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Managerial Economics Theory and Practice ThisPageIntentionallyLeftBlank Managerial Economics Theory and Practice Thomas J. Webster Lubin School of Business Pace University New York, NY Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright © 2003, Elsevier (USA). All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333, e-mail: [email protected]. You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier Science homepage (http://elsevier.com), by selecting “Customer Support” and then “Obtaining Permissions.” Academic Press An imprint of Elsevier Science 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA http://www.academicpress.com Academic Press 84 Theobald’s Road, London WC1X 8RR, UK http://www.academicpress.com Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2003102999 International Standard Book Number: 0-12-740852-5 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 03040506077654321 To my sons, Adam Thomas and Andrew Nicholas ThisPageIntentionallyLeftBlank Contents 1 Introduction What is Economics 1 Opportunity Cost 3 Macroeconomics Versus Microeconomics 3 What is Managerial Economics 4 Theories and Models 5 Descriptive Versus Prescriptive Managerial Economics 8 Quantitive Methods 8 Three Basic Economic Questions 9 Characteristics of Pure Capitalism 11 The Role of Government in Market Economies 13 The Role of Profit 16 Theory of the Firm 18 How Realistic is the Assumption of Profit Maximization? 21 Owner-Manager/Principle-Agent Problem 23 Manager-Worker/Principle-Agent Problem 25 Constraints on the Operations of the Firm 27 Accounting Profit Versus Economic Profit 27 Normal Profit 30 Variations in Profits Across Industries and Firms 31 Chapter Review 33 Key Terms and Concepts 35 Chapter Questions 37 vii viii Contents Chapter Exercises 39 Selected Readings 41 2 Introduction to Mathematical Economics Functional Relationships and Economic Models 44 Methods of Expressing Economic and Business Relationships 45 The Slope of a Linear Function 47 An Application of Linear Functions to Economics 48 Inverse Functions 50 Rules of Exponents 52 Graphs of Nonlinear Functions of One Independent Variable 53 Sum of a Geometric Progression 56 Sum of an Infinite Geometric Progression 58 Economic Optimization 60 Derivative of a Function 62 Rules of Differentiation 63 Implicit Differentiation 71 Total, Average, and Marginal Relationships 72 Profit Maximization: The First-order Condition 76 Profit Maximization: The Second-order Condition 78 Partial Derivatives and Multivariate Optimization: The First-order Condition 81 Partial Derivatives and Multivariate Optimization: The Second-order Condition 82 Constrained Optimization 84 Solution Methods to Constrained Optimization Problems 85 Integration 88 Chapter Review 92 Chapter Questions 94 Chapter Exercises 94 Selected Readings 97 3 The Essentials of Demand and Supply The Law of Demand 100 The Market Demand Curve 102 Contents ix Other Determinants of Market Demand 106 The Market Demand Equation 110 Market Demand Versus Firm Demand 112 The Law of Supply 113 Determinants of Market Supply 114 The Market Mechanism: The Interaction of Demand and Supply 118 Changes in Supply and Demand: The Analysis of Price Determination 123 The Rationing Function of Prices 129 Price Ceilings 130 Price Floors 134 The Allocating Function of Prices 136 Chapter Review 137 Key Terms and Concepts 138 Chapter Questions 140 Chapter Exercises 142 Selected Readings 144 Appendix 3A 145 4 Additional Topics in Demand Theory Price Elasticity of Demand 149 Price Elasticity of Demand: The Midpoint Formula 152 Price Elasticity of Demand: Weakness of the Midpoint Formula 155 Refinement of the Price Elasticity of Demand Formula: Point-price Elasticity of Demand 157 Relationship Between Arc-price and Point-price Elasticities of Demand 160 Price Elasticity of Demand: Some Definitions 160 Point-price Elasticity Versus Arc-price Elasticity 162 Individual and Market Price Elasticities of Demand 164 Determinants of the Price Elasticity of Demand 165 Price Elasticity of Demand, Total Revenue, and Marginal Revenue 168 Formal Relationship Between the Price Elasticity of Demand and Total Revenue 174 Using Elasticities in Managerial Decision Making 181 Chapter Review 186 Key Terms and Concepts 188 Chapter Questions 190 x Contents Chapter Exercises 191 Selected Readings 194 5 Production The Role of the Firm 195 The Production Function 197 Short-run Production Function 201 Key Relationships: Total, Average, and Marginal Products 202 The Law of Diminishing Marginal Product 205 The Output Elasticity of a Variable Input 207 Relationships Among the Product Functions 208 The Three Stages of Production 211 Isoquants 212 Long-run Production Function 218 Estimating Production Functions 222 Chapter Review 225 Key Terms and Concepts 226 Chapter Questions 229 Chapter Exercises 231 Selected Readings 232 6 Cost The Relationship Between Production and Cost 235 Short-run Cost 236 Key Relationships: Average Total Cost, Average Fixed Cost, Average Variable Cost, and Marginal Cost 238 The Functional Form of the Total Cost Function 241 Mathematical Relationship Between ATC and MC 243 Learning Curve Effect 247 Long-run Cost 250 Economies of Scale 251 Reasons for Economies and Diseconomies of Scale 255 Multiproduct Cost Functions 256 Chapter Review 259 Contents xi Key Terms and Concepts 260 Chapter Questions 262 Chapter Exercises 263 Selected Readings 264 7 Profit and Revenue Maximization Profit Maximization 266 Optimal Input Combination 266 Unconstrained Optimization: The Profit Function 279 Constrained Optimization: The Profit Function 295 Total Revenue Maximization 299 Chapter Review 302 Key Terms and Concepts 303 Chapter Questions 305 Chapter Exercises 305 Selected Readings 309 Appendix 7A 309 8 Market Structure: Perfect Competition and Monopoly Characteristics of Market Structure 313 Perfect Competition 316 The Equilibrium Price 317 Monopoly 331 Monopoly and the Price Elasticity of Demand 337 Evaluating Perfect Competition and Monopoly 340 Welfare Effects of Monopoly 342 Natural Monopoly 348 Collusion 350 Chapter Review 350 Key Terms and Concepts 351 Chapter Questions 353 Chapter Exercises 355 xii Contents Selected Readings 358 Appendix 8A 358 9 Market Structure: Monopolistic Competition Characteristics of Monopolistic Competition 362 Short-run Monopolistically Competitive Equilibrium 363 Long-run Monopolistically Competitive Equilibrium 364 Advertising in Monopolistically Competitive Industries 371 Evaluating Monopolistic Competition 372 Chapter Review 373 Key Terms and Concepts 375 Chapter Questions 375 Chapter Exercises 376 Selected Readings 377 10 Market Structure: Duopoly and Oligopoly Characteristics of Duopoly and Oligopoly 380 Measuring Industrial Concentration 382 Models of Duopoly and Oligopoly 385 Game Theory 404 Chapter Review 410 Key Terms and Concepts 411 Chapter Questions 413 Chapter Exercises 414 Selected Readings 417 11 Pricing Practices Price Discrimination 419 Nonmarginal Pricing 443 Multiproduct Pricing 449 Contents xiii Peak-load Pricing 460 Transfer Pricing 462 Other Pricing Practices 470 Chapter Review 474 Key Terms and Concepts 476 Chapter Questions 479 Chapter Exercises 480 Selected Readings 482 12 Capital Budgeting Categories of Capital Budgeting Projects 486 Time Value of Money 488 Cash Flows 488 Methods for Evaluating Capital Investment Projects 506 Capital Rationing 537 The Cost of Capital 538 Chapter Review 541 Key Terms and Concepts 542 Chapter Questions 544 Chapter Exercises 546 Selected Readings 549 13 Introduction to Game Theory Games and Strategic Behavior 552 Noncooperative, Simultaneous-move, One-shot Games 554 Cooperative, Simultaneous-move, Infinitely Repeated Games 568 Cooperative, Simultaneous-move, Finitely Repeated Games 580 Focal-point Equilibrium 586 Multistage Games 589 Bargaining 601 Chapter Review 608 Key Terms and Concepts 610 Chapter Questions 612 Chapter Exercises 613 Selected Readings 619 xiv Contents 14 Risk and Uncertainty Risk and Uncertainty 622 Measuring Risk: Mean and Variance 623 Consumer Behavior and Risk Aversion 627 Firm Behavior and Risk Aversion 632 Game Theory and Uncertainty 648 Game Trees 651 Decision Making Under Uncertainty with Complete Ignorance 656 Market Uncertainty and Insurance 664 Chapter Review 677 Key Terms and Concepts 679 Chapter Questions 681 Chapter Exercises 682 Selected Readings 685 15 Market Failure and Government Intervention Market Power 688 Landmark U.S. Antitrust Legislation 690 Merger Regulation 695 Price Regulation 695 Externalities 701 Public Goods 715 Chapter Review 722 Key Terms and Concepts 723 Chapter Questions 724 Chapter Exercises 726 Selected Readings 727 Index 729 1 Introduction WHAT IS ECONOMICS? Economics is the study of how individuals and societies make choices subject to constraints. The need to make choices arises from scarcity. From the perspective of society as a whole, scarcity refers to the limitations placed on the production of goods and services because factors of production are finite. From the perspective of the individual, scarcity refers to the limita- tions on the consumption of goods and services
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