What Is Social Progress and How Should It Be Measured?
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
Osberg.qxd 22/05/01 4:22 PM Page 23 Needs and Wants: What Is Social Progress and How Should It Be Measured? Lars Osberg 23 THE REVIEW OF ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE AND SOCIAL PROGRESS | 2001 INTRODUCTION development and prosperity are important determinants of “sociological” change and hen the United Nations partly because the resources produced by Development Program published economic growth enable social policy expen- W its Human Development Report ditures. The relationship between economic 2000, its calculation of a Human and social issues is also reciprocal, since the Development Index put Canada in first place process of economic production has social among all the world’s nations. Norway, the implications and social change strongly influ- United States and Australia were close ences economic events. As a consequence of behind, but for some observers the first-place this interdependency, it is in practice very ranking was all that mattered.1 The difficult to draw a clear dividing line Weighted Index of Social Progress (WISP), between “economic” and “non-economic” however, ranked Canada 31st — approxi- issues, but it is clear that, whatever the line, mately on a par with Hong Kong, marginal- economics is only part of life. Since a reason- ly behind the United States and well below able definition of “social” must reflect a all European countries.2 broader conception of events than the pure- By what criteria should one choose ly economic, this article considers economic among indices of “social progress”? issues as a subset of social issues and social If we are to agree on a measure of social progress as referring to the progress of socie- progress we have to agree on the scope of the ty on both social and economic dimensions. adjective “social” and the meaning of What, then, is “progress”? The com- “progress.” It is clear that if we wanted to mon meaning is “advance or development consider only the economic dimensions of toward completion, betterment, etc: improve- well-being, there would be no need to use ment” (Canadian Oxford Dictionary 1998, p. the term “social,” but it is equally clear that 1155). However, “betterment” or “improve- economic and social issues are closely linked. ment” implies some conception of “good” The linkage arises partly because economic outcomes, and a process which approaches Osberg.qxd 22/05/01 4:22 PM Page 24 Lars Osberg those outcomes. The idea of social progress being.” While constructed by a variety of therefore presupposes some conception of authors using an array of methodologies and “the good” and some way of knowing calling themselves a variety of names (“qual- whether society is getting closer, or further ity of life indices,” Human Development away. There are a broad variety of economic Index, Index of Social Health, Index of Social and social outcomes, each of which is experi- Progress, etc.), all social indicators attempt enced to a different degree by millions of to measure aspects of social progress. Hagerty individual citizens. Any summary index of et al. (2001) and Sharpe (1999) have recent- social progress must therefore specify a list of ly surveyed the literature from their own per- social issues and find a way of weighing the spectives. The subsequent section of the essay relative importance of improvement or dete- examines a few of the indices most common- rioration in each potential social and eco- ly cited from the perspective of whether or 24 nomic outcome for all persons — that is, a not they measure the satisfaction of needs method of aggregating outcomes over indi- (i.e., basic human rights) or wants. viduals and across types of outcome. What The essay concludes with a discussion criteria can guide this process? of possible empirical measures of trends in In common usage, people often draw social progress in a country such as Canada. a distinction between needs and wants — and think of progress in terms of first meet- ing needs and then satisfying wants. This NEEDS essay proposes the same hierarchy. The next section discusses how one might specify such Rights and Needs a distinction. It argues that basic human How can we decide what basic human rights should be thought of as needs, needs are? and that Canadian society has already com- For some people, the issue is straight- mitted itself to a definition of such rights in forward. Those who believe that the Word of signing and ratifying a series of internation- God is directly revealed in an authoritative al covenants such as the UN Universal text will look to that text for guidance. For Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the them, the only important issue in defining International Covenant on Economic, Social and measuring social progress is the correct and Cultural Rights (1966).3 One measure of interpretation of the sacred text. The Taliban social progress in Canada would therefore be regime in Afghanistan and fundamentalist the percentage of Canadians who actually Christians in Canada disagree about which enjoy their basic human rights. text (the Koran or the Bible) should be Human Resources Development regarded as the revealed Word of God, but Canada (1997) notes that, after an extended they concur in their reliance on divine reve- dormant period lasting from the late 1970s lation. Other fundamentalist groups appeal through the early 1990s, “social indicators to other holy books, and all fundamentalist are back in vogue. Social analysts are show- groups must find a method of choosing ing interest once again in identifying and between alternative versions of the sacred text standardizing measurements of human well- and among interpretations of the text in the Osberg.qxd 22/05/01 4:22 PM Page 25 Needs and Wants: What Is Social Progress and How Should It Be Measured? context of modern life. At least in principle, eters of the life they personally value. “The however, the line of moral authority is clear. presupposition of liberalism (as a philosoph- If this essay were being written a cen- ical doctrine), as represented by Locke, Kant tury ago, its social context would be a Canada and J.S. Mill, is that there are many conflict- in which official pronouncements reflected a ing and incommensurable conceptions of the widespread and largely unquestioned faith in good, each compatible with the full autono- the virtues of Christianity, the British Empire my and rationality of human persons. and a set of social practices somehow associ- Liberalism assumes, as a consequence of this ated4 with both. Religious hegemony and the presupposition, that it is a natural condition British Empire are now gone, and Canada, of a free democratic culture that a plurality like other secular modern societies, has a of conceptions of the good is pursued by its more subtle problem. As a practical matter, citizens... The consequence is that the unity when a number of groups of people believe of society and the allegiance of its citizens to 25 in different sacred texts, peaceful cohabitation their common institutions rest not on their of the same geographic space requires some espousing one rational conception of the level of tolerance of alternative viewpoints. good, but on an agreement as to what is just Tolerance necessarily implies that no partic- for free and equal moral persons with differ- ular sacred text should be granted prece- ent and opposing conceptions of the good” dence. In the Canadian context, as the (Rawls 1982, p. 160).7 pluralism of Canadian society has grown over In this conception, social progress must time, it has become less and less possible to be measured in the “enabling” sense that a justify definitions of the good to which social society progresses when it enables more of its progress corresponds by appeals to biblical citizens to choose the kind of life they per- references or the presumption of a “Judeo- sonally have reason to value. However, if Christian heritage” or the civilizing virtues individuals are to exercise their personal for the Empire of “British values.” However, autonomy in a meaningful way, their choic- the historical evidence is clear that such es must be free and informed. In the work of appeals have been important in the past. Rawls and other moral philosophers (see, for What is to take their place? example, Elster and Roemer 1991), there is Moral philosophers who attempt to a clear distinction between the primary articulate a vision of social progress that does goods, such as equal basic liberties, which are not rely on explicit divine sanction or ethnic preconditions for effective individual auto- traditionalism must start somewhere. For nomous choice, and the objects of those free many,5 the basic starting point has to be the and informed choices. individual — the conception, as Rawls6 puts If some social, legal and economic it, that “each person possesses an inviolabili- outcomes are preconditions for individuals ty founded on justice that even the welfare of to exercise autonomous choice in the satis- society as a whole cannot override” (Rawls faction of their wants, then these “needs” 1971, p. 3). The liberal project in political must be distinguished from, and have pri- thinking starts from the conception that all ority over, “wants.” As well, if actual persons have the right to choose the param- human individuals are both autonomous Osberg.qxd 22/05/01 4:22 PM Page 26 Lars Osberg and social, embodying both a unique indi- unclear in a particular context, a court sys- viduality which has a right to self-expres- tem exists to interpret the law in concrete sit- sion and a social personality that requires uations and to reconcile apparent conflicts in satisfying interpersonal relationships, the the law. concept of “needs” must embrace the pre- In thinking about how to define the requisites of both autonomy and support- basic human rights which are the primary ive relationships.