ACTA UNIVERSITATIS SAPIENTIAE, PHILOLOGICA, 10, 2 (2018) 85–97 DOI: 110.2478/ausp-2018-0015 Proverbs as a Means of Crossing Cultural Borders Elena BUJA Transilvania University of Braşov (Romania) Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics [email protected] Abstract. “The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence/hill” is an old English proverb which shows that people tend to appreciate more what others have, just by crossing (with their eyes) the border represented by the fence/hill. Though the afore-mentioned proverb is a strong piece of advice against comparing what we possess with what others have, the aim of my paper is exactly that: to compare proverbs belonging to the Romanian culture to those of the Korean one, not for the sake of highlighting the wisdom or beauty of the Romanian over the Korean proverbs or vice versa but rather for identifying similarities and differences in terms of structure, vocabulary, and, above all, meaning, being aware that proverbs are elements of language that best reflect a culture’s beliefs and values. To this aim, 50 Romanian proverbs selected from two memorable Romanian sources (Iordache Golescu’s Proverbe comentate ‘Commented Proverbs’ and Anton Pann’s Proverbele românilor ‘The Romanians’ Proverbs’) will be compared with their Korean counterparts. Keywords: proverb, internal and external markers, cultural characteristics . Motto: To truly know a people, know their proverbs. (Chinese proverb, Lau, Lau, and Lau 1995: viii) 1. Introduction For some centuries now, people of different cultures have been able to travel and meet each other for various reasons: to trade, to conquer, to visit, and, more recently, to study and cooperate on various international projects. Nowadays, intercultural encounters seem, more than ever, to be on the crest of the wave. By analysing proverbs, one can get an understanding of the culture that produced them . This understanding is even deeper if proverbs from one foreign culture reflect the same values as those in our own. 86 Elena BUJA In almost every culture, proverbs offer a set of instructions/pieces of advice for people to follow. These words of wisdom seem to stand the test of time; thus, each and every generation learns what a culture considers relevant. The reasons behind the fact that proverbs have such a long life and are remembered and employed so frequently is that they depict issues that people consider important through vivid and simple language. We could say that, to a certain extent, proverbs, just like specific objects or food items, represent a cultural symbol. My aim is to illustrate the use of proverbs as a source of figurative language on the basis of two totally different languages, namely Korean and Romanian, starting from the conviction that this folklore genre may provide insight into the symbol systems of these cultures and being aware that knowledge of the values of proverbs contributes to a better intercultural communication . 2. Proverbs: definition, characteristics, and importance Proverbs, as the smallest folklore genre, have received a lot of attention from scholars in various domains of research such as philosophers, anthropologists, ethnographers, teachers, psychologists, and linguists . As such, they have been defined according to various vantage points. There is, however, some general agreement as to what constitutes a proverb. “It is a saying in more or less fixed form, marked by ‘shortness, sense, and salt’ and distinguished by the popular acceptance of the truth tersely expressed in it” (Finnegan 2006: 14). Finnish paremiologist Outi Lauhakangas (2007: 77–78) is of the opinion that: [p]roverbs are multifunctional and flexible instruments of everyday reasoning, although they may maintain solidified attitudes or traditional [author’s emphasis] modes of thought of a certain culture . Proverbs are propositions loaded with hidden feelings, wishes and intentions of the speaker. They can serve as tools to cover individual opinions in public interactive situations . Like in rhetoric, in general, the proverbs we use in our speech (and in our inner speech, too) protect our personal attitudes by referring to the third party . They give us persuasiveness by appealing to an authority . It is exactly the concept of traditionality (which includes aspects of age, frequency of use, and current validity) that is the crux of the matter . Proverbs came into being a long time ago, and the reason why nowadays they are still considered an important living genre is that they embody the wisdom of the cultures that have created them. They are well-tested truths of condensed knowledge that can be used at present, just as they were used hundreds of years ago, to observe and to instruct. Over centuries, they were passed from one generation to the next, Proverbs as a Means of Crossing Cultural Borders 87 first, orally, by word of mouth, and then in a written form. This process occurred initially at a local level, having reached an international spread at present . The beauty of these folklore statements resides in their brevity and in the simplicity of rendering human experience . “Their mission to give a direct message that will reach the heart and mind of the reader is often achieved with aplomb and finesse” (Lau, Lau, and Lau 1995: vii). So,brevity would also count as a characteristic feature of proverbs . According to Dundes (1975: 970) and Mieder (1985: 119), a proverb must consist of at least two words (a topic and a comment), e.g. Tingire spoită ‘Varnished pot’ (referring to a cheap woman with a lot of make-up), “with the average length of a proverb consisting of about seven words” (Mieder 2004: 7). Short, traditional statements will acquire a proverbial status also due to the use of certain stylistic features such as alliteration (the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words), as in Suta mărită sluta ‘The hundred marries the ugly woman’ (referring to the fact that ugly women with a consistent dowry could marry easily), parallelism (the use of successive verbal constructions, as in Tir mi-e baba Rada, tir mi-e Rada baba (IG)1 (meaning the same deal), or ellipsis (the omission of words that are superfluous or that can be understood from contextual clues), as in O vorbă ca o mie ‘One word [is] worth a thousand words’ (IG). These constitute what Arora (1984) (qtd in Mieder 2004: 7) calls the external markers of proverbs . Additionally, the effectiveness of these phraseological units is enhanced by internal markers such as personification (the representation of an abstract quality in human form), as in Râde ciob de oală spartă ‘The pot calls the kettle black’, paradox (a seemingly absurd or contradictory statement or proposition which when investigated may prove to be well-founded or true), as illustrated by the Romanian proverb Izvoarele curg în sus ‘Water springs flow upwards’ (IG), or metaphor: Taler cu două feţe ‘A two-faced coin’ (IG) (hinting at the habit of treacherous people to change their attitude depending on the situation or the person they are dealing with). One other aspect worth mentioning in connection with the structure of proverbs relates to certain universal patterns: “‘Better X than Y’, ‘Like X, like Y’, ‘No X without Y’, ‘One X doesn’t make a Y’, ‘If X, then Y’” (Mieder 2004: 6, Schipper 2004: 25–26), as reflected, for instance, by the Korean proverb yong-ui kkoliboda baem-ui meoliga nasda ‘Better be the head of a snake than the tail of a dragon’. As for the importance of proverbs, it is undeniable that they are an essential part of the folklore tradition; they offer us knowledge concerning human experience and provide a rich and meaningful source for the study of cultural values . In order to shed light on the similarities and differences between the proverbs in Korean and Romanian, comparable data were needed. These will be briefly presented in the next subsection . 1 The two basic sources of Romanian proverbs will be indicated by the abbreviation of their authors’ names: AP = Anton Pann, IG = Iordache Golescu. 88 Elena BUJA 3. Romanian and Korean proverb collections Proverbs, as part of folklore and as a means of expression of the common people, have been the object of old as well as of recent collections. On the Romanian landscape, there are various types of such collections . Some of them are less scholarly (the online collections, for instance) but good enough for the needs of the general public . Others represent scholarly achievements such as Iordache Golescu’s Pilde, povăţuiri şi cuvinte adevărate şi poveşti, [Proverbs, Maxims and True Words and Stories], containing approximately 22,500 proverbs and sayings written on 854 pages of manuscript. According to Paschia (1973), Iordache Golescu was the first to collect and comment on Romanian proverbs, although he never employed the term ‘proverb’, despite the fact that it had already been in use during his time, proof being Anton Pann’s Culegere de proverburi sau povestea vorbii ‘Collection of Proverbs or the Story of the Word’, which was published in Bucharest in 1847. While Golescu listed the proverbs in alphabetical order, Pann provided a thematic classification: human flaws and vices, lies, gossip, poverty, marriage, etc. He was not content only to record them but also turned them into verse, and so quite often proverbs were linked into small satirical poems that conclude each thematic chapter. Being produced in the 19th century, both collections of Romanian proverbs may pose problems for the contemporary readers as the language is quite archaic and many of the phraseological structures are elliptical of predicate (in most of the cases, the verb ‘to be’ is missing), following the Latin pattern. An example in this respect would be: Cel însărcinat, [este/va fi] pururea cocoşat ‘The one who carries the load [will be] always hunchbacked’, hinting at the social differences that make poor people bow in front of those that overburden them with various tasks .