Anvar (Pirnazar) 190–191 Armenians 34, 158 Afary, Naim 206, 243 asceticism 249 Afghani, Ali Muhammad 225–228 Asgari, Mahmoud 358 Afkhami, Mahnaz 211, 213 Asir (Captive, poetry collection, afterlife, homosexuality in 81–82 Farrokhzad) 230 age 4 Association of Iranian Writers 271 of marriage 12, 24, 278 Astarabadi, Bibi Khanom 122–125, 132 in Islamist Iran 344–345 authoritarian ideologies 260 in Pahlavi Iran 153, 217 authoritarian regimes 201–202 in Qajar Iran 23–24, ‘Ayn al-Saltaneh, Qahraman Mirza 63, Ahmad Shah Qajar (Shah of Iran) 129 69–70, 73–74, 105, 158 Ahmadi, Hamid 365–366 Azad Islamic University 305–306 Ahmadi, Simin 310 Azari, Shahla 37–39, 105 Ahmadi-Khorasani, Noushin 371 Azeris 3 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud 330–332, Aziz al-Sultan, Malijak 105–106, 345–346, 350–351 Ahu Khanom’s Husband (Showhar-e Ahu Baba Shamal (newspaper) 176 Khanom, Afghani) 225–228 Babism 113–114, 117 ‘Aisha (wife of the Prophet) 115–116 Bahaʾi religion 114, 128, 202, 205 Akhundzadeh, Mirza Fath Ali 114–115, 116 Bahaollah, Mirza Ali Nuri 114 ‘Alavi, Bozorg 182–185 Baraheni, Reza 157 ‘Alaviyeh Khanom (Madam Alaviyeh, Bartky, Sandra 118–119 Hedayat) 172 Basij (branch of Pasdaran) alcohol, prohibition of 149–150 266–267, 342

411

412 Index

Basiji Sisters 297 status-defined homosexuality 79–80, 107 Basiri, Nasrin 251–252, and temporary marriage 5, 6, 65, 286–287 Bay, Clot 30 upper classes bazaaris 21–23, 150, 158 in Islamist Iran 307, 337–338 Bazargan, Mehdi 271 in Pahlavi Iran 182 Beck, Lois 33 in Qajar Iran 33, 42–43, 73, 119–122 Behbahani, Simin 230 and veiling 13, 46, 209–210 Behdad, Sohrab 278, 302 working classes Behrooz, Maziar 250 in leftist movement 251–252 Bell, Gertrude 20 in Pahlavi Iran 198 Bellaigue, Christopher de 331 clerics Benjamin, S. G. W. 19, 47–48 in Islamist Iran 271, 342 birth control see family planning liberal 370 births, illegitimate 30 and modernity 197 black slaves 56–57 opposition by The Blind Owl (Hedayat) 170–171 to Constitutional Revolution 131 Blücher, Wipert 154 to feminism and new gender norms Bojnurdi, Ayatollah Musavi 319 218, 237, 238–239 boy concubines 105–106 to public health reforms 149–150 boy–man relationships 4–5, 84–85, in Pahlavi Iran 165–166, 187–189, 192, 93–94, 189 202, 204 in classical Persian poetry 95 Cloquet, Ernest 28 in Greco-Roman societies 92 coffeehouses 91–92 in Ottoman Turkey 93 Communist Party see Tudeh Party in Pahlavi Iran 160–161 companionate marriage 2, 117–118, in Qajar Iran 104–105 132–134, 367 see also status-defined homosexuality concubines boys, temporary marriages of 62 boy 105–106 Bozorg Omid, Abolhassan 77 slave 6–7, 51–60, 70–71, 76 Burkett, Elinor 200–201 constitution 1906–1907 60, 127 Campaign for Equality (One Million 1979 12, 277 Signatures Campaign) 5–6, Constitutional Revolution (1906–1911) 333–334, 370–373 125–127, 141 castration 90, 114–115 clerical opposition to 131 CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of companionate marriage 132–134 All Forms of Discrimination Against education for women 127–128 Women, UN) 329–330 harems dismantled 77, 129 censorship 271 homosexuality criticized 137–139, 140–141 chador see veiling legal reforms demanded 131 Chafiq, Chahla 280–281 slavery abolished 129–131 Chardin, Jean 101 women’s activism in 128–129, 132 Christian/Christian religion 44 205 and women’s rights 131–132, 134–140, Chubak, Sadeq 169 contraceptives 29, 340–341 cinema see films see also family planning Civil Code 153–154 contracts, in nekah (formal) marriages class 4–5 21–22 and marriage 40–41 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms middle classes 21–23 of Discrimination Against Women in Islamist Iran 337–338, 360, 362–363 (CEDAW, UN) 329–330 in Islamist movement 256–257 conversion to Islam, forced 53, in leftist movement 245 Coontz, Stephanie 325 in Pahlavi Iran 145–146, 158–160, 201, countermodernism 267 205, 211 courtship rituals, of boy–man relationships new Islamist 15 93–94

Index 413

cousin marriages see kinship marriages in Pahlavi Iran 151, 176, 189–191, crime, in Qajar Iran 37 213–214 critical theory see Frankfurt School of religious 213–214, 237–238, 338–339 critical theory for women and girls cross-dressing, by women 48 in Constitutional Revolution 127–128 cultural dissonances, and modernization Eftekhar al-Saltaneh 128, 129 232–233 Egypt, abortions in 30 Curzon, George 65 elite see upper classes custody of children El-Rouayheb, Khaled 3 in Pahlavi Iran 218 emigration 364 in Qajar Iran 41–42 employment temporary marriages (sigheh) as form of Dabbagh, Marziyeh 257–260, 312–313, 63–64 315–316 of women 364 daughters, attitudes toward 307, in Islamist Iran 302, 308, 309–310 342–344 in Pahlavi Iran 176 “Dead End” (short story, Hedayat) 172 empowerment of women, in Islamist Iran Dehkhoda, Ali Akbar 139–141, 294–296 Dehnamaki, Massoud 331–332 engagements 215 Dehqani, Ashraf 248 Erabi, Fereshteh 310 Delaram 355–356, Eʿtemadi, R. 222 democratization 202–203 Eʿtesami, Parvin 167–168 Dieulafoy, Jane 20, 48–49 ethics of love 92 divorce 7 Ettelaʿat (newspaper) 194–195 in Islamist Iran 283–284, 312–313, eunuchs 72, 76–77, 90 337–338, 361–363, European memoirs 5 in Pahlavi Iran 216–218 European women, dress of 119 in Qajar Iran 39–41, executions, in Islamist Iran 287, 358 remarriage after 42 Explanation of Problems (Towzih al-Masaʿel) in United States 325 manuals 235–237 The Doll Behind the Curtain (Hedayat) 171 Douglas, Mary 4, 25–26 family law 4 Dover, Kenneth J. 92 in Pahlavi Iran 153–154, 216–218 Dowlatabadi, Sediqeh 128 in Qajar Iran 41–42 dress family and modernity of European women 119 Foucault on 2, 199 of Iranian women 208–211 Frankfurt School on 200 dress codes family planning 220–221 for men 156 in Islamist Iran 15, 339–342, for women 157, 166, 270 in Pahlavi Iran 220–221 Drew, Paula 219 in United States 324–325 drugs 365 Farah (Diba) Pahlavi (Empress of Iran) Dworkin, Andrea 200–201 207–209 211 213 Farahani, Fataneh 338 Ebadi, Shirin 215, 281–282, Farman Farma (Prince) 34 295–296, 317 Farman Farmaian, Sattareh 211 Ebrahimzadeh, Raziyeh 176 Farrokhzad, Fereydoun 244 economic development Farrokhzad, Forough 199, 228–229, 230–231 in Islamist Iran 292, 364 fathers, authority of 298–299 in Pahlavi Iran 205–206 Fedayeen Islam 192 economic rights, of women 42–43 Fedayeen Khalq guerrilla movement 245, 250 education in Islamist Iran 274–275 of harem women 68 women in 245–246, 248, 250–252, higher 176, 189–191, 304–306 275–277 in Islamist Iran 304–306, 307 female homosexuality see lesbianism

414 Index

feminism 261 gender politics discourses on sex and marriage 122–125 in Islamist Iran 312–313 Islamic 292–293 in Pahlavi Iran 177–179 in Islamist Iran 5–6, 316–320, 332, gender reforms 113, 142 333–334, 335–336, 370–373 resistance to 142 opposition to 218, 234 in Soviet Union 143–144 in Pahlavi Iran 165, 199, 218, gender segregation 225–226, 228 and homosexuality 3, 80–81 reinterpreting Shiʿi Islam 318–322 in Islamist Iran 269, 313 see also activism by women in Pahlavi Iran 165–166 fertility rates 28 in Qajar Iran 26–27 fiction writing 168–173, 225–228 ghazal (love poetry) 96 films gholams (male pages/slaves) 89–90, 104–105 in Islamist Iran 334–335 ghosl rituals (purity) 236 in Pahlavi Iran 158–160 Gilan Republic 144 Fischer, Michael 209, 213–214 girls, runaway 364–365, Floor, Willem 117 Golestan (Garden of Flowers, collection of formal marriage (nekah) 6 poems, Saʿdi) 164 contract 21–22 Great Britain, influence in Iran 144, 175, jahiziyeh (trousseau) 23 196–197 nafaqeh (maintenance) obligation 22 Greco-Roman societies, boy–man resistance by women in 7–8 relationships in 92 romantic love in 7 guerrilla organizations 245 formal wives (ʿaqdi) 6, 7, 69 attitudes toward sexuality 248, 249–250 Foroughi, Muhammad Ali 164 homophobia in 247–248 “A Fortunate Woman” (“Yek Zan-e in Islamist Iran 274–275 Khosh-bakht,” short story, ‘Alavi) Shiʿi values in 249 184–185 women in 249–250 Foucault, Michel see also Fedayeen Khalq; Mojahedeen on ethics of love 92 Khalq family and modernity 2, 199 on homosexuality 79–80, 107 Haeri, Shahla 5, 60–61 on Islamic Revolution (1979) 262, 267 Halqeh (The Ring, poem, Farrokhzad) 231 on state intervention in sexuality 13, 323 Hamalian, Leo 170–171 Foundation of the Dispossessed 302 harems 50, 67–78 Frankfurt School of critical theory 1, education of women in 68 200–201, end of 77, 129 Freud, Sigmund 28 female slaves in (kanizes) 70–71, 76 Friedl, Erika 257, 307, 344, 349 lesbianism in 101 Fromm, Erich 200, 244, 256, 260 sexual relations in 75–77, on necrophilia 295–296 temporary wives in 69–70 health, of women 27–28 Galloway, Edward 231–232 Hedayat, Sadeq 168, 169–173, Ganjavi, Nezami 159 Hegland, Mary 306–307, 349 Garmrudi, Mirza Fattah Khan 112, 113 Hejazi, Mohammad 168 gay subculture Hekmat, Shamsi 211 in Islamist Iran 3–4, 326–327, 351–355 Her Eyes (Cheshmhayash, ‘Alavi) 183–184 in mass media 244 heterosexuality in Pahlavi Iran 243–244 normative 3, 159 gender, and modernity 111–112, 228 in Qajar Iran 6–7 gender norms hierarchical social order, and sexual of Islamist Iran 270–271 relations 8 modern, rejection of 237, 238–244, hijab see veiling 261, 262 Hillmann, Michael 170 in modern Persian fiction 168–173 historical research 20

Index 415

The History of Sexuality (Foucault) 323 martyrs (shahids) and martyrdom in HIV/AIDS 365–366 299–300, 301 Hobsbawm, Eric 13 popular support for 303 homosexuality 107 war widows 284–285, 300–301, 303 “brotherhood vows” 80 women’s activism in 297–298 criticism of 3, 118, 137–139, 140–141, The Iranian Woman (poem, Eʿtesami) 168 162–165 Islam by Islamists 242 alcohol prohibited by 149–150 in leftist organizations 247–248 on contraceptives 29 in Pahlavi Iran 174–175, 179–182 forced conversion to 53, European disdain for 112–113 on homosexuality 81–83, female see lesbianism on slavery 55 Foucault on 79–80, 107 see also Shiʿi Islam and gender segregation 3, 80–81 Islamic feminism 292–293 Islam on 81–83, Islamic Revolution (1979) 11–12, 262 Shiʿi 83 authority of fathers undermined by 299 in Islamist Iran 14, 287–290, 355–358, 369 critical theory on 1, 200–201 female 355 Foucault on 262, 267 gay subculture 3–4, 326–327, 351–355 Islamist Iran 267–270 prosecution of 358–359 clerics in 271, 342 labels for passive partners 86 divorce in 283–284, 312–313, 337–338, in Middle East 2 361–363, in Pahlavi Iran 159–161, 162, 189, economic development in 292, 364 242–244 education for women and girls in in Persian language 88 304–306, 307 in Persian literature 2, 86–89, employment of women in 302, 308, poetry 88, 89, 95, 96, 98–99, 288 309–310 in public places 90–92 empowerment of women in 294–296 in Qajar Iran 8, 104–105, 106–107, feminism in 5–6, 316–320, 332, 333–334, and slavery 83, 89–90 335–336, 370–373 status-defined 79–80, 107 films in 334–335 see also boy–man relationships gender norms of 270–271 honor killings 14, 154, 232 gender politics in 312–313 Hoveyda, Amir Abbas 205 223 gender segregation in 269, 313 human rights violations, in Islamist Iran homosexuality in 14, 287–290, 271, 280–281 355–358, 369 husseiniyehs (centers for the commemoration female 355 of Hussein) 237–238 gay subculture 3–4, 326–327, 351–355 hymen-repair operations 215–216, 338 prosecution of 358–359 human rights violations in 271, 280–281 Ibn Kamal Pasha 58 invented traditions in 13–14 ‘idda (waiting period after divorce) 39 marriage in 12, 16, 281, 282–284, 294, illegitimate births 30 326, 348 infant mortality 28 rural areas 346, 348–349 infertility 48–49 middle classes in 337–338, 360, 362–363 treatments 341 opposition movements 15–16, 271, infidelity 41 275–277, 322 inheritance rights of women 43–44 leftist 274–275, 312, 336 Internet 333 reform movement 327, 329, 330–331 invented traditions 13–14 paramilitary in 266–267 Iraj Mirza 93–94, 95, 163 policies Iran-e Now (newspaper) 130 family planning 15, 339–342, Iran–Iraq war (1980–1988) 265–266 land-redistribution programs 306 death toll 302–303 marriage-loan program 350–351 and homoeroticism 288–289 natalist 339, 345–346

416 Index

Islamist Iran (cont.) jihad, veils as symbol of 293 political participation of women Jordan, Mary Wood Park 129 in 267, 329 polygamy in 284–285, 345 Kadivar, Mohsen 370 prostitution in 331–332, 365 Kalpakli, Mehmet 3 punishment of sexual transgression 358 kanizes (female slaves) 57–58 resistance by women in 272–274 in harems 70–71, 76 rural development in 306–307 Kar, Mehrangiz 283, 284, 317 sex education in 338–339, 346–348, Kariminia, Muhammad Mehdi 355 sexual relations in 337–338 Kashani, Ayatollah Abu al-Qasem 193, sexual violence in 283–284, 196, 197 sexuality in 265, 290 Kasravi, Ahmad 163–165, 174–175, state regulation of 12–13, 323–324, 345 179–182 social benefits in 309 Kaveh (journal) 162–163 sports in 333 Kaykavus Ibn Iskandar 87 temporary marriages (sigheh)in281, Keddie, Nikki 11, 21–23, 146 285–287, 345 Kermani, Mirza Aqa Khan 117–118, theocracy in 12 Keshtgar, Ali 275–277 upper classes in 307, 337–338 Khalkhali, Sadeq 269 veiling in 270, 293, 369 Khanlari, Zahra 191 women’s activism in 274, 293–294, Khaqani 101 297–298 Khatami, Muhammad 327–328 women’s rights in 271–272, 277–280, Khoʾi, Esmaʿil 236 329–330, 344, 368–369 kho/ʿ (divorce initiated by the wife) 40 Islamist movement 201 Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah 11, 191–192, clerics in 238–239 197, 262 coalition with leftist opposition forces in exile 237–238, 239 234, 249, 250 Explanation of Problems (Towzih al- lay thinkers in 239–244 Masaʿel) 235–237 middle classes in 256–257 modernity of 261 modern gender norms rejected by 237, opposition to Pahlavi regime 205 238–244, “third way” propagated by 234–235 modernity of 261 women’s activism encouraged by opposition to Pahlavi regime 191–192, 293–294, 295–297 237–238 Khosrokhavar,̼ Farhad 299–300, rise of 237–238, 244 Khansari, Molla Aqa Jamal 102–103, women in 14–15, 239, 252–260, 292, Kian-Thiébaut, Azadeh 307 310–316 kinship marriages 25, 348 isolation responses to 256 labor force participation of women see of women 257 employment Ladies’ Center (Kanun-e Banuan) Jaʿfariyan, Morteza 189 151–153 jahiziyeh (trousseau) 23 land-redistribution programs 306 Jam, Mahmoud 164–165 lavat (anal intercourse) 81 Jamalzadeh, Muhammad Ali 168–169 lay intellectuals 237, 239–244 Javaherkalam, Ali 102 leftist opposition Jayran (wife of Naser al-Din Shah) 69, coalition with Islamist opposition 234, 71–72 249, 250 Jazani, Mihan 248 in Islamist Iran 274–275, 312, 336 Jazayery, Mohammad Ali 180–181 middle classes in 245 Jews/Judaism 25 31, 34 44, 158 205 modern gender norms rejected by 262 forced conversion to Islam 53 to Pahlavi regime 198 schools for girls 128 women in 250–252, 275–277, 282 women’s rights 211 working clases in 251–252

Index 417

legal reforms child-centered 367–368 demands for, in Constitutional and class 40–41 Revolution 131 companionate 2, 117–118, 132–134, 367 in Pahlavi Iran 153–154 of homosexuals with non-homosexuals lesbianism 8, 80 356–357 in harems 101 in Islamist Iran 12, 16, 281, 282–284, in Islamist Iran 355 294, 326, 348 in Pahlavi Iran 243 divorces 361–363, in poetry 101 rural areas 346, 348–349 in Qajar Iran 103 kinship 25, 348 see also sisterhood vows modern discourses on 118 “The Letters” (“Namehha,” short story, in Pahlavi Iran 9–11, 215, 219, 325–326 ‘Alavi) 182–183 in Qajar Iran 6–8, 19–20, 21, 24–25 Lewis, Franklin 97–98 and sexual relations, modern discourses literacy rates 12 on 118, 119–125, 131–132 Literacy Mobilization Organization in United States 324–325 (LMO) 304 see also formal marriage (nekah); literature see Persian literature remarriage; temporary marriages love (sigheh) ethics of 92 marriage-loan program 350–351 in Sufi poetry 80, 96–98, martyropaths 299–300 see also love poetry; romantic love Martyr’s Foundation 302–303 love brokers 48–49 martyrs (shahids) and martyrdom 299–300, love poetry 89, 94 301 Sufi 95–96, 98–99 Mashhad, temporary marriages (sigheh)in lutis (strongmen) 90 64–65 mass media, gay subculture in 244 Maʿayeb al-Rejal (Vices of Men, Astarabadi) Mbembe, Achille 293 122–125 Meghdadi, Bahram 170–171 maʿbun (passive adult partner in male Mehran, Golnar 304 homosexual relationship) 86 memoirs, European 5 Madani-Ghahfarokhi, Saeid 361–362 Mernissi, Fatima 30–31, 46 madrasahs, girls in 213–214 middle classes 21–23 MAHA (e-magazine) 3–4, 351–355, 357–358 in Islamist Iran 337–338, 360, 362–363 Mahdavi, Pardis 337 in Islamist movement 256–257 Mahdavi, Shireen 119 in leftist movement 245 mahriyeh (marriage portion payable to the in Pahlavi Iran 145–146, 158–160, wife at any time after the marriage) 205, 211 21, 42–43, 312–313 and Islamist movement 201 Majlesi, Muhammad Baqer 26 Middle East Malcolm, Sir John 33 gender history of 1 Malek Jahan (Princess/Queen Mother) homosexuality in 2 67–68, 72, 74, midwives, abortions performed by 29–30, Malekafzali, Hussein 339–340 Milani, Farzaneh 168 manumission, of female slaves (kanizes) 57–58 Mirzai, Behnaz A. 51–52 Marandi, Alireza 340 Moallem, Minoo 288 Marcuse, Herbert 298–299 modern discourses on sex and marriage 118, Marhoni, Ayaz 358 119–125, 131–132 marital conflicts 37–39, 63 modernity marital rape 347–348 anxieties of 244 marriage and clerics 197 age of 4, 278 and family in Islamist Iran 12, 344–345 Foucault on 2, 199 in Pahlavi Iran 153, 217 Frankfurt School on 200 in Qajar Iran 23–24, 27 and gender 111–112, 228

418 Index

modernity (cont.) jahiziyeh (trousseau) 23 of Islamist movement 261 nafaqeh (maintenance) obligation 22 and women 118–119, 252–256 resistance by women in 7–8 modernization romantic love in 7 in Iran 9–10 Nezam al-Molk 89 Islamist 306–307 Nomani, Farhad 278, 302 Pahlavi 144–147, 198–199, 232–233, nonsexual temporary marriages 62 252–256 normative heterosexuality 3, 159 in Turkey 144 Norouzi, Afsaneh 358 Moghissi, Haideh 248 Nuri documents 40 mohallels (temporary husbands) 39–40 Nuri, Sheikh Fazlollah 20 Mohammadi, Majid 321–322 Mojahedeen Khalq guerrilla movement 245, oil industry 174, 175 246–247, 274–275 oil revenues 205–206 Molla Nasreddin (Azeri journal) 3, 9, One Million Signatures Campaign 134–139 (Campaign for Equality) 5–6, monogamy 50–51, 77–78, 114 333–334, 370–373 Moruzzi, Norma 361 Ottoman Turkey, boy–man relationships Mosaddeq, Muhammad 174, 175, 194–195 in 93 Motahhari, Ayatollah Morteza 238–239 Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) 171 mothers and martyrdom 299–300 Pahlavi, Ashraf 207 211 213 and sons 30–31, 33 Pahlavi Iran 143, 174, 201–202 mothers-in-law 30–33 abortions in 215, 217 Mozaffar al-Din Shah Qajar (Shah of Iran) clerics in 165–166, 187–189, 192, 77, 107 202, 204 muburat (divorce by mutual agreement) 40 democratization in 202–203 Muhammad (Prophet), wives of 115–116, divorce in 216–218 Muhammad Ali Shah Qajar (Shah of Iran) dress codes in 156, 157, 166 107, 129 economic development in 205–206 Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (Shah of education for girls in 151, 176, 189–191, Iran) 174, 185–186, 207–209 213–214 Muharram celebrations, by women employment of women 176 332–333 family law in 153–154, 216–218 mukhannath (effeminate man) 86 family planning in 220–221 Musavi, Mir Hussein 252, 314 feminism in 165, 199, 218, 225–226, 228 mutʿa marriages (temporary) 64 films in 158–160 see also sigheh marriages gender politics in 177–179 gender segregation in 165–166 nafaqeh (maintenance) 22 homosexuality in 159–161, 162, 189, Naficy, Hamid 159, 242–244 Nafisi, Azar 278 criticism of 162–165, 174–175, 179–182 Naghibi, Nima 20 gay subculture 243–244 Najmabadi, Afsaneh 3 79 112 marriage in 9–11, 215, 219, 325–326 Nariman, Mahmoud 194 temporary 220 Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (Shah of Iran) 69, middle classes in 145–146, 158–160, 205, 70, 105–106, 107 211 natalist policies 339, 345–346 modernization in 144–147, 198–199, National Front 193, 196–197, 232–233, 252–256 National Union of Women 248, oil industry in 174, 175 250–252, 277 opposition to 205, 218 necrophilia 295–297 coalition between Islamists and leftists necropolitics 293 234, 249, 250 nekah marriages (formal) 6 guerrilla movements 245 contract 21–22 Islamist 191–192, 237–238

Index 419

leftist 198 poetry women’s participation in 245 classical 19, 95, 174–175 poetry in 228–231 criticism of 164–165, 179–182 political parties in 175–176 homosexuality in 96, 98–99, 101, 288 polygamy in 154–155 love 89, 94 reforms modern 167–168, 228–231 gender 142, Sufi 95–98, legal 153–154 Polak, Jakob 21, public health 147–150 on abortions 29–30, romantic love in 185–186 on divorce 41 sexual relations in 215–216, on early marriage 27–28 219–220, 221 on homosexuality 104, 105 unveiling in 142, 155–157, 161–162, 166 on polygamy 34, 35, 36, 37, upper classes in 182 on prostitution 66 urban women in 206–207 on sisterhood vows 103 urbanization in 231–232 on slavery 56, 59 veiling in 187–188, 208–211 on virginity 29 Western culture in 221–222 police reports women’s activism in 165 on homosexuality 105 women’s organizations in 151–153, on marital conflicts 37–39, 63 176–177, 211 political freedom 10 women’s rights in 166–167, 175, political participation of women 177–179, 193, 195, 199 in Islamist Iran 267, 329 to vote 192–193, 195–196, 202–203 Islamists on 239, 252–260 working classes in 198 in leftist movements 250–252, Paidar, Parvin 154 275–277, 282 Pak Dini (Purity of Religion, political opposition movements to Pahlavi movement) 163, 179–180 regime 245 Pasdaran (Islamic Revolutionary Guard political parties 175–176 Corps) 266–267 pollution-conscious cultures 25–26 Patriotic Women’s League 151 polygamy Payam-e Zan (Women’s Message, in Bahaʾi religion 114 magazine) 310, criticism of 117 pederasty 104, 117, 181 in Islamist Iran 284–285, 345 pedophilia 118, 137–139, 174–175 in Pahlavi Iran 154–155 Peirce, Leslie 70, 74 in Qajar Iran 33–37 Penal Code 154 Populism and Feminism in Iran Persian language, homosexuality in 88 (Moghissi) 248 Persian literature power politics, by harem women 74–75 classical 19, 95, 174–175 Price, Massoume 59–60 criticism of 164–165, 179–182 princesses, Qajar 68 homosexuality in 2, 86–89, 95, 96, 98–99, prostitution 101, 288 criticism of 168–169 leftist 336 in Islamist Iran 331–332, 365 love poetry 89, 94 temporary wives turning to 65–66 modern 168–173, 221, 225–228 Prostitution and Poverty (documentary film, poetry 167–168, 228–231 Dahnamaki) 331–332 portrayal of women in 182–185, public baths, and homosexuality 162 223–228, public health reforms 147–150 sexuality in 222 public spaces, unveiled women in 157–158 Sufi poetry 80, 95–98, 164 purity 4 Pharr, Suzanne 290 in Qajar Iran 25–26, 27 Pirnazar, Cyrus 215–216 ritual, in Shiʿi Islam 149, 150, pleasure, temporary marriages (sigheh)as 235–237, 268 form of 64 of women 236, 369

420 Index

Purity and Danger (Douglas) 4 resistance by women “Pygmalion” (Ovid) 171 in Islamist Iran 272–274 in nekah marriages 7–8 Qabus Nameh (A Mirror for Princes, in Qajar Iran 46–49 Kaykavus Ibn Iskandar) 87 Revolutionary Council 271 Qaʿem-Maqami, Jaleh 229 revolutionary leaflets (shabnameh) 140 Qajar Iran (nineteenth century) Reza Shah Pahlavi (Shah of Iran) 143, abortions in 29–30, 144–147, crime in 37 and polygamy 154–155 divorce in 39–41, and unveiling 155–156 economic rights of women in 42–43 Rezaʾi, Vajiheh 282–283 family law in 41–42 Rice, Clara Colliver 141 gender segregation in 26–27 Ricks, Thomas M. 51–52, harems in 50, 67–78 ritual purity, in Shiʿi Islam 149, 150, homosexuality in 8, 104–105, 106–107, 235–237, 268 boy concubines 105–106 romantic love female 103 in Islamist Iran 326 infidelity in 41 in nekah marriages 7 inheritance rights of women in 43–44 in Pahlavi Iran 185–186 marriage in 6–8, 24–25 Rowson, Everett 3 age of 23–24, 27 Rumi, Mowlana Jalal al-Din Muhammad kinship marriages 25 95, 97–98, temporary (sigheh) 6, 50, 60–66 runaway girls 364–365, mothers-in-law in 30–33 rural areas polygamy in 33–37 marriage in 219, 346, 348–349 purity in 25–26, 27 modernization of 306–307 remarriage in 42 polygamy in 33 resistance by women in 46–49 sexual relations in 219–220 slave concubinage 6–7, 51–60 unmarried women in 348, 349–350 upper classes in 33, 42–43, 73, Russo-Iranian treaty 144 119–122 veiling in 44–46 Sadeghi, Fatemeh 361 Qomi, Ayatollah Tabataba’i 187 Saʿdi, Abu al-Qasem 95, 164, 181 Qorrat al-‘Ayn, Tahereh 113–114 Safavi, Navvab 181, 192 Qurʾan Safavid Iran, purity of women in 26 on homosexuality 81–82, Safiyeh Khanom 22 progressive readings of 134–139 Saheb al-Zamani, Naser al-Din 221–222, 232 on slavery 55 saint shrines sites for temporary marriages (sigheh) 64–65 Rahnavard, Zahra 252–256, 313–315 Sufi, for women 100–101 Rajabi, Atefeh 358 SAVAK (secret police force) 202 rape, marital 347–348 Sayyah, Fatimah 182 Reading Lolita in Tehran (Nafisi) 278 Schimmel, Annemarie 87, 96 Reform Movement 15–16, 322, 327, 329, scientific domesticity 131–132 330–331 Scott, James 7 religious advice books (Towzih al-Masaʿel) secularization, reversal of 269–270 235–237 self-immolation 366–367 religious education Sepanta, Abdolhussein 159 for girls 213–214 Serena, Carla 20, 30 husseiniyehs 237–238 sex-change operations 355 on sexual relations 338–339 sex education 338–339, 346–348, religious societies 237–238 sexual anxiety 221 remarriage 27 sexual relations after divorce 42 in harems 75–77, of war widows 284–285 in Islamist Iran 337–338

Index 421

and marriage, modern discourses on 118, sisterhood vows 101–103 119–125, 131–132 Polak on 103 in Pahlavi Iran 215–216, 219–220, 221 Sisters of Zainab see Zainab Sisters premarital 361 Siyasat Nameh (Nezam al-Molk) 89 and social hierarchies 8 slave concubinage 6–7, 51–60 in United States 325 in harems 70–71, 76 sexual resistance by women 46–49 slave trade 51–52, sexual revolution, in contemporary Iran end of 53, 60 5–6, 16, 360–363, internal 52–53 sexual transgression of women, punishment slavery 5 of 358 abolition of 129–131 sexual violence, in Islamist Iran 283–284, Islam on 55 sexuality slaves attitudes of guerrilla movements toward black 56–57 248, 249–250 female (kanizes) 57–58, 70–71, 76 in Islamist Iran 265, 290 homosexual relations with 83, 89–90 in modern literature 222 treatment of 53–56, 58–60 state regulation of social benefits 309 Foucault on 13, 323 social democracy 127 in Islamist Iran 12–13, 345 social justice 4 Shabastari, Mojtahed 320 sons Shafaie, Saviz 290, and mothers 30–31, 33 shahed (beloved) 87, 95 through temporary marriages (sigheh) 63 Shahedbazi (Shamisa) 87–88 Soraya Esfandiari Bakhtiari (Queen of Iran) shahid (martyr) 301 185–186 Shahri, Jaʿfar 28, 63–64, 103, 161, 224 Soroush, Abdolkarim 320–321, 370 on homosexuality 159–161, sources for historical research 20 Shajareh, Hussein 195 Soviet Union Shamisa, Sirus 87–88 gender reforms in 143–144 Shams, Tabrizi 97–98, influences on Iran 144, 174 Shariati, Ali 237, 240–242, 244, 261–262 sports 333 Shaygan, Ali 195 status-defined homosexuality 79–80, 107 Shaykh Rezaei, Ensiya 37–39, 105 submission, desire for 260 Sheil, Mary 20, 119 suffrage for women 176, 192–193, 194–196, on polygamy 36–37, 202–203 on slavery 52, 54–55 clerical opposition to 204 on veiling 46 Sufi orders 96 Shekufeh (women’s magazine) 131 Sufi poetry 95–96, 164 Shiʿi Islam homosexuality in 96, 98–99 feminist reinterpretations of 318–322 love in 80, 96–98, on homosexuality 83 Sufism, and women 100–101, influence on guerrilla movements 249 suicide, female 366–367 religious societies in 237–238 Sur-e Israfil (newspaper) 139–141, return to shariʿa 238 Surieu, Robert 89 ritual purity in 149, 150, 235–237, 268 Sykes, Ella Constance 20, 25, 54, 77 on temporary marriage (sigheh) 60 Shirazi, Jahangir 352–353 Taʾdib al-Nisvan (Disciplining of Women) sigheh marriages (temporary) 6, 50, 60–66 119–125, of boys 62 taharat rituals (purity) 235–237, 268 class element in 5, 6, 65, 286–287 Tahrir al-Marʾa (Liberation of Women) 113 homosexual 80 Taj al-Moluk (Queen of Iran) 155, in Islamist Iran 281, 285–287, 345 Taj al-Saltaneh (princess) 23, 128, 129 nonsexual 62 on abortions 30 in Pahlavi Iran 220 on harem life 68 and venereal diseases 150 love life of 106–107,

422 Index

Taj al-Saltaneh (princess) (cont.) vaqfs (religious endowments) 43 on marriage 132–134 run by women 74 on slavery 57 veiling 13 talaq (repudiation) 39–40 in Islamist Iran 270, 293, 369 Taleqani, Azam 284–285 Khomeini’s views on 192 Tapper, Nancy 33, 100 in Pahlavi Iran 187–188, 208–211 Taqizadeh, Hasan 162 in Qajar Iran 44–46 Tarbiyat-e Nesvan (Education of Women, venereal diseases 117, 150 magazine) 113 Vieille, Paul 219–220, 242–243 Tayebeh, Sultani 310–311 virginity 28–29, 219, 338 Tayereh (‘Esmat Tehrani) 134 vote, women’s rights to 176, 192–193, Tehran 158–160 194–196, 202–203, 204 Tehrani, ‘Esmat see Tayereh vows, of sisterhood 101–103 temporary marriages (sigheh) 6, 50, 60–66 of boys 62 war widows 300–301, 303 class element in 5, 6, 65, 286–287 remarriage of 284–285 homosexual 80 wealth of women 42–43 in Islamist Iran 281, 285–287, 345 wedding nights 28–29 nonsexual 62 West in Pahlavi Iran 220 companionate marriage in 367 and venereal diseases 150 Iranian encounters with temporary wives 112–113, 119 in harems 69–70 Western culture in Iran 111, 119–122, in prostitution 65–66 221–222 theocracy, in Islamist Iran 12 White Revolution (1963) 202–203, “third way,” propagated by Khomeini 204–205, 234–235 widowhood 284–285, 300–301, 303 Towfiq (magazine) 223–225 Wishard, John 65–66, 77–78 transsexuals 355 women 119–122, 360 Tremayne, Soraya 350 activism of Tudeh Party 174, 175–176, 271 in Constitutional Revolution Turkey 128–129, 132 modernization in 144 encouraged by Khomeini 295–297 Ottoman, boy–man relationships in 93 in Islamist Iran 274, 293–294, 297–298 United States in Pahlavi Iran 165 influence in Iran 175, 196–197, 202–203 education of 127–128, 151, 176, marriage and sexuality in 324–325 189–191, 213–214, 304–306, 307 universities, admittance of women 304–306 employment of 176, 302, 308, unmarried women, in rural areas 348, 309–310, 364 349–350 empowerment of 294–296 unveiling 9, 118 and feminism 234 in Pahlavi Iran 142, 155–157, health of 27–28 161–162, 166 inheritance rights of 43–44 in Soviet Union 143–144 isolation of 257 and women in public spaces 157–158 and modernity 118–119, 252–256 upper classes poets 228–231 in Islamist Iran 307, 337–338 political participation of in Pahlavi Iran 182 in Islamist Iran 267, 329 in Qajar Iran 33, 42–43, 73, 119–122 in Islamist movement 14–15, 239, urban areas 252–260, 310–316 honor killings in 232 in leftist movements 250–252, marriage in 215 275–277, 282 sexual relations in 215–216, 337–338 opposition movements to Pahlavi urbanization 231–232 regime 245

Index 423

portrayal of in Pahlavi Iran 166–167, 175, 177–179, in advertising 220 193, 195, 199 in modern Persian literature 182–185, in temporary marriages (sigheh) 61–62 223–228, to vote 176, 192–193, 194–196, purity of 26, 236, 369 202–203, 204 resistance by Women’s Society of the Islamic Republic in Islamist Iran 272–274 (WSIR) 314 in nekah (formal) marriage 7–8 working classes in Qajar Iran 46–49 in leftist movement 251–252 sexual transgressions by 358 in Pahlavi Iran 198 and Sufism 100–101, suicide committed by 366–367 Yarshater, Ehsan 89 unmarried 348, 349–350 youth urban 206–207 opposing Islamist government 322 women’s magazines 131 urban, sexual relations of 337–338 in Islamist Iran 316–320, public health reforms promoted by 149 Zahedi, Ashraf 300, Women’s Organization of Iran (WOI) 211, Zainab Sisters 270, 297 216–218 Zainab (wife of the Prophet) 115 women’s organizations, in Pahlavi Iran Zakani, ʿObeyd 95 151–153, 176–177, 211 Zan-e Ruz (Today’sWoman, women’s rights magazine) 238 in Constitutional Revolution 131–132, Zanan (Women, magazine) 5–6, 316–320 134–140, Zanestan (electronic journal) 5–6 economic 42–43 Zanjani, Habibollah 339–340 in Islamist Iran 271–272, 277–280, Zhenotdel (women’s organization) 143–144 329–330, 344, 368–369 Ziyaʾi, Majd 189 liberal clerics on 370 Zoroastrians 25 31 44, 128 205