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The Human Microbiome, Social Phenomena and the Hologenome

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The Human Microbiome, Social Phenomena and the Hologenome discip ter lina OPEN ACCESS Freely available online In ry f o S l o a c n i a r l u S o c J i l e a n b c e o Global Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences l s G ISSN: 2319-8834 Research Article The human microbiome, social phenomena and the hologenome concept of evolution Eugene Rosenberg Department of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Givat Shmuel, Israel. ABSTRACT The recently developed hologenome concept of evolution posits that all plants and animals, Including humans are holobionts, consisting of a host and diverse symbiotic microorganisms, Termed the microbiome, acting in numerous ways as a single unit. This article offers an initial consideration of how this concept can add a different perspective to the understanding of three social issues. (a) Mother`s microbiome influences offspring`s health and social standing. (b) Cooperation, going hand in hand with competition, occurs at all levels, from cells to organisms to societies. (c) The microbiome, that can store and express acquired information between generations, is a possible mechanism for understanding collective memory. Keywords: hologenome, holobiont, microbiome, evolution, social darwinism, collective memory, unconscious memory, motherhood INTRODUCTION recent developments in social neuroscience, cultural Three recent articles have discussed the relevance of biology and behavioral epigenetics that support early biological theory to sociology (Nichols 2020). One ideas proposed independently by George Herbert Mead article traces the history of evolutionary thinking in (1863-1931) and Norbert Elias (1897-1990). Shalin sociology, its rise, demise and recent resurrection (Schutt argues that both authors accepted Darwin’s view that and Turner 2019). However, even with this revival, consciousness is a product of natural evolution and sociologists have been reluctant to accept more recent strongly favored an interdisciplinary approach including approaches, that are bringing biology and evolutionary psychology, physiology, biology, physics, and philosophy analyses back into the core of the discipline. Another (Mead 1932, 1934, 1938; Elias 1987a, b, 1991). These article argues that sociologists should become familiar topics were deemed marginal at the time to many with what they refer to as the new evolutionary sociologists (Jackson and Rees 2007). sociology, which includes group selection (a proposed All of the above publications and several others (e.g., mechanism of evolution in which natural selection acts Udry 1995; Meloni 2018; Dubois et al. 2019) present at the level of the group), epigenetics (a branch of compelling arguments for consideration of biological genetics studying changes in the DNA that do not theories, especially evolutionary biology, within the alter the back bone sequences), gene-environment discipline of sociology. In this regard, during the last interactions, and social neuroscience (Turner, Schutt fifteen years an additional and essential biological and Keshavan 2020). Further, they suggest that this entity has emerged, the microbiome, which has to new evolutionary sociology can expand sociological be considered within the framework of evolutionary explanations of human behavior, interaction, and social theory. The hologenome concept of evolution placing organizations. The third article (Shalin 2020) discusses the microbiome as an essential part of its host`s fitness *Correspondence to: Eugene Rosenberg, Israel E-mail: [email protected] Received: July 07 2021; Accepted: July 22, 2021; Published: July 23, 2021 Citation: Rosenberg E. (2021) The human microbiome, social phenomena and the hologenome concept of evolution. Global J Interdiscipl Soc Sci. 10: 04. doi: 10.35248/ 2319-8834.20.10.010 Copyright: © 2021 Rosenberg E. This is an open access article distributed under the term of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Global J Interdiscipl Soc Sci, Vol.10 Iss.4 1 Rosenberg E. OPEN ACCESS Freely available online is an attempt at expanding evolutionary theory to expanded to include the host plus all of its symbiotic include symbiotic microorganisms (Zilber-Rosenberg microorganisms (intra-cellular and extra-cellular), and Rosenberg 2008; Theis et al. 2016; Rosenberg including Bacteria, Archaea, eukaryotic microorganisms and Zilber-Rosenberg 2018; Rough garden et al. 2018; and viruses (Rohwer et al. 2002). Suárez and Triviño 2019). Concurrently, this concept Microbiome (sometimes termed also microbiota): demonstrates the existence of cooperation, side by side Following Lederberg and McCray (2001), a microbiome with competition, in biological evolution (Rosenberg refers to all the symbiotic microorganisms, which share and Zilber-Rosenberg 2014). In the present article we the “body space” of a host. will discuss the ways in which the gut microbiome composition can impact social behavior, since gut Hologenome: All the genes in the microbiome plus the microorganisms influence brain function and social genes of the host constitute the hologenome (Rosenberg behavior through neural, endocrine and immune et al. 2007). pathways (Cryan and Dinan 2012; Parashar and Species: A group of interbreeding or potentially Udayabanu 2016; Smith and Wissel 2019). interbreeding organisms (Mayr 1942). Because this This article is an initial attempt at trying to touch on the criterion cannot be applied to bacteria, the 97% identity subject of how microbiomes and the hologenome concept of 16S rRNA genes is routinely used to define a bacterial can be incorporated into some aspects of social thought. species. 16S ribosomal RNA (or 16S rRNA) is the The first part will outline the hologenome concept of RNA component of the small subunit of a prokaryotic evolution, which seeks the best way to understand the ribosome (part of the protein synthesis machinery). The interactions between the microorganisms living within genes coding for this component are referred to as 16S and on the human body (the microbiome) and humans rRNA genes and are used in reconstructing phylogenies, (the hosts) and to explain the evolutionary advantages due to their slow rates of evolution. of this complex system. The next three parts will include Genetic variation: Modification in genes that can bring illustrations demonstrating how this concept can add about changes in characteristics. a novel dimension to the understanding of three social phenomena: motherhoods and social standing, Superorganism: The term has incorrectly been used in biological cooperation versus Social Darwinism, and some scientific publications and the popular press to collective memory. describe holobionts (Gordon et al. 2013). However, a superorganism is a colony of eusocial insects, such as The hologenome concept of evolution ants (Holldobler and Wilson 2008). The “super” in One cannot explain words without making incursions into superorganism denotes a higher level of organization, the sciences themselves, as is evident from dictionaries; and, an association composed of multiple organisms of the conversely, one cannot present a science without at the same same species, whereas holobionts are constructed from time defining its terms. different species. —Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Probiotics: Live microorganisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, are expected to Understanding the hologenome concept of evolution confer a health benefit to the host. requires familiarity with certain terms: The hologenome concept of evolution posits that the Symbiosis, symbionts: Anton de Bary first coined holobiont (host + symbionts) with its hologenome the term symbiosis in 1879, as “the living together of (host genes + microbiome genes) is a level of selection different species” (Oulhen, Schulz and Carrier 2016). in evolution (Zilber-Rosenberg and Rosenberg 2008; This broad definition is still generally accepted. The Roughgarden et al. 2018). The hologenome concept symbiotic system is constructed from a large partner is based on four general principles, each of which is termed the host and smaller partners called symbionts. supported by experimental data and demonstrates the Symbiosis takes different forms: Commensalism is a many aspects in which the holobiont acts as a single relationship benefiting one party, while the other is unit: unaffected; mutualism is a relationship benefiting both parties; and parasitism is a relationship benefiting one All natural plants and animals, including humans, party to the other’s detriment. are holobionts. Holobiont: Margulis (1991) introduced the term 1. Competition and cooperation exist within the holobiont to describe a host and its primary (mostly holobiont. Cooperation between the host and intra-cellular) symbiont. The meaning was subsequently the microbiome contributes to the fitness of Global J Interdiscipl Soc Sci, Vol.10 Iss.4 2 Rosenberg E. OPEN ACCESS Freely available online the holobiont, including adaptation, behavior, and the gut via the blood system or the vagus nerve (a development, metabolism and evolution. central nerve with many branches, connecting body parts, including the gut, to the brain). For example, 2. A significant fraction of the microbiome genome (the sum of the genomes of all symbiotic partially cutting the vagus nerve impairs vagal signaling microorganisms) together with the host genome, to the gut and abolishes gut microbial effect on i.e., the hologenome, is transmitted from one behavior in
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