Bridgewater Review

Volume 33 | Issue 1 Article 1

May-2014 Bridgewater Review, Vol. 33, No. 1, May 2014

Recommended Citation Bridgewater State University. (2014). Bridgewater Review. 33(1). Available at: http://vc.bridgew.edu/br_rev/vol33/iss1/1

This item is available as part of Virtual Commons, the open-access institutional repository of Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Bridgewater Review

In this issue: Todd C. Harris on Organizational Justice: A Primer

Also in this issue: Joel Sokolsky on U.S. Ballistic Missile Defense, NORAD and the Canada Conundrum Michael Boyd on Alice Munro: An Appreciation Jessica Birthisel on The pros and cons of foreign affairs explainers in The Washington Post Photo Essay by Ivana George Paul J. Medeiros on The Specific Intellectuals: Foucault, Thoreau, and Berkeley Roundtable on Seamus Heaney by Ellen Scheible Teaching Note by John J. Kucich and Pamela J. Russell

VolumeMay 2014 33 Number 1 May 2014 Bridgewater State University1 Glacial Waters no. 4 (Photograph by Ivana George).

Credits for Author Photographs Andrew Holman (by Frank Gorga); Ann Brunjes (by Nina Colombotos); Ellen Scheible (by Frank Gorga); Ivana George (by Eric Bailey); Pamela Russell and John Kucich (by Amy Couto).

2 Bridgewater Review Bridgewater Review Volume 33, Number 1 May 2014

2 Editor’s Notebook EDITOR Andrew C. Holman Andrew C. Holman History & Canadian Studies 4 Organizational Justice: A Primer Todd C. Harris ASSOCIATE EDITORS Ellen Scheible 8 U.S. Ballistic Missile Defense, NORAD and the English Canada Conundrum Brian Payne Joel Sokolsky History 12 Alice Munro: An Appreciation EDITORS EMERITI Michael Boyd Michael Kryzanek 15 “Too embarrassed to ask”: The pros and cons of foreign affairs Political Science & Global Studies explainers in The Washington Post William C. Levin Jessica Birthisel Sociology 18 PHOTO ESSAY. Glacial Waters Barbara Apstein Ivana George English

24 The Specific Intellectuals: Foucault, Thoreau, and Berkeley DESIGN Paul J. Medeiros Philip McCormick’s Design Works, Inc., North Easton, MA 27 ROUNDTABLE Seamus Heaney: A Tribute Ellen Scheible

30 TEACHING NOTE Toward Twenty-first-century Teaching: Interdisciplinarity at Bridgewater and Beyond John J. Kucich and Pamela J. Russell

35 VOICES ON CAMPUS Julian Bond on “From Civil War to Civil Rights”

37 BOOK REVIEWS On the Front Cover: Our Schools are at Risk, J. Michael Bodi “Businessman with Scales of Justice for a Face” (Credit: Meriel Jane Waissman). Kiss This Paper, Ann Brunjes

Inside Back Cover: Poetry by John Bonnani

Bridgewater Review is published twice a year by the faculty and librarians of Bridgewater State University. Opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the policies of Bridgewater Review or Bridgewater State University. Letters to the Editor are encouraged and should be sent to: Editor, Bridgewater Review, [email protected]

Articles may be reprinted with permission of the Editor. ©2014, Bridgewater State University ISBN 0892-7634

May 2014 1 them to a state where the books might Editor’s Notebook be re-sellable, or even reusable. Andrew C. Holman My secret is dirty because I was taught (by my school librarians and teachers, homas Jonathan “Stonewall” Jackson (1824- and my parents, if I recall correctly) to 63) was a West Point graduate, a decorated respect the sanctity of the printed page. The “thou shall not scribble in books” Tand respected Confederate Army general, a commandment must have had more to hypochondriacal advocate of hydropathic therapy, do with the protection of school prop- erty than anything else. But my takea- and an inveterate book marginalist. The first three way was also that marginalizing was seen of these characteristics made him, without doubt, as objectionable because it was an act of an uncommon Victorian, but not so the fourth. The irreverence (a mortal sin for Canadians like me), one that could only lead to dozens of books in Jackson’s library, preserved and on more offensive sorts of public com- display in the Stonewall Jackson House Museum (the mentary, such as graffiti on restroom only dwelling he ever owned, in Lexington, Virginia) stall walls, or worse, Twitter. Since then, though, I think I have come to demonstrate well his penchant for scribbling marks of terms with my proclivity to jot in white emphasis, reminders, comparisons, and exclamations spaces. In fact, I embrace it warmly, and recommend it to my students of disgust or approval in the margins of printed books. with enthusiasm. As the extant libraries of many of our famous and In academic life, marginalia has value not-so-famous ancestors show, readers have long in at least a couple of different ways. plunged into this sort of silent dialogue with their First, it has instrumental, pedagogi- cal use. Marginal scribbling is, I am books, to engage ideas on the printed page, to have convinced, infinitely more effective in the “last word” in their myriad discussions with helping scholars and students remember authoritative texts and published authors. what they have read and to challenge it, though it has not been the preferred Isaac Newton was a committed and are thousands of ordinary readers, mode of textual engagement for some marginalist; so, too, were Thomas including me. I admit it. I write in the decades—since 1963, to be specific, Jefferson, Jane Austen, John Adams, margins of all of my books, though I when the despicable “Hi-Liter” was Edgar Allen Poe, Herman Melville, make no great claim to writing in them invented by the Carter’s Ink Company. Sylvia Plath, Samuel Taylor Coleridge anything enlightening, or even clever. Since then, those fat little cylinders and David Foster Wallace. We know My dirty little secret stared me in the have been the scourge of the textual about these famous book defacers face again recently when I considered universe, leaving in their wake mind- because their celebrity recommended thinning out my office book collec- less rainbows on painted pages, the the saving of their libraries and other tion, only to conclude that hundreds of meaning behind those selected sections possessions. But they were hardly alone. hours of erasing coded pencil marks and forever lost. For me, to consume a text No less dedicated to the practice were comments would be required to restore (I mean really devour it) is to mark it up. To notate it is to love it. But marginalia are valuable in a second scholarly way, beyond pedagogy. We The “thou shall not scribble in have come to delight in reading other books” commandment must people’s glosses on and addenda to the printed text, and to invest them with have had more to do with the meaning. Scholars who look at, say, Stonewall Jackson’s scribbling, do so protection of school property than because they expect to gain insight anything else.

2 Bridgewater Review So, go ahead. Go wild. Mark up the margins of this issue of Bridgewater We have come to delight in Review. Cover it in scrawl. I know that there is plenty in the printed pages reading other people’s glosses on that follow that will delight, inform, provoke and otherwise exercise all of and addenda to the printed text, our readers. Engage your magazine and to invest them with meaning. and then express your response to it. But don’t keep your scratchings secret. When you are done scribbling, write them up in a letter, send it to me, and into what made the great man tick, past decades, marginalizing is by no share your ideas with all of us. and hope to find a comment or means dead. Indeed, its prospects look witticism entered in a key book in pretty bright, as Heather Jackson, a key place, one that at long last University of Toronto professor and figures him out, or challenges what author of the 2001 book Marginalia, told we already know about him. And a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation marginalia in famous authors’ copies radio audience in November 2013. of their own work are doubly entic- The rise of new internet-based forums ing. “Marginalia reveal much about that encourage annotation (especially … the development of their ideas,” weblogs and news media outlets that Drew University librarian Andrew encourage readers to respond to articles Scrimgeour wrote in a recent New York and editorials) and new technology Times piece. “Researchers and biogra- (such as e-readers and tablets) that phers mine those annotations.” makes marginalizing easy to do, cannot help but bring back the art. The dirty Of course, we need not merely wax little secret is becoming respectable (I’ll nostalgic about this literary act. Andrew Holman is Professor of History and have to find another one). Though perhaps in decline in these Editor of Bridgewater Review.

May 2014 3 performance review conducted? Do Organizational Justice: A Primer your immediate manager and other leaders treat you with dignity and Todd C. Harris respect? Have you been given informa- tion about how important organiza- I do not pretend to understand the moral universe; tional decisions were made? Matters the arc is a long one, my eye reaches but little ways; such as these are relevant to organi- zational justice: the study of people’s I cannot calculate the curve and complete the figure perceptions of, and their reactions to, by the experience of sight; I can divine it by conscience. fairness in organizations. And from what I see I am sure it bends towards justice. Organizational Justice: — Theodore Parker, Unitarian Minister and Boston Abolitionist, Fairness Matters “Sermon on Justice and the Conscience” (1853). Why should organizations and the e often think about moral questions as people that lead them care about jus- tice? The most powerful arguments abstract philosophical inquiries that fathom can be distilled into three broad the depths of what it means to be human. categories. The Moral Argument holds W that organizations should strive to do Certainly, moral questions motivated antebellum the right thing as a worthwhile end antislavery advocates, for example, for whom morality unto itself, exclusive of any tangible offered the best argument against the evil of slavery. organizational benefits. The Business Argument holds that treating employees What is true, however, is that every engaged member unfairly adversely impacts their work of society, then and now, must struggle daily with deep attitudes and behaviors, which in turn negatively impact criteria that organi- moral questions. This is no less true for the university zations value, such as sales, customer professor or the corporate manager than it was for satisfaction, safety, absenteeism, job abolitionists such as Theodore Parker. satisfaction, employee turnover, and other factors directly relevant to busi- Imagine that a college student receives whole. These perceptions, in turn, may ness success. This argument may take a failing grade in a course. The student have a profound effect on what the on added importance as we continue would likely be dissatisfied with the student actually does in response to the to shift toward a service, creative and grade, but could he or she reasonably grade, ranging from quietly accepting innovation-focused economy, one that claim that the grade was unfair? To the grade, complaining to a fellow stu- places a premium on employees who answer this question, we would need dent, challenging the professor, or even are fully committed to their organiza- to take a number of issues into con- withdrawing from school altogether. tions and engaged with their work. The sideration. For example, did the grade Although the above example is drawn Public Argument, which may actually be accurately reflect how the student from the field of education, the same a constituent of the business argument, performed in the course? Were the kinds of issues arise in the workplace. holds that the public is growing increas- scores on tests and other assignments For example, do you feel that your ingly aware and intolerant of unethical computed in an objective, unbiased salary and other benefits equitably corporate behavior. Consumers and manner and summed correctly? Did the reflect your contributions to your investors will support socially responsi- professor treat the student with dignity organization? How is your annual ble companies and punish irresponsible and respect throughout the semester? Lastly, was the grading procedure clearly and thoroughly communicated and explained to the student? The Consumers and investors answers to these questions are likely to have a considerable impact on how will support socially responsible the student feels about the grade, the companies and punish professor, and even the school as a irresponsible ones.

4 Bridgewater Review ones. Each of the above arguments is complicated by the fact that what Research has shown that people constitutes “the right thing” is rarely straightforward. Given that philoso- are more willing to accept phers with the intellectual incandes- negative outcomes when the cence of Aristotle, Jeremy Bentham, Immanuel Kant, and John Rawls have outcomes were determined using struggled mightily with the topic of justice, it is understandable if a “typical” fair procedures. manager in an organization has trouble arriving at a satisfactory outcome in justice-related matters. Three Forms of Organizational Justice ORGANIZATIONAL If we return for a moment to the JUSTICE example of the college student who received a failing grade, we see that organizational justice is a multi-faceted concept that takes on a number of forms. The key forms are distributive justice, procedural justice, and inter- actional justice. Distributive justice is the form of organizational justice that focuses on employees’ beliefs that they get their fair share of valuable organiza- tional outcomes (e.g. pay, promotions, recognition). For example, as I write DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE PROCEDURAL JUSTICE this, the final roster for the 2014 Men’s INTERACTIONAL JUSTICE United States Olympic hockey team has just been announced. The twenty- five roster spots would be considered to have been distributed fairly if the best Organizational Justice Model twenty-five players received them. It is important to note that individuals make of what is “fair” with respect to the The second form of organizational assessments of distributive justice not in allocation of rewards. One definition is justice is procedural justice. Whereas dis- isolation but in comparison to others. based on the merit norm, which indicates tributive justice concerns itself with the For example, consider two employees, a situation in which the people who fairness of the “ends” (i.e. did I get my Employee A and Employee B. Both work the hardest or add the most value fair share of the pie?), procedural justice have identical educational backgrounds, to the organization get the greatest considers the fairness of the “means” job titles and responsibilities, are hard rewards. Another definition is based on to those ends (i.e. was the process by workers, and are equally competent the notion of an equality norm, in which which valued outcomes were allocated performers. However, Employee A’s every member of the organization gets done fairly?). Procedural justice occurs annual compensation is ten percent the same share of rewards, regardless of in situations in which individuals feel higher than Employee B’s. Upon effort or levels of contribution. Finally, that they have a “voice” in the making making this discovery, Employee B is the need norm distributes rewards in of decisions, where rules are applied likely to be dissatisfied, and may seek proportion to individual needs. In the consistently, safeguards against bias are to remedy this inequity by working United States, the merit norm is the in place, and the information used in less (i.e. reducing inputs) or asking for a most common foundation for defin- the decision is accurate. Although it is raise (i.e. increasing outcomes) among ing fairness, whereas in other parts of important to use fair procedures always, other strategies. It is important to note the world where a collectivist culture it is especially important to do so when that there are many different definitions prevails (e.g. Asia and Scandinavia), the equality norm is stronger.

May 2014 5 the outcomes involved are unfavora- ble. Let us return for a moment to the classroom. A student who receives an “A” as a final course grade would be inclined to simply accept the grade without asking too many questions. If, on the other hand, the grade was an “F,” then the student would likely have much more interest in the procedures by which this final grade was calcu- lated. This is known as the “fair process effect.” Research has shown that people are more willing to accept negative outcomes when the outcomes were determined using fair procedures. In my pre-academic career as a man- agement consultant, I often observed that companies, especially those based in the United States, paid less than full attention to the issue of procedural justice. My research finds that some managers and other organizational leaders believe that they are “better” at procedural justice than they truly are, resulting in a disconnect between their perceptions and those of their employ- ees. For example, I suspect that most of us would rate ourselves highly on a survey item that measures how well we treat others with dignity and respect. However, if our employees were asked the same question, would they rate us as highly on this dimension as we rate ourselves? The research says no. Exec Comparing Two Employees (Credit: Tim Teebken) Managers may have the intent to treat others respectfully, but are not well the realm of organizational justice, Alternatively, some managers wrongly attuned to how those intentions perceptions matter more than any believe that tangible benefits (i.e. are being viewed by others. Within objective reality. distributive justice) are more important to employees than being treated with decency and respect. This phenomenon often happens when a company con- Employees who believe that they ducts a downsizing or other large-scale layoff, during which company execu- have been treated with a high tives concern themselves more with the size of severance packages and the con- level of interactional justice tend tinuation of health insurance benefits (distributive justice) than with being to be good organizational citizens, transparent about how the lay-off deci- going “above and beyond” to sions (e.g. who stays? who goes? why?) were made (i.e. procedural justice). assist others even when they do not have to.

6 Bridgewater Review The final form of organization justice good organizational citizens, going important for organizational leaders to is interactional justice. Individuals make “above and beyond” to assist others be more visible, not less, during times determinations about fairness not only even when they do not have to. of organizational challenge. on the basis of outcomes received and As with procedural justice, I have often the procedures used to determine Suggestions to Improve observed companies struggle with those outcomes, but also in terms of Organizational Justice the concept of interactional justice. how these outcomes and procedures Unwittingly, sometimes corporate How can a company build a culture are explained. This is interactional policies and guidelines hinder inter- that honors organizational justice? justice, which manifests itself in to two actional justice. A company’s legal Compensating employees fairly and in forms. The first is informational justice, department or human resources depart- accordance with prevailing market con- which can be defined as the amount ment may discourage managers from ditions improves the distributive justice and quality of information provided fully explaining their decisions on the of a workplace. In this vein, compensa- to explain outcomes and procedures. grounds that the disclosure of infor- tion could include non-wage-based Sharing lots of accurate information benefits such as health insurance or flexible work schedules. Compensating employees in proportion to their Although emotionally taxing, contributions to the organization also enhances distributive justice. Giving it is vitally important for employees a genuine voice in organiza- tional decisions and being transparent organizational leaders to be more about how organizational decisions are made both facilitate procedural justice. visible, not less, during times Finally, explaining decisions thor- oughly with accurate and timely infor- of organizational challenge. mation and ensuring that managers treat everyone with dignity, respect and professionalism extend interactional mation may make the company more justice. It is important for senior execu- helps employees to perceive that deci- vulnerable to lawsuits. They reason tives and other organizational leaders sions were made in a careful, thought- that the less said the better. While legal to make all forms of organizational ful and unbiased manner. The second is considerations regarding what to com- justice a top priority and to personally interpersonal justice, which can be defined municate, when, and how certainly model it in all of their communications as the level of respect and professional- need to be taken into account, in my and interactions. When the people at ism accorded to all employees. Imagine experience organizations often err on the top of the organizational pyramid a long-time and loyal employee who the side of withholding information involve employees in critical decisions, found out she had been fired only when when being more open and transparent make themselves available for authentic she went to her doctor and was told that would actually be more beneficial. two-way dialogue, explain why deci- she no longer had health insurance, or a sions are made and what alternatives team of senior executives from the U.S. Another reason why managers often were considered, and treat employee relieved of their duties via email while struggle with interactional justice is the concerns with dignity and respect, the on a business trip in China, stranded all-too-human desire to avoid or mini- organization will be morally healthier. with no way to get home. Imagine a mize uncomfortable situations. When a college football coach pulled off of the manager has to communicate bad news, team bus and fired in front of the whole such as laying off an employee, he or team. These would be all examples she has to wrestle with a litany of nega- of an egregious lack of interpersonal tive emotions such as anxiety, guilt, and justice, which we understand to be the fear. In lieu of addressing these emo- degree of dignity and respect shown tions, some managers find it prefer- someone while explaining outcomes able to avoid the issue and the people and procedures. Employees who believe impacted by it altogether. Although that they have been treated with a high emotionally taxing, it is vitally level of interactional justice tend to be Todd C. Harris is Assistant Professor in the Department of Management.

May 2014 7 U.S. Ballistic Missile Defense, NORAD and the Canada Conundrum Joel Sokolsky hen newly sworn in U.S. Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel announced in early 2013 that in response to the growing threat W The absence of an American BMD from North Korea, 14 new Ballistic Missile Defense system meant that Canada, although (BMD) interceptors would be added to the 30 already involved through NORAD in missile warning, could eschew a role in BMD, in place in California and Alaska, the Wall Street Journal a situation that reflected Canadian called it “one of the biggest switcheroos of the Obama policy preferences. Presidency.” Whether the administration is prepared With the advent of new post-Cold War to go much further still is not clear. A September missile threats and the deployment by the United States of a limited BMD 2012 report by the U.S. National Research Council system directed against North Korea (Making Sense of Ballistic Missile Defense) called for a and other “rogue” states, the U.S. gradual buildup of the system, specifically mentioning has now moved to deploy a limited BMD system of radars and intercep- Fort Drum, NY and northern Maine as possible tors. These capabilities were not placed BMD locations. under NORAD’s operational control, although as the command responsible While the deployment of more BMD But NORAD never had a real opera- for the continent’s aerospace defense interceptors will be a purely American tional BMD function. During the Cold this might have been seen as a logical decision, such an expansion will have War, the United States did not deploy it step. Here again, the government in implications for U.S. defense rela- and there was no capability to inter- Ottawa has resisted direct participation tions with Canada. This is because of cept Soviet nuclear-armed ground and in BMD, and adjustments were made at the existence of the North American sea-launched Intercontinental Ballistic NORAD to accommodate Canadian Aerospace Defense Command Missiles (ICBMs and SLBMs) before reluctance. With Washington now set (NORAD), a unique “bi-national” they reached their military and urban to expand its BMD system, including command staffed with both American targets in the U.S. or Canada. The along the border with Canada, Ottawa’s and Canadian military personnel “defense” of North America lay instead position may no longer be tenable and which, since 1957, has had respon- in the deterrent power of the American as such the future of NORAD as a bi- sibility for the aerospace defense of strategic-nuclear offensive capability. national command is in question. both countries. Originally postured to defend the continent against the threat of Soviet long-range bomb- ers by providing a single command Speaking in Kingston, Ontario for the operational control of assigned American and Canadian air defense in 1938, President Franklin forces, NORAD in subsequent years has taken on additional responsibility Roosevelt declared that for warning of ballistic missile attack the United States would not and space surveillance. stand idly by if Canada were ever threatened.

8 Bridgewater Review Missile Defense and the air defence systems declined. Our best Another factor that made this situation Obligations of a “Good and bet was deterrence and deterrence viable in NORAD was that during the depended on good warning. Ballistic Cold War the United States did not Friendly Neighbour” missiles (whether ICBMs launched actively deploy a BMD system (except Speaking in Kingston, Ontario in from the USSR or SLBMs fired from briefly in the 1970s, with a single BMD 1938, President Franklin Roosevelt Soviet submarines) aimed at the U.S. site). The prevailing view was that a declared that the United States would would travel into then beyond the BMD system could never be effective not stand idly by if Canada were ever atmosphere and then sharply down and that its very existence, especially threatened. In response, then Prime toward their American targets, arc- if matched by a Soviet counterpart, Minister W. L. Mackenzie King said ing above the altitude of Canadian air would destabilize the nuclear balance that Canada’s obligation as a “good and space. Unlike the extensive air defence of power which was based upon an friendly neighbour” was to see to it that installations that were once located in Assured Destruction capability—that enemy forces did not attack the U.S. by Canada, no system to detect or track is, that neither superpower could gain land, sea or air by way of Canada. The ballistic missiles has ever been located from a first strike. As arms control essence of the bilateral security rela- there or operated by the Canadian mili- advocates argued, the mere presence tionship—its close, friendly and coop- tary. The US placed its missile warning of a BMD capability might tempt one erative nature notwithstanding—is radars on its own soil in Alaska, in the side to believe a first strike was possible. that Canada cannot become a security United Kingdom, in Greenland, and in In the early 1970s, the U.S. and USSR liability for the U.S. This obligation took on new mean- ing after World War Two as the Soviet Union developed atomic weapons and a long-range bomber force capable of flying over the North Pole en route to the U.S. Suddenly, Canada became, in the words of American Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, a “very important piece of real estate.” Canada understood and readily embraced its new position. As the Cold War deep- ened in the late 1940s and early 1950s, Ottawa joined with Washington to cre- ate a strong western deterrent in Europe through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and in North America in the development of radar American and Canadian personnel monitor activity in the North American maritime and air domains in the lines in the Canadian north backed NORAD and U.S. Northern Command command center, Peterson Air Force Base, CO (Credit: Sgt 1st by interceptor aircraft to provide for Class Gail Braymen) continental air defence. In 1957, these combined efforts were brought together space. Despite this, Canadians remained signed the Antiballistic Missile Defense under a single operational command, involved in the NORAD missile warn- Treaty limiting BMD systems. While NORAD, with an American general ing role. It is a bit of a puzzle why this the Soviets deployed two BMD sites, in charge who reported directly to each is the case; the quality of Canadian the U.S. eventually dismantled its only government, a Canadian deputy, and a personnel at Colorado Springs and our BMD site. Canada welcomed this U.S. combined bi-national headquarters at historical defence partnership offer only position on BMD and indeed in the Colorado Springs. a partial explanation. It just may be, as a 1968 renewal of the NORAD agree- senior Canadian defense official mused ment insisted that a clause be added No sooner had NORAD been estab- before a Canadian parliamentary com- which stated that participation in the lished to defend against the bomber, mittee in 2000, that Americans simply bi-national command not obligate it to then the “missile became the message” have developed a comfortable “habit” be involved in missile defence. and Canada’s strategic importance, of working with Canadians in conti- along with the Canadian and American nental defense.

May 2014 9 deployment was subsequently scaled back, NORAD has occasionally provided coverage for special events in both the U.S. and Canada, such as the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games and the G8/G20 summits. In addition, with American homeland security and defence assuming greater impor- tance, the United States established a new unified command to cover North America, U.S. Northern Command (USNORTHCOM), whose com- mander also serves as commander of NORAD. Canada was approached by the Pentagon about converting NORAD into something bigger, a comprehensive North American defense arrangement but declined, Flight test of a three-stage Ground-Based Interceptor from Vandenberg Air Force Base, CA, 26 January electing instead to establish its own 2013 (Credit: Missile Defense Agency, U.S. Department of Defense). homeland defense arrangements. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan these years centered on the declining In the post-9/11 war on terrorism, launched his Strategic Defense strategic relevance of traditional air the George W. Bush administration Initiative (SDI), and Canada was again defence, as the numbers of radar stations renewed efforts for an NMD sys- faced with having to make an uncom- (only just recently modernized) and tem. It abrogated the U.S.-U.S.S.R. fortable decision about NORAD interceptor aircraft were cut back Antiballistic Missile Defense Treaty and missile defense. SDI envisioned, to bare minimums. in late 2001 and deployed a limited amongst other things, space-based This was the situation on September 11, missile defense of the United States. BMD interceptors (hence the pejorative 2001 when, with the Canadian Deputy Again, Canada was approached to appellation “Star Wars”). When Canada Commander in charge, the order went participate and in 2004 the government was asked by the Reagan administra- out: “Generate! generate! generate!” of Prime Minister Paul Martin agreed tion if it wanted to officially participate But NORAD was not postured to deal that NORAD could support the new in SDI research, it declined, but there with threats coming from inside the missile defense system. But a year later was no damage to NORAD or overall continent. In the days that followed, when the Bush administration asked if U.S.-Canada defense relations. Indeed, fighter aircraft on alert were deployed Canada would directly participate in in 1985, the U.S. and Canada agreed to 26 sites in the contiguous U.S., BMD operations, the Martin gov- to modernize NORAD’s air defence with a goal of providing 20-minute ernment declined, yielding to public capabilities, in part to deal with a new coverage of potential targets, includ- sentiment which remained suspicious of air threat: cruise missiles. In the end, ing major cities. Though this extensive BMD and highly critical of the policies Reagan’s program ran into strong pub- lic and Congressional opposition and the BMD issue faded away again as the Cold War ended. In the wake of 9/11… the In the late 1990s, due to fears about North Korean and Iranian missile Canadian government undertook programs, the Clinton administration, a wide range of efforts to this time pressed by Congress, moved to develop limited BMD capabilities strengthen its internal security to match the new limited threat. But the White House was not enthusiastic and worked with the U.S. to about forging ahead with an exten- sive and expensive “National Missile secure the border between the Defense” (NMD) system. Concern about the future of NORAD in two countries.

10 Bridgewater Review BMD and Secretary Hagel’s announce- The newly elected Conservative ment of an expansion of the system indicates a new seriousness about mis- government of Prime Minister sile defense that highlights the differ- Stephen Harper was able to renew ences between Washington and Ottawa on BMD. If the U.S. proceeds with a the NORAD agreement in 2006 more extensive BMD system, the exist- ing accommodations within NORAD including an expansion of the to the continued Canadian aversion to BMD may not be possible nor in the Command’s mission to include United States’ best interest. Americans may in other words get over their habit maritime warning. of cooperating with Canadians and decide to effectively gut NORAD by unilaterally taking ITT/WA away from of George W. Bush. Beyond allowing In NORAD, then, Canada and the the bi-national command. NORAD to provide warning informa- US appear to have established a firm, Giving Up the tion to the interceptor missiles, Canada, perennial institution with flexibility and thus NORAD remains uninvolved enough to accommodate asymmetries Anti-BMD Habit in BMD. in command at Colorado Springs. Today, the Harper government has While Canada does not participate given no indication that it is consider- To be sure, Ottawa does not wish to be in the operation of missile defences, ing pulling its own about face on BMD. a security liability to the U.S. in the war Canadians in NORAD support the But as the Obama administration and on terrorism. That war is Canada’s war system by providing warning and its successor move forward in expand- too. In the wake of 9/11, not only did assessment of any potential missile ing America’s ability to intercept Canada immediately deploy forces to attack. This arrangement can lead to missiles, Ottawa may have no choice Afghanistan, where they remained for some oddities at Colorado Springs. For if it wishes to maintain NORAD as over a decade, the Canadian govern- example, a Canadian general officer in a permanent and relevant substantive ment undertook a wide range of efforts command of NORAD would be able and symbolic fixture of American- to strengthen its internal security and to confirm that North America is under Canadian security cooperation. The worked with the U.S. to secure the missile attack and provide the warn- price of sustaining the United States border between the two countries. As a ing, but must leave it to an American to habit of cooperating with Canada in July 2005 State Department Background release the BMD interceptors. matters of continental defense is that Note on Canada observed: “While law Canadians give up their habit of reject- enforcement cooperation and coor- However, notwithstanding the 2006 ing ballistic missile defense. Given the dination were excellent prior to the renewal and accommodation, the stakes involved, it seems a small price terrorist attacks on the United States of Canadian decision to stay out of BMD to pay. September 11, they have since become still leaves NORAD’s future as a bi- even closer ... U.S.-Canada bilateral national command in jeopardy. This and multilateral cooperation in the is because, as James Fergusson of the fight is unequaled.” University of Manitoba points out in his 2010 book Canada and Ballistic What’s more, the United States has Missile Defence, 1954-2009, “NORAD’s been prepared to accommodate con- early warning mission appear[s] at risk tinuing Canadian aversion to bilateral of becoming a redundancy.” Known cooperation in BMD. The newly as Integrated Tactical Warning and elected Conservative government of Assessment or “ITT/WA,” wherein air Prime Minister Stephen Harper was and missile warning and attack assess- able to renew the NORAD agreement ment functions are brought together, Joel Sokolsky is the 2013-14 Killam in 2006 including an expansion of the early warning is at the very heart of Visiting Professor of Canadian Studies Command’s mission to include mari- NORAD’s mission. And very recently, at Bridgewater State where he is teaching time warning. Moreover, unlike all the stakes have been raised. The Obama courses in Political Science. He is the the previous renewals, this one has no administration’s policy reversal on former Principal of Royal Military College expiry date. of Canada.

May 2014 11 It is difficult to see a significant con- Alice Munro: An Appreciation nection between this beginning and the story that follows, but we may treat Michael Boyd it as a piece of self-analysis. Munro hen a student in one of my English classes seems to be announcing something important about her own practice as a exclaimed how neat it was that we just storyteller. She characteristically puts in happened to be reading some stories “too many things going on at the same W time,” things that we will be forced by Alice Munro on the day it was announced that to accommodate by making our own she had won the 2013 Nobel Prize for Literature, I connections. These complications are didn’t mention that I had predicted that this would probably the primary reason her readers frequently claim that her short stories happen every year for at least a seem more like novels. decade. Why spoil the student’s This claim is obviously presented as enjoyment of coincidence? Or, praise—and perhaps explains why she even better, the illusion that I finally received the Prize, long overdue, making her one of the oldest recipients might have insider knowledge? at the age of 82 and the only one who Her winning was not inevitable, writes only short stories, not novels. (Yes, I know that The Lives of Girls and after all. The fact that she was Women [1971], is always called a novel, a woman from a small town in but The Beggar Maid, published seven Ontario who wrote only short years later, is always referred to as a short-story cycle, in spite of the fact that stories, not novels, did not necessarily make her an it follows the same pattern of interre- obvious front-runner. Only her work would do that— lated stories as the earlier work. In any case, her work has done much to elevate the 14 books published over the past 45 years. Alice the status of short fiction in the minds Munro should be seen as both continuing the realist/ of critics and common readers.) Chekhovian tradition and introducing innovations in She writes primarily but not exclusively technique that have been admired by readers and of the lives of girls and women in this expanded or dilated manner, giving writers all over the world. Her central same time; also too many people. us the illusion of seeing a whole life, setting, the small towns and farms of Think, he told her. What is the not just the singular epiphany of the southwestern Ontario, has become important thing? What do you moment of self-discovery that has been as richly populated with vivid fic- want us to pay attention to? Think. the defining characteristic of the short tional characters as Hardy’s Wessex, story, at least since James Joyce. How is Eventually she wrote a story that Faulkner’s Yoknapatawpha, or Garcia this accomplished? Not by adding more was about her grandfather kill- Marquez’s Macondo. words—although many of her best ing chickens, and the instructor stories are longer than average, some When teaching the stories of Alice seemed pleased with it. Georgia rightfully considered novellas. More Munro, I like to begin with the open- herself thought it was a fake. She significantly, she employs a variety ing of one entitled “Differently” from made a long list of things that had of devices to create the sense of a life her collection Friend of My Youth (1990): been left out and handed it in as an extended through time. appendix to the story. The instruc- Georgia once took a creative-writ- tor said that she expected too Surely the most frequently employed of ing course, and what the instructor much, of herself and of the process, these devices is her rejection of linear told her was: Too many things. and that she was wearing him out chronology in favor of time-shifts, Too many things going on at the (Selected Stories, 498). often jumping backwards to fill in the past or leaping forward, shocking us

12 Bridgewater Review with the changes wrought by time. These shifts are clearly marked by Munro finally received the Nobel Munro’s segmentation of her text, triple-spacing between sections run- Prize for Literature … making ning from one to six or seven pages in her one of the oldest recipients length. Reading one of her stories for the first time, I am constantly aware of at the age of 82 and the only one how impossible it is to predict where in the central character’s life she is taking who writes only short stories, us next. Only when we reach the end of the story does the ordering of the dif- not novels. ferent parts seem essential to the effects created by the narrative as a whole. Another way in which Munro disrupts without them having any apparent not this doubt, this fear also refer to the and expands conventional storytelling connection. Readers may be left to reader’s uncertainty about how things practice is by splitting the story into dif- make their own thematic linkages. connect in this narrative? ferent points of view, something more A character might reflect on her frequently found in novels than in short For me, Munro’s most exciting experi- personal loss of past relationships. Her fiction. “Labor Day Dinner” presents ments in form or structure occur in risky decision to burn her bridges and the events of a single afternoon through the middle period of her writing, from seek a new life is suddenly thrown into the eyes of three characters, none 1980 to a little after the turn of the doubt: “Sometimes our connection is of whom have any idea of what will century, a period that includes seven frayed, it is in danger, it seems almost almost happen to them at the end of the collections—half of her production to lost. Views and streets deny knowledge story. “White Dump”combines shifts in date. In an interview with the CBC of us, the air grows thin. Wouldn’t we time with shifts in point of view to tell radio host Peter Gzowski in 1994, she rather have a destiny to submit to, then, the story of the breakup of a marriage offered a hint of what she was trying something that claims us, anything, through the eyes of three generations to do in some of her most ambitious instead of such flimsy choices, arbi- —daughter, mother, and grandmother. works: “I want to move away from trary days? (“Albanian Virgin,” Selected Sometimes the breaks seem more what happened, to the possibility of Stories 602). An interpretive leap is in radical, as in “The Albanian Virgin” this happening, or that happening, and order here. The existential crisis of the and “The Love of a Good Woman,” a kind of idea that life is not just made character can also be read as a dilemma when one story collides with another up of facts, things that happened … but in the reader-writer relationship. Might

Michael Boyd’s Favorite Hateship, Friendship, Courtship, Loveship, The View from Castle Rock (2006) Marriage (2001) Alice Munro Stories The View from Castle Rock Where to begin? Start with Open Hateship, etc. The Hired Girl Family Furnishings Secrets (1995) or maybe her excel- Too Much Happiness (2009) lent choice of 28 stories from the Comfort first seven collections, Selected Stories Nettles Dimensions (1997). My favorites (1998-2012) The Bear Came Over Fiction spread over six volumes are: the Mountain Some Women Child’s Play Runaway (2004) The Love of a Good Woman (1998) Wood Runaway Love of a Good Woman Dear Life (2012) Cortes Island Passion Save the Reaper Chance Leaving Maverley The Children Stay Soon Gravel My Mother’s Dream Silence Corrie

May 2014 13 all the things that happen in fantasy, shameful. Laying your finger on the half the class and further complicate an the things that might have happened, wire to get the safe shock, feeling a bit already complex structure scheduled the kind of alternate life that can almost of what it’s like, then pulling back” for discussion on that day. But some- seem to be accompanying what we (392). But there is nothing especially times it can lead to a perception of her call our real lives. I wanted to get all unusual about such use of the imagina- body of work as an single, multifarious of that, sort of, working together.” tion to consider various possible lives, entity enriched by that repetition with Can we imagine what Georgia’s writ- what might have happened. We do it in the same sort of variation so essential to ing instructor would say about that? our lives, as a part of our real lives, and musical structure and the cohesiveness Suddenly nothing can be safely omitted! we do it when, in the act of reading, of novels. Resemblances between char- Alternate lives lived alongside of our we vicariously enter the lives of fic- acters, relationships, plot situations, and “real life”? We might recall Jorge Luis tional characters. themes abound. For example, Munro likes to return to the theme of marital infidelity—real and imagined—and its aftermath. Probably no writer, certainly “I want to move away from what no woman writer, has rung so many changes on this triangular relationship, happened, to the possibility considered so thoroughly its causes and effects in so many different permuta- of this happening, or that tions. The cumulative effect of this happening, and a kind of idea matches the male masterworks of the novel of adultery, Flaubert’s Madame that life is not just made up of Bovary and Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina, and yet how different they are in almost facts, things that happened … every way. Okay, here is your assignment: go, read but all the things that happen all of her stories, some at least twice in fantasy, the things that might because you won’t really know where she is going until you both get there. have happened, the kind of Some will work for you better than others, but almost all will provoke some alternate life that can almost shock or tremor of recognition, some sense that they resemble nothing so seem to be accompanying what much as novels in concentrated form. Or maybe just one impossibly long we call our real lives.” novel, some approximation of what D. H. Lawrence referred to as the great, bright book of life. Borges’ plenary fiction “The Garden of There is perhaps another way in which the Forking Paths,” that never-ending Munro thickens our reception of a story in which one path of life taken particular story—after we have read a points toward and activates those not few—and that is by what her biogra- taken, and gets all those alternate lives pher Robert Thacker calls her practice “working together.” of “revisiting” earlier stories (Alice In “Miles City, Montana,” a child Munro, 2011). When I have taught drowns, and 20 years later the narrator’s courses on Munro or spent three or four daughter almost does, but the mother is weeks on her Selected Stories in a survey “compelled to picture the opposite,” in course, I have asked the class to begin Michael Boyd is Professor in the all its copious and tragic detail: “There’s our discussion of a new story by calling Department of English. something trashy about this kind of attention to echoes or rhymes from imagining, isn’t there? Something earlier ones. This can go on for maybe

14 Bridgewater Review and a brief introduction. This introduc- “Too embarrassed to ask”: tion (usually prefaced with sympathetic language such as “we understand that The pros and cons of foreign-affairs it can take a lot of time and energy to keep up with international news”) explainers in The Washington Post includes a promise that the basic ques- tions are answered in such a way “that Jessica Birthisel anyone can understand them.” The t is not a pleasant word, but one we must questions are answered in short and numbered paragraphs. The language face, for it has become a major part of online is simple, conversational and directly media production and consumption: listicle. A addresses the reader. For example, the I explainer on Mali directs readers to portmanteau that combines “list” and “article,” the the map at the top of the story with listicle is one of the latest fads in journalism that uses a elementary language: “You see that list as a method of presenting content information that little blue line? That’s the Niger River, and it’s really important.” The ques- would otherwise be worthy of a full narrative. tions build on one another, as if an audience member is having a real-time If you are not familiar with the tech- recurring feature in its “World” sec- conversation with the series’ author, nical definition of the listicle, you tion of WashingtonPost.com offering foreign-affairs blogger Max Fisher. have no doubt experienced it in your answers to questions “you were too For example, the third question in the day-to-day media consumption. From embarrassed to ask” about foreign- listicle on Syria is both a reaction to the Cosmopolitan’s endless iterations of “101 affairs topics. Its first piece was titled “9 previous answer and a follow-up ques- ways to please your man” to Buzzfeed’s questions about Israel-Gaza you were tion: “3.) That’s horrible. But there are pervasive pop culture compilations too embarrassed to ask.” Questions in protests lots of places. How did it all go like “18 Cartoons From The ‘90s the piece ranged from “What is the so wrong in Syria? And please, just give You Probably Forgot Existed,” listi- Gaza strip?” to “Who is Hamas?” to me the short version.” cles shape current creations of media “Why don’t Israel and Palestine just content, particularly online content. become independent countries?” to Experienced journalists have mixed They assume that readers want infor- “What’s going to happen?” reactions to the listicle. Undoubtedly, mation in quick hits, lists, slideshows, there are some advantages to the Referenced in hundreds of Tweets and memes and sound bites instead of long approach, but at what cost? One thousands of Facebook posts, this lis- articles. Their sensational headlines possible advantage is that it provides ticle approach proved popular, and the drive traffic to a site, generating more foreign-affairs information and context Post has replicated it eight more times, money from advertising, and they build in a quick, accessible and easy-to-share focusing on escalating foreign affairs on the belief that today’s readers prefer format. Though journalists dream of situations in Mali, the Central African mindless fluff and trivia over hard news a world where all citizens are inter- Republic, Chechnya and Dagestan, and heavy stories. Additionally, the ested in reading lengthy foreign-affairs Egypt, Syria, Iran, South Sudan, and, as listicle performs a common journalistic articles, this does not reflect how most this article is being written, Ukraine. role, the explainer, which is sometimes of us really consume news. Traditional presented as the story behind the story, Each installment follows a similar style: foreign affairs reporting is often dense or a brief that provides the context that a formulaic headline promising nine and dry, and written for the people readers need to understand a developing questions about a country or conflict, who already know its context and are story or trend. followed by a simple map of the region already convinced of its importance and In an interesting twist on the listi- cle fad, The Washington Post recently launched a new series that applies the They build on the belief that popular format to breaking foreign- affairs news, a type of coverage not today’s readers prefer mindless known for its trendiness. Starting in November 2012, the Post began a fluff and trivia over hard news and heavy stories.

May 2014 15 not in need of basic definitions. Even for the moderately informed reader, pulling up a story on an international conflict can feel more like jumping into a book on page 1,001 rather than beginning on page one. The explainer format starts from scratch, which is an important journalistic function. Is the information oversimplified? Undoubtedly. Is an oversimplified understanding of a major world event preferable to complete ignorance about it? Most likely. A second advantage is that the listicle highlights the countries at the top of the news agenda right now. So many of these international struggles evolve, transition, flare up and cool down, and (Image Credit: Gene Thorp. Reprinted with permission from PARS International) ultimately seem to be part of a never- ending story about the country, region, A final advantage is this: by easing people experience when they think they parties, or religions involved. Many of readers’ insecurity about their lack of should know more than they do about a these situations experience a low level knowledge, this format can expose given topic. them to news stories that they have pre- of coverage all year round, which can Despite these surface advantages, the viously found intimidating or inacces- make it difficult for audiences to under- listicle is not without its flaws. First, sible. Listen, author Max Fisher seems stand just how pressing a given conflict the format segregates audiences and to explain in a comforting tone, we get is at any one time. In some ways, these reinforces the fact that more traditional it. It’s confusing. People are busy. No one explainers shout to the readers: “Hey! foreign-affairs news coverage caters to expects you to be an expert on this. Heck, You may have noticed that Ukraine has those who are already well versed on a topic. One of the challenges journal- ists face is how much background to Even for the moderately informed include in their stories. What can you presume the reader already knows, and reader, pulling up a story on an what needs to be explained? This is especially tricky on the foreign-affairs international conflict can feel beat, where stories may have been developing for hundreds if not thou- more like jumping into a book on sands of years. And yet, many tradi- tional news stories rarely bother to situ- page 1,001 rather than beginning ate breaking news into a larger cultural or political context. This is a failure on page one. of journalism’s most basic purpose: to clearly and fairly provide the public with information they need to think independently and govern themselves no one expects you to be able to find Egypt jumped to the top of our news agenda. effectively. In this way, the presence of on a map. Relax. We’re here to help. You’re Here’s why!” This can help readers these explainers exposes the limitations not alone (as evidenced by the 13,000+ other differentiate between truly breaking of more traditional news coverage of people who shared this article on Facebook!) international news and stories world affairs. What results are two When the Post frames its entire pres- that are simmering on a journalistic formats on the same story; two incom- entation of a complex situation in an back burner. plete perspectives on an issue rather it’s-not-your-fault-and-you’re-not-alone than one complete perspective, which format, it eliminates some of the shame is a disservice to the reader.

16 Bridgewater Review A second disadvantage of the listicle context of tensions between the Dinka Online story packages could be built approach is that by providing explainers and the Nuer in South Sudan. The from an awareness that readers approach for some regions and conflicts slightly snarky tone of these Post listi- foreign-affairs news with widely dis- but not others, there is a risk of an cles suggests that the lack of this very parate levels of familiarity. It is possible “othering” effect within this format. specific knowledge is something to be to create dynamic story packages with There is no transparency as to how ashamed of. The role of a newspaper is diverse entry points into the material, the Post decides about which regions, to inform its readers, not to shame them including not only the latest break- conflicts, and countries its readers are for arriving at an article without a fully ing straight-news reporting for those embarrassingly clueless. The matter was developed, historically contextualized familiar with the situation, but also the brought to light in writer Teju Cole’s sense of what has already happened, inclusion of (judgment-free) explainers Twitter-based parody of the series, what is currently happening, and what in a sidebar. Editors could also include called “9 questions about Britain you will happen next in any given region interactive timelines to help illustrate were too embarrassed to ask.” Cole’s experiencing conflict. Journalism is the events that led up to that day’s spoof asked if the U.S. was consider- meant to inform, and can serve an stories, as well as dynamic maps, photos ing a surgical strike against the United Kingdom because of its alleged sale of chemical components to Syria in September 2013. The parody highlights This practice creates a divisive and the sense of “otherness” that pervades the explainer series. The presumption unproductive environment that is that American audiences don’t need says “this article is for the smart explainers on the U.K. or other places that are like us in lifestyle, culture, race, people” and “this article is for the religion, or other identifiers of moder- nity. Given the exoticness of the regions rest of you.” that the Post’s editors have focused on so far, these explainers seem to prefer and privilege mysterious “others,” possibly creating the illusion of faraway, law- especially important pedagogical role at and biographies of major political play- less, and backwards lands and popula- a time when citizens do not feel confi- ers involved in the story. By moving to tions of extremism, endless conflict, dent about their knowledge of history, a model of foreign-affairs coverage that and strange languages, religions, and geography, or world affairs. allows users of varying familiarity with skin tones. A more systematic approach a topic to enter the conversation, news The instinct behind the Post’s series to providing context for world affairs establishments like The Washington Post is fair and constructive. Many read- would avoid cherry picking global would better meet the needs of a truly ers need historical and geographi- issues in a discriminatory way. diverse audience of readers, not merely cal context in order to fully digest the already up-to-date and informed. A final disadvantage involves the tone foreign-affairs stories. However, its of the Post’s series. The explainers practice of segregating this context in a come off as judgmental, suggesting stand-alone listicle format, presented in that a lack of knowledge is something a way that magnifies readers’ insecuri- to be embarrassed about, rather than ties should be rejected. This practice the exact reason to pick up a news- creates a divisive and unproductive paper. This is the core critique of environment that says “this article is for the Post’s “too-embarrased-to-ask” the smart people” and “this article is for listicle approach to foreign affairs. At the rest of you.” With major newspa- its heart, it demonizes ignorance. On pers expanding their multimedia and one extreme, we might expect all interactive capacities at an astonishing Americans to be able to find Egypt on rate, editors need to think about how Jessica Birthisel is Assistant a map; on the other extreme, it is not they can package these foreign-affairs Professor in the Department of reasonable to expect all of the Post’s stories in a way that is informative and Communication Studies. readership to have a clear and confident comprehensive without being insulting. understanding of the complex historical

May 2014 17 Glacial Waters no. 9

Glacial Waters no. 1

18 Bridgewater Review The use of the water globe in these images is meant to convey a visual association to the round form of mother earth. By using this glass form through- out the project, I hope to conjure the notion of the fragility of the planetary ecosystem in which all living beings play a role. While the subject of each image is different, they are connected in this project, both by form and theme. From an aesthetic perspective, I wanted to show the majesty of the glacier- capped mountains, but also the streams of melt water emanating from these glaciers. I wanted to demonstrate the subsistence agricultural activities in the arid valleys below the glaciers, to implant in viewers’ minds the ques- Glacial Waters no. 14 tion: what will happen to the people who live there when the glaciers are fully melted? I also wanted to show Glacial Waters the research activities of the scientists PHOTO ESSAY in gathering data, to show that more understanding is needed if countries Ivana George such as Peru (also China and India) that rely on glacial melt water during ince 2008, I have become increasingly interested their dry seasons are to adapt to climate in the environmental, social and economic Simpacts of climate change and have wanted to produce a body of work that explores this subject. To prepare for that, I researched what other artists and scientists had already produced around this topic. What I found was that several artists and scientists had created a good many documentary-style images of glaciers, icebergs, and changing landscapes. Instead, my aim is to produce artwork that uses visual metaphor to provoke viewers to explore these issues, change. and to make my work visually unique. When I Ivana George is Associate Professor in the received an invitation to travel to the I jumped at the chance. I experimented Department of Art. Peruvian Andes with Dr. Bryan Mark with different approaches to convey the and his research team from the Byrd environmental, social, and economic Polar Research Center of the Ohio impacts of climate change upon water State University as they researched how resource availability. Ultimately, I set- climate change is affecting the high- tled upon using water as a lens to encap- mountain glaciers and water resources, sulate, reflect, and distort the images.

May 2014 19 Sunset at Camp 7

20 Bridgewater Review May 2014 21 Glacial Waters no. 7

Glacial Waters no. 12

22 Bridgewater Review Glacial Waters no. 2

Glacial Waters no. 13

May 2014 23 The Specific Intellectuals: Foucault, Thoreau, and Berkeley Paul J. Medeiros mong the more troubling characterizations of modern life are Michel Foucault’s portrayals Aof European society and Europe’s historical responses to homelessness and immigration. In essays and in interviews (The Foucault Reader [Random House, 1984]), the philosopher portrays for us a world distinguished by secrecy, isolation, surveillance, control measures, and incentives geared to promote Michel Foucault (1926-84) specific conceptions of health and beauty. For all the technology and online forums, as historical detail he gives and for all the approbation needed standards of quality and worth he implies, the philosopher seems awkwardly resistant appear malleable, and as we grow anx- ious about where and why to research to expressing his own proposals and visions. Most and publish, the service of scholars and readers of Foucault are ferried to the conclusion that researchers may find genuine purpose and audiences in non-profit organiza- all we do is caught within the advance of established tions, in town committees and associa- power. But a careful reading of Foucault turns tions, and in areas otherwise isolated up at least one hopeful proposal for the academic and ignored by the public. This insight gains support from the thought of the community: that experts pursuing specialized, local French philosopher Foucault, but also areas of knowledge may create new relations of power rather from the compositions and legendary than advancing the all-pervasive, established power. quests of philosophers drawn from New England history. Gone, claims Foucault, is the possibility Foucault (1926-1984) remains complex. The insight that genuine knowledge of a universal theory like nineteenth- Whether the philosopher, prior to his is especially particular and discov- century psychology. Departed, says death, pursued and embodied his own ered locally, among needy people and Foucault, is the promise of comprehen- vision of “the specific intellectual” is a by perceptive persons, is an insight sive knowledge like nineteenth-century matter of biography. Whether he mod- won, at times, through setbacks and idealism. Vanishing, claims Foucault, elled the classic commitment to solitary, encounters with established power. is the epistemological privilege of the intellectual authorship or, like many In New England history, few persons solitary, intellectual author. But what, activists, subordinated publication in better express this insight than the for Foucault, remains promising in the favor of community discussion and col- nineteenth-century author Henry quest to transform established power laboration is worth debating. But what David Thoreau (1817-62), who voy- relations are the experiences and ideas Foucault leaves for us is a proposal we aged through the town of Bridgewater of experts exploring specialized areas should wholeheartedly explore. Among a half-dozen times on the train from of knowledge, acquired in-residence our conversations about the mission of Boston to New Bedford, Massachusetts. in locations such as hospitals, prisons, the university and the service of its vari- We recall Thoreau for successfully and schools. The philosopher thinks the ous members as scholars and researchers finishing the dismal “1000-credit” work of “specific intellectuals,” close as ought to be conversations about our course of study given, at the time, they are to genuine disparities of power, participation as envisioned by thinkers by Harvard College. We admire can transform power. like Foucault. As time-honored publi- Thoreau for abruptly resigning his first cation becomes complicated by digital

24 Bridgewater Review employment, an elementary school- commerce, as with commercial whal- museum displays colonial architecture teaching appointment, because of a ing. Thus, the author Thoreau is, for and furnishings. But, more than this, disagreement between himself and the us in New England, recognizable as an the museum stands as a celebration of Concord School Committee about exemplar of the specific intellectual, the quest of the Irish clergyman and corporeal punishment in the rural conducting genealogical studies of philosopher, George Berkeley (1685- classroom. Such setbacks and encoun- power disparities of the sort envisioned 1753), author of Dialogues Between Hylas ters profoundly oriented the author by Michel Foucault. and Philonous (1713) and Principles of of Walden; Or, Life in the Woods (1854) Human Knowledge (1710). Berkeley Then and now, we deem good the to alternative, gentler approaches to came to colonial America with the university scholar and researcher who knowledge and learning. First among most magnanimous vision: to found a voyage to the historic locations where these alternatives, for Thoreau, were college in service to the young colonies ideas and knowledge came forth. If, for the new town lyceums, promis- and Native-American communities. example, one proposes to be expert in ing forums for public learning. But From 1729 to 1731, the philosopher the thought of the twentieth-century Thoreau resolved to go beyond these as and family waited in the red farmhouse, European scholar, Martin Heidegger, called Whitehall, only to learn the promised funds from England would never arrive. Established power ordered Among our conversations about the Irish clergyman to return to Britain straightaway. the mission of the university and Philosophy textbooks inform us about the service of its various members the setback and the legend that the philosopher, defeated, gave one por- as scholars and researchers ought tion of his collection of books to the college in New Haven, Connecticut to be conversations about our and the other portion to the college in Cambridge, Massachusetts. We know participation as envisioned by that those institutions went onto world- thinkers like Foucault. wide acclaim. But the resident scholar

well: by himself and with worthy com- author of Being and Time (1927), one panions, the author voyaged to Native- goes to reside, for an academic term, American communities, viewed timber near the university archives in Freiburg, country outposts, walked on foot to Germany. A more gentle and authentic isolated, coastal villages, and wandered learning about Heidegger’s poetic think- under the rural, moonlit night. In all ing is possible by serving as scholar-in- this, the author understood himself residence with the nearest historical to be a needed community inspector society or town symphony. For these and a citizen of a future state, carrying were organizations important to with him a writing pad and the notion Heidegger, who wrote his most grace- that we ought to inhabit our taken- ful compositions for town commemo- for-granted sources of timber, civil rations and gatherings. Daguerreotype portrait of Henry David Thoreau peace, and safe navigation. Thoreau Not far from us at Bridgewater State by Benjamin D. Maxham (June 1856). expressed for us his conviction that the University is Whitehall Museum New England future is fundamentally House, an eighteenth-century build- of today’s Whitehall Museum House derailed so long as we ignore historic ing serving public visitors, school may discover what else transpired: injustices, such as the disappearance groups, and in-residence scholars by hosting community meetings and of the Wampanoag, and so long as during the summer months. Located bible groups in Whitehall’s parlor, the we heedlessly pursue the advance of in Middletown, Rhode Island, the affable George Berkeley precipitated

May 2014 25 Dames of America, the clergyman’s Sadly, neither Foucault nor Thoreau charity came back to life and lives today fully relinquished commitments to in rural Rhode Island: a unique site for the established mode of philosophical the history of philosophy. scholarship: solitary study and author- ship. Foucault, for all his interviews, Those of us who conduct scholarship pursued the ambitious, multi-volume and research and who wish to offer History of Sexuality (1976); Thoreau, contributions to the pursuit of knowl- for his part, devotedly composed in edge may evaluate academic projects his personal journal, now regarded as a according to a moral test: Does my useful, primary source by contempo- proposed contribution bring people together; rary Thoreau scholars. If our academic or, Is my proposed contribution assuming projects are, instead, directed toward an orientation outside of human life? If and conducted in service to non-profit Foucault is right, often we assume the organizations, town bodies, and taken- tempting view that knowledge exists for-granted institutions and if our com- and is to be exercised outside the prob- positions are collaboratively authored, lems and questions of life. Foucault’s then our scholarly contributions vision of experts inhabiting hospitals, Bishop George Berkeley (Oil on canvas, 1727?) become eminently more useful. That prisons, and schools in order to gain by John Smybert. National Portrait Gallery, is what “specific intellectuals” can do. knowledge and transform power is a Washington, DC. We embrace multiculturalism, personal dignity, and diversity. So, too, in our academic projects, in the Humanities If our academic projects are… as well as in the Sciences, we ought to explore multiple-authorship and directed toward and conducted audience-specific publication, to build in service to non-profit needed community and knowledge. organizations, town bodies, and taken-for-granted institutions and if our compositions are collaboratively authored, then our scholarly contributions become eminently more useful. Paul J. Medeiros has been a Visiting Lecturer in the Department of Philosophy at BSU. He is a member of the Board of the founding of Redwood Library, good and daring one. Analogously, in Directors of the Thoreau Society. He was an esteemed Newport institution. nineteenth-century New England, 2012 scholar-in-residence at the New Bedford Berkeley returned to Ireland in 1731 to Thoreau wrote in “Resistance to Whaling Museum and 2011 scholar-in- continue his service to the community Civil Government” (1849) that the residence at Whitehall Museum House. of the Church of England. Whitehall proper place of the just person in an itself was all but abandoned by its Yale unjust Massachusetts town is the jail. trustees to the local farmers. Recovered Famously, the author tells us one night by a twentieth-century women’s non- of jail allowed him to discover decency, profit group, now called the Colonial friendliness, and fresh perspectives on the town he otherwise doubted.

26 Bridgewater Review ES: In The Field Day Anthology of Irish Writing (1990), Declan Kiberd refers to Seamus Heaney’s poetry as “excavatory in every sense, reaching down into the ground and back into the past.” How do you think the act of excavation manifests in Heaney’s work? Kelly Mathews: Kiberd’s comment brings to mind Heaney’s poems about the “bog people” discovered in Denmark and else- where in Europe in the mid-twentieth century, and how Heaney used them to approach the violence of the Northern Ireland conflict from an oblique angle, rather than taking an overtly political stance. In “Punishment,” for example, he describes the body of a young woman ex- Seamus Heaney and Shaun O’Connell, January 2012. ecuted in pre-modern Europe for her role in an adulterous affair. When teaching this poem, I often share with students my husband’s Seamus Heaney: A Tribute experience of seeing a young woman, tarred Ellen Scheible and feathered, tied to a lamppost outside the local Catholic church as he and his parents On August 30, 2013, Seamus Heaney died in Dublin, Ireland at the age of 74. drove by on a Sunday morning. Heaney used A Nobel laureate in literature and the most prominent Irish poet from the second this experience, common to many people in half of the twentieth century, Heaney changed the way teachers and scholars of Northern Ireland in the 1970s, to connect the body of the bog woman to ordinary people Irish literature and poetry think about the inherent hybridity of partitioned Irish who were horrified by the brutality they saw culture. Heaney was born and educated as a Catholic in Northern Ireland unfolding around them. “My poor scapegoat,” during some of the most tumultuous times in modern Irish history. He later relo- Heaney writes, “I almost love you, / but would cated to the Republic of Ireland and taught at various institutions in both Ireland have cast, I know / the stones of silence.” In and the United States. His reluctance to position himself or his writing on either a concise and economical use of words, the side of the Irish Troubles allowed Heaney to speak about the nature of violence poet condemns bystanders’ passivity even and struggle rather than critique the overt manifestations of those experiences in while he both empathizes with the victims – the bog woman with the noose around her modern Ireland. While his poetry often addresses openly many sources of tension in neck, young Catholic women tarred and feath- Ireland, such as violent disagreements between Protestants and Catholics and the ered for consorting with British soldiers – and long history of British colonialism mapped onto the island, Heaney used his prolific empathizes with the bystanders themselves, talent to illustrate essential human experiences, such as love, loss, anger, and regret. positioning himself among them. The poem is He was able to underscore the humanity of the Irish experience in the face of a long excavatory in multiple ways: it unearths the history of dehumanization and colonial destruction. Bridgewater State University bodies of the bog people in order to explore the multiple layers of violence among and has a direct connection with Seamus Heaney, as he visited the university on differ- between tribal groups, and the traumatized ent occasions and developed relationships with faculty and administrators. Orson consciousness of everyday people in Northern Kingsley, our library archivist, has been working diligently to build a Seamus Ireland who were forced to become witnesses Heaney collection based on a large amount of memorabilia that has recently been to the Troubles. donated to the University. In consideration of the many ways Seamus Heaney has Shaun O’Connell: “Excavatory” makes changed classroom discourse about poetry and Irish studies and his long friendship sense when we recall that in 1964 Seamus with our university, I asked two local Heaney scholars, Kelly Matthews (Assistant Heaney published “Digging,” his first and Professor of English at Framingham State University) and Shaun O’Connell ultimately his signature poem. “Between my (Professor of English at the University of Massachusetts Boston) to describe their finger and my thumb/ The squat pen rests./ thoughts on Heaney’s poetry and politics. I’ll dig with it.” Later, in “Feeling Into Word,”

May 2014 27 Heaney said of this poem “I dug it up” from ES: Should we read Seamus Heaney as what was “laid down in me years before,” in a political poet? Mossbawn, County Derry. But we should note Matthews: I think both Heaney’s and that in “Digging” it is his father who actu- Michael Longley’s achievement during the ally digs, while Seamus looks down, pen in Troubles was to document and delve the hand, from his window—or, more likely, pen human response to violence, especially to the in hand, he remembered and poeticized that tit-for-tat murders that characterized such a epiphany. Yet there is no denying his digging. long stretch of the Northern Ireland conflict. In After reading P.V. Glob’s The Bog People in poems like “Casualty” or “The Strand at Lough 1970, Heaney’s pen dug into Jutland’s pre- Beg” or “Keeping Going,” Heaney explored served corpses, vowing that “Some day I will the effects of violence on those left behind, go to Aarus,” but it is important to note that he both the victims’ loved ones as well as those imagined these “old man-killing parishes” into who witnessed the sudden loss of human life. poetry long before he saw them. So, then, we Rather than comment on the political actions O’Connell: Heaney as a political poet? should not limit Heaney to the role of excava- of elected officials, Heaney used his poetry How could he—to paraphrase Yeats—his tor. Cavare means to make hollow, according to represent the human impact of political attention fix on Republican or Unionist politics, to The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, violence. So many murders during the Troubles with that girl, standing there, with flowers but Heaney filled empty spaces and places. depended on an intimate connection between in her hair? The “girl,” of course, is poetry, That is, he ascends as much as he descends, perpetrators and victims, whether they took that sly beauty who “makes nothing hap- as his Hercules is “raised up” after his fall in place in a country pub, along a deserted road, pen,” as Auden said after Yeats died, but also “Hercules and Antaeus.” Seamus Heaney, or in the early-morning silence of a town makes everything matter. Yeats, dead at 74 in though a poet of his dear perpetual place, is square. In “Keeping Going,” Heaney makes 1939—the year Heaney, now dead at 74, was also a transcender, a border crosser from here a personal connection to his brother Hugh, born—was “hurt into poetry,” says Auden, to there, a figure in flight or on a quest—from who “stay[s] on where it happens,” holding by Ireland’s inescapable political troubles. Jutland, to Station Island, from the bog to the spirit level or the Republic of Conscience; that is, to wherever he can find fitting emblems for poetic expression. By 1995, at his Stockholm The poet condemns bystanders’ Nobel Prize address, Heaney even allowed himself “the luxury of walking on air,” credit- passivity even while he both ing poetry “for making this space-walk pos- sible,” instructing himself, perhaps instructing empathizes with the victims readers of his poetry to “walk on air against your better judgment.” … and empathizes with the bystanders themselves, positioning himself among them.

himself up between two cows in the milking As was Heaney, for he was accused when he barn as he struggles to come to terms with moved from Belfast to Wicklow in 1972 of be- the assassination of a part-time soldier in the ing a “well-known papist propagandist” by the village diamond. In these circumstances, the Paisleyite Protestant Telegraph, which claimed personal becomes political, and the act of Heaney would find “his spiritual home in the “keeping going,” as well as the act of writing popish republic.” Though Paisley caricatured about it, becomes a statement of resilience Heaney, we all recall that Seamus, in refusing and resistance. to be included in a Penguin collection titled Contemporary British Verse, did declare that Kelly Matthews

28 Bridgewater Review “no glass of ours was ever raised” in the Matthews: I was a student in Seamus’s lec- bright-eyed, faintly-amused, young students. Heaney household “To toast The Queen.” ture class on modern British and Irish poetry Afterward, I apologized for my somewhat But Seamus—ever fair-minded, balanced during my senior year at Harvard, and I was hung-over performance, but he reassured and generous—immediately added that he fortunate enough to have Seamus appointed me all was well. “Ah, they loved hearing your wished “No harm to her nor you who deign/ To as a reader for my honors thesis on Yeats … accent,” he said, laughing. Heaney often God Bless her as sovereign.” His pen may have For such an accomplished and erudite man, he laughed with exuberant joy during in his read- fit “snug as a gun,” but Heaney used neither was always tolerant of others’ lack of knowl- ings, which were in a way also his classes, for gun nor pen to further political ends. This is edge, and as a teacher, he was unfailingly he surrounded his readings with prefatory and follow-up comments which took his audience in on the poem’s making, its shaping and its implications. He set his poems in informing Rather than comment on the contexts, poetic and personal. Reading at political actions of elected Deerfield Academy in 1996, Heaney reflected upon his move with his family to the small officials, Heaney used his poetry house in Wicklow in 1972, “when I became committed to poetry and my wife became to represent the human impact of committed to my commitment.” He and Marie, he said, visited nearby Glendalough, the site political violence. of his poem “St. Kevin and the Blackbird,” from The Spirit Level. This led him to read “At the Wellhead,” a tribute to his wife, who sings with her eyes closed. Heaney compared clear in Heaney’s 1979 encounter with IRA generous and good-natured. He gave so much her with a Mossbawn blind neighbor, Rosie leader Danny Morrison on a Belfast-Dublin of himself to everyone he met, so it really is Keenan, who played the piano all day. “When train. There Morrison pressured Heaney to true, as Michael Longley remarked, that there I read/ A poem with Keenan’s well in it, she write something in support of the IRA’s strug- must be tens of thousands of people who feel said,/ ‘I can see the sky at the bottom of it gle against British rule, but Heaney refused personally bereaved by his passing. now.’” As could Heaney’s students, his listen- “to be a party spokesman,” as he recalls in ers and his readers. I can see him now—a O’Connell: In his Harvard creative writ- Stepping Stones. “If do write something,/ voice and a vision in my head, in my heart. ing class, 1983, Seamus occasionally went Whatever it is, I’ll be writing for myself,” silent—brief broodings, caesurae—inviting Heaney recalls saying in “The Flight Path.” students to fill the empty air with words. He That era of the IRA prisoners’ dirty protest was at once playful and instructive, letting and Hunger Strike stretched Heaney between poems “loose like a squirrel among you,” then his sympathies for the suffering prisoners, his telling one student a line was “a little otiose,” anger at the implacable Thatcher government but laughing at himself for his own pretentious and his disagreement with the IRA’s terrorist word choice. Once at a Yeats Society meeting policies. However, though Heaney’s poetry, in Cambridge he read Yeats’s “The Collar-bone like that of Yeats before him, was intensified of a Hare” three times, pausing between each and dramatized by these political and personal reading until we all could see, as had Yeats, conflicts, it was never politicized. “The end of “the old bitter world…through the white Ellen Scheible is Assistant Professor in the art is peace,” he wrote in “The Harvest Bow.” thin bone of a hare.” Another time, while he English Department and Associate Editor ES: What is your strongest memory was teaching at Carrysfort College in Dublin, of Bridgewater Review. of teaching or interacting with Heaney suggested—need I add we had had Seamus Heaney? a few drinks?—that I teach his class on The Catcher in the Rye the next morning. I did so, still a bit bleary-eyed, before an array of

May 2014 29 academic fields so they begin to under- Toward Twenty-first-century stand and grapple with issues that are Teaching: Interdisciplinarity at not confined to single disciplines? This question is not new. People at Bridgewater and Beyond Bridgewater have approached it before with limited success and a number of John J. Kucich and Pamela J. Russell universities have developed a wide range of interdisciplinary programs. ollege graduates today enter a world full of There are many from which we can complex, multifaceted problems. An ailing learn. Our goal in this article is to sum- marize some of the recent interdiscipli- Cglobal economy, transnational terrorism, nary teaching and learning theories, to climate change, staggering economic inequality and note promising models that foster inter- disciplinarity, and to share some of the intractable political stalemate are a few; the United efforts underway at Bridgewater. As we Nations lists at least a dozen more. As university begin to re-envision our institutional educators, we aim to provide students with intellectual mission and values, we should consider interdisciplinarity and the associated tools to make meaningful contributions to the world. prospects of truly transformative learn- Yet these global issues are huge, complicated, growing ing for both students and faculty. and ever-changing. Often, they do not fit within tidy First, a word about terms. The differ- disciplinary boundaries that define undergraduate ent words used to describe the effort to think beyond disciplinary boundaries majors. Yet, like most universities, Bridgewater State carry with them different theoreti- provides few opportunities for students to learn how to cal perspectives. Disciplines, as Louis Menand reminds us in The Marketplace approach issues from an interdisciplinary perspective. of Ideas (2010), have specific histories. We need to teach them to think broadly as well as As the nineteenth century ended, deeply. How can we better prepare them to draw academics organized themselves into professional bodies to protect their upon, weave together and apply content from different freedom, standardize their methods of

30 Bridgewater Review academia and beyond our institutional Multidisciplinary suggests that borders. We prefer interdisciplinary because its balance strikes us as particu- different disciplinary approaches larly useful for a university setting such remain distinct when looking at as Bridgewater’s. Interdisciplinarity does not seek to deprivilege academic an issue or problem, with separate departments and the specialized knowl- edge they cultivate – such expertise is lenses bringing different insights. crucial in approaching complex issues. It does, though, seek to bring distinct strands of knowledge together in a systematic way that transforms how we inquiry, foster deeper study and guard Chernobyl nuclear accident – a topic understand the world. their professional status. This discipli- that might require the perspectives nary structure has proved effective at of engineers, environmentalists and There are multiple interdisciplinary producing specialized knowledge and public health workers to fully grasp. teaching models to draw upon in bring- organizing universities, but fixing exact In interdisciplinary thinking, the ing this perspective to the classroom. disciplinary boundaries has always emphasis is on synthesis and under- Team teaching involves two or more caused tension. Over time, disciplines standing of the problem as a whole faculty members planning and teaching redefine themselves, fracture into dif- rather than the separate disciplinary a course together. There are a number ferent fields or merge in response to insights needed to approach it. A of variants, some of which shade toward new issues or evolving paradigms. In third term, transdisciplinary, pushes this extensive guest lecturing or parallel Creating Interdisciplinarity (2001), Lisa synthesis further, focusing on complex teaching, where faculty have separate Lattuca traces how a variety of govern- problems in contemporary society areas of responsibility; other models use ment and industry initiatives brought that require methods and knowledge a co-teaching approach, where faculty scholars from different specialties unique to the problem and not tied members work closely in running the together to tackle complex practical to any one discipline. Advocates of class. Many team-teaching models challenges, often within collaborative transdisciplinarity often downplay require ample time for planning before arenas such as the National Institutes of Health. The terms that have been used to In interdisciplinary thinking, describe that collaboration reveal a lot about its nature. Multidisciplinary the emphasis is on synthesis and suggests that different disciplinary approaches remain distinct when look- understanding of the problem as ing at an issue or problem, with separate lenses bringing different insights. A a whole rather than the separate multidisciplinary approach to describ- ing America in the 1950s, for example, disciplinary insights needed to might bring together an art historian, a sociologist and a political scientist to approach it. build a composite view of the era made up of complementary, but distinctive, ideas. The result is a patchwork quilt, academic learning in favor of “real- and during a course to craft clear and with visibly distinct fields of disci- world” problems and solutions. A powerful interdisciplinary connections. plinary knowledge stitched together. task force charged with finding Linked courses include two separate Interdisciplinary suggests an interwoven options to deal with the aging Pilgrim courses that share a theme and some or fabric where distinct disciplinary per- nuclear power plant in Plymouth, all of their students. While the teachers spectives make closely connected con- Massachusetts could use a transdisci- do some common planning, the courses tributions, and the intersections among plinary approach. The terms multidis- are usually independent, leaving the them build a coherent whole. An inter- ciplinary, interdisciplinary and trans- interdisciplinary connections largely disciplinary perspective could be used disciplinary form a spectrum rather to the students. A course cluster is a to explore the long-term impact of the than a hierarchy. Each has its place in series of linked courses that share some

May 2014 31 cross-curricular learning experiences members from different departments policy on joint appointments and its that should foster interdisciplinary has proved remarkably durable, despite work continues. In summer 2012, a thinking. A learning community shifts the the extensive commitment of uncom- pedagogy track in the Teacher-Scholar focus to students, who enroll in two or pensated time for planning. Other Summer Institute was devoted to more courses as a coherent group and, faculty members have team taught interdisciplinary teaching. Thirty-five often, engage in related activities out- Second Year Seminars, such as “Tools faculty members explored the scholar- side of class, sometimes living together for Understanding Sport Science” and, ship on interdisciplinarity, examined in campus housing and completing recently, “The Physics of Music.” different interdisciplinary teaching projects mentored by faculty. Learning models and integrated some form of Some individual faculty members offer communities are often limited to one multi- or interdisciplinarity into their courses within a department that reach or two semesters. Finally, a learning own course proposals. broadly into other disciplines, and cohort is a group of students who engage others offer courses as part of interdis- One of these courses, “The Physics of in a field of study over time, making ciplinary minors (such as film studies, Music” demonstrates the potential for connections among courses and topics women’s and gender studies, Middle team teaching. Jamie Kern (Physics) studied for several years. and Don Running (Music) share a long-standing interest in each other’s fields and were surprised by the level The interdisciplinary coursework of insight they gained during their col- laboration. For Running, the partner- utilizes active learning, ship gave him the opportunity to better understand his craft: “I had never really independent inquiry and cared to ask ‘why does my 4th partial D have to be raised 5 cents’ – I simply research to build skill sets that did it because the technique demanded it.” Kern, for her part, had a revelation prepare students to respond to about the common foundation of the contemporary problems and meet two fields. After giving students a let- ter introducing physics as “the human the diverse needs of society. attempt to understand the universe at its deepest, most fundamental level,” Running turned to her and replied that he defined music in exactly the Over the past few years Bridgewater Eastern studies and others). One chal- same way. “Why,” Kern asked herself, faculty members have shared their lenge of these minors is to help students “had I relegated music to a place of involvement with some of these mod- integrate the content and applications non-discovery?” els. Team teaching provides the most from distinct disciplines. This work One particularly useful aspect of the striking range of experiences. While often happens in individual research summer institute was the chance to many have found the experience pow- projects. The Adrian Tinsley Program review and discuss interdisciplinary erful and effective, the failures are, per- and the Honors Program have sup- models at work in other universities. haps, more instructive. Faculty clashes ported a number of interdisciplinary At Edgewood College, a small liberal- over teaching styles, priorities, or egos theses, with advisors from different arts Catholic institution in Madison, inevitably create rocky experiences. departments, but these projects run Wisconsin, interdisciplinary education (Students often learn a good deal from counter to institutional structures, and is required in the curriculum. Students the show.) Yet when faculty members they remain relatively rare. complete three sequential experiences who team taught took time to listen There is a growing awareness at where they question personal identity and recognize the validity of a different Bridgewater that we need to do more and potential, discover the needs of and disciplinary approach, they found their to foster interdisciplinarity. In 2011, an opportunities within the world, and team-teaching experience transforma- Interdisciplinary Studies Council com- determine their role in building a more tive. There have been several successful posed of college deans, other adminis- just and compassionate world. The first examples in recent years. A course on trators and faculty, began exploring the experience is a seminar (e.g., Biotech, the Holocaust taught by three faculty topic. It has made some programmatic Bioethics and You) which fosters recommendations, beginning with a

32 Bridgewater Review engagement with the community students work through central texts The interdisciplinary coursework and includes mentoring by a faculty (such as Michael Pollen’s In Defense of utilizes active learning, independent member and a peer leader. The second Food [2008]) and current food-related inquiry and research to build skill sets experience gives students options that issues and case studies. Students create that prepare students to respond to include 20-25 hours of community- written work including a capstone contemporary problems and meet the based learning, 50-100 hours of intern- project that involves a service compo- diverse needs of society. ship/field experience, short or long- nent. Another approach is to offer an term study abroad, civic leadership or undergraduate research. The culmi- nating experience includes a capstone The most powerful learning seminar (e.g., Men and Masculinity) or a project. Other universities require an for students comes from interdisciplinary course as part of the general-education requirements. At the models that marry two or University of Minnesota Twin Cities, an interdisciplinary, team-taught First- more disciplinary perspectives. Year Experience course meets twice per week, once in a large lecture format and once in separate groups of 25. Each team of faculty chooses a theme such interdisciplinary program for interested There are several lessons here for as “Food for Thought … and Action,” students. At George Mason University’s Bridgewater. One is that interdiscipli- and develops curriculum that draws New Century College, housed within nary learning doesn’t happen by itself. on the different faculty members’ its College of Humanities and Social The institutional structures of a uni- expertise. Large lecture sessions and Sciences, students select from among versity are highly centrifugal, leading presentations are balanced by discus- 16 concentrations and eight minors or outwards towards individual depart- sion and writing in smaller sessions as build their own individual programs. ments and their specialized courses. It

May 2014 33 no one best model. Team teaching may be the most common method of interdis- ciplinary teaching, but other models can be highly effective. What will work best at Bridgewater? Only our faculty can decide, but there are some concrete ideas worth pursu- ing. To start, we could add an interdis- ciplinary experience to the core curriculum, perhaps as a team-taught course. We should also foster interdisciplinary experi- ences in residential learning communities, with particular cohorts of students pur- suing specific topics over the course of several semesters and, relatedly, develop several themed course clusters. We need to support faculty members working in interdis- ciplinary minors by providing resources and encouragement for team-taught introductory or capstone courses. Finally, let us encourage more ad-hoc interdisciplinary experiences. A conscious effort to add and support an interdis- ciplinary dimension to study tours, service learning and collaborative and independent research projects is a good start. Fostering interdisciplinarity takes takes conscious, sustained effort, time comes from models that marry two or committed work and patience. Yet the and resources for faculty to collaborate more disciplinary perspectives. Second, payoffs are well worth the effort. For and promote interdisciplinary learn- interdisciplinary pedagogy should focus on faculty, the opportunity to work closely ing. The interdisciplinary experiences contemporary problems. Most scholars with colleagues from other disciplines that survive at Bridgewater, and the privilege interdisciplinary courses that can transform both their teaching and models flourishing in other universi- require input from different disciplines their research. For students, the ability ties, show clearly that it can be done. and employ a problem-based peda- to make meaningful contributions to But we must keep in mind a few key gogy. Third, team teaching is powerful but global change – even on the smallest of principles. First, interdisciplinary thinking problematic. It carries real risks but has scales – can benefit from engagement in should be the clear goal of any approach. The the greatest potential for transformative interdisciplinary experiences. most powerful learning for students teaching and learning. Finally, there is

The interdisciplinary coursework utilizes active learning, independent inquiry and research to build skill sets that John J. Kucich (right) is Associate Professor prepare students to respond to in the Department of English. Pamela J. Russell (left) is Professor in the Department contemporary problems and meet of Movement Arts, Health Promotion and the diverse needs of society. Leisure Studies.

34 Bridgewater Review VOICES ON CAMPUS Julian Bond, From Civil War to Civil Rights Dr. Julian Bond was Chairman of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People’s Board of Directors 1998-2010 and is now Chairman Emeritus. He is Distinguished Scholar in the School of Government at American University in Washington, DC, and Professor Emeritus in History at the University of Virginia. He visited BSU on November 5, 2013 as part of the President’s Distinguished Speaker Series. The following is an excerpted version of his talk. hose who say that ‘race is history’ have it exactly backward – history is race. The word T‘America’ scrambled, after all, spells ‘I am (Photo credit: Stephen Rowell). race.’ And America is race – from its symbolism to Brown decision, that the white South could make haste slowly in dismantling its substance, from its founding by slaveholders to segregated schools, I was a year older its rending by the Civil War, from Johnnie Reb to than Emmett Till. He was killed, in Jim Crow, from the Ku Klux Klan to Katrina, from Money, Mississippi, for whistling at a white woman, three months after the Emmett Till to Trayvon. This is the third year of the second Brown decision. Till’s death sesquicentennial of the Civil War, the war that claimed terrified me. But in the fall of 1957 a more American lives than all other wars combined group of black teenagers encouraged me to put that fear aside. The nine in our nation’s history. That it is occurring during young women and men who integrated the presidency of the first black person to hold his Little Rock’s Central High School set a high standard of grace and cour- country’s highest office is only one of many ironies age under fire as they dared the mobs that abound … who surrounded their school. Here, I thought, is what I hope I can be, if ever Our response to the nation’s first somebody will have to say, ‘there lived the chance comes my way. black president during the Civil War’s a race of people, a black people … who anniversary confirms that we are still a had the moral courage to stand up for The chance to test and prove myself country at war with itself. But we are their rights. And thereby they injected did come my way in 1960, as it came not the same country. We have gone a new meaning into the veins of history to thousands of other black high school from Civil War to civil rights. In 1961, and civilization’.” and college students across the South, when the nation observed the Civil in a mobilization of young black people In 1963 alone, the year that King told War’s centennial, the civil rights move- not duplicated in our country before the nation of his dream at the March ment was gaining momentum, as was or since. First through the sit-ins, then on Washington, there were more than Martin Luther King. It was only six in Freedom Rides, and then in voter 10,000 anti-racist demonstrations. The years earlier, during the Montgomery registration and political organizing result was the enactment of the 1964 Bus Boycott, that King had been intro- drives in the rural South, we joined an Civil Rights Act – the most sweeping duced to the nation and the world. He old movement against white supremacy civil rights legislation before or since was 26 years old. At that early age and that had deep, strong roots... and one of Congress’ finest hours. at that early stage of the boycott, King We look back on the years between From Brown in 1954 forward, the understood how historic it would be. Montgomery in 1955 and the passage movement expanded its targets, tactics Four days after Rosa Parks stood up of the Voting Rights Act in 1965 with and techniques... When Martin Luther for justice by sitting down, the boycott some pride. King came on the scene as the leader began. That evening, at the first mass of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, he meeting, King declared: “When the …But those were not “the good old articulated a new method - nonviolent history books are written in the future, days” … When the Supreme Court resistance - of fighting segregation. announced in May 1955, in the second

May 2014 35 The new method required direct action many others, I am the grandson of a rates are 134 percent higher for blacks; through mass participation. Gains slave. My grandfather, James Bond, was chances of imprisonment are 570 per- were won at lunch counters and movie born in 1863, in Kentucky; freedom cent higher; rate of death from homi- theaters, bus stations and polling places, didn’t come for him until the 13th cide 493 percent higher; lack of health and the fabric of legal segregation Amendment was ratified in 1865. He insurance 33 percent more likely; the came undone. and his mother were property, like a proportion with a college degree 53 horse or a chair. At age 15, barely able percent lower... After the 2008 election, That movement then was a second to read and write, he hitched his tuition the narrative was that we had become Reconstruction [and] it changed our – a steer – to a rope and walked across a post-racial society. Wrong. Jim Crow country forever. A voteless people Kentucky to Berea College and the may be dead, but racism is alive and voted with their bodies and their feet college took him in. My grandfather well. That is the central fact of life for and paved the way for other social belonged to a transcendent genera- every non-white American, includ- protest. It became a movement for tion of black Americans, a generation ing the President. It eclipses income, political and economic power, and born into slavery, freed by the Civil position, and education. Race trumps today black women and men hold War, determined to make their way as them all. office and wield power in numbers free women and men. Martin Luther we only dreamed of before. We have work to do – none of it is easy, but we have never wished our way to freedom. There needs to be a constantly growing and always reviving activist Racial justice, economic equality, progressive movement across America and world peace – these were the if we are going to maintain and expand victories and our vision for the country. themes that occupied King’s life; Martin Luther King didn’t march from Selma to Montgomery by himself. He they ought to occupy ours today. didn’t speak to an empty field at the March on Washington. There were We have a long and honorable thousands marching with him, and before him, and thousands more who tradition of social justice in did the dirty work that preceded the this country. It still sends forth triumphal march... Racial justice, economic equality, and the message that when we act world peace – these were the themes that occupied King’s life; they ought together, we can overcome. to occupy ours today. We have a long and honorable tradition of social justice in this country. It still sends forth the message that when we act together, we But despite impressive increases in the King belonged to another transcend- can overcome. My slave-born grand- numbers of black people holding public ent generation of black Americans, a father speaks to us today. “Wrong” he office, despite our ability to sit and eat generation born into segregation, freed said in his 1892 Berea College com- and ride and vote and attend school from racism’s constraints by their own mencement address, “for a time may and live in places that used to bar black efforts, determined to make their way seem to prevail and the good already faces, in some important ways nonwhite in freedom. accomplished seem to be overthrown. Americans face problems more difficult But forward in the struggle, inspired by Today, we are still being tested by to attack now than in the years that the achievements of the past, sustained hardships and adversity… People of went before. by a faith that knows no faltering, color are more likely to be poor than forward in the struggle.” We are such a young nation so recently rich, and they are worse off than their removed from slavery that only my white counterparts. Almost every social father’s generation stands between indicator, from birth to death, reflects Julian Bond and human bondage. Like black-white disparities. Infant mortality

36 Bridgewater Review in which the government could inter- BOOK REVIEW vene in public education throughout the country. The conservatives were Our Schools are at Risk in charge and opened the door to the J. Michael Bodi public schools to corporate America. During the Q&A in Houston, I had Diane Ravitch, Reign of Error: The Hoax of the managed to grab the microphone to Privatization Movement and the Danger to American Public ask Ravitch a straight-forward ques- Schools (New York: Knopf, 2013). tion: did she feel that mandating stand- ardized testing across the country in first saw Dr. Diane Ravitch give a keynote K-12 schools would solve the problems speech at the University of Houston in the early she had identified? She hemmed and hawed, but in essence said “yes,” that I1990s while I was working on my doctorate we had to collect valid and reliable data at the University of Texas, Austin. She was then to determine what our children knew and didn’t know so we could then Assistant Secretary in the Department of Education design curricula to ensure that children when George H.W. Bush was president. I was would be given the opportunity immediately put off by the things she had to say. At to “achieve their full potential.” I attempted to ask a follow-up the time Ravitch and Chester E. Finn, (a former U.S. question: how is it possible for anyone Assistant Secretary of Education), were pushing the to determine if someone else has “new accountability” for public schools. They were reached his full potential? But she ignored my query and moved on to the conservative bulwarks arguing that the schools another questioner. needed to be overhauled, that we had a crisis in our Ravitch went on to work for the educational system, and we had to measure, collect Clinton administration on national learning assessments for the National data, measure some more, shut down schools, and Assessment of Educational Progress fire teachers and principals as necessary. The republic (NAEP), a program euphemistically was being attacked internally. With glossy overheads referred to as the “nation’s report card.” and rousing pronouncements we, the audience, were harangued and browbeaten for an hour. The crowd rose in adulation. I sat stunned and incredulous at what I had just heard. The hyperbole was not new to me, of course; what was most disconcerting was the audience. They liked her.

This was a time when everything “national” policies. Gradually, in suc- changed in American public educa- ceeding decades, having this capacity tion. In 1965, the first foray into public pushed some policy makers to conceive education by the federal government of national educational standards where was the Elementary and Secondary students and educators could be held to Education Act (ESEA). Education had account. The accountability movement never been a federal prerogative, but the reached full flight in the 1990s and ESEA allowed for a constitutional end led to No Child Left Behind (NCLB) in run. Through ESEA, the feds could 2001, which was essentially a revamp- offer direct grants to states or school ing of the ESEA. It had a different districts in return for compliance with name and a radically different approach,

May 2014 37 She promoted charter schools and laments that educational reform has development. Our children must have argued that for-profit companies (ones been taken over by for-profit corpora- time to “sing and dance and draw that received public monies) be allowed tions and correctly observes that test and play and giggle.”(7) Standardized to run them. And she promoted the scores have risen evenly and consist- testing should be used for diagnostic notion that student test scores be tied ently for decades regardless of standard- purposes only. “Public education is a to teacher performance. Her positions ized testing and, likewise, that high basic public responsibility.”(9) in government and academia were school and college graduation rates But, in the end, Reign of Error merely platforms for spreading the wildfire have steadily increased. Ravitch assails takes us to a place where other educa- that swept through American schools merit pay for teachers as a flawed idea, tors and thinkers have been pointing us nationwide. And as a consequence, and even attacks programs (Teach for for some time. Much of what Ravitch fully two generations of youngsters America) and individuals (Michelle discusses in this book has been done have been harmed by those actions and Rhee, former Chancellor of the before. For example, the plight of our outcomes. The bleeding has not been Washington, DC public schools), and inner-city schools has been painfully described in detail in Jonathan Kozol’s work since the 1970s, most recently in For almost 400 pages in this his book Shame of the Nation: Apartheid in American Public Schools (2005). The current book she provides data President of the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), Randi Weingarten, that refute literally every position stated in a January 2014 speech: “It starts with investing in early childhood held by conservative reformers education, making college affordable, making public schools the center of regarding public education communities, and, equipping students with essential life skills and offering in America. multiple paths to graduation and the world of work through rigorous career and technical education programs.” In the preface to Reign of Error, Ravitch stanched and more blood-letting is Arne Duncan (Secretary of Education states, “The purpose of elementary and happening with the advent of the for President Obama). She also criti- secondary education is to develop the Core Curriculum, a movement to cizes President Obama’s “Race to the minds and character of young children centralize American public schools Top” program, in which states com- and adolescents and help them grow up into one system. pete for federal dollars, as merely an to become healthy, knowledgeable, and extension of NCLB (now languishing Ironically, in 2010 she changed her competent citizens” (xii). for want of re-enactment) that further mind. “They were wrong,” she stated privatizes American education. This, Finally, we agree. in her book The Death and Life of the she says, must stop now. Great American School System, and recanted her earlier support of the Ravitch discusses at length what “reform agenda.” Now, in her most should be done to ensure continuous recent book, Reign of Error (2013), growth and achievement in our K-12 she says there is nothing to reform. schools. She says we must invest in our High-school graduation rates are at an schools beginning with children in all-time high, and reading scores for utero. Regular medical care is vitally 4th-grade white, black, Hispanic and important to ensure adequate physical Asian students were significantly higher and cognitive development and allow in 2011 than they were in 1992, as for good pre-kindergarten learning measured by the NAEP. For almost 400 experiences for all our children. From pages in this current book she provides K through 12, children and teenagers J. Michael Bodi is Professor is in the College data that refute literally every position should be taught using age-appropriate of Education and Allied Studies. held by conservative reformers regard- learning modalities and experi- ing public education in America. She ences, paralleling their psychological

38 Bridgewater Review BOOK REVIEW Kiss This Paper Ann Brunjes Jill Lepore, Book of Ages: The Life and Opinions of Jane Franklin (New York: Random House, 2013). n the 1630s or 40s, pregnant with one of her eight children, Anne Bradstreet addressed a poem to Iher husband Simon. In it, she grappled with the possibility that she might die in childbirth. While Bradstreet’s Puritan faith demanded that she wean her affections from the things of this life (husband and children included), the poet was bereft at the prospect of leaving no earthly trace after her death. Jane Franklin was not a poet. Unlike Anne Bradstreet, she was born into a The poem asks her husband to remember her in the poor and obscure family, her education faces of her children: “Look to my little babes, my snatched here and there. She knew that her only “remains” would be her chil- dear remains.” For most women in the seventeenth dren, but she sought something more. century, the only trace they could imagine leaving And so, as Lepore tells us, “she did once behind was children. But Anne Bradstreet was also write a book. She stitched four sheets of foolscap between two covers to make a poet. She was fortunate in having been born into sixteen pages. On its first page, she a family that taught her to write and valued her wrote, ‘Jane Franklin Born on March literary gifts, and then married a man who appears 27 1712.’ She called it her Book of Ages. It is a record of the births and deaths – remarkably – to have enjoyed and encouraged her of her children, a litany of grief.” (xii) writing. And so she could claim more: Like Anne Bradstreet, whose poems record and make immortal the small- And if chance to thine eyes shall bring to audiences into the current century est and greatest moments of her life, this verse, with greater force than the men in her Jane Franklin’s Book of Ages serves, in family, two of whom were governors Lepore’s words, as her archive. With some sad sighs honour my absent of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. But Herse; In Book of Ages we see Jane in stark she is very nearly the only one; we have comparison to her brilliant brother: And kiss this paper for thy loves dear documentation of the inner lives of while he was sent to grammar school, sake, almost no other women of her gen- Jane learned to write only because eration. In Book of Ages: The Life and Who with salt tears this last Farewel he taught her. While Ben ran away Opinions of Jane Franklin, Harvard histo- did take. from home to make his fortune in the rian Jill Lepore reminds us how easy it wide world, Jane married (badly) at Bradstreet had the solace of knowing was for women’s lives to ride out on the 15 and bore 12 children, 11 of whom her poetry would leave her mark on the tide of history. Unrecorded, unnoticed, predeceased her. And every American world and stand in her stead, a physi- without recourse to the full protection schoolchild knows Ben Franklin’s story: cal reminder to those who loved her of the law, even the youngest and most printer, writer, diplomat, inventor, that she thought and dreamed, and that beloved sister of Ben Franklin, argu- scientist. Jane, for her part, rarely left her imaginative life flew beyond the ably the most famous American of the Boston (seldom, in fact, left her own boundaries of childbearing and house- eighteenth century, is at risk of being house), and spent her days caring for keeping. Bradstreet remains present forgotten and slipping into oblivion. babies and husband, making soap and

May 2014 39 writings. Writing about the sister of I have been teaching and reading someone as remarkable and well known as Ben Franklin, Lepore runs the dan- Benjamin Franklin’s words for ger (which she acknowledges) of being 17 years, but I have never been pulled into the orbit of Ben Franklin’s life and out of Jane’s. It is possible to moved by him in the way that imagine Lepore’s book solely this way: in knowing Jane we know Ben. I was when reading about his And yet, that is not at all the case here. Rather, Lepore’s argument is more relationship with Jane. Franklin this: if we do not know Jane, we do not know Ben. This book raises an impor- wrote to Jane and received tant challenge to all of us who think about how our knowledge of past lives more letters from her than any gets preserved and written, discarded and forgotten, remembered and memo- other person. rialized. Whose lives do we privilege? “What would it mean,” Lepore asks herself and the reader, “to write the candles in the family business, mend- record and imagined recreations of key history of an age not only from what ing, washing and cooking, and, when moments in Jane Franklin’s life with has been saved but also from what has the tide of childbearing subsided, intelligence, beauty, and feeling. been lost? What would it mean to write stealing time to scratch off letters to I have been teaching and reading a history concerned not only with the her brother and beloved friends. She Benjamin Franklin’s words for 17 lives of the famous but also with the read whenever possible, and made for years, but I have never been moved by lives of the obscure?” The answer is this herself the best life she could. The bril- him in the way that I was when read- book. From this slimmest of files the liance of Lepore’s book is that it makes ing about his relationship with Jane. author builds the compelling portrait of us realize, if we did not before, that Franklin wrote to Jane and received a life and an age. Jane’s life is every bit as remarkable and more letters from her than any other meaningful, and worth understanding person. He loved her. He valued her as that of her brother. In Book of Ages, opinions. He rescued her son from Lepore moves the goalposts of history bankruptcy (a constant threat), bought and decenters the traditional narrative, Jane a house, sympathized with her putting the story of ordinary women when she mourned, gave her his share center stage. Lepore is a professional of the money he inherited from his historian, and the book is meticulously father. She was his confidante, his researched, but it is nonetheless a grip- dear sister, his other self. In Franklin’s ping read for both scholars and non- relationship with his sister Jane, Lepore specialists. Lepore is a gifted storyteller shows us a warmer, more generous, who weaves together the historical Ann Brunjes is Associate Professor in the and more fully human figure than we Department of English. find through study of any of his other

Readers Respond “It’s a cold, 0º morning here in Vermont, so, trapped by the temp. I sat down to skim the BR. Skim went to peruse. The Nov. [20]13 issue is quite a piece of work! It is not a dog’s breakfast at all but a smorgasbord of good grub. I read the whole thing, in violation of the Miss Piggy diet rule of never eating at one time something bigger than your own head. So with a cerebral belch I thank you and your fellow faculty authors for an appreciated repast. BSC (now BSU) is a good place to go out from – unpretentious, solid but still rich and varied. Like your publication.” Paul F. Rump ‘68

40 Bridgewater Review The rain gutter deserves a better cleaning John Bonanni

At night my corduroy shorts A friend taught me this. take the window frame with them, You can use almost anything— a sweep of gray across one leg. a cigarette, a Pepsi, an apple. To sit & smoke on roof slats, Down the aluminum stairs to watch the tea billow to hear magnified a rattle of glass like plates from the curve of the tin can. beneath a lawnmower. Here, the bird Whose turn is it to say grace? had a way I never did learn the twist of whistling less invasively. of spaghetti in the cup of a spoon. It’s time for dinner. To shovel was so much easier.

John Bonanni is enrolled in the graduate program in Special Education and serves as editor of the Cape Cod Poetry Review.

Call for Submissions Bridgewater Review invites submissions from full- and part-time faculty with revision and in polished pieces that are publication ready. All and librarians for publication. Bridgewater Review is published twice yearly submissions will be reviewed, but there is no guarantee that submitted by the faculty and librarians of Bridgewater State University. It provides work will be published. a forum for campus-wide conversations pertaining to research, teaching, and creative expression, as well as a showcase for faculty art. Articles in Bridgewater Review also welcomes Letters to the Editor with the hope all disciplines and genres are welcome and encouraged, including scholar- that BR may become a locus for community discussion at Bridgewater ship about research interests and trends, scholarship about teaching and State University. learning, creative writing, and short reviews of other publications. Submissions should be sent electronically to: Articles should be 1700-2200 words in length, though shorter articles Andrew Holman will also be considered. Creative writing can be submitted at lengths Editor, briefer than 2200 words. Those wishing to submit are asked to consult the Bridgewater Review Bridgewater Review submission guidelines (available from the Editor). In [email protected] keeping with the founding spirit of our faculty magazine, the editors are Articles published in Bridgewater Review may be reprinted with equally interested in unfinished pieces of writing that may need assistance permission of the Editor. Bridgewater Review Nonprofit Org. Bridgewater State University U.S. Postage 131 Summer Street PAID Bridgewater, MA 02325 Augusta, ME Permit No. 121

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