Design Attributes of Educational Computer Software for Optimising Girls’ Participation in Educational Game Playing
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Science & Mathematics Education Centre Design Attributes of Educational Computer Software for Optimising Girls’ Participation in Educational Game Playing Warren Charles Rich This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Science Education of Curtin University of Technology October 2004 i Declaration This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgment has been made. Signature: ....................................................................... Date:................................................ ii ABSTRACT Recent research on girls in science education in Australian primary schools indicates a participation rate lower than that of boys. This inequality could lead subsequently to reduced opportunities for girls entering the workforce in their adult years. Many studies have attempted to reveal why this situation has arisen and a variety of strategies for increasing girls’ participation has been suggested. A relatively new strategy that does not appear frequently in the research literature is the use of educational computer game software. An important question arises: does the game software used in primary school science education reflect design attributes favoured by boys and, if so, do these attributes actively discourage girls’ participation by making them feel uncomfortable or stressed? My case study was designed to identify design features of computer games that girls prefer so that these features can be included in educational computer game software designed for science education, as well as the other Key Learning Areas. Through interviews, surveys and observations my interpretive study obtained the opinions and views of over 200 children in two suburban Australian primary schools in which I work as a teacher-librarian. In this role I purchase educational computer games and organize special classes for students to play them. From my analysis of the data I make recommendations that reflect girls’ preferred design attributes for educational computer games. I also generate a checklist of criteria from my interpretations that may result in the purchase of software that could not only enhance girls’ participation and success in primary school science, the curriculum area of greatest personal interest to me, but also in other Key Learning Areas of primary education. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENT I wish to acknowledge the support and encouragement I have received throughout this process from my supervisor, Associate Professor Peter Taylor. At all times, Peter’s ideas, suggestions, and criticisms have been positive and encouraging. Whenever I was unsure of aspects of my writing he was able to advise me clearly with personal experience or relevant readings. Peter’s patience and guidance in the production of this thesis has been invaluable. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ....................................................... x Chapter One - The Origins of My Inquiry Introduction ............................................ 1 Origins of My Questions .................................. 1 Reading Preferences of Children ............................ 2 Reading Preferences of My Students ......................... 3 Software Choices of My Students ........................... 3 Influences From My Teaching Experience .................... 4 Influences From My Tertiary Studies ........................ 5 My Present Course of Study ............................... 6 My Audience ........................................... 8 Organisation of the Thesis ................................. 9 Summary ............................................. 11 Significance of My Research .............................. 11 Chapter Two - A Question of Superficiality Or Significance Introduction ........................................... 13 Human-computer Interaction .............................. 14 The Importance of Appearance ............................ 15 Motivation ............................................ 17 Conclusion ............................................ 18 Chapter Three - A Quest for Equity Introduction ........................................... 19 Computer Games As Texts ............................... 20 Preferences of Girls and Boys ............................. 22 The Seventh Moment .................................... 23 A Personal Revelation ................................... 25 Conclusion ............................................ 26 Chapter Four - Women and Science (Unwelcome Partners?) Introduction ........................................... 27 Historical Perspective ................................... 27 Contemporary Perspective ................................ 29 The Image of Science and Scientists ........................ 29 Ramifications of A Masculine Science ...................... 31 Conclusion ............................................ 33 Chapter Five - Girls and Science Education (Unwelcome Students?) Introduction ........................................... 34 The Role of Schools ..................................... 34 The Curriculum ........................................ 35 v The Teachers .......................................... 37 The Students ........................................... 40 Strategies to Improve Science Education ..................... 41 Chapter Six - Software - How it Can Help Or Hinder Introduction ........................................... 43 Software As A Social Construct ........................... 43 The Role of Software .................................... 45 Girls, Computers, and Schools ............................. 47 Sex-bias in Software .................................... 50 Conclusion ............................................ 56 Chapter Seven - The Games We Play Introduction ........................................... 58 Play and Games ........................................ 60 Computer Games ....................................... 62 Educational Computer Games ............................. 68 Conclusion ............................................ 73 Chapter Eight - Research Design Introduction ........................................... 74 Epistemology of My Research ............................. 75 Mixed Method Inquiry - My Choice of (Mainly) Qualitative Research .............................................. 77 Interpretive Enquiry ..................................... 79 Pragmatism ........................................... 81 Personal Viewpoint and Understandings ..................... 83 Validity Through Crystallization ........................... 85 Data Gathering ......................................... 86 Physical location of my study ....................... 87 Respondents ..................................... 88 Data gathering instruments ......................... 89 Time line ................................. 89 Interviews ................................. 90 Focus groups .............................. 91 Surveys ................................... 92 Observation ............................... 93 Data Analysis .......................................... 93 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Data Gathering Process ....... 95 Evaluation Standards .................................... 98 Credibility ...................................... 99 Transferability .................................. 101 Dependability and Confirmability ......................... 102 Audit Trail ..................................... 102 Fourth Generation Evaluation ............................ 103 Criteria for Authenticity ................................. 104 Fairness ....................................... 105 vi Ontological authenticity, Educative authenticity, Catalytic authenticity, and Tactical authenticity .......... 106 Criteria of the moral and the ethical ........................ 107 Conclusion - A Question of Viability ...................... 107 Chapter Nine - Literature Review (or Does Anyone Really Know What Girls Prefer?) Introduction .......................................... 109 Violence ............................................. 111 Setting Or Scenario .................................... 114 Feedback ............................................ 117 Texture of the Game (Aural and Visual Aspects) ............. 119 Narrative ............................................ 123 Characters and Avatars ................................. 124 Collaboration/Cooperation and Competition ................. 128 Speed of the Game ..................................... 135 Activities ............................................ 137 Instructions and Help ................................... 139 Challenge ............................................ 140 Miscellaneous Elements ................................. 143 Game saving .................................... 143 Collecting objects ................................ 143 Humour ....................................... 144 Summary of the Literature ............................... 145 Chapter Ten - Preamble to the Analysis (A Portrait of My Students) Introduction .......................................... 151 Background Information ................................ 151 Conclusion ........................................... 162 Chapter Eleven - Analysis, Discussion, and Recommendations (or What Do My Girls Really Prefer?) Introduction .......................................... 166 Gender Specific Recommendations and Criteria .............. 166